Tatva Cell

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM 23
INDEX
1. Theory 03 - 53
2. Exercise - 1 54 - 63
3. Exercise - 2 64
4. Exercise - 3 65
5. Answers Key 66
CELL: THE UNIT OF LIFE 3
THEORY
Chapter 01
Cell: The Unit of Life
Fig 8.1: The cell
1. Introduction to Cell
 Both living and nonliving things are present around us.
 Cells, the basic units of life, make an organism living. An inanimate thing does not have cells.
 Cell is the basic and structural unit of life. All organisms are composed of cells like a wall is made of bricks!!!!
Fig 8.2: Cell- the basic units of living organisms

 Anything less than a complete structure of a cell does not ensure independent living. Hence, the cell is the fundamental
structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
Fig 8.3: Development of complex organism from the simplest form
 Humans also started their life with a single cell zygote and finally developed into complex organisms.
 The term “Cell” was first used by Robert Hooke (an English Scientist) in 1665.
 Robert Hooke observed thin slices of cork under his self designed simple microscope.
 He noticed partitioned boxes or compartments separated by walls. The cells that he observed resembled a honeycomb.
 The compartments reminded him of small rooms, and he gave them the name “cellulae” or cells. “cella” in Latin - ‘hollow
spaces or compartments’.
 The cells which Hooke observed were actually dead cells from the bark of the cork oak (Quercus suber) tree. His observations
were published in his book ‘Micrographia’.
Fig 8.4: Observations of Robert Hooke
 In 1674, Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch scientist, with an improved microscope, observed free living cells (bacteria,
protozoa, RBCs, etc.)
 He observed bacteria, protozoa, spermatozoa and red blood cells etc. and could see tiny, very fast moving bodies.
 He called them ‘Animalcules’ which means ‘Little animals’ in Latin.
 Robert brown discovered the presence of nucleus in orchid root. The invention of the microscope and its improvement
leading to the electron microscope revealed all the structural details of the cell.
 Living semi-fluid substance of cells was discovered by Dujardin (1835), and named sarcode. Purkinje and Von Mohl renamed
sarcode or the jelly like substance of the cells as protoplasm.
1.1 Cell Theory
Fig 8.5: Cell theory
 Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory.

 In 1838, Matthias Schleiden examined many plants and observed that all plants are composed of different insides of cells
which form the tissues of the plant.
 Schwaann in 1839, studied different types of animal cells and reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known
as plasma membrane.
 He also concluded, based on his studies on plant tissues, that the presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant cells.
 He proposed the hypothesis that the bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells and products of cells.
 In 1855, Rudolf Virchow first explained that cells divide, and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e
cellulae). The findings of Rudolph gave cell theory its final shape.
Fig 8.6: Formation of new cells from pre-existing cells
 Louis Pasteur (1862) further proved that life originated from life.
 Soon Haeckel (1866) established that nucleus stores and transmits hereditary traits.
1.1.1 Fundamental features of Cell Theory

 All living organisms are composed of cells and their products.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 Each cell is made of a small mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus in its inside and a plasma membrane with or without a
cell wall on its outside.
 All cells are basically alike in their chemistry and physiology.
 Activities of an organism are the sum total of activities and interactions of its constituent cells.
 This theory however, did not explain as to how new cells were formed.
1.1.2 Modern Cell Theory

It is also called cell doctrine or cell principle. Modern cell theory states that:
 The bodies of all living beings are made up of cells and their products.
 Cells are units of structure in the body of living organisms. Every cell is made up of a mass of protoplasm having a nucleus,
organelles and a covering membrane.
 Cells are units of function in living organisms, that is, the activities of an organism are the sum total of the activities of its
cells.
 While a cell can survive independently, its organelles can not do so.
 The cells belonging to diverse organisms and different regions of the same organism have a fundamental similarity in their
structure, chemical composition and metabolism.
 Life exists only in cells because all the activities of the life are performed by cells.
 Depending upon specific requirements, the cells get modified.
 Growth of an organism involves the growth and multiplication of its cells.
 Genetic information is stored and expressed inside cells.
 Life passes from one generation to the next in the form of living cell.
 New cells arise from the pre-existing cells through division.
 All new cells contain the same amount and degree of genetic information as contained in the parent cell.
 All the present day cells/organisms have a common ancestry because they are derived from the first cell that evolved on the
planet through continuous line of cell generation.
 Cells are totipotent i.e., a single cell can give rise to the whole organism unless and until they have become extremely
specialized.
 No organism, organ or tissue can have activity that is absent in its cells.
1.1.3 Significance of Cell Theory

 There is a structural similarity in cells belonging to diverse groups of organisms.
 All the cells perform similar metabolic activities.
 Life exists only in the form of cells.
 Life passes from one generation to the next as cells.
 All living beings are descendants of a primitive cell that developed on earth as the first eukaryote and prior to that as the first
prokaryote.
1.1.4 Objections to Cell Theory

 Viruses are acellular and do not have a cellular machinery. Even then they are considered to be organisms.
 Bacteria and Cyanobacteria do not have nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
 RBCs and sieve tube cells continue to live without nucleus.
 In some organisms the body is not differentiated into cells though it may have many nuclei (e.g., Rhizopus).
 Protoplasm is replaced by nonliving materials in the surface cells of skin and cork.
 Protozoans and many thallophytes have an uninucleate differentiated body which can not be divided into the cells. They are
acellular.
 Schleiden and Schwann did not know the mechanism of cell formation. Schwann believed cells to develop spontaneously like
a crystal. Schleiden thought new cells to develop from cytoblast or nucleus.
1.2 Overview of Cell

 On the basis of complexity we can categorize the organisms into unicellular and multicellular organisms.
 Unicellular organisms are capable of independent existence as the single cell performs all the essential functions of life.
 Examples of unicellular organisms are Bacteria, Amoeba, Paramecium etc.
Fig 8.7: Unicellular organisms (Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium)
 Multicellular organisms have many cells. Their cells are specialized to perform specific functions. Examples of multicellular
organisms are plants, animals, humans etc.
Fig 8.8: Multicellular organisms
 A typical plant cell has a distinct cell wall as its outer boundary and just within it is the cell membrane.
 The cells of the human cheek (animal cell) have an outer membrane as the delimiting structure of the cell.
 Inside each cell is a dense membrane bound structure called the nucleus.
 The nucleus contains the chromosomes which in turn contain the genetic material, DNA.
 Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic whereas cells that lack a membrane bound nucleus are
prokaryotic.
 In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, a semi-fluid matrix called cytoplasm occupies the volume of the cell.
 The cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in both the plant and animal cells.
 Various chemical reactions occur in it to keep the cell in the ‘living state’.
 Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound distinct structures called organelles like the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles.
 The prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound organelles. Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in all
cells–both eukaryotic and prokaryotic.
 Within the cell, ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm but also within the two organelles – chloroplasts (in plants)
and mitochondria and on rough ER.
 Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called centrosome which helps in cell division.
Fig 8.9: Illustration representing structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
 Cells vary greatly in their shape. They may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread like, or even irregular.
 The shape of the cell may vary with the function they perform.
 Mycoplasma is only 0.3 μm in length. Bacteria could be 3 to 5 μm. The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an Ostrich.
 Among multicellular organisms, human red blood cells are about 7.0 μm in diameter. Nerve cells are some of the
longest cells.
Fig 8.10: Different types of cells: Mycoplasma, Egg of an Ostrich, Human RBCs and Nerve cell
2. Prokaryotic Cell (Bacteria)

 The organization of the prokaryotic cell is fundamentally similar even though prokaryotes exhibit a wide variety of shapes
and function.
 The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria (3-5 µm), blue-green algae, Mycoplasma (PPLO (Pleuropneumonia Like
Organisms-0.1 µm).
 They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells.
 Mycoplasma is able to assume different forms (pleomorphic) and is penicillin resistant due to absence of cell wall. It causes
diseases in both plants and animals.
Fig 8.11: A bacteria cell
 Bacteria may vary greatly in shape and size. The four basic shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus (spherical),
vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral).
Fig 8.12: Different shapes of bacterial cells
 Prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane.

 The fluid matrix filling the cell is the cytoplasm.
 There is no well-defined nucleus.
 Genetic material lies freely in the cytoplasm known as nucleoid.
 In addition to the genomic DNA (the single chromosome/circular DNA), many bacteria have small circular DNA outside the
genomic DNA which are known as plasmids.
 No organelles, like the ones in eukaryotes, are found in prokaryotic cells except for ribosomes.
 Prokaryotes have something unique in the form of inclusions.
 A specialized differentiated form of cell membrane called mesosome is the characteristic of prokaryotes. They are essentially
infolding of cell membrane.
2.1 Cell Envelope and its Modifications

 Most prokaryotic cells, particularly the bacterial cells, have a chemically complex cell envelope.
 The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three layered structure i.e., the outermost glycocalyx followed by the cell wall
and then the plasma membrane.
Fig 8.13: Cell envelope in a bacterial cell
 Although each layer of the envelope performs a distinct function, they act together as a single protective unit.
 Glycocalyx differs in composition and thickness among different bacteria. It could be a loose sheath called the slime layer in
some, while in others it may be thick and tough, called the capsule.
 The cell wall determines the shape of the cell and provides a strong structural support to prevent the bacteria from bursting or
collapsing.
 The plasma membrane is semi-permeable in nature and interacts with the outside world. This membrane is similar structurally
to that of the eukaryotes.
 A special membranous structure is the mesosome which is formed by the extensions of plasma membrane into the cell. These
extensions are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
 Mesosomes help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells. They also help in respiration,
secretion processes, to increase the surface area of the plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
Fig 8.14: Mesosome in a bacterial cell

 In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, there are other membranous extensions into the cytoplasm called chromatophores
which contain pigments.
 Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile. If motile, they have thin filamentous extensions from their cell wall called
flagella. Bacteria show a range in the number and arrangement of flagella.
Fig 8.15: Flagellum in a bacterial cell
 Bacterial flagellum is composed of three parts – filament, hook and basal body. The filament is the longest portion and
extends from the cell surface to the outside.
Fig 8.16: Different parts of a bacterial flagellum
 Besides flagella, pili and fimbriae are also surface structures of the bacteria but do not play a role in motility.
 The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein and help in cell adhesion.
 The fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell. In some bacteria, they are known to help attach the bacteria
to rocks in streams and also to the host tissues.
2.1.1 Gram Staining

 Bacteria can be classified into two groups on the basis of the differences in the cell envelopes and the manner in which they
respond to the staining procedure developed by Christian Gram viz., those that take up the Gram stain are Gram positive and
the others that do not are called Gram negative bacteria.
Fig 8.17: Procedure of Gram’s staining
Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria
Gram-positive bacteria take up the crystal violet stain Gram-negative bacteria cannot retain the violet stain.
and appears purple-coloured
Thick peptidoglycan (80%) layer in the bacterial cell 10-20% peptidoglycan. Alcohol degrades the outer
wall retains the stain. membrane of gram-negative cells, making the cell wall
more porous and incapable of retaining the crystal violet
stain.
Lipid content is less. 20-30% lipid content.

Fig 8.18: Cell walls in Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
2.1 Ribosomes
 In prokaryotes, ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell. They are about 15 nm-20 nm in size and are
made of two subunits - 50S and 30S units which when present together form 70S prokaryotic ribosomes.
 Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called
polyribosomes or polysome. The ribosomes of a polysome translate the mRNA into proteins.
Fig 8.19: Formation of polyribosomes
2.3 Inclusion Bodies

 Reserve material in prokaryotic cells are stored in the cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies.
 These are not bound by any membrane system and lie free in the cytoplasm.
 E.g., phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules.
 Gas vacuoles are found in blue-green and purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
 They store gases and provide buoyancy.
3. Eukaryotic Cell
 The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi.
 In eukaryotic cells there is an extensive compartmentalization of cytoplasm through the presence of membrane
bound organelles.
 Eukaryotic cells possess an organized nucleus with a nuclear envelope.
 In addition, eukaryotic cells have a variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures.
 Their genetic material is organized into chromosomes.
 All eukaryotic cells are not identical.
 Plant and animal cells are different as the former possess cell walls, plastids and a large central vacuole which are absent in
animal cells.
Fig 8.20: A plant cell
Fig 8.21: An animal cell
 On the other hand, animal cells have centrioles which are absent in almost all plant cells.
Difference between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Most prokaryotes are unicellular. Most eukaryotes are multicellular.
The nucleus is poorly defined due to the absence of a nuclear The nucleus is well-defined and is surrounded by a nuclear
membrane. membrane.
Nucleolus is absent. Nucleolus is present.
Cell organelles such as plastids, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, Cell organelles such as plastids, mitochondria, Golgi bodies,
etc., are absent. etc., are present.
Bacteria and blue-green algae are prokaryotic cells. Fungi, plant, and animal cells are eukaryotic cells.
Animal cells are generally small Plant cells are larger than animal cells.
Cell wall is absent. Cell wall is present.
Except the protozoan Euglena. No animal cells possesses Plastids are present.
plastids.
Vacuoles in animal cells are small and scattered all over. Plant cells have a permanent and large central sap vacuole.
Animal cells have a single highly complex and prominent Plant cells have many simpler units of Golgi apparatus, called
Golgi apparatus. dictyosomes.
Animal cells have centrosome and centrioles. Plant cells lack centrosome and centrioles.
3.1 Cell Wall

 Cell wall is the outermost covering of a cell. Like, bones are structural framework of the body, cell wall provides shape to the
cell.
 Cell wall protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection.
 Cell wall helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules.
 Algae have cell wall, made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate, while in other plants it
consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
Fig 8.22: Cell wall in a plant cell
 Cell wall has three parts- Middle lamellae, Primary and Secondary wall.
 Middle lamella is made up of calcium and magnesium pectates.
 The softening of ripe fruits is due to solubilization of pectates.
 Middle lamellae help in attachment of two adjacent cells. It is just like a common wall between adjacent rooms.
Fig 8.23: Different parts of a cell wall
 Primary cell wall is formed inner to the middle lamellae.

 In the cell wall of a young plant cell, the primary wall is capable of growth, which gradually diminishes as the cell matures
and the secondary wall is formed on the inner (towards membrane) side of the cell.
 The cell wall and middle lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of neighboring cells. It
forms a controlled passage for small size molecules between adjacent cell.
 Plasmodesmata encloses a tubular extension of endoplasmic reticulum called desmotubule.
3.2 Cell Membrane

 Cell membrane is the outermost covering in animal cells, but lies beneath the cell wall in plant cell.
 The detailed structure of the membrane was studied only after the advent of the electron microscope in the 1950s.
 Meanwhile, chemical studies on the cell membrane, especially in human red blood cells (RBCs), enabled the scientists to
deduce the possible structure of plasma membrane.
 The studies showed that the cell membrane is composed of lipids that are arranged in a bilayer.
 The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of phosphoglycerides.
 These have a polar head group and two hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails.
 Lipids are arranged within the membrane with the polar head towards the outer sides and the hydrophobic tails (non-polar)
towards the inside.
 This ensures that the nonpolar tail of saturated hydrocarbons is protected from the aqueous environment.
 Along with the lipids, proteins and carbohydrate embedded in the lipid layer.
 In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52 % protein and 40 % lipids.
 Fluid mosaic model is the most recent model proposed by Singer and Nicolson in 1972. According to this model, the
membrane is quasi-fluid in nature.
Fig 8.24: Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane
 The membrane is a lipid bilayer having protein embedded into it.

 The proteins present inside are known as intrinsic proteins while proteins present outside are known as extrinsic proteins.
 Fluid mosaic model: The quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins within the overall bilayer. This
ability to move within the membrane is measured as its fluidity. So this model is explained as “proteins are icebergs in a sea
of lipids”.
3.2.1 Functions of Plasma Membrane:

The fluid nature of the membrane is also important from the point of view of functions like:
 Cell growth
 Formation of intercellular junctions
 Secretion
 Endocytosis
 Cell division
 Transport of the molecules across it (the membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules present on either side of it).
 Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion along the concentration gradient, i.e., from
higher concentration to lower concentration.
 Water may also move across this membrane from higher to lower concentration.
 Movement of water is known as osmosis.
Fig 8.25: Osmosis
 Polar molecules cannot pass through the lipid bilayer, they require a carrier protein.
 A few ions or molecules are transported across the membrane against their concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to higher
concentration.
 Such transport is an energy dependent process, in which ATP is utilized and is called active transport, e.g., Na+/K+ Pump.
Fig 8.26: Active and passive transport
 Many molecules can move briefly across the membrane without any requirement of energy and this is called the passive
transport.
3.3 Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm is a semi-fluid matrix present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 It is made up of water and remaining constituents are proteins, lipids, polysaccharides and nucleic acids.
 All the organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm. Any molecule entering the cell, has to pass through cytoplasm.
Fig 8.27: Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular activities in both the plant and animal cells.
 The cell organelles exchange materials through cytoplasmic matrix.
4. Endomembrane System
 While each of the membranous organelles is distinct in terms of its structure and function, many of these are considered
together as an endomembrane system because their functions are coordinated.
 The endomembrane system include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles.
 Since the functions of the mitochondria, chloroplast and peroxisomes are not coordinated with the above components, these
are not considered as part of the endomembrane system.
Fig 8.28: Endomembrane system

4.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum

 Electron microscopic studies of eukaryotic cells reveal the presence of a network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures
scattered in the cytoplasm that is called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
 Hence, ER divides the intracellular space into two distinct compartments, i.e., luminal (inside ER) and extra luminal
(cytoplasm) compartments.
 The ER bearing ribosomes on their surface is called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
Fig 8.29: Smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum
 In the absence of ribosomes they appear smooth and are called smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
 Endoplasmic reticulum exist in three forms. Cisternae, vesicles and tubules
Fig 8.30: Various forms of endoplasmic reticulum
Difference between cisternae, vesicles and tubules
Cisternae Vesicles Tubules
These are flat interconnected sac-like These are oval or rounded sacs, These are tube like extensions which
parts found in bundles where they lie appear as vacuoles and remain may be connected with cisternae or
parallel to one another isolated in the cytoplasm vesicles to form a reticular system.
Occur in the cells actively involved Also known as microsomes. These can be irregular or regular,
in synthetic activity branched or unbranched.
 Smooth ER is mostly made up of vesicles and tubules. Rough ER is mostly made of cisternae.
 Smooth ER is the major site for synthesis of lipid.
 This ER is found in cells engaged in the synthesis and storage of glycogen, fat and sterols (liver cells, adipose cells, muscle
cells, retinal cells etc.)
 Rough ER is frequently observed in the cells actively involved in protein synthesis and secretion.
 They are extensive and continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus.
4.2 Golgi Bodies

 Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed densely stained reticular structures near the nucleus.
 These are absent in prokaryotes, but present in eukaryotes.
 They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae. These are stacked parallel to each other.
 The membranes of the cisternae enclose a lumen. The lumen contains a fluid substance or matrix.
 The adjacent cisternae are separated by an intracisternal space. One face of the Golgi apparatus is convex, and the other is
concave.
 The convex side is known as cis or the forming face and the concave side is trans or the maturing face.
 The cis and the trans faces of the organelle are entirely different, but interconnected.
 The forming face receives vesicles from ER, and they ultimately reach the maturing face where they budded off as secretion,
coated or vacuoles.
Fig 8.31: Golgi apparatus
 Golgi apparatus is the important site of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

 The Golgi apparatus principally performs the function of packaging materials, to be delivered to the intra-cellular targets.
 Secretory vesicles may form cell membrane.
 Some of secretory vesicles of Golgi apparatus store digestive enzymes obtained through ER in the inactive state. They form
primary lysosomes.
 It helps in modification of proteins, lipids, etc. synthesized by rough ER and smooth ER respectively.
 Golgi apparatus helps in formation of acrosome and also the new cell wall.
4.3 Lysosomes
 Lysosomes were discovered by Christian De Duve in 1955.
 Lysosomes (lysis- digestive, soma- body).
 These are small vesicles bounded by a single membrane and contain hydrolytic enzymes also known as acid hydrolases.
Fig 8.32: Lysosome
 The isolated lysosomal vesicles have been found to be very rich in almost all types of hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases –
lipases, proteases, carbohydrases) optimally active at the acidic pH.
 The precursors of hydrolytic enzyme are mostly synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. From the endoplasmic
reticulum it is transferred to the forming face of Golgi complex.
 The precursors are changed into enzymes in the Golgi complex. The enzymes are packed into vesicles and are pinched off
from the maturing face of Golgi complex.
 Lysosomes passes through the various stage in same cell. Due to the presence of many hydrolytic enzymes, they are capable
of digesting cells and are known as suicide bags.
 Primary lysosomes- Newly pinched off vesicles from Golgi apparatus.
 Secondary lysosomes- Also known as heterophagosome or digestive vacuoles. They are formed by fusion of food containing
phagosome with lysosome (having digestive/ hydrolytic enzyme).
 Tertiary lysosomes or residual bodies- These contain only undigested food materials.
 They throw out the cell debris into the external environment by exocytosis.
 Autophagic lysosomes are a special type of lysosomes, which are formed when the cells feed on their own intracellular
organelles, and they digest them ultimately. This happens only during starvation of organisms.
ALWAYS REMEMBER
Lysosomal enzymes cause autolysis which plays an important role in the

disappearance of tail during the metamorphosis of frog’s tadpole, and in
softening of gum tissue to allow eruption of teeth in vertebrates. Autolysis is
self-destruction of a cell, tissue or organ with the help of enclose the
structure to be broken down.
Instead, they themselves burst to release the digestive enzymes.
Auto occurs in ageing, dead or diseases cells.
4.4 Vacuoles
 The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm.
 In plant cells, the vacuoles are present in the center can occupy up to 90 % of the volume of the cell.
 Vacuole contains water, sap, excretory product and other materials not useful for the cell. The vacuole is bounded by a single
membrane called tonoplast.
Fig 8.33: Vacuole
 Depending on the contents and functions, vacuoles are of following types:

 Sap vacuole: These are fluid filled vacuoles and fluid present is often called as cell sap or vacuolar sap. A number of sap
vacuoles occur in animal cell and young plant cell. In mature plant cells, small vacuoles fuse to form a large, single
central vacuole.
 Contractile vacuole: Contractile vacuole helps in osmoregulation. In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole is important for
excretion.
 Food vacuole: Food vacuoles fuses with lysosomes. Lysosomes have digestive enzyme which digest the food vacuole.
The digested food passes out in the cytoplasm. The undigested waste products is thrown outside the cell. In protists, food
vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles.
 Air vacuole: Air vacuoles store gases and provide buoyancy.
5. Eukaryotic Cells (Organelles)
5.1 Mitochondria
 Cell requires energy for respiration, reproduction, transmission of impulse etc. This energy is provided by mitochondria,
“Powerhouse of the cell”
 Mitos: thread, Chondrion: grain (granules like cells). They were first observed by Kolliker in 1880. Benda named them
Mitochondria.
 Mitochondria are typically sausage-shaped or cylindrical. They have a length of 1.0 to 4.1μm and diameter of 0.2 to 1.0μm.
 Each mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with the outer membrane and the inner membrane dividing its
lumen distinctly into two aqueous compartments, i.e., the outer compartment and the inner compartment.
 The space between two membranes of mitochondria is known as intermembrane space.
Fig 8.34: Inner and outer membranes in a mitochondrion

 The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting boundary of the organelle.
 It is smooth and permeable to numerous metabolites due to the presence of protein channels called porins or minute pores.
 The inner compartment is called the matrix.
 The matrix possesses a single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the components required
for the synthesis of proteins.
 The matrix also has enzymes of Krebs cycle (except succinate dehydrogenase which is inner membrane based), amino acid
synthesis and fatty acid metabolism.
 The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called the cristae towards the matrix. The cristae increase the surface area.
 The two membranes have their own specific enzymes associated with the mitochondrial function. Mitochondria are the sites
of aerobic respiration.
 Inner membrane as well as cristae has elementary particles ( F0-F1 particles) or oxysomes.
Fig 8.35: ATP synthesis site (F0-F1 particle) in mitochondrion
 The elementary particle has head, stalk and base. Head and stalk is F1 and base is F0.
 Elementary particles are centers of ATP synthesis during oxidative phosphorylation.
 Mitochondrial ribosomes are 70S and resembles ribosomes of prokaryotes.
 They synthesize some of their own structural proteins.
 DNA can replicate independently and can produce their own mRNA, tRNA and rRNA. DNA is naked, it is circular or linear.
 New mitochondria can develop by binary fission of pre-existing mitochondria.
5.2 Plastids
 The term plastids was introduced by E. Haeckel. These are easily observed under the microscope as they are large.
 They are restricted to plant cells and euglenoides only.
 Depending on the color, plastids are of three types:
 Chloroplast
 Chromoplast
 Leucoplast
5.2.1 Chloroplast
 They are green. These are lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon-like organelles having variable length (5-10
µm) and width (2-4 µm).
 Their number varies from 1 per cell of the Chlamydomonas, a green alga to 20-40 per cell in the mesophyll.
 The majority of the chloroplasts of the green plants are found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
 The space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma. A number of organized flattened
membranous sacs called the thylakoids, are present in the stroma.
Fig 8.36: Structure of a Chloroplast
 Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins called grana. In addition, there are flat membranous tubules called the
stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of the different grana.
 The membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called a lumen. The stroma of the chloroplast contains enzymes required for
the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.
 Stroma also contains small, double-stranded circular DNA molecules and ribosomes. Chlorophyll pigments are present in the
thylakoids. The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are of 70S type.
Fig 8.37: Internal structure of a Chloroplast
5.2.2 Chromoplast
 In the chromoplasts, fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls and others are present.
 This gives the part of the plant a yellow, orange or red color.
Fig 8.38: Different colors in tomato are due to chromoplasts
 Change of color from green to red during ripening is due to transformation of chloroplast to chromoplast.
5.2.3 Leucoplast
 They are colorless plastids of varied shapes and sizes with stored nutrients.
 Amyloplast- Starch storing plastids (e.g., potato).
 Elaioplast- Oil and fat storing plastids.(e.g., embryonic leaves of oilseeds, citrus fruits, as well as the anthers of many
flowering plants)
 Aleuroplast- Protein storing plastids.(e.g., seeds, such as brazil nuts, peanuts and pulses.)
5.3 Ribosomes
 George Palade in 1953, observed dense particles under the electron microscope. These particles are known as ribosomes.
 Ribosomes can be seen scattered in cytoplasm. These are also attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 They are spherical in outline and covering membrane is absent.
 It is made up of two subunits known as small and large subunits.
Fig 8.39: Constituents of a ribosomes
 In prokaryotes ribosomes are 70S while in eukaryotes ribosomes are 80S. ‘S’ (Svedberg Unit) stands for the sedimentation
coefficient.
 Ribosomes are produced in the nucleolus. They are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins.
 Many ribosomes may associate with a single mRNA to form multiple copies of a polypeptide simultaneously.
 Such strings of ribosomes are termed as “Polysome”.
Fig 8.40: Polysomes

5.4 Cytoskeleton
 An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures consisting of microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate
filaments present in the cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the cytoskeleton.
 The cytoskeleton in a cell is involved in many functions such as mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the
cell.
 They are of three types: microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules
Fig 8.41: Different cytoskeletal elements
Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
Narrow cylindrical rods or protein Solid, unbranched filaments Unbranched, hollow tubules of protein
filaments made up of actin formed of a variety of proteins tubulin
Functions include: Functions include: Functions include:

 Cytoplasmic streaming  Formation of nuclear  Constituents of spindle fibres,
 Support matrix chromosome fibres, basal bodies,
 Formation of myofibrils  Support of membranes flagella and cilia
 Formation and movement  Supporting array of  Function as cytoskeleton
of microvilli cytoplasm  Intracellular transport
 Formation and retraction  Support of contractile  Control shape of wall less cells and
of pseudopodia units nuclei
 Endocytosis and  Mechanical strength to  Help in movement of nuclei during
exocytosis nervous tissue cell division
 Formation of spindle  Help in formation of cell plate
apparatus  Cell movement
 Movement of cell
components
5.5 Cilia and Flagella

 Cilia are small structures which work like oars, causing the movement of either the cell or the surrounding fluid.
 Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for cell movement. The bacteria also possess flagella, but these are
structurally different from that of the eukaryotic flagella.
 They are covered by plasma membrane.
 Their core called the axoneme, possesses a number of microtubules running parallel to the long axis.
 The axoneme usually has nine pairs of doublets of radially arranged peripheral microtubules, and a pair of centrally located
microtubules.
 Such an arrangement of axonemal microtubules is referred to as the 9+2 array.

 The central tubules are connected by bridges and is also enclosed by a central sheath, which is connected to one of the tubules
of each peripheral doublets by a radial spoke. Thus, there are nine radial spokes.
 The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by linkers.
 Both the cilium and flagellum emerge from a centriole-like structure called the basal bodies.
Fig 8.42: Structural components of a flagellum
 Cilia occur through the surface of the cell, while flagella are commonly found at the end of the cell.
 The number of cilia per cell is usually very large. While flagella per cell is usually 1 to 4.
 Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for cell movement. Cilia help in locomotion, feeding and circulation.
Fig 8.43: Movement of flagellum Fig 8.44: Movement of cilia
5.6 Centrosome and Centriole

 A centrosome is an organelle typically containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles. They are surrounded by
amorphous pericentriolar materials.
 Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other in which each has an organization like the cartwheel.
 Centrioles possess a whorl of nine peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein. Fibrils are absent in the center.
 Each of the peripheral fibril is a triplet. The adjacent triplets are also linked. This arrangement is therefore called 9+0 pattern.
 The central part of the centriole is proteinaceous and called the hub, which is connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets
by radial spokes made of protein.
Fig 8.45: Structure of a centriole
 The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella.

 It helps in formation of spindle fibres that give rise to spindle apparatus during cell division.
5.7 Nucleus
 Robert brown discovered the presence of nucleus in year 1831 in the cells of the orchid root.
 Electron microscopy has revealed that the nuclear envelope, consists of two parallel membranes inner and outer.
 Nuclear membrane forms a barrier between the materials present inside the nucleus and that of the cytoplasm.
 The two parallel membranes are separated by a space (10 to 50 nm) called the perinuclear space.
 The outer membrane usually remains continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and also bears ribosomes on it.
 At a number of places the nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute pores, which are formed by the fusion of its two
membranes.
Fig 8.46: Structure of nucleus
 These nuclear pores are the passages through which movement of RNA and protein molecules takes place in both directions
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Nucleoplasm is a transparent semi-fluid and colloidal substance which fills the nucleus.
 The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin.
 The nucleoli are spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm.

 The content of nucleolus is continuous with the rest of the nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane bound structure.
 Nucleolus is a site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
 Larger and more numerous nucleoli are present in cells actively carrying out protein synthesis.
 Chromatin is a component of nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm.
 The material of the nucleus stained by the basic dyes was given the name chromatin by Flemming.
 Chromatin occurs in the form of fine overlapping and coiled fibres distributed in nucleoplasm.
5.8 Chromosomes
 Chromatin thread present in the nucleus condenses to form chromosomes.
 Chromosomes contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones, some non-histone proteins and also RNA.
 A single human cell has approximately two meter long thread of DNA distributed among its 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes.
Fig 8.47: DNA packaging in a chromosome
 Based on the packaging of chromatin inside the chromosome, they are differentiated into heterochromatin and euchromatin.
 Heterochromatin is tightly packed form of DNA in chromosome. Euchromatin is loosely packed form of DNA in
chromosome.
 Every chromosome essentially has a primary constriction or the centromere. The disc-shaped protein structures assembled at
each centromere are called kinetochores.
 Few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location. This gives the appearance of a small
fragment called the satellite.
 Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes can be classified into following four types:
 The metacentric chromosome has middle centromere forming two equal arms of the chromosome.
 The sub-metacentric chromosome has centromere nearer to one end of the chromosome resulting into one shorter arm
and one longer arm.
 In case of acrocentric chromosome the centromere is situated close to its end forming one extremely short and one very
long arm.
 Telocentric chromosome has a terminal centromere.
Fig 8.48: Different types of chromosomes
 Chromosomes contain genes. All the hereditary information is located in the genes.
 DNA present in chromosomes control the synthesis of structural proteins and thus help in cell division and cell growth.
 Some chromosomes called sex chromosomes (e.g., X and Y) determine the sex of the individual.
 Mutations are produced due to change in gene sequence in chromosomes.
 Through the process of crossing over, chromosomes introduce variations.
5.9 Microbodies
 Microbodies are small cell organelles bounded by a single membrane. They are present in both plant and animal cells.
 They absorb molecular oxygen and take part in oxidation.
 Microbodies are of two types:
 Peroxisomes: These are covered by single lipid bilayer membrane (present in both plant and animal cell). They contain
oxidative enzymes like urate oxidase. The reactions produce hydrogen peroxide, which is metabolized by the other
enzyme, catalase.
 Glyoxysomes: These are microbodies which contain enzymes for beta oxidation of fatty acids. Found in germinating oil
seeds and cells of some fungi.
Fig 8.49: Peroxisome

Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Fig 10.1: Cell division
1. Introduction to Cell Cycle

 A single cell goes on to form large organisms because of the continuous cycle of growth and reproduction.
Fig 10.2: Growth and reproduction in humans
 Growth and reproduction are characteristics of cells, indeed of all living organisms.
Important terms used in the chapter Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Parent and daughter During cell division, a single cell is to divide into two new identical cells. The original cell is
cell called a parent cell, and the newly formed cells are referred to as daughter cells.
Haploid A cell or organism that has a single set of chromosomes.
Diploid A cell or organism that has paired chromosomes, one from each parent.
Chromatin Chromatin is a complex of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes.
Chromosomes A genetic structure in a cell composed of condensed DNA, which contains the genetic code for
an organism.
Chromatid A chromatid is one of two identical halves of a replicated chromosome.
Centromere The region of the chromosome to which the spindle fiber is attached during cell division.
Chromatin fibres Chromatin is composed of DNA and histones that are packaged into thin, stringy fibers.
Kinetochore It is a protein complex assembled on the centromeric region of DNA. It serves the attachment
point for the spindle.
Spindle apparatus The spindle apparatus is a network of microtubules that forms within a dividing eukaryotic cell.
Bivalent Bivalent is the homologous chromosome pair, which consists of two chromosomes.
Tetrad Bivalent consists of four sister chromatids together. These four sister chromatids are collectively
known as a tetrad.
Sister chromatids Sister chromatids are pairs of identical copies of DNA joined at the centromere.
Homologous Homologous chromosomes are chromosome pairs inherited from each parent. They are similar
chromosomes in gene position but may contain different alleles.
 All cells reproduce by dividing into two. Each parental cell gives rise to two daughter cells each time they divide.
 The newly formed daughter cells can themselves grow and divide, giving rise to a new cell population.
 Such cycles of growth and division allow a single cell to form a structure consisting of millions of cells.
Fig 10.3: Population growth due to cell division
 Cell division is a very important process in all living organisms.

 During the division of a cell, DNA replication and cell growth take place.
 All these processes, i.e., cell division, DNA replication, and cell growth, hence, have to take place in a coordinated way to
ensure correct division and formation of progeny cells containing intact genomes.
 A cell with a single set of chromosomes is known as haploid (n) while a cell with two sets of chromosomes is called diploid
(2n).
Fig 10.4: Modes of cell division

 The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other constituents of the cell and eventually
divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.
 The duration of cell cycle can vary from organism to organism, and from cell type to cell type.
 Yeast for example, can progress through the cell cycle in only about 90 minutes.
 A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is illustrated by human cells in culture. These cells divide once in approximately every 24
hours. The time interval between two cell cycles is called Generation time.
1.1 Phases of Cell Cycle

 In the 24-hour average duration of cell cycle of a human cell, cell division properly lasts for only about an hour.
 The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:
1. Interphase
2. M Phase (Mitosis phase)
1.1.1. Interphase
 The interphase, though called the resting phase, is the time during which the cell is preparing for division by undergoing both
cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
 It is also known as intermitosis.
 The interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of the cell cycle.
 The interphase is divided into three further phases:
G1 phase
S phase or Synthetic phase
G2 phase
Fig 10.5: Phases of cell cycle
1.1.1.1 G1 Phase
 It is also known as the first growth phase or post mitotic gap phase.
 It is the longest phase of interphase.
 G1 phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
 During the G1 phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not replicate its DNA.
Fig 10.6: Growth of cell during G1 phase
 RNA and proteins are synthesized.

 G1 is the most variable phase.
1.1.1.2 Synthetic Phase or S Phase

 S or synthetic phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis or replication takes place.
 During this time the amount of DNA per cell doubles. If the initial amount of DNA is denoted as 2C then it increases to 4C.
Fig 10.7: DNA replication in S phase
 However, there is no increase in the chromosome number; if the cell had diploid or 2n number of chromosomes at G 1, even
after S phase the number of chromosomes remains the same, i.e., 2n.
 In animal cells, during the S phase, DNA replication begins in the nucleus, and the centriole duplicates in the cytoplasm.
1.1.1.3 G2 Phase
 It is also known as the second growth phase or pre- mitotic gap.
 During the G2 phase, RNA and proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis while cell growth continues.
Fig 10.8: Second growth phase or G2 phase

1.1.1.4 G0 Phase (Quiescent Stage)

 Some cells in the adult animals do not appear to exhibit division (e.g., heart cells) and many other cells divide only
occasionally, as needed to replace cells that have been lost because of injury or cell death.
 These cells that do not divide further exit the G1 phase to enter an inactive stage called the quiescent stage (G0) of the cell
cycle.
Fig 10.9: Cell cycle arrest at G0 phase
 Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on to do so depending on the
requirement of the organism.
Difference between G1 and G2 Phases
G1-Phase G2-Phase
1. It is the first substage of interphase. 1. It is the last substage of interphase.
2. Available factors determine its fate, entry in G0, 2. There is very little choice for the cell except to
differentiation or continuity of cell cycle. proceed further in cell cycle.
3. The cell organelles do not increase in number. 3. Cell organelles increase in number.
4. The cell grows in size, but growth of nucleus is little. 4. Both cell and nucleus grow in size.
5. It synthesizes RNAs, proteins and other biochemical 5. It synthesizes RNAs, proteins and other biochemical
for cell growth and subsequent replication of DNA. for spindle formation and M-phase division.
1.1.2 M Phase
 The M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs, and the interphase represents the phase
between two successive M phases.
 The M Phase starts with the nuclear division, corresponding to the separation of daughter chromosomes (karyokinesis) and
usually ends with division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis).
Difference between Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis
Karyokinesis Cytokinesis
1. It is the division of nucleus into two daughter 1. It is the division of cytoplasm to form two
nuclei. daughter cells.
2. There is disorganization of nuclear envelope, 2. There is no such elaborate mechanism of equitable
appearance of already replicated chromosomes, distribution of cell organelles.
their splitting and equitable distribution.
3. It is the first step of M-phase. 3. It is the last step of M-phase.
LET’S SOLVE !
You have studied mitosis in onion root tip cells. It has 16 chromosomes in each cell. Can you
tell how many chromosomes will the cell have G1 phase, after S phase, and after M phase?
Also, what will be the DNA content of the cells at G1, after S and G2, if the content after M
phase is 2C?
The chromosome number will remain the same. It will remain 16 in all three phases (G1 S
and G2) because in S phase DNA is replicated, but chromosome number remains the same.
DNA content of the cells at G1, after S and At G2, will be 2C; 4C and 4C respectively if the
content after M phase 2C because DNA is replicated at S phase, and it remains the same at G 2
phase.
2. Cell Cycle Checkpoints

 In most eukaryotic cells, the cell-cycle control system governs cell-cycle progression at three major regulatory transitions:
G1 check point or G1/S checkpoint
G2 check point or G2/M checkpoint
Spindle checkpoint
2.1 G1 Check point or G1/S Checkpoint

 It checks if the cell has enough energy reserves or available nutrients to divide or if the DNA is damaged.
2.2 G2 Check point or G2/S Checkpoint

 It senses the problems in the completion of DNA replication and will hold the cell at the G2/M transition until those problems
are solved.
2.3 Spindle Checkpoint

 It is present at the transition from metaphase to anaphase.
 Here the control system stimulates sister-chromatid separation, leading to the completion of mitosis and cytokinesis.
Fig 10.10: Cell cycle checkpoints and their functions
3. Amitosis
 Amitosis is a simple method of cell division which is also called direct cell division.
 There is no differentiation of chromosomes and spindle, and the nuclear envelope does not degenerate.
 The nucleus elongates and constricts in the middle to form two daughter nuclei which is followed by a centripetal constriction
of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.
Fig 10.11: Process of Amitosis
 Amitosis is not a regular method of division because it does not divide the nuclear matter equitably.
 Cell division of Monerans is considered amitosis due to absence of spindle formation. It is also found in some protozoans
(such as Paramecium). It also occurs in diseased cells.
4. Mitosis
 Mitosis is the division in which chromosomes replicate and become equally distributed both quantitatively and qualitatively
into two daughter nuclei so that the daughter cells come to have the same number and type of chromosomes as are present in
the parent cell.
 Since the number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the same, it is also called as equational division.
 Mitosis occurs in formation of somatic body cells and is hence often named as somatic cell division.
 Mitosis was first observed by Strasburger in plant cells. Boveri and Flemming observed it in animal cells.
 The term mitosis was coined by Flemming.
 Sites of mitosis in plants: Tips of root, stem and intercalary meristem.
 Sites of mitosis in Animals: During the formation of new body cells and formation of gametes.
Fig 10.12: Sites of mitosis in plants and animals
 Sites of mitosis in Animals: During the formation of new body cells and formation of gametes.
 Mitosis is the most common method of division which brings about growth in multicellular organisms and increase in
population of unicellular organisms.
 Mitosis consists of two steps:
 Karyokinesis
 Cytokinesis
 Karyokinesis is also called indirect nuclear division because the nucleus passes through a complicated sequence of events
before forming two daughter nuclei.
 Cytokinesis is the division of protoplast of a cell into two daughter cells after the nuclear division or karyokinesis.
Fig 10.13: Karyokinesis and Cytokinesis
 Mitosis is divided into the following four stages:

Prophase (pro = before and phasis = appearance)
Metaphase (meta = among, between and phasis = appearance)
Anaphase (ana = back, backward, and phasis = appearance)
Telophase (telos = end and phasis = appearance)
Prophase is the longest phase of mitosis while Anaphase is the shortest phase of Mitosis.
4.1 Prophase
 Prophase is marked by the initiation of condensation of chromosomal material. The chromosomal material becomes
untangled during the process of chromatin condensation.
 The centrosomes, which had undergone duplication during S phase now begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell.
 Centriole pairs radiate out fine microtubular fibrils called astral rays.
 Each group of astral rays along with its centriole pair is called aster.
 Plant cells lack centrioles but still, they are capable to form a mitotic spindle from the centrosome area of the cell located just
exterior to the nuclear envelope.
 Since there are two asters, the spindle of animal cells is called amphiaster (centric spindle). In contrast, the spindle of plant
cells is called anastral (acentric).
 Prophase is divided in three substages-
 Early prophase
 Middle prophase
 Late prophase
4.1.1 Early Prophase

 DNA molecules condense to form elongated chromosomes and these chromosomes are evenly distributed inside the nucleus.
 Viscosity of cytoplasm increases.
 Centrosomes begin to shift towards the opposite side.
4.1.2 Middle Prophase

 Chromosomes shift towards the periphery.
 Shortening and thickening of chromosomes results in appearance of chromatids.
Fig 10.14: Different phases of Prophase in mitosis
4.1.3 Late Prophase

 Nucleolus degenerates completely.
 The two spindle poles begin to get connected by fine fibers.
 The completion of prophase can thus be marked by the following characteristic events:
 Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes.
 Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached together at the centromere.
 Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, the microtubules occurs and the proteinaceous components of the cell
cytoplasm help in the process.
 Cells at the end of prophase, when viewed under the microscope, do not show Golgi complexes, endoplasmic reticulum,
nucleolus and the nuclear envelope.
4.2 Metaphase
 The complete disintegration of the nuclear envelope marks the start of the second phase of mitosis, hence the chromosomes
are spread through the cytoplasm of the cell.
 Condensation of chromosomes is completed by this stage, and they can be observed clearly under the microscope.
Fig 10.15: Metaphase under microscope

 Metaphase is the stage at which morphology of chromosomes is most easily studied.

 At this stage, the metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids, which are held together by the centromere.
 Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of the centromeres are called kinetochores.
Fig 10.16: Arrangement of Chromosomes in Metaphase
 These structures serve as the sites of attachment of spindle fibres (formed by the spindle fibres) to the chromosomes that are
moved into position at the center of the cell.
 Each chromosome is attached to both the spindle poles by distinct chromosomal fibres, one for each chromatid.
 Metaphase is characterized by all the chromosomes coming to lie at the equator with one chromatid of each chromosome
connected by its kinetochore to spindle fibres from one pole and its sister chromatid connected by its kinetochore to spindle
fibres from the opposite pole.
 The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is referred to as the metaphase plate.
4.3 Anaphase
 The splitting of the sister chromatids marks the onset of anaphase.
 At the onset of anaphase, each chromosome arranged at the metaphase plate is split simultaneously.
 The two daughter chromatids, now referred to as chromosomes of the future daughter nuclei, begin their migration towards
the two opposite poles along the path of their chromosomal fibres.
 They remain connected to each other by interzonal fibres.
 As each chromosome moves away from the equatorial plate, the centromere of each chromosome is towards the pole and
hence at the leading edge, with the arms of the chromosome trailing behind.
Fig 10.17: Chromosomes migrating to opposite poles in Anaphase

 The movement of the chromosomes is facilitated by a combination of kinetochore movement along the spindle microtubules.
 During anaphase, the chromatids moving towards opposite poles appear to be of various shapes like V-shaped (metacentric
chromosomes), J-shaped (submetacentric chromosomes), L-shaped (acrocentric chromosomes) or I-shaped (telocentric
chromosomes), depending on the position of the centromere.
4.4 Telophase
 Telophase is the final stage of mitosis.
 At the beginning of the telophase, the chromosomes that have reached their respective poles decondense and lose their
individuality.
 The individual chromosomes can no longer be seen, and chromatin material tends to collect in a mass in the two poles.
 Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle poles and their identity is lost as discrete elements.
Fig 10.18: Reappearance of nucleolus and nuclear membrane in Telophase
 The nuclear`envelope assembles around the chromosome clusters.

 Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reform.
 The nuclear division, corresponding to the separation of daughter chromosomes is karyokinesis.
FUN FACT
Colchicine (mitotic poison) is an alkaloid widely used in plant breeding for doubling of chromosome number. It
does not allow the formation of spindle by preventing the assembly of microtubules while it does not inhibit
chromosome replication and promote polyploidy.
4.5 Significance of Mitosis

 Mitosis or the equational division is usually restricted to the diploid cells only.
 However, in some lower plants and in some social insects haploid cells also divide by mitosis.
 Mitosis results in the production of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic complement usually.
 The growth of multicellular organisms is due to mitosis.
 Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues – the apical and the lateral cambium, result in a continuous growth of plants
throughout their life.
 A very significant contribution of mitosis is cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of the epidermis, cells of the lining of the
gut, and blood cells are being constantly replaced.
 Mitosis and restoration of nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio:
 Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 It therefore becomes essential for the cell to divide (mitosis) to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio.
 Metabolically active cells are typically smaller due to higher nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio and higher surface volume ratio.
 The nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio is a ratio of the size of the nucleus of a cell to the size of the cytoplasm of that cell.
Fig 10.19: Size of nucleus decreases as cell grows in size
 The N-C ratio indicates the maturity of a cell.

 The N-C ratio allows nucleus to have better control on metabolic activities.
 Cell size and volume limits are set mainly by the factors such as nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio and surface area to volume
ratio etc.
 Surface-volume ratio allow quicker exchange of materials between the cell and its outside environment.
5. Cytokinesis
 Mitosis accomplishes not only the segregation of duplicated chromosomes into daughter nuclei (karyokinesis), but the cell
itself is divided into two daughter cells by a separate process called cytokinesis at the end of which cell division gets
completed. In some organisms karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which a multinucleate condition
arises leading to the formation of syncytium
5.1 Cytokinesis in Animal Cell

 In an animal cell, cytokinesis is achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane.
 The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the center dividing the cell cytoplasm into two.
Fig 10.20: Formation of cleavage furrow and cytokinesis in Animal cell
In animals, mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells. However, there are few exceptions where
haploid cells divide by mitosis, for example male honeybees. Against this, the plants can show mitotic divisions in
both haploid and diploid cells.
5.2 Cytokinesis in Plant Cell

 Plant cells undergo cytokinesis by a different mechanism as these are enclosed by a relatively inextensible cell wall.
 In plant cells, wall formation starts in the center of the cell and grows outward to meet the existing lateral walls.
 In this type of cytokinesis, the spindle persists for some time, which is known as phragmoplast.
 Small vesicles produced by Golgi collect at the equator of phragmoplast and these vesicles fused to form sheets which
enclose a film that after solidifying form a cell plate or middle lamella.
Fig 10.21: Cell plate formation and cytokinesis in Plant cell
Difference between Animal and Plant Cell Cytokinesis
Animal Cytokinesis Plant Cytokinesis
Spindle fibres degenerates soon after anaphase Spindle fibres usually persist during cytokinesis
New cell membrane is usually derived from ER New cell membrane is usually derived from
vesicles of Golgi apparatus
Cytokinesis occurs by furrowing of cytoplasm Cytokinesis occurs mostly by cell plate formation
Furrow extends centripetally Cell plate grows centrifugally

Difference between Animal and Plant Cell Mitosis
Animal Mitosis Plant Mitosis
Occurs at several places. Generally, occurs in meristematic regions
Cell often becomes spherical. Cell does not change shape prior to division.
Cytokinesis occurs by furrowing of cytoplasm. Cytokinesis occurs mostly by cell plate formation.
Furrow extends centripetally. Cell plate grows centrifugally.
Centrioles are present, and the spindle is astral (with Centrioles are absent, and the spindle is anastral
one aster at each pole). (No asters are formed).
6. Meiosis
 The production of offspring by sexual reproduction includes the fusion of two gametes, each with a complete haploid set of
chromosomes.
Fig 10.22: Production of offspring by sexual reproduction
 Gametes are formed from specialized diploid cells (germ cells).

 The specialized cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in the production of haploid
daughter cells.
 This kind of division occurs in germ cells in gonads.
 Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms whereas fertilization
restores the diploid phase.
Fig 10.23: Overview of meiosis
 Meiosis was first discovered by the German biologist Oscar Hertwig in sea urchin eggs in 1876.
 The term meiosis was coined by Farmer and Moore in 1905.
 The key features of meiosis are as follows:
 Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but only a single cycle
of DNA replication.
 Meiosis I is initiated after the parental chromosomes have replicated to produce identical sister chromatids at the S phase.
 Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination between them.
 Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
Events of Meiosis
Meiosis I Meiosis I
Meiosis II Meiosis II
Prophase I Prophase I
Prophase II Prophase II
Metaphase I Metaphase I
6.1 Meiosis I
6.1.1 Prophase I
 Prophase of the first meiotic division is typically longer and more complex when compared to prophase of mitosis.
 Prophase of the first meiotic division is typically longer and more complex when compared to prophase of mitosis.
 It has been further subdivided into the following five phases based on chromosomal behavior:
 Leptotene
 Zygotene
 Pachytene
 Diplotene
 Diakinesis.
6.1.1.1 Leptotene (leptonema = thin thread)

 During the leptotene stage, the chromosomes become gradually visible under the light microscope.
 The compaction of chromosomes continues throughout leptotene.
 One of the two centriole pairs begins to move to the opposite side.
 Both the centriole pairs or centrosomes develop astral rays.
 Each centriole pair and its astral rays together constitute aster.
 In cells undergoing meiosis, there are two sets of chromosomes.
 Such chromosomes are called homologous chromosomes.
 One of the chromosomes belongs to the father and is called the paternal chromosome.
 The other chromosome of the homologous pair belongs to the mother and is called the maternal chromosome.
 The homologous chromosomes resemble each other in the position of their centromeres, shape and size.
 In many animal cells during the leptotene stage of meiosis, the telomeres of all the chromosomes converge towards the
nuclear membrane and assume the shape of a bouquet. Hence, the leptotene is called the Bouquet stage.
Fig 10.24: Homologous chromosomes in leptotene stage and Bouquet arrangement
6.1.1.2 Zygotene (Zygonema = Paired Threads)

 In zygotene two homologous chromosomes start pairing together laterally due to development of nucleoprotein between
them.
 Pairing is such that the genes of the same character present on the two chromosomes come to lie exactly opposite.
 The process of association of the homologous chromosomes is known as synapsis.
Fig 10.25: Synaptonemal complex formation in zygotene stage.
 The synaptonemal complex (SC) is a protein structure that forms between homologous chromosomes (two pairs of sister
chromatids) during meiosis and is thought to mediate synapsis and recombination during meiosis I in eukaryotes.
 On account of synapsis, chromosomes form pairs or bivalents or a tetrad.

 Synapsis produces a complex known as synaptonemal complex.
 On account of synapsis, chromosomes form pairs or bivalents.
 These are more clearly visible at the next stage.
6.1.1.3 Pachytene (Pachynema = Thick Threads)

 In pachytene, bivalent chromosomes clearly appear as tetrads.
 This stage is characterized by the appearance of recombination nodules, the sites at which crossing over occurs between non-
sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes.
 Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes.
Fig 10.26: Crossing over in pachytene stage
 Crossing over is also an enzyme-mediated process and the enzyme involved is called recombinase.
 Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material on the two chromosomes.
 Recombination between homologous chromosomes is completed by the end of pachytene, leaving the chromosomes linked at
the sites of crossing over.
6.1.1.4 Diplotene (Diplonema = Two Threads)

 The beginning of diplotene is recognized by the dissolution of the synaptonemal complex and the tendency of the recombined
homologous chromosomes of the bivalents to separate from each other except at the sites of crossovers.
Fig 10.27: Chiasmata formation in Diplotene stage
 The X-shaped structures (at the site of crossing over) are called chiasmata.
 In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for months or years.
6.1.1.5 Diakinesis (Diakinesis = Moving Through)

 The final stage of meiotic prophase I is diakinesis. This is marked by terminalization of chiasmata.
 During this phase the chromosomes are fully condensed, and the meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the homologous
chromosomes for separation.
 By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks down.
 Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase.
Fig 10.28: Overview of prophase in meiosis I
6.1.2 Metaphase I
 In metaphase I, bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
 The microtubules from the opposite poles of the spindle attach to the pair of homologous chromosomes.
 There are two centromeres in each bivalent.
Fig 10.29: Chromosome alignment in Metaphase I
6.1.3 Anaphase I
 In anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes separate, while sister chromatids remain associated at their centromeres.
 This process of separation is named as disjunction (dis- separate, junction - union).

 The separate chromosomes or univalents are also called dyads because each of them consists of two chromatids which lie at
an angle to each other.
Fig 10.30: Anaphase I
Difference between Anaphase of mitosis and Anaphase I of meiosis
Anaphase of Mitosis Anaphase I of Meiosis
1. The centromere of every chromosome divides. 1. The centromeres do not divide.
2. Separation of sister chromatids takes place. 2. Homologous chromosomes are separated.
3. Only one chromatid of every chromosome moves to the 3. Each homologous pair of chromosomes moves to the pole
pole. with both the chromatids.
4. The chromatids moving to one pole are genetically 4. The chromosomes moving to one pole are not genetically
identical to those moving to the opposite pole. identical to those moving to the opposite pole.
6.1.4 Telophase I
 In telophase I, the nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, cytokinesis follows, and this is called as dyad of cells.
Fig 10.31: Daughter cells in at the end of Telophase I
6.2 Meiosis II
 Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis, usually before the chromosomes have fully elongated. In contrast to
meiosis I, meiosis II resembles a normal mitosis.
6.2.1 Prophase II
 The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II. The chromosomes again become compact.
6.2.2 Metaphase II
 At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator and the microtubules from opposite poles of the spindle get attached to the
kinetochores of sister chromatids.
Fig 10.32: Comparison of metaphase in mitosis, meiosis I and meiosis II
6.2.3 Anaphase II
 It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each chromosome (which was holding the sister chromatids
together), allowing them to move toward opposite poles of the cell.
6.2.4 Telophase II
 Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the two groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a nuclear envelope;
cytokinesis follows resulting in the formation of a tetrad of cells i.e., four haploid daughter cells.
Fig 10.33: Overview of all the stages of Meiosis
Significance of Meiosis
 Meiosis is the mechanism by which conservation of specific chromosome number of each species is achieved across
generations in sexually reproducing organisms, even though the process, paradoxically, results in reduction of chromosome
number by half.
 It also increases the genetic variability in the population of organisms from one generation to the next.
 Variations are very important for the process of evolution.
Difference between Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
1. It occurs in somatic cells. 1. It occurs in germ cells.
2. Nucleus divides only once. 2. Nucleus divides twice.
3. Two daughter cells are formed. 3. Four daughter cells are formed.
4. Daughter cells are diploid. 4. Daughter cells are haploid.
5. It occurs more frequently. 5. It occurs less frequently.
6. Daughter cells form somatic organs. 6. Daughter cells form gametes.
7. There is only one prophase, one metaphase one anaphase and one 7. There are two of each phase and five sub-phases in
telophase. prophase-1.
8. Number of chromosomes are not changed in the daughter cells. 8. Number of chromosomes are reduced to half.
10. No crossing over in chromosomes. 10. Crossing over occurs in chromosomes.
11. Equation division 11. Reduction division

EXERCISE - 1 (Basic Exercise) 4. Cell is the fundamental structural and

Introduction, Overview of cell, Cell theory functional unit of living organisms is
1. Which of the following statements was evidenced by the facts like
not explained in the cell theory given (a) Anything less than a complete structure
jointly by Schleiden and Schwann? of a cell does not ensure independent
(a) All living organisms are composed of living
cells and products of cells (b) Subcellular components can regenerate
(b) Cell is the structural and whole cell
functional unit of living organisms (c) A cell arises by fusion of two cells
(c) Explanation of formation of new cells (d) All cells are totipotent
(d) None 5. Select the right option which relates to
2. Choose the wrong option Schwann regarding the following
(a) Mycoplasma is the smallest cell statement
(0.3m in length) I. He reported that cells have a thin outer
(b) Bacteria are 3 to 5m layer which is today known as plasma
(c) The largest cell is the egg of an ostrich membrane
(d) Nerve cells are some of the smallest II. Cell wall is a unique character of the
cells plant cell
3. I. The shape of the cells may vary with the III. Body of plants and animals are
function they perform composed of cells and products of cells
II. Human RBC is about 7.0m in (a) All are correct
diameter (b) Only III is correct
III. Cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular (c) II and III are correct
activities (d) All are incorrect
IV. various chemical reactions occurs in 6. Which of the following is(are) exceptions
cytoplasm to keep the cell in the to the cell theory?
living state (a) Viruses (b) Viroid
(a) All are correct (c) Prions (d) All
(b) Only I and II are correct 7. Which of the following is not a
(c) Only IV is correct characteristic of prokaryotic cell?
(d) All are wrong (a) Mesosome

(b) Circular DNA
(c) Photosynthetic membrane system Cell wall, Cell membrane

(d) Membrane bound organelles 11. Lipids are arranged within the membrane
8. Which of the following statements with
concerning prokaryotes is /are true? (a) Polar heads towards innerside and the
(a) Because prokaryotes do not contain hydrophobic tails towards outerside
organelles, they cannot photosynthesize or (b) Both heads and tails towards outerside
carry out cellular respiration (c) Heads towards outerside and tail
(b) Prokaryotes have no chromosomes and towards inside
therefore lack DNA (d) Both heads and tails towards innerside
(c) Prokaryotic flagella are similar in 12. Why tail of lipids in the membrane are
structure to eukaryotic Flagella towards inner part?
(d) None of the above (a) The tail is nonpolar hydrocarbon and
9. Which one is correct about mesosome? so protected within an aqueous
(a) A characteristic of bacteria environment
(b) Infoldings of cell membrane (b) The tail is polar hydrocarbon and so is
(c) may be in the form of vesicles, tubules protected from aqueous environment
or lamellae (c) The non polar or hydrophobic
(d) All hydrocarbon tails of lipid, being on inner
10. I. It is the extension of plasma membrane side ensures their protection from aqueous
into the cytoplasm environment.
II. It helps in cell wall formation, DNA (d) The tail is hydrophilic, so it tends to be
replication, helps in respiration, secretion located in the aqueous inner side of
processes, increases the surface area of membrane
plasma membrane and enzymatic 13. Which of the following statement is
contents, also helps in cytokinesis. incorrect about the plasma membrane?
III. It is the characteristic of bacterial cells. (a) The ratio of proteins and lipid varies
The above features are attributed to considerably in different cell types
bacterial (b) 52% protein and 40% lipids are in the
(a) Nucleoid (b) Plasmid membrane of human RBC
(c) Mesosome (d) Pilus (c) The arrangement of proteins (P) and
Lipids (L) is L-P-P-L
(d) Head of Lipid (Fatty acid) is (d) Prokaryotic cells have various types
hydrophilic of cell organelles.
14. The molecules in a membrane that limit (a) One (b) Three
its permeability are the (c) Four (d) Two
(a) Carbohydrates (b) Phospholipids 18. Which of the following cell organelles
(c) Proteins (d) Water were discovered after the introduction of
15. An improved model of cell membrane, a electron microscope?
widely accepted model is the (a) Mitochondria
(a) Unit membrane model (b) Endoplasmic Reticulum
(b) Fluid mosaic model (c) Ribosomes
(c) Danielli and Davson’s model (d) Both b and c
(d) Robertson’s model 19. The proteins that will function outside the
16. According to the modern concept, cell cytosol are made by-
membrane is (a) GB
(a) Solid (b) Ribosomes in mitochondria
(b) Quasifluid (c) Ribosomes on RER
(c) Fluid (d) Ribosomes in the nucleus
(d) Solidified sheath 20. “The cytoplasm of animal and plant cells
Cell organelles is transversed by a network of tiny tubular
17. Read the following statements (A-D) and membranous system that divison the
answer as asked next to them. intracellular space into 2 compartments
(a) A Mitochondria and chloroplast are (Luminal inside the membranous system)
energy transducers and extra luminal (Cytoplasm
(b) The functions of mitochondria, compartment.”
chloroplast and peroxisome are not The above statement is attributed to
coordinated with ER, GB, lysosome ad (a) ER
vacuoles, so they are a part of the (b) GB
endomembranous system (c) Plasma membrane
(c) Internal compartmentalization causes (d) Nuclear membrane
the division of labor within eukaryotic 21. Which of the following is the correct
cells that greatlyincreases overall cellular sequence /route of the secretory product?
function
(a) ER →Vesicles → Cis region of GB IV. It maintains turgor pressure

→ Trans region of GB → Vesicle → The above features are attributed to-
Plasma membrane (a) Lysosome (b) Vacuole
(b) RER →GB → Lysosome →Nuclear (c) Peroxisome (d) Food
membrane →Plasma membrane 26. Which one is correct-
(c) ER →Vesicles →Trans region of GB (a) In Amoeba, contractile vacuole is
→ Cis region of GB →Vesicles →Plasma important for excretion and
membrane osomoregulation
(d) Lysosome → ER → GB → Vesicles (b) In many cells as in protists, food
→ Cell membrane vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food
22. A distinctive feature of the lysosome is particles
that it has- (c) Both a and b
(a) A lower pH than the cytoplasm (d) Vacuole is always large sized in all
(b) A higher pH than the cytoplasm cells of plant
(c) A reduced hydrolase activity 27. The concentration of a number of ions and
(d) Double membraned envelope other materials is higher in vacuoles than
23. The Golgi apparatus (Dictysome)- those in cytoplasm – why?
(a) Is found in animal cells only (a) Tonoplast has a number of active
(b) is found in prokaryotes only transport system that pumps ions into
(c) Is the site of rapid ATP production vacuole from cytoplasm
(d) Packages and modifies proteins (b) Through osmosis, a large amount of
24. Which statement about the ER is not true? ions go continuously to vacuole from
(a) It is of two types, rough and smooth cytoplasm
(b) It is a network of tubes and flattened (c) Cytoplasmic ions enter the vacuole
sacs through osmotic flow of water.
(c) Some of it is sprinkled with ribosome (d) Vacuole is always engaged in the
(d) It is found in all living cells hydrolysis of salts into their ions.
25. I. It contains water, sap, excretory product 28. The matrix of which cell organelle has
and other unwanted materials single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA
II. it is bound by a single membrane called 70S ribosomes and component required
tonoplast. for protein synthesis and aerobic
III. In plant cells. It can occupy upto 90% respiration-
of cellular volume
(a) Chloroplast (b) Golgi Body 32. In chloroplast, chlorophyll is present in-
(c) Mitochondrion (d) ER (a) thylakoid
29. I. Sausage shaped /cylindrical (b) Stroma
II. Diameter 0.2 -1.0 μm (average 0.5 μm); (c) Outer membrane
Length 1.0 - 4.1 μm (d) Inner membrane of envelope
III. Has 2 aqueous compartments 33. Which of the following is membraneless?
IV. Outer membrane as continuous (a) Ribosomes (b) Nucleolus
limiting boundary of the organelle (c) Centriole (d) All
V. Inner membrane forms many cristae 34. Of the following organelles, which group
which increase surface area is involved in manufacturing substances
VI. Both membranes have their own needed by cell?
specific enzymes (a) Lysosome, vacuole, ribosome
All the above features are attributed to- (b) Vacuole, RER, SER
(a) Chloroplast (c) Ribosome, RER, SER
(b) Nucleus (d) RER, Lysosome, vacuole
(c) ER 35. An organelle with an internal cross section
(d) Mitochondria showing characteristic “9 +2” morphology
30. Chloroplasts contain- is the-
(a) All types of pigments (a) Microtubule
(b) Chl + Carotene + anthocyanine (b) Microfilament
(c) Chl + Carotenoids (c) Cilium or flagellum
(d) Only chl (d) Cytoskeleton
31. I. Amyloplasts –Store starch e.g. potato 36. Cilium /Flagellum contains an outer ring
II. Elaioplasts –Store oil and fat of nine doublet microtubules surrounding
III. Aleuroplasts –Store protein two signal microtubules
The above types of plastids are included II. Cilia are smaller which works like oars,
under- causing the movement of either the cells
(a) Leucoplasts (Colourless plastid) or surrounding fluid
(b) Chromoplasts (Non green colour III. Flagella are comparatively longer and
plastid) responsible for cell movement.
(c) Chloroplast (green plastid) IV. Cilium and flagellum are covered with
(d) None plasma membrane
Which of the above statement is correct? 39. An organelle in all eukaryotic cells during
(a) I, II (b) I, II, III, IV some portion of their lives is the
(c) I, IV (d) II, III (a) Chloroplast (b) Nucleus
37. Go through the section of cilia/flagella (c) Flagellum (d) Centriole
showing the different parts- 40. For the study of structure of nucleus the
best cell is -
(a) Cell in the interphase
(b) Cell in the late prophase
(c) Cell in the divisional phase
(d) Cell in the meiotic phase
41. The nuclear pores are the passage for the
In which of the following options correct
movement of certain materials between the
words for all the four blanks A, B. C, and
nucleus and cytoplasm in both the
D are indicated?
direction. Which one is correct about
(a) A – Plasma membrane, B- interdoublet
materials in their respective direction?
bridge, C-Central microtubule, D- Radial
(a) Proteins, enzymes into the nucleus
spoke
(b) Ribosomal components out of the
(b) A – Plasma membrane, B- Arm, C-
nucleus
Central microtubule D- Radial spoke
(c) mRNA out of the nucleus
(c) A – Plasma membrane, B- Inerdoublet
(d) All
bridge, C- Hub, D- Radial spoke
42. Cells actively carrying out protein
(d) A – Plasma membrane, B- Interdoublet
synthesis have
bridge, C- Hub, D – Arm
(a) Smaller and single nucleolus
Nucleus, Chromosomes (b) Smaller and more numerous nucleoli
38. Nuclear DNA exists as a complex of (c) Large and more numerous
proteins called ________that condenses nucleoli
into ______ during _____ (d) Larger and single nucleolus
(a) Chromatids, chromosomes, cell 43. Part of chromosome after secondary
division constriction is called-
(b) Chromosomes, Chromatin, interphase (a) Chromomere (b) Telomere
(c) Chromatin, Chromosomes, Interphase (c) Satellite (d) Chromomere
(d) Chromatin, Chromosome, Cell 44. Structure which provides the shape to
Division chromosomes is called-
(a) Centromere (b) Centriole (b) Mitochondria, chloroplast, peroxisome,

(c) Satellite (d) Chromomere lysosome
45. Which is one correct? (c) Nucleus, chloroplast, GB, ER
(d) Nucleus, mitochondria ribosome,
chloroplast
48. Nuclear envelope is a derivative of
(a) Microtubules
(b) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(c) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(a) A- Telocentric chr.; B-Acrocentric chr.;
(d) Membrane of Golgi complex
C- Submetacentric chr.; D- Metacentric
Cell cycle and Mitosis
chr.
49. S phase is synthesis phase, characterized
(b) A- Acrocentric chr.; B- Telocentric
as the period of
chr.; C- Metacentric chr.;
(a) DNA transcription
D- Submetacentric chr.
(b) DNA replication
(c) A- Submetacentric chr.; B- Metacentric
(c) DNA translation
chr.; C- Telocentric chr.; D- Acrocentric
(d) RNA transcription
chr.
50. Name the type of cell division in which
(d) A- Metacentric chr.; B-Submetacentric
daughter cells receive an exact copy of
chr.; C- Acrocentric chr.; D- Telocentric
chromosomes from parent cell?
chr.
(a) Mitosis (b) Cleavage
46. Which of the following is incorrect about
(c) Interphase (d) Meiosis
the microbodies?
51. Duplication of centriole occurs in
(a) They are present in bacteria
(a) Interphase (b) Prophase
(b) Minute, membranous vesicles
(c) Metaphase (d) Anaphase
(c) They are present in plants and animals
52. Histone protein and RNA synthesis occur
(d) They have various enzymes
in:
47. If you fractionate all the organelles from
(a) G1 (b) S-phase
the cytoplasm of a plant cell, which one of
(c) G2 – phase (d) EarlyAnaphase
the following set of fraction will have
53. The sequence of events of cell cycle is:
nucleic acids.
(a) G1 – S – G2- P – M – A – T – C
(a) Nucleous, mitochondria, lysosome,
(b) S – G1 – G2 – P – M – T –A – C
vacuole
(c) G2 – G1 – S – P- M – A – T -C (c) 2C and 2N for S phase, C and 2N for M

(d) C – T – A – M – P – G2 – S – G1 phase
54. Phragmoplast is (d) C and N for S phase, C and 2N for M
(a) Proplastid in cytoplasm of dividing cell phase
(b) Cell plate formed by vesicles of ER Cell cycle and Meiosis
and dictyosomes during cytokinesis 57. Which of the following is true of crossing
(c) Cell plate formed by Er, dictyosome over?
secretory vesicles and spindle fibers (a) Which of the following is true of
(d) None of the above crossing over?
55. During mitosis anaphase differs from (b) Crossing over occurs more often in
metaphase in having: male gametes than female gametes.
(a) Half the number of chromosomes but (c) A chiasma indicates that a crossover
double the number of chromatids in each has occurred
chromosome (d) Most homologue pairs do not have any
(b) Half the number of chromosomes and crossover events
half the number of chromatids in each 58. Synaptonemal complex is a
chromosome ribonucleoprotein structure reported by
(c) Half the number of chromatids in each Moses 1956. It is visible from:
chromosome (a) leptotene through diplotene
(d) Half the number of chromosomes (b) pachytene through diplotene
56. Which of the following described the DNA (c) zygotene through pachytene
content and the number of hromosomes at (d) diplotene through metaphase
the end of S and M phases of the cell 59. What happens in meiosis?
cycle in mitosis, if the DNA content of the (a) One division of nucleus and one
cell in the beginning of cell cycle (G1 division of chromosomes
phase) is considered as C and the number (b) Two division of nucleus and one
of chromosomes 2N? division of chromosomes
(a) 2C and 2N for S phase, 2C and 2N (c) Two divisions of nucleus and two
for M phase divisions of chromosomes
(b) 2C and N for S phase, 2C and N for M (d) One division of nucleus of two
phase divisions of chromosome
60. Pairing of homologous chromosomes to 64. If there are 20 centromeres in Anaphase II

form bivalents occurs in zygotene. This of the cell then predict the number of
pairingis called: chromatids in parent cell and Metaphase
(a) Synaptonemal complex II:
(b) Disjunction (a) 20, 40 (b) 20, 20
(c) Synapses (c) 20, 10 (d) 40, 20
(d) Synapsis 65. Meiosis is evolutionary significant because
61. Exchange of paternal ad maternal it results in:
chromosome material during cell division (a) Genetically similar daughters
is: (b) Four daughter cells
(a) dyad formation (c) Eggs and sperms
(b) crossing over (d) Recombination
(c) synapsis 66. Importance of meiosis lies in
(d) bivalent formation (a) addition in number of chromosomes
62. Which stage of meiosis II is the cell in? (b) maintaining constancy in the number of
(a) Telophase II (b) Metaphase II chromosomes in the next generation
(c) Anaphase II (d) Prophase II
63. Match the columns
Column I Column II
Homologous pairs (i) Prophase I
line up in the center
of the cell
Chromosomes (ii) Metaphase I
arrive at opposite
poles of the cell (c) bringing discontinuous variations
Homologous pairs (iii) Anaphase I (d) none of the above
pull apart 67. Number of chromosome groups at each
Crossing over (iv) Telophase I equatorial plate of metaphase
occurs I of plant having 2n = 60 chromosomes,
(a) A-(ii), B-(iv), C-(iii), D-(i) will be
(b) A-(i), B-(iv), C-(ii), D-(iii) (a) 60 (b) 120
(c) A-(iv), B-(ii), C-(iii), D-(i) (c) 180 (d) 30
(d) A-(iv), B-(iii), C-(ii), D-(i)
68. Second meiotic division leads to 69. The gap between meiosis I and meiosis II
(a) Separation of homologous is called
chromosomes (a) Intermeiosis (b) Interkinesis
(b) Separation of chromatids and (c) Cytokinesis (d) Karyokinesis
centromere 70. In plant cells, division of cytoplasm
(c) Fresh DNA synthesis occurs by
(d) Separation of sex chromosomes (a) cell plate (b) cleavage
(c) furrowing (d) invagination
EXERCISE 2 (a) Microtubules (b) Microtubules

(NSEJS Previous Year's Questions) (c) Golgi apparatus (d) Lysosomes
1. Genetic material (DNA) in plants occurs in 6. A stain was developed by a group of
which of the following cell organelles? scientists to stain a particular cell organelle.
(NSEJS 2015-16) The stain was tested on various tissues
(a) Nucleus derived from an autopsy sample from a
(b) Nucleus and chloroplast mammal. The organelles were counted. The
(c)Nucleus, chloroplast and mitochondria results showed maximum number of the
(d) Chloroplast and mitochondria organelles in cells of brain, lesser in cells of
2. In a human cell undergoing Meiosis, what heart, least in mature sperms and absent in
are the total number of cellular DNA erythrocytes. Identify the organelles from
molecules present during Prophase -1? following options. (NSEJS 2019-20)
(NSEJS 2016-17) (a) Nissl bodies
(a) 23 (b) 46 (b) Mitochondria
(c) 69 (d) 92 (c) Golgi bodies
3. Which of the following is NOT (d) Endoplasmic reticulum
produced by the endoplasmic reticulum? 7. An organism has 27 pairs of homologous
(NSEJS 2016-17) chromosomes. In each daughter cell after
(a) Lipids (b) Proteins completion of mitosis and in each gamete
(c) Monosaccharides (d) Hormones after completion of meiosis II, ________
4. Which amongst the following are not and _________ chromosomes
plastids: (NSEJS 2017) would be present respectively.
(a) Leucoplasts (b) Chromoplasts (NSEJS 2019-20)
(c) Amyloplasts (d) Tonoplasts (a) 27 and 27
5. Health is all about ‘eating-fasting’ balance. (b) 54 and 27
When you fast for extended periods, your (c) 108 and 54
cells clean out and recycle the intracellular (d) 54 and 108
garbage. The organelles responsible for this
are: (NSEJS 2017)
EXERCISE 3 transported to the chloroplast. For such a

(INJSO Previous Year's Questions) protein how many membrane(s) does the
1. Following are some statements about protein cross to reach the thylakoid space
mitochondria and chloroplasts: (lumen) of the chloroplast?
I. Mitochondrion has double stranded DNA (INJSO 2016
that replicates independently while (a) One (b) Two
chloroplast does not have the same. (c) Three (d) Four
II. Both mitochondria and chloroplast have 4. The figure on the right represents the cell
double stranded DNA that replicates cycle for Schwann cells. As Schwann cells
independently. grow, they remain metabolically active for a
III. Both mitochondria and chloroplast certain period of time and then either
have single stranded DNA undergo apoptosis (cell death) or divide and
replicating independently. form new daughter cells. Actively dividing
IV. Mitochondria and chloroplast cells undergo a normal cell cycle as shown in
have both RNA and ribosomes. the diagram. A newly formed cell passes
Which of the above statements are through G1, S, G2 phases, together called
correct? (INJSO 2016) ‘interphase’, before entering mitotic
(a) both I and IV (b) both III and IV division phase (M phase). Mitosis gives rise
(c) both II and III (d) both II and IV to two new daughter cells which are
2. In a hypothetical situation, a cell was genetically identical to the mother cell.
found to lack rough endoplasmic Among the graphs shown below, one
reticulum. Which one of the following represents the trend shown by the ‘cell
activities was all likely absent in this volume’ during the cell cycle and another
cell? (INJSO 2016) represents the trend shown by the ‘amount
(a) Transcription of genomic DNA’. Identify the two graphs in
(b) Translation the same order. (INJSO 2016)
(c) Synthesis of secretory proteins
(d) Manufacture of fat molecules or lipids
3. Many proteins of the chloroplast are encoded
by genes in the nucleus. In these cases the
RNA is transcribed in the nucleus, translated
by the cytoplasmic ribosome and the protein (a) Y and W (b) Y and X
(c) Z and X (d) Z and W
ANSWERS KEY
EXERCISE – 1 (Basic Exercise)

1. c 15. b 29. d 43. c 57. c
2. d 16. b 30. c 44. a 58. c
3. a 17. d 31. a 45. a 59. b
4. a 18. d 32. a 46. a 60. d
5. a 19. c 33. d 47. d 61. b
6. d 20. a 34. c 48. b 62. c
7. d 21. a 35. c 49. b 63. a
8. d 22. a 36. b 50. a 64. b
9. d 23. d 37. a 51. a 65. d
10. c 24. d 38. d 52. b 66. c
11. c 25. b 39. b 53. a 67. d
12. c 26. c 40. a 54. b 68. b
13. c 27. a 41. d 55. c 69. b
14. b 28. b 42. c 56. c 70. a
EXERCISE – 2 (NSEJS Previous Year's Questions)

1. c 3. c 5. d 7. b
2. d 4. d 6. a
EXERCISE – 3 (INJSO Previous Year's Questions)

1. d 3. c
2. c 4. d

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STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM 23

Cell: The Unit of Life

Fig 8.1: The cell

Fig 8.2: Cell- the basic units of living organisms

Fig 8.3: Development of complex organism from the simplest form

Fig 8.4: Observations of Robert Hooke

1.1 Cell Theory

Fig 8.5: Cell theory

 Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory.

Fig 8.6: Formation of new cells from pre-existing cells

1.1.1 Fundamental features of Cell Theory

1.1.2 Modern Cell Theory

1.1.3 Significance of Cell Theory

1.1.4 Objections to Cell Theory

1.2 Overview of Cell

Fig 8.7: Unicellular organisms (Euglena, Amoeba, Paramecium)

Fig 8.8: Multicellular organisms

Fig 8.9: Illustration representing structure of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

2. Prokaryotic Cell (Bacteria)

Fig 8.11: A bacteria cell

Fig 8.12: Different shapes of bacterial cells

 Prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane.

2.1 Cell Envelope and its Modifications

Fig 8.13: Cell envelope in a bacterial cell

Fig 8.14: Mesosome in a bacterial cell

Fig 8.15: Flagellum in a bacterial cell

Fig 8.16: Different parts of a bacterial flagellum

2.1.1 Gram Staining

Fig 8.17: Procedure of Gram’s staining

Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria

Lipid content is less. 20-30% lipid content.

Fig 8.19: Formation of polyribosomes

2.3 Inclusion Bodies

Fig 8.20: A plant cell

Fig 8.21: An animal cell

Difference between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

Most prokaryotes are unicellular. Most eukaryotes are multicellular.

Nucleolus is absent. Nucleolus is present.

Cell wall is absent. Cell wall is present.

3.1 Cell Wall

Fig 8.22: Cell wall in a plant cell

Fig 8.23: Different parts of a cell wall

 Primary cell wall is formed inner to the middle lamellae.

3.2 Cell Membrane

Fig 8.24: Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane

 The membrane is a lipid bilayer having protein embedded into it.

3.2.1 Functions of Plasma Membrane:

Fig 8.25: Osmosis

Fig 8.26: Active and passive transport

Fig 8.27: Cytoplasm

Fig 8.28: Endomembrane system

4.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum

Fig 8.29: Smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum

Fig 8.30: Various forms of endoplasmic reticulum

Difference between cisternae, vesicles and tubules

Cisternae Vesicles Tubules

4.2 Golgi Bodies

Fig 8.31: Golgi apparatus