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Development and Validation of Gender Stereotype Scale

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© Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology
Jan 2020, Vol. 46, No. 1, 48 - 56

Development and Validation of Gender Stereotype Scale

Arjun Sekhar PM and Dr. J Parameswari
Periyar University, Salem
Gender stereotype refers to the over generalization about the attributes and
characteristics of individuals based on gender. Gender stereotypes in a society decide
the roles of members based on their gender. To understand the various aspects of
gender stereotype, a standardized gender stereotype scale is essential. But the number
of gender stereotype scale is very less, especially in Indian context. The purpose of this
current study is to develop and validate cultural adapted gender stereotype scale in the
Indian context. A total number of 945 individuals were used in various phases of this
research. Four factors were identified using exploratory factor analysis, Trans-phobia,
Masculinity, Patriarchy and Femininity. After confirmatory factor analysis, 23 items were
finalized with a good model fit. The internal consistency (α) of the proposed scale is
0.85 and the split half reliability score is 0.76. The face validity and content validity were
established. Concurrent validity (0.40) was established using available standardized
gender stereotype scale.
Keywords: gender stereotype; scale construction; reliability; validity; exploratory factor
analysis; confirmatory factor analysis.

In everyday conversation, the term sex 2002). At the same time gender schema theory
and gender are often used interchangeably. focuses on the schematic process which leads
Sex refers to biological characteristics, such children to be sex-typed. This is due to the
as sex chromosomes and sex organs (West comparison between the self-concept and
& Zimmerman, 1987). But, gender refers to an socially desired gender concept (Bem, 1981).
individual’s concept of themselves according to Social cognitive theory explains about the
the social categories. Thus, though the terms process of three factors that shapes gender.
provide similar meaning, they differ from one The factors are: personal, behavioral and
another at specific contexts. Precisely the environmental. The social cognitive theory
concept of gender and gender role varies across highlights on non-cognitive influences such
geography, because gender is a human cultural as motivational, environmental and affective
creation (Garfinkel & Harold, 1967). Thus, factors that accounts for gender development.
gender roles and gender norms are different The theory specifically emphasizes the role
from one culture to another at least in few of modeling in learning gendered information
perspectives (Unger, 1979). Social interaction (Bussy & Bandura, 1999).
carries an essential role in developing one’s Gender stereotype refers to the over
gender concept. At the same time individuals generalization about the attributes and
express their gender identity when they interact characteristics of individuals based on gender.
with others, through their appearance, body This stereotype can be positive or negative. Most
language, tone of voice and behavior. of the time stereotypes function as schemas,
There exist plenty of theories to explain which are cognitive frameworks, for interpreting,
about gender development. For instance, organizing and recollecting information with no
cognitive developmental theories perceive trouble (Whitley & Kite, 2016). One of the core
gender as the outcome of cognitive maturation reason people hold stereotypes is that, by doing
through gender identity, gender stability and so they can minimize the cognitive effort. Gender
gender consistency (Martin, Ruble & Szkrybalo, identity is a product of gender typing, that is, the
48 Arjun Sekhar PM & J Parameswari

process by which children become aware of their 1988), Gender role belief scale (Kerr & Holden,
gender. Once an individual accept their gender, 1996), Gender Stereotype Scale (Noorjahan &
they start to behave according to the norms and Shahataj, 2003), Indian gender role identity scale
roles of the society which are appropriate to the (Basu, 2010), the gender role stereotype scale
identified gender. According to social learning (Mills, Culbertson, Huffman & Connell, 2012)
theory, children learn gender characteristics and Teachers gender stereotype scale towards
through observation, imitation and modeling mathematics (Nurlu, 2017).
(Bandura, Ross & Ross 1963). Play carries Though plenty of scales exist to measure
an important role in the development process gender role stereotype, there is no validated
of the concept gender in children. Parents, tool to measure gender stereotype. A scale
peer group, school and the media are few by Noorjahan and Shahataj (2003) measures
strong pillars which lead the individual towards gender stereotype, but this scale only represents
gender stereotype. Even though, stereotypes the response roles expected of women. Most
help to process information easier, sometimes scales regarding gender, gender role and gender
the gender concepts may develop prejudice role stereotype only discussed about male and
among people that ends in discrimination female characteristics, whereas the present tool
based on gender (Whitley & Kite, 2010). The includes the stereotypes towards male, female
biases towards certain gender category may and transgender. The gender stereotypes differ
result in unfavorable attitude towards the group. in different cultures of various societies. So it
Individuals become sexist when they are biased is very essential to develop a cultural specific
towards people on the basis of gender. tool to measure gender stereotype. The present
Terman and Miles (1936) were the first to tool is developed based on the Indian context,
construct a scale to describe psychological where number of tradition, rituals and cultures
femininity and masculinity. It was a product of are accepted and followed by the people. The
years of investigation about the psychological traditional gender roles in India, insist people
differences between sexes. This scale consists to behave in certain ways, regardless of their
of 445 items and 7 supplementary exercises willingness. And thus, gender stereotype
which best discriminate women from men. Later, questionnaire is very essential to find out the
various researchers developed various scales perpetuating factors of gender stereotype and
related to concept gender with the same logic of to find the impact and influence of gender
Terman and Miles. Later, in 1973 Constantinople stereotype on other areas.
came with a different idea which totally changed Method
the idea in the gender identity scale. According
to Constantinople, the masculinity and femininity Item generation
are not different entities, but co-exist. Her Generating items to measure gender
concept of uni-dimensionality in gender identity stereotype is a little complex process, as it is
carried a crucial role to rethink about the existing spread out to various different aspects. For
gender construct. In the 1970s, the concept generating meaningful items, focus group
of androgyny has emerged in masculinity discussions were conducted with 95 students
and femininity. Bem (1974) constructed a from various disciplines. As per the discussion,
scale (BSRI) to identify sex role based on 120 items were identified with the same
the psychological androgyny. Spence and procedure used by Spence et al (1975). Further,
Hlmreich (1972) constructed a scale to measure the existing literature and tools that focuses on
attitude towards women which is followed by various factors related to gender stereotype were
the concept of androgyny. Bem and Spence also used to generate items. A total of 192 items
perceive masculinity and femininity as two were generated through the above processes.
orthogonal constructs. Some other subsequent The linguistic content of the constructed items
scales were, The structure of male role norms were checked by language experts. Later, the
(Thompson & Pleck, 1986), Attitude towards sex items were arranged in simple to complex form
roles: traditional or egalitarian (Larsen & Long with a five point rating scale ranging from 1 to
Gender Stereotype Scale 49

5 (very relevant to not at all relevant) given to Result and Discussion

10 psychology faculties and 10 social activists Exploratory Factor Analysis
to verify whether the constructed items really
measure gender stereotype. Majority of the Exploratory factor analysis is one of
panel (15) were satisfied with 87% of items. Few the best methods to understand the underlying
items were removed based on their opinion, and factors and its underlying structure. As, there
the items were reduced to pool of 167 items. were very less studies and established theories
in gender stereotype, the researcher decided
Participants and procedure to go for exploratory factor analysis to find the
At various phases 945 individuals dimensionality of proposed scale. For factor
between the age range of 17 and 30 were used analysis 450 data were collected: out of it 434
for this study. The samples belonged to under complete data were used for further analysis.
graduation and post-graduation studies. The Before factor extraction, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
sample comprise of students who differ based on (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy test and
religious background (Hindu, Christian, Muslim, Bartlett’s test of Sphericity were used to assess
atheist & no religion), area of living (Rural, Semi- whether the collected data is adequate enough
Urban & Urban), gender (Male & Female) and to do the factor analysis (Chen, Zhao & Huang
stream of study (Science, Arts & Commerce). A 2019).
questionnaire survey was conducted to collect Table 1 EFA result for Gender Stereotype Scale
the data from the respondents. The gender
stereotype scale (GSS) were given to the Items Factors
participants after the clear instruction. A five 1 2 3 4
point Likert- type scale was used to measure the GS128 .759
response, ranging from 1 to 5 indicate strongly
disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly GS129 .747
agree respectively. The responses were entered GS127 .736
into the excel spreadsheet for further analysis. GS122 .680
Before analysis, the data cleaning process
GS123 .622
was done to assure that the data is apt for the
further analysis. IBM SPSS statistics version GS117 .579
24 was used for the analysis. Exploratory factor GS120 .569
analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, reliability GS124 .555
test, composite reliability and concurrent validity
GS67 .675
were tested.
GS32 .611
Content validity
GS66 .598
The final draft of 167 gender stereotype
GS30 .536
items was circulated to 17 experts to verify
whether the constructed items really related GS41 .536
to gender stereotype or not. Experts from the GS90 .517
faculty of psychology (who works in social GS26 .484
psychology), faculty of women studies, faculty
GS72 .482
of gender studies, social activists (who work in
gender and its related area) and researchers GS55 .461
(who work in gender stereotype) judged the GS94 .432
items. After evaluating the expert’s opinion,
items which are slightly overlapping and the GS25 .421
items having a tendency to misunderstand were GS60 .403
eliminated. Finally, after all the above process, GS59 .512
the number of items was reduced to133 gender
GS74 .506
stereotype items.
50 Arjun Sekhar PM & J Parameswari

GS107 .489 was used to assess the goodness of fit. The

smaller chi-square value shows a better model
GS58 .486
fit. Goodness of fit index (GFI), root mean
GS48 .482 square error of approximation (RMSEA), root
GS6 .456 mean square residual (RMR) and standardized
GS52 .442 root mean square residual (SRMR) shows the
absolute fit measures. The possible range of
GS5 .441 goodness of fit index (GFI) value is from 0.0 to
GS57 .436 1.0. The higher value (>0.90) indicates a better
GS50 .433 fit. The root mean square error of approximation
GS11 .403
(RMSEA) indicates how well a model fits a
population. The low RMSEA (<0.08) value shows
GS100 .658 a better fit (Hair, Black, Anderson & Tatham,
GS101 .647 2014). Root mean square residual (RMR) is
GS97 .628 an average of the residuals. Standardized root
mean square residual (SRMR) is a substitute
GS104 .616
statistics of root mean square residual (RMR).
GS81 .482 SRMR is more preferred than RMR because
GS16 .440 it is easier to interpret. The possible range of
SRMR value is from 0.0 to 1.0. The SRMR
The KMO value (0.90) shows that the data
value close to zero indicates a better fit and 0
were adequate enough to use for factor analysis
is the perfect model fit (Hair, Black, Anderson &
(Kaiser 1974). Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity value
Tatham, 2014).
(0.00, p<0.05) shows the data is suitable to do
further analysis (Balakrishnan & Griffiths 2018). Comparative fit index (CFI) is one of the
Principal component analysis was used with popular and best indexes in incremental fit
Varimax rotation to identify the dimensionality indices. The possible value of CFI is from 0.0
of gender stereotype scale. In the initial phase, to 1.0. The CFI value closer to 1.0 shows a
the items with a factor loading below 0.4 and good model fit. The CFI value greater than
cross loading above 0.5 were removed. The 0.90 considered as good model fit (Hair, Black,
numbers of factors were determined based on Anderson & Tatham, 2014). Tucker-Lewis index
eigenvalue and scree plot (Cattle 1966). In the (TLI) is another index in incremental fit indices.
first level of EFA (KMO= 0.81; Bartlett’s test of The TLI shows the effect of model complexity,
Sphericity= 24108.386; df= 8778; p<0.001) 52 as does RMSEA. The possible range of TLI is
items were identified with a factor loading of from 0.0 to 1.0. Sometimes the TLI index value
0.3 and above. In the next round of EFA using may go beyond this range. The value of TLI close
the same method (KMO=0.901; Bartlett’s test to 1 indicates a better model fit (Brown 2014).
of Sphericity= 8089.888; df= 1378; p<0.001), Adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) is a wildly
9 items were dropped because the items were used index in parsimony indices.
loaded lower than .40. Thus, four factors were The GFI value falls from 0.0 to 1.0. The
identified with 43 items (table 1). The factors are GFI value closer to 1.0 show a better model fit
named as trans-phobia, masculinity, patriarchy (Hinkin, Tracey & Enz, 1997). The normalized
and femininity based on the commonality of fit index (NFI) analyzes the chi-square of
items. the hypothesized model and null model. The
Confirmatory Factor Analysis possible range of NFI is from 0.0 to 1.0. The NFI
value close to 1.0 indicates a better fit (Hinkin,
Confirmatory factor analysis is a type of Tracey & Enz, 1997). Relative fit index (RFI) is
structural equation analysis (Hinkin, Tracey, another index in incremental fit indices. The RFI
and Enz 1997). Confirmatory factor analysis value close to 1.0 shows a better fit. Moreover,
was used to analyze the goodness of fit for the local fit of the model was checked using
the proposed model. The chi-square statistics average variance extracted (AVE) >0.50 and
Gender Stereotype Scale 51

composite reliability (CR) >0.60 (Tran & Keng Confirmatory factor analysis is used to
2018). Table 2 indicates the factor loading in confirm the model which is discovered after
CFA, composite reliability (CR). exploratory factor analysis. CMIN, DF, CMIN/
Table 2. CFA result for Gender Stereotype Scale DF (chi-square/degree of freedom), root
mean square (RMR), goodness of fit index
Factors Factor loading CR (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI),
Trans-phobia 0.73
normed fit index (NFI), relative fit index (RFI),
incremental fit index (IFI), Tucker-Lewis index
GSS-128 0.73 (TLI), Comparative fit index (CFI), Root mean
GSS-126 0.60 square error of approximation (RMSEA) and
Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR)
GSS-131 0.66 were used as model fit indices.
GSS-124 0.50 Table 3. Model fit indices for first and second
order.
GSS-116 0.45
Model fit indices Second
Masculinity 0.71 First order
order
GSS-67 0.52 CMIN 403.94 421.55
GSS-32 0.56 DF 224 226
GSS-30 0.50 CMIN/DF 1.803 1.86
RMR 0.06 0.06
GSS-41 0.55
GFI 0.92 0.92
GSS-26 0.52
AGFI 0.90 0.90
GSS-55 0.54
NFI 0.82 0.81
Patriarchy 0.70 RFI 0.80 0.79
GSS-11 0.48 IFI 0.91 0.90
GSS-57 0.45 TLI 0.90 0.89
CFI 0.91 0.90
GSS-52 0.52
RMSEA 0.04 0.04
GSS-48 0.46
SRMR 0.05 0.05
GSS-74 0.50
The model fit indices values in the first order
GSS-59 0.56 are: CMIN= 403.94, DF= 224, CMIN/DF= 1.80,
RMR= 0.06, GFI= 0.92, AGFI= 0.90, NFI= 0.82,
GSS-49 0.54
RFI= 0.80, IFI= 0.91, TLI= 0.90, CFI= 0.91,
Femininity 0.75 RMSEA= 0.04 and SRMR= 0.05. The model fit
GSS-81 0.56
indices values in the second order are: CMIN=
421.55, DF= 226, CMIN/DF= 1.86, RMR= 0.06,
GSS-104 0.57 GFI= 0.92, AGFI= 0.90, NFI= 0.81, RFI= 0.79,
GSS-97 0.63 IFI= 0.90, TLI= 0.89, CFI= 0.90, RMSEA= 0.04
and SRMR= 0.05.
GSS-101 0.64
Wheaton, Muthen, Alwin, & Summers (1977)
GSS-100 0.68 suggested that the value of CMIN/DF less than
5.0 is acceptable for model fit. Hence, the CMIN/
Note. CR= Composite Reliability. The four DF value for first and second order is acceptable.
dimensions of gender stereotype scale are trans- According to Brown (2006) the RMSEA value
phobia, masculinity, patriarchy and femininity. less than 0.08 is consider as the criteria. The
52 Arjun Sekhar PM & J Parameswari

Table 4. Factors and corresponding items

Factor Items
Trans Phobia 4 8 12 16 20
Masculinity 3 7 11 15 19 22
Patriarchy 2 6 10 14 18 21 23
Femininity 1 5 9 13 17

Note. The number of item representing in each dimension.

value for normed fit index (NFI), incremental scale is found to be reliable.
fit index (IFI), Comparative fit index (CFI), Table 5. Reliability statistics
goodness of fit index (GFI), and for adjusted
goodness of fit index (AGFI), the value above Type of reliability Chronbach alpha (α)
0.90 is considered as a good fit (Hair et al., 1998: Internal consistency 0.85
Tran & Keng 2018). Tucker-Lewis index (TLI)
value for a good fit is >0.90 (Widaman 1985). Split half method 0.76
Table 3 indicates the model fit indices for first
and second order. The result indicates that the Note. Internal consistency and Split half
proposed model shows a good model fit. Thus, method indicates the reliability of the scale.
The value more than 0.70 consider as a good
the model is confirmed. The derived factors and
reliability.
the items corresponding to each factors is given
in table 4. Table 6. Construct Correlations (Pearson
Reliability and Validity Correlation Coefficient)

Internal consistency (Cronbach alpha) is Femininity Patriarchy Masculinity

one of the widely used methods to establish Trans- 0.37* 0.32* 0.36*
reliability. After factor analysis, the final 23 items phobia
of GSS scale were computed to find the internal
Masculinity 0.30* 0.50*
consistency. The internal consistency (α) for the
23 items of GSS scale was found to be 0.85 Patriarchy 0.56*
(Table-5). According to Nunnally, alpha reliability
value above 0.70 is considered as adequate *p <0.05
reliability (Yang & Green, 2011). Further, split
half reliability method was also used to test The face validity and content validity of the
reliability. To test the split half reliability, the scale were established in the initial stage of GSS
GSS items were divided in to two groups (odd construction. The further analysis was done after
numbered items and even numbered items) and evaluating the face validity and content validity
the items were given to the participants. The of GSS. Further, the concurrent validity was
internal consistency reliability was calculated by assessed. Gender Stereotype Scale developed
computing split-half reliability using Spearman- by Noorjahan & Shahataj (2003) was used to
Brown formula. The split half value is 0.76 establish the concurrent validity of GSS. The
(Table-5). The inter construct correlation shows correlation value of these two scales was found
significant (<0.05, table-6). The composite to be 0.40 (Table-7). According to Anastasi
reliability (CR) score of GSS constructs lies (2007) the correlation value of 0.40 is considered
from 0.70 to 0.75 (Table-2), which indicates an as a high correlation between two scales.
adequate reliability (Chen, Zhao & Huang 2019). ll the 23 items in the GSS are positive
The total composite reliability (CR) of GSS scale statements. The responses ranges from 1 to 5,
is 0.91. The above values indicate that the GSS indicating strongly disagree, disagree, neutral,
has sufficient internal consistency. Thus the GSS agree and strongly agree respectively. The
Gender Stereotype Scale 53

minimum score one could obtain GSS is 23 Brown, T. A. (2014). Confirmatory factor analysis for
and the maximum score is 115. The low score applied research. New York: Guilford Publications.
in GSS indicates a less gender stereotype and B ussey, K ., & B andura, A . (1999). S oci al
an egalitarian attitude towards gender. The high cognitive theory of gender development and
score of GSS indicates a high gender stereotype differentiation. Psychological review, 106(4), 676-
and a conservative attitude towards gender. 713. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676
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of factors. Multivariate behavioral research, 1(2),
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a n d Va l i d a t i o n .   J o u r n a l o f Tr a v e l
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Arjun Sekhar PM, Research Scholar, Periyar University, Salem, Tamilnadu, India.
arjunsekhar001@gmail.com
Dr. J Parameswari, Assistant Professor, Periyar University, Salem, Tamilnadu, India
paramj25@gmail.com

Appendix 1
SI.
Disagree

Disagree
Strongly

Strongly
Neutral

NO
Agree

Agree

ITEMS

1 Women should not spend money without husband’s approval.

2 Virginity is more important for a woman than for a man.
4 Men have more socialization skills.
4 Transgenders have no emotional maturity.
 Gender Stereotype Scale 55

5 It is not fair for a woman to spend money for her parents

without getting permission from her husband.
6 Husbands have the rights to often force wives to have sex
with them even if they are not interested.
7 Men are better at making financial decisions.
8 Transgenders have AIDS and other sexually transmitted
diseases.
9 Women should not laugh louder.
10 A young girl should not be given much freedom as boys enjoy.

11 Boys need sports activities for their physical and psychological

development more than girls.
12 There are only two group of gender- male and female.

13 It is wrong for a woman to go out after midnight.

14 Long hair for women and short hair for men are the appropriate
hair style.

15 Women are not capable of taking risks as men are.

16 A transgender woman can’t rear a child like a mother.
17 A women should not attempt to take up all kinds of typically
male tasks
18 Women should cook and do house work.
19 Men are mentally stronger than women
20 Transgenders cannot lead a normal life.

21 Women are responsible for raising children.

22 Men are ready to take any risks.
23 Husbands should be more educated than their wives.

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