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Published by Express Publishing

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Copyright page

List of licensed IB material used:

1 . DP Computer Science Guide ( first exams 2014):

TOPIC 1- SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS,1.1 SYSTEMS IN ORGANIZATIONS, Planning and system
installation,1.1.1 The context for which a new system is planned,1.1.2 The need for
change management,1.1.3 Compatibility issues resulting from situations including
legacy systems or business mergers,1.1.4 Different systems implementation,1.1.5
Alternative installation processes,1.1.6 Problems that may arise as a part of data
migration,1.1.7 Various types of testing, User focus,1.1.8 Importance of user
documentation,1.1.9 Different methods of providing user documentation,1.1.10
Different methods of delivering user training System backup,1.1.11 Causes of data
loss.,1.1.12 Consequences of data loss in a specified situation,1.1.13 Range of
methods that can be used to prevent data loss Software deployment,1.1.14 Strategies
for managing releases and updates,1.2 SYSTEM DESIGN BASICS, Components of a
computer system,1.2.1 Hardware, software, peripheral, network, human
resources,1.2.1 The roles that a computer can take in a networked world,1.2.3
Social and ethical issues associated with a networked world System design and
analysis,1.2.4 Relevant stakeholders when planning a new system,1.2.5 Methods of
obtaining requirements from stakeholders.,1.2.6 Appropriate techniques for
gathering the information needed to arrive at a workable solution,1.2.7 Suitable
representations to illustrate system requirements,1.2.8 Purpose of prototypes to
demonstrate the proposed system to the client,1.2.9 Importance of iteration during
-
the design process,1.2.10 Possible consequences of failing to involve the end user
in the design process.,1.2.11 Social and ethical issues associated with the
introduction of new IT systems Human interaction with the system,1.2.12
Usability,1.2.13 Usability problems with commonly used digital devices,1.2.14
Methods that can be used to improve the accessibility of systems,1.2.15 Range of
usability problems that can occur in a system,1.2.16 Moral, ethical, social,
economic and environmental implications of the interaction between humans and
machines, TOPIC 2 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION,2.1 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION - COMPUTER
ARCHITECTURE,2.1.1 The central processing unit (CPU) and its elements,2.1.2 RAM and
ROM,2.1.3 The cache memory,2.1.4 The machine instruction cycle, SECONDARY
MEMORY,2.1.5 Persistent storage and secondary memory OPERATING AND APPLICATION
SYSTEMS,2.1.6 Functions of an operating system,2.1.7 Software application,2.1.8
Common features of applications, BINARY REPRESENTATION,2.1.9 Bit, byte, binary,
decimal and hexadecimal,2.1.10 Data representation, SIMPLE LOGIC GATES,2.1.11
Boolean operators,2.1.12 Truth tables using Boolean 0perators,2.1.14 Logic diagrams
using logic gates, TOPIC 3. NETWORKS,NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS,3.1.1 Different types of
networks,3.1.2 Importance of standards in the construction of networks,3.1.3
Networks, communication and layers,3.1.4 Technologies required to provide a
VPN,3.1.5 Use of a VPN,DATA TRANSMISSION,3.1.6 Protocol and data packet,3.1.7
Necessity of protocols,3.1.8 Speed of data transmission across a network.,3.1.9
Compression of data,3.1.10 Characteristics of different transmission media,3.1.11
Packet switching, WIRELESS NETWORKING,3.1.13 Advantages and disadvantages of
wireless networks,3.1.14 Hardware and software components of a wireless
network,3.1.15 Characteristics of wireless networks.,3.1.16 Different methods of
network security,3.1.17 Advantages and disadvantages of each method of network
security, TOPIC 4. COMPUTATIONAL THINKING,4.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES, Thinking
procedurally,4.1.1 Procedure appropriate to solving a problem,4.1.2 Order of
-
activities and required outcome,4.1.3 The role of sub procedures in solving a
problem Thinking logically,4.1.4 Decision - making in a specified situation,4.1.5
Decisions required for the solution to a specified problem,4.1.6 Iteration
associated with a given decision in a specified problem,4.1.7 Decisions and
conditional statements,4.1.8 Logical rules for real world, Thinking ahead,4.1.9
-
Inputs and outputs required in a solution,4.1.10 Pre- planning in a suggested
- -
problem and solution,4.1.11 Need for pre conditions,4.1.12 Pre and post-
conditions,4.1.13 Exceptions that need to be considered Thinking
concurrently,4.1.14 Parts of a solution that could be implemented
concurrently,4.1.15 Concurrent processing and problem solution,4.1.16 Decision to
use concurrent processing in solving a problem Thinking abstractly,4.1.17 Examples
of abstraction,4.1.18 Abstraction and computational solutions for a specified
 .
situation,4 . 1 19 Abstraction from a specified situation,4 . 1 20 Real - world and .
abstraction
^.
2 CONNECTING COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND PROGRAM DESIGN, 4.2 1
Searching, sorting and other algorithms on arrays,4.2 2 Standard operations of .
.
.
collections,4.2 3 Algorithm t o solve a specific problem, 4 . 2 4 Analyse an algorithm .
.
presented as a flow chart,4.2 5 Analyse an algorithm presented as pseudocode,4.2 6 .
Construct pseudocode t o represent an algorithm,4 . 2 7 Suggest suitable algorithms t o .
.
solve a specific problem,4.2 8 Deduce the efficiency o f an algorithm i n the context
.
of i t s use, 4.2 9 Determine number o f iterations f o r given input data,4.3
INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING, Nature of programming languages,4.3 1 State the .
fundamental operations o f a computer, 4.3 2 Distinguish between fundamental and .
compound operations of a computer,4.3 3 Explain the essential features of a .
.
computer language,4.3 4 Explain the need f o r higher l e v e l languages, 4.3 5 Outline .
the need f o r a translation process from a higher level language t o machine
executable code Use of programming languages,4.3 6 Variable, constant, operator, .
.
object, 4.3 7 Define various operators,4.3 8 Analyse the use of variables, constants .
.
and operators i n algorithms,4 . 3 9 Develop algorithms using loops, branching,4.3 10 .
Describe the characteristics and applications of a collection, 4.3 11 Develop .
algorithms using the access methods of a c o l l e c t i o n,4 . 3 12 Discuss the importance .
of sub - programmes and collections within programmed solutions ,4.3 13 Construct . .
algorithms using pre - defined sub - programmes, one - dimensional arrays and / or
collections, TOPIC 5 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING,D 1 OBJECTS AS A PROGRAMMING .
.
CONCEPT,D 1 . 1 The general nature o f an object,D 1 . 2 Distinguishing between object .
. .
and instantiation,D 1 . 3 & D 1.4 UML diagrams, D . 1.5 Process of decomposition,D 1.6 .
Relationships between objects, D 1 . 7 Need t o reduce dependencies between .
.
objects,D 1 . 8 Constructing related objects,D 1 . 9 Data types,D 1.10 Data items . .
.
passed as parameters, D 2 FEATURES OF OOP,D 2 . 1 Encapsulation, D 2.2 . .
.
Inheritance,D 2.3 Polymorphism,D 2.4 Advantages of encapsulation .
.
2.5 Advantages
of inheritance,D 2.6 Advantages o f polymorphism,D 2.7 Advantages of l i b r a r i e s,D 2.8 . ^. .
.
Disadvantages of OOP,D 2.9 Use of programming teams,D . 2.10 Advantages o f modularity
i n program development
. ^.
3 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT,D 3 . 1 Class, i d e n t i f i e r and
variables,D 3.2 Method, accessor , mutator, constructor, signature and r e t u r n
.
.
value,D 3.3 Private, protected, public, extends and s t a t i c,D 3.4 Uses of the .
primitive data types and the s t r i n g class, D 3.5 Code examples for D 3 . 1 - . .
. .
D 3.4,D 3.6 Code example f o r selection statements,D 3.7 Code examples f o r .
.
repetition statements,D 3.8 Code examples o f arrays, D 3.9 Features of programming .
languages that enable internationalization,D 3.10 Ethical and moral obligations of .
programmers
2. DP Computer Science guide ( first exams 2004) pages 100- 102:
.
static void output ( S t r i n g i n f o ) , { System out p r i n t l n ( i n f o ) ;, }, static void .
. .
output ( char info), { System out p r i n t l n ( i n f o );, }, static void output ( byte i n f o ), {
.
System out . p r i n t l n ( i n f o ) ;, }, s t a t i c void output ( i n t info ) {
. .
System out p r i n t l n ( i n f o ) ; }, s t a t i c void output ( long
. .
info ) , { System out p r i n t l n ( i n f o ) ;, }, static void output ( double
. .
i n f o ), { System out p r i n t l n ( i n f o ) ;, }, static void output ( boolean info ) , {
. .
System out println ( i n f o ) ;, }, s t a t i c String input ( String prompt ) , { String inputLine
H ii
. .
;, System out p r i n t ( prompt );,t r y, { inputLine = ( new java i o BufferedReader ( new . .
. . . .
java i o InputStreamReader ( System i n ) ) ) readLine ( ) ; }, catch ( Exception e ), { String
. . .
err = e toString ( ) ;,System out p r i n t l n ( err );,inputLine = IV II;, },return
inputLine;, }, static S t r i n g inputString ( String prompt ) { r e t u r n input ( prompt ) ;
}, static String input ( ) , { return input ( " ) ;, }, s t a t i c i n t inputlnt ( ), { r e t u r n
H

inputlnt ( " " ) ; }, s t a t i c double inputDouble ( ) , { return inputDouble ( " " ); }, static
char inputChar ( S t r i n g prompt ), { char
.
result = ( char ) 0;,t r y { result =input ( prompt ) charAt ( 0 ); }, catch ( Exception e ) { result =
( char ) 0; },return r e s u l t;, }, s t a t i c byte inputByte ( String prompt ), { byte
.
result =0;,t r y { result =Byte valueOf ( input ( prompt ) , t r i m ( ) ) byteValue ( ) ; }, catch .
( Exception e ) { result = 0; },r e t u r n result;, }, s t a t i c i n t inputlnt ( String prompt ) , {
.
i n t result = 0;,t r y { result =Integer valueOf (,input ( prompt ) t r i m ( ) ) intValue ( ) ; }, catch . .
( Exception e ) { r e s u l t = 0; },r e t u r n result;, },s t a t i c long inputLong ( String prompt ), {
.
long result = 0;,t r y { result = Long valueOf ( input ( prompt ) t r i m ( ) ) longValue ( ) ; }, catch . .
( Exception e ) { result = 0; },r e t u r n result;, }, static double inputDouble ( String
prompt ) { double result = 0; t r y { result =Double valueOf ( .
. .
input ( prompt ) trim ( ) ) doubleValue ( ) ; }, catch ( Exception e ) { result = 0; }, r e t u r n
result;, }, static boolean inputBoolean ( String prompt ) { boolean result = f a l s e;
. .
t r y { result =Boolean valueOf ( input ( prompt ) t r i m( ) ) booleanValue ( ); },catch ( Exception .
e ) { result = false; },return result;, }
KOSTAS DIMITRIOU Phd & MARKOS HATZITASKOS MSC

CORE COMPUTER
SCIENCE
For the IB Diploma
Program
(International
Baccalaureate)

Express Publishing
Kostas' Dimitriou Dedication

Dedicated to my father who taught me the valu* of human dignify and to m mother
,

^
who taught me the valu* of truth .
,

Markos' Hatzitaskos Dedication

Dedicated to my grandmother 8 ( issavet, m mother 8 { eni -\

t aria and mÿ brother
^
Kostis, who have always been there for me .
Preface

Kostas Dimitriou holds a PhD in Spatial Decision Support Systems and Environmental
Planning, and has taught computer science courses in various undergraduate and
postgraduate University courses. He has participated in many scientific conferences and
workshops, twenty research projects, and presented sixty scientific articles. He teaches the
IB computer science course in the Hellenic American Educational Foundation since 2002. He
is a Microsoft Certified Educator, Microsoft Expert Educator and Microsoft Expert Education
Trainer, { kdimitriou @ haef .gr }

Markos Hatzitaskos holds an MSc in Advanced Computing and has taught computer science
courses throughout all school levels ( from primary to high school and the I.B.). He currently
teaches in the Hellenic American Educational Foundation since 2011. In his free time,
whenever that might be, he develops mobile applications and attends the Athens School of
Fine Arts as an undergraduate, { markosh @ haef.gr }

The authors would like to thank the Board of Directors and the Administration of the
Hellenic American Educational Foundation ( HAEF ) for providing an ideal working
environment. Thanks are also due to Alkis Dialismas who checked our documents for
improper citation or potential plagiarism using Turnitin, and Kostas Ziogas who gave us some
valuable advice. Both authors would like to express their gratitude to the employees of
Express Publishing and especially to our friend Tzeni Vlachou .
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of John Woodcock, former HAEF IB
coordinator, and Sophia Arditzoglou, current HAEF IB coordinator, over the years. A lot of
Computer Science students contributed with valuable ideas, comments and suggestions on
early drafts. The computer science class of 2014 encouraged us to start this book.

The purpose of this document is to facilitate learning and help our colleagues and CS
students around the world. This book is based on the IB computer science syllabus and
follows the IB computer science syllabus. The authors did their very best to cite all resources
used. If you find a source that is not properly cited please report it to authors. This book was
inspired by the book : Jones, R & A . Meyenn. ( 2004 ). Computer science Java Enabled.
1

International Baccalaureate. Series, IBID press, Victoria .

Jones, R & Meyenn, A. ( 2004) Computer science Java enabled. International Baccalaureate. Series,
.
1

IBID press, Victoria.

The following IBO documents were used during the development of this book:

1. International Baccalaureate Organization . ( 2004). IBDP Computer Science Guide.

2. International Baccalaureate Organization . ( 2012 ) . IBDP Computer Science Guide.
3. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ) . IBDP Approved notations for
developing pseudocode.
4. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Java Examination Tool
Subset.
5. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ). IBDP Pseudocode in examinations.

l
Table of contents
TOPIC 1- SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS i

SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE 1

1.1SYSTEMS IN ORGANIZATIONS 3
Planning and system installation 3
1.1.1 The context for which a new system is planned 3
4
1.1.2 The need for change management
1.1.3 Compatibility issues resulting from situations including legacy systems or business mergers 5
6
1.1. 4 Different systems implementation
.
1.1 5 Alternative installation processes 7

.
1.1 6 Problems that may arise as a part of data migration 10
1.1.7 Various types of testing 11

User focus 13
13
1.1.8 Importance of user documentation
1.1. 9 Different methods of providing user documentation 14
16
1.1.10 Different methods of delivering user training
System backup 18
1.1.11 Causes of data loss 18

.
1.1 12 Consequences of data loss in a specified situation 19

1.1.13 Range of methods that can be used to prevent data loss 19

21
Software deployment
1.1.14 Strategies for managing releases and updates 21

1.2 SYSTEM DESIGN BASICS 23

Components of a computer system 23

.
1.2 1Hardware, software, peripheral, network, human resources 23

1.2.1 The roles that a computer can take in a networked world 24

25
1.2. 3 Social and ethical issues associated with a networked world
System design and analysis 29
29
1.2.4 Relevant stakeholders when planning a new system
30
1.2 . 5 Methods of obtaining requirements from stakeholders
1.2.6 Appropriate techniques for gathering the information needed to arrive at a workable solution .
.. 32

1.2.7 Suitable representations to illustrate system requirements 34

1.2.8 Purpose of prototypes to demonstrate the proposed system to the client 39

40
1.2.9 Importance of iteration during the design process
1.2 .10 Possible consequences of failing to involve the end- user in the design process 41

1.2.11 Social and ethical issues associated with the introduction of new IT systems 41

Human interaction with the system 43

1.2.12 Usability 43
44
1.2.13 Usability problems with commonly used digital devices
1.2.14 Methods that can be used to improve the accessibility of systems 46
49
1.2.15 Range of usability problems that can occur in a system
1.2.16 Moral, ethical, social, economic and environmental implications of the interaction between
53
humans and machines
CHAPTER REFERENCES 58

TOPIC 2 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION 61

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 61
2.1 .1 The central processing unit (CPU ) and its elements 61

2.1.2 RAM and ROM 65

 2.1.3 The cache memory 66
2.1.4 The machine instruction cycle 68
SECONDARY MEMORY 69
2.1.5 Persistent storage and secondary memory ... 69
OPERATING AND APPLICATION SYSTEMS 74
2.1.6 Functions of an operating system 74
2.1.7 Software application 77
2.1.8 Common features of applications 83
COMPUTER ORGANIZATION - BINARY REPRESENTATION 86
2.1 .9 Bit, byte, binary, decimal and hexadecimal .. 86
2.1 .10 Data representation 96
SIMPLE LOGIC GATES 102
2.1.11 Boolean operators 102
2.1.12 Truth tables using Boolean Operators 109
2.1.13 Simplification and Boolean expressions 116
2.1.14 Logic and Venn diagrams using logic gates 119
CHAPTER REFERENCES 123

.
TOPIC 3 NETWORKS 124
INTRODUCTION AND SOME DEFINITIONS 124
NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS 126
3.1 .1 Different types of networks 126
3.1 .2 Importance of standards in the construction of networks 140
3.1.3 Networks, communication and layers 141
3.1 .4 Technologies required to provide a VPN 145
3.1.5 Use of a VPN 148
DATA TRANSMISSION 150
3.1 .6 Protocol and data packet 150
3.1.7 Necessity of protocols 150
3.1.8 Speed of data transmission across a network 151
3.1 .9 Compression of data 152
3.1.10 Characteristics of different transmission media 153
3.1.11 Packet switching 154
3.1 .12 Network topologies 155
WIRELESS NETWORKING 156
3.1.13 Advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks 156
3.1.14 Hardware and software components of a wireless network 158
3.1.15 Characteristics of wireless networks 161
3.1 .16 Different methods of network security 165
3.1 .17 Advantages and disadvantages of each method of network security 168
CHAPTER REFERENCES 171
TOPIC 4. COMPUTATIONAL THINKING 174

TOOLS USED 174

THE CONCEPT OF A PROBLEM 174
ALGORITHM 177
FLOWCHARTS 179
PSEUDOCODE 180
AN ALGORITHM AND ITS EXPRESSIONS 180
THE PROGRAMMING CONCEPT 182

.
 183
4.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Thinking procedurally
183
183
4.1.1 Procedure appropriate to solving a problem
183
4.1.2 Order of activities and required outcome
184
4.1.3 The role of sub-procedures in solving a problem
Thinking logically 185
185
4.1.4 Decision -making in a specified situation
185
4.1.5 Decisions required for the solution to a specified problem
186
4.1.6 Iteration associated with a given decision in a specified problem
188
4.1.7 Decisions and conditional statements
190
4.1.8 Logical rules for real - world
Thinking ahead
190
190
4.1.9 Inputs and outputs required in a solution
191
4.1.10 Pre -planning in a suggested problem and solution
192
4.1.11 Need for pre - conditions
193
4.1.12 Pre - and post - conditions
193
4.1.13 Exceptions that need to be considered
Thinking concurrently
195
195
4.1.14 Parts of a solution that could be implemented concurrently
195
4.1.15 Concurrent processing and problem solution
196
4.1.16 Decision to use concurrent processing in solving a problem
Thinking abstractly
196
196
4.1.17 Examples of abstraction
197
4.1.18 Abstraction and computational solutions for a specified situation
199
4.1.19 Abstraction from a specified situation
200
-
4.1. 20 Real world and abstraction
201
4.2 CONNECTING COMPUTATIONAL THINKING AND PROGRAM DESIGN
201
4.2.1 Searching, sorting and other algorithms on arrays
218
4.2.2 Standard operations of collections
219
4.2.3 Algorithm to solve a specific problem
220
4.2.4 Analyse an algorithm presented as a flow chart
223
4.2 . 5 Analyse an algorithm presented as pseudocode
226
4.2.6 Construct pseudocode to represent an algorithm
231
4.2.7 Suggest suitable algorithms to solve a specific problem
232
4.2 . 8 Deduce the efficiency of an algorithm in the context of its use
238
4.2.9 Determine number of iterations for given input data
241
4.3 INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
241
Nature of programming languages
241
4.3.1State the fundamental operations of a computer
241
4.3.2 Distinguish between fundamental and compound operations of a computer
242
4.3. 3 Explain the essential features of a computer language
243
4.3. 4 Explain the need for higher level languages
-
4.3 . 5 Outline the need for a translation process from a higher -level language to machine
executable
244
code
244
Use of programming languages
245
4.3.6 Variable, constant, operator, object
245
4.3.7 Define various operators
248
4.3 . 8 Analyse the use of variables, constants and operators in algorithms
251
4.3.9 Develop algorithms using loops, branching
256
4.3.10 Describe the characteristics and applications of a collection
256
4.3.11 Develop algorithms using the access methods of a collection
258
4.3 .12 Discuss the importance of sub -programmes and collections within programmed solutions
and/or
4.3.13 Construct algorithms using pre -defined sub - programmes, one -dimensional arrays
263
collections
 CHAPTER REFERENCES 290

TOPIC 5 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING 291

D .l OBJECTS AS A PROGRAMMING CONCEPT 291

D.l.l The general nature of an object 291
D.l. 2 Distinguishing between object and instantiation 292
D.l.3 & D.1.4 UML diagrams 294
D.l. 5 Process of decomposition 300
D.1.6 Relationships between objects 302
D.1.7 Need to reduce dependencies between objects 305
D.1.8 Constructing related object : 307
D.1.9 Data types 309
D.l.10 Data items passed as parameters 310
D. 2 FEATURES OF OOP 312
D. 2.1 Encapsulation 312
D. 2.2 Inheritance 312
D. 2.3 Polymorphism 313
D. 2.4 Advantages of encapsulation 314
D.2.5 Advantages of inheritance 315
D.2.6 Advantages of polymorphism 316
D.2.7 Advantages of libraries 316
D . 2.8 Disadvantages of OOP 317
D . 2.9 Use of programming teams 317
D.2.10 Advantages of modularity in program development 318
D.3 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT 319
D.3.1 Class, identifier and variables 319
D. 3.2 Method, accessor, mutator, constructor, signature and return value , 320
D . 3.3 Private, protected, public, extends and static 321
D . 3.4 Uses of the primitive data types and the string class 322
D.3.5 Code examples for D. 3.1 - D.3.4 326
D. 3.6 Code example for selection statements 330
D.3.7 Code examples for repetition statements 333
D . 3.8 Code examples of arrays 339
D.3.9 Features of programming languages that enable internationalization 345
D.3.10 Ethical and moral obligations of programmers 346
CHAPTER REFERENCES 347

APPENDIX A - INPUT / OUTPUT CLASS 348

APPENDIX A REFERENCES 351

APPENDIX B - BOOKSTORE PROGRAM 352

APPENDIX B REFERENCES 375

APPENDIX C - TEAM BUILDER SYSTEM 376

APPENDIX C REFERENCES 381

INDEX OF TERMS 382

 Chapter 1

TOPIC 1- SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS

r

Topic 1- system fundamentals 1

System life cycle

System life cycle refers to the stages through which the development of a new system passes
through. Figure 1.1 presents a system life cycle specifically for software, whereas Figure 1.2
presents a more general system life cycle. Although most systems begin with the analysis
stage and continue with the design, implementation, operation and maintenance,
2
sometimes it might be necessary to backtrack and return to an earlier stage .

Existing system
analysis

Maintenance
i
Requirements
specification

»
New system
Software design
installation

Testing & Software

debugging implementation

Figure 1.1: Software life cycle

1
International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Computer Science Guide.
2
Internationa ! Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2004). IBDP Computer Science Guide.
Although the software and system life cycles are not directly presented in the new IB
Computer Science curriculum, they are briefly mentioned in the first section of this chapter
so as to inspire some fruitful discussions between teachers and students .

Analysis

Maintenance Design

Operation Implementation
r

Figure 1.2: System life cycle

Planning and analysis

A A h.

Evaluation Design overview

V <5 WJ
A

Development

Figure 1.3: Some stages of the Software life cycle

1
The first Topic of the new computer science guide and the section of the new computer
1
science guide that explain the internal assessment requirements directly refer only to four
phases of the software life cycle as depicted to Figure 1.3.
1.1 Systems in organizations
Planning and system installation

1.1.1 The context for which a new system is planned

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Investigate and outline the framework of a new system.

Describe the limitations of a proposed system.
Present various organizational issues that relate to the installation of a new system.
Identify the importance of a new system for various users.
Outline the technologies involved.

A new system can be created in order to replace a system that is inefficient, no longer
suitable for its original purpose, redundant or out -dated. The purpose of a new system can
also be to increase productivity or quality of the output or even to minimize costs. The new
system should reduce the errors or flaws of the existing one . The development of most large
systems involves a huge amount of time and effort and contains a lot of different stages.

A computer system includes

hardware, software, people
working with it or using it and the
immediate environment . So
updating a computer system may
involve actions like training
employees to use the new
system, changing the physical
location of a server, or even firing
employees.

Planning a new system is the

process of thinking about various
details and organizing the
activities required to achieve the
desired goal.

Planning should anticipate

Image 1.1: Feasibility study and its components potential organizational issues
such as:

• lack of guiding organizational and business strategies

• lack of stakeholder and end -user participation
• lack of end-user ' ownership ' of system
• lack of attention to required training
• lack of attention to various organizational issues, such as organizational culture
 • lack of attention to the design of tasks and jobs, allocation of information system
tasks, and the overall usability of the system .

At this stage a feasibility report or feasibility study should be conducted . The feasibility study
evaluates and analyzes a project and its potential, based on various technical, economical,
legal, operational and scheduling criteria . It is used to decide whether the proposed project
3
should be pursued.

Technical feasibility : Is the existing technology sufficient to implement the

proposed system ?
Economic feasibility : Is the proposed system cost effective ?
Legal feasibility: Are there any conflicts between the proposed system and any
regulations / laws ?
Operational feasibility: Are the existing organizational practices and procedures
sufficient to support the maintenance and operation of the new system ?
Schedule feasibility : How long will we wait ?

Example 1.1:
Question: A bookstore uses door-to-door salespersons to collect various orders
from various customers. The orders are taken to the company's offices and are
input by a secretary. The bookstore has decided to change this department and will
ask the salespersons to input the orders at home, using their personal computers.
Discuss the various effects of these changes.

Answer: The bookstore will no longer need the secretary or any physical space to
accommodate the relevant department . Utility bills will be reduced and probably a
smaller office will be enough for the company. The secretary will have to find a new
job, or another position in the company. Salespersons will have to acquire some
computer skills and they will need to have a PC with an internet connection . New
computer software and hardware will also have to be obtained by the company,
which will also need to find a secure way ( network ) to allow the salespersons to
connect to the server . Staff working from home may ask for extra pay.

1.1.2 The need for change management

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Identify factors that are involved.

Justify the need for change management .
Investigate and outline success factors.

3
Feasibility study. ( 2014, November 21) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18 :03,
November 23, 2014, from
http:// en.wikipedia .org/ w /index.php ? title=Feasibility _ study & oldid=634775631
Change management involves various parameters and is a process of shifting individuals
,
teams, departments and organizations from the present state to a desired state
. Successful
change management guarantees that all stakeholders accept and embrace changes in their
.
working environments The goal is to maximize benefits and minimize the negative impacts
of change on individuals.

For example, in a small business, if the operating system changes, the employees need
to

get proper training before they are able to use it in their everyday working schedule
. In a
school environment a new printer that is able to automatically print both sides could reduce
costs but someone would have to inform teachers and students about
this new
functionality. Some people often feel threatened by a new completely computerized system,
because they are afraid that they might lose their jobs. Unfortunately, sometimes their fears
come true.

1.1. 3 Compatibility issues resulting from situations including legacy systems or

business mergers
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Describe the importance of compatibility.

Identify the way legacy systems interact with modern systems.
Suggest strategies for successful integration during business mergers.
Identify the international dimensional of software compatibility.

The term legacy system refers to an old technology, hardware, computer system, or
application program. Some systems that belong to this category may still play an important
role in an organization. Such a system may still be in use because its data cannot be
converted to newer formats, or its applications cannot be upgraded. Keeping a legacy
system in operation involves various maintenance challenges. Even high technology
agencies

such as NASA use legacy systems because the system still provides for the users ' needs, even
though newer or more efficient technologies are available . It is clear that the exchange of
4

data between legacy and new systems is a factor that the administration needs to pay
special attention to .

Business merger is the combining of two or more business entities. The main reason
companies merge is to reduce costs. During this process all departments of both companies
need to ensure that all subsystems are compatible.

( n . d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from https :/ / www.fbo.gov/index ? s=

4

opportunity & mode=form&id=e 2cd8 e 7 c 507 a 2bbd3614ede86beb5666&tab=core& _cview=

0
 5
Four Strategies for Integration

1. Keep both information systems, and develop them to have the same functionality
( high maintenance cost )
2. Replace both information systems with a new one ( increased initial cost ).
3. Select the best information systems from each company and combine them ( it is
very difficult for the employees to work with information systems from another
company).
4. Select one company ' s information systems and drop the other companies' ( policy
problems).

Nowadays information technologies offer enormous potential for the world economy and
society. Most organizations interact with individuals and other organizations that are
located in different countries. Language differences greatly increase communication
problems, even if individuals have some knowledge of the others ' mother language.
Language is not only a form of communication but also a way of thinking and defining the
world.

Software incompatibility is a situation where different software entities or systems cannot

operate satisfactorily, cooperatively or independently, on the same computer, or on
different computers linked by a local or wide area computer network.

1.1.4 Different systems implementation

Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Define SaaS ( Software- as- a - Service ).

Define on premise software.
Relate and analyze the difference between SaaS ( Software- as- a- Service ) and on
premise software solutions.

Business software can

operate installed on a
client's infrastructure and
premises or hosted on
dedicated servers that
belong to a company that
provides such services. A
locally hosted system is the
most appropriate solution
for larger complex
and
systems. A remote hosted
Image 1.2: SaaS system is the most

5
Legacy System Integration, ( n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http:// www.coleyconsulting.co.uk/ merge.htm
appropriate solution where there is no necessary hardware equipment in place or in cases
where the administration wishes to outsource responsibilities for maintenance, support,
backups, security, etc.

SaaS (Software- as - a-Service ) or "on- demand software" is a contemporary delivery method

that allows software and data to be hosted and managed centrally on a remote datacenter.
Users pay to access the services provided on a subscription basis. SaaS solutions reside on
6
the cloud and need a web browser and a broadband Internet connection to be accessed.

SaaS is less expensive because it has a low initial

cost and requires few investments in
installation, maintenance and upgrading.
Companies have to pay only for the SaaS
subscription, which is cheaper in the short -to-
medium term . SaaS provides a scalable
solution, since a company has only to adjust its
monthly SaaS subscription as required. In most
cases only a web browser and a broadband
internet connection are required to access
SaaS applications. A wide range of desktop,
portable and mobile devices also support SaaS
Image 1.3: SaaS use versus on premise installation solutions. SaaS requires few IT personnel and
all software updates take place far away from
company's premises. SaaS is considered a safe solution because applications and data reside
in the cloud service of the provider ' s datacenter. However, there is a possibility of data loss,
if a SaaS provider goes out of business. The performance of a web browser -based
application that is hosted in a distant datacenter that is accessed via an Internet connection
is low when compared to software running on a local machine or over the company's local
area network. SaaS integration with other SaaS solutions or software installed locally is
always difficult.

1.1.5 Alternative installation processes

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the major installation processes

Suggest with reasons different installation processes
Explain the pros and cons of each installation process

The installation of a new system is a situation that most enterprises, organizations and
individuals will face one or more times. During this process the old system will be retired and
the new system will take its place.

Software as a service. ( 2014, November 17 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 18:05,
6

November 23, 2014, from

http://en. wikipedia.org/ w / index.php ?title=Software as_ a service& oldid=634189323
 Example 1.2:

Question: A medical company is very satisfied from the technical performance of

its current information technology infrastructure. Is there any reason to change it ?

Answer: Maybe, the current system may be too expensive to run and maintain. So a
new system may decrease the total expenses of the company.

Example 1.3:

Question: What is meant by the term "operational feasibility" found in a feasibility

report ?

Answer: A feasibility report should examine the "operational feasibility" of the

proposed system. This part should examine whether the existing organizational
practices and procedures are sufficient to support the maintenance and operation
of the new system.

Example 1.4:

Question: What is meant by the term "merger" ?

Answer: The combining of two or more corporations or business enterprises into a

single corporation.

Example 1.5:

Question: What is meant by the term "software incompatibility" ?

Answer: It is a situation where different software entities or systems cannot
operate satisfactorily, cooperatively or independently, on the same computer, or on
different computers linked by a local or wide area computer network.

Example 1.6:

Question: State five advantages of "SaaS".

Answer: Lower initial cost, easy to upgrade, ease of access from anywhere, easy to
predict the cost of initial implementation ( subscription), the application is ready to
use.

Example 1.7:

Question: State five possible disadvantages of "SaaS".

Answer: Dependence on a third party, security and confidentiality, dependence on

Internet connection, risk of data loss, not as powerful as on premise solutions.

One critical decision when moving from an old system to a new one is the choice of
implementation ( conversion, changeover ) method . Changeover is the process of putting the
new system online and retiring the old one. The reason for an organization to choose one
implementation method in favour of another is often a trade-off between costs and risk.
It should be mentioned that in most cases there might be resistance by employees or
customers to change and planning should try to minimize the negative effects.

I
The types of changeovers are :
• Parallel. The main characteristic of Parallel Changeover is that both systems work in
parallel for a short period of time. This method is very popular because of the
limited risk. Outputs of both systems can be compared to ensure that the new
system is functioning properly. If the new system fails, the company can revert or
return to the old system. When the company is satisfied with the output of the new
system, the old system can be terminated. Running two different systems
simultaneously means extra costs and workload because it requires that the two
systems run parallel for a certain period of time. The company has to maintain two
different systems and this results in various organizational tasks. This method is not
efficient if the old and the new systems have completely different processing tasks,
functions, inputs, or outputs.
• Big Bang or Direct ( immediate ). This changeover is very risky since the company
plugs in the new system and unplugs the old one at the same time. Once the
administration has decided to use this method and has prepared all the necessary
procedures, the changeover begins. Obviously there are dangers associated with this
method if the new system does not function as expected. This method is preferred
when the system is not critical. With this approach, all users need to be trained
appropriately before the switch takes place, in order to use the new information
system efficiently.

l Example 1.8:

Question: A nuclear station is equipped with a highly automated control system . This
system should be replaced by a new system . Suggest a suitable implementation
method. Justify your answer.

Answer : The correct answer is parallel changeover because the main characteristic of
this conversion method is the limited risk. The cost of operation and maintenance of
both systems will be higher but this is of limited importance in this particular situation.
Direct method of implementation is not appropriate because of the high risk of failure
and the absence of a trusted backup system. The scenario described in the question
does not imply the existence of multiple sites so the pilot method is not considered as
an alternative.

• Pilot. The pilot method is mostly used in large organizations that have multiple sites.
The new system is introduced in one of the sites and extended to other sites over
time. The risk of this method is low and the pilot sites can serve as models for the
rest of the company. The first group that adopts the new system is called the pilot
site or the pilot group. After the system proves successful at the pilot site, it is
implemented into the rest of the company using a changeover method (usually
direct ).
• Phased . With the phased conversion method, a company converts one module of
the system at a time, meaning that different parts of the system are converted at
 different times. The training period is extended and the adoption of the new system
takes longer, since each phase must be implemented separately. The installation of
the new system is done per module, per department etc.

1.1.6 Problems that may arise as a part of data migration

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Define data migration.

Identify the importance of incompatibility and incompleteness.
Provide a balanced analysis of different data migration scenarios.

Data migration refers to the transfer of data between different formats, storage types and
computer systems. It usually takes place in an automatic manner so as to achieve efficient
use of human resources. Data migration happens when an organization changes, upgrades
or merges its information systems ( for example, due to a merger or takeover ) .7 Many
problems may arise when transferring data from one system to another . First of all, there
may be incapability of moving the information due to parameters such as incompatibility
with the new system or non-recognizable data structures. Also, data may be lost or not
transferred due to an incomplete data transfer or errors during the process. In addition, data
can also be misinterpreted due to incompatibilities, caused by the different conventions of
each country concerning date, time and measurement units.

Data Migration

Extract

Extract Data from

^ Transform

Transform Data for

Load Validate

Validate Data Loads

Source System Target System

Image 1.4: Data migration

7
Database Glossary - D. ( n.d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http://www.nwdatabase.com /database -glossary - d.htm
 PLAN

•While the planning stage depends on the extend and spurpose of the migration, the planning process
should also include determining the requirementsof the migration. Parameters such as the identification
of the future environment, the development and the documentation of the migration plan should be
considered.

MIGRATE

•During the migration phase, the Information Technology department will need to communicate its plans,
and hardware, and proceed to the data migration.
obtain, install and configure any necessary software

VALIDATE
to post - migration validation
• A pre-migration test to validate data is highly recommended, in addition
the migration as it was before the
testing. These tests will check that the data is in the same state after
migration.

8
Figure 1.2: Data migration stages

1.1. 7 Various types of testing

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Identify the importance of testing.

Define major testing types.
Suggest the best testing for a proposed scenario.

Testing can happen in different ways and in different phases.

Functional testing tests individual commands, text input, menu functions, etc. confirms that
they perform and function correctly according to the design specifications. For example, if a
choice is made to add a client, does the program go to the "add clients module"?
Data testing is when normal, abnormal and extreme data is put into the system. Suppose
that there is a program that accepts a student's percentage in a math exam and gives a
"pass" message if the number entered is greater than or equal to sixty; otherwise it prints a
9, 10
"fail" message. This program can be tested with :
• Normal Data such as 76 will be used to check if "pass" and "fail" messages are
appropriately provided.
• Data at the Limits should also be used, for this particular problem 0, 59, 60, 100 are all
examples of normal data at the limits.
\

Useful Information: Some authors describe as "extreme/ boundary data the data at the
limits of acceptability / validity" and as "abnormal/erroneous data the data outside the
limits of acceptability / validity." cf. David Watson and Helen Williams, 2012, page 79.

Adopted by : IBM, 2007, Best practices for data migration. http:// www -
8

935.ibm.com/ services/ us/gts / pdf / bestpracticesfordatamigration - wp -gtw 01275 - usen- 01-121307.

pdf
IB Computing Home Page. ( n.d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http :// www.ib -computing .com
9

Watson D., H. Williams, 2012, Cambridge IGCSE Computer Studies Revision Guide, Cambridge
10

University Press.
 • Extreme Data will be outside the normal limits; -10, 104, 1223 are examples. These data
should be rejected during validation testing. The user may not input such data because
they ' re wrong, and it ' s easy to press a key twice by mistake.
• Abnormal Data ( illegal data ) will be the type of data that we really didn' t expect . For
this particular program it could be data that looks like a string, a character and not an
integer. This data would not usually be entered. A naive user may enter "two ", which
seems unlikely but he /she could also hit the spacebar and enter " 4 5", instead of "45" ,
for example.

Alpha testing is done before the software product is made available to the general public.
Normally, Alpha testing will be carried out by the company that develops the software in a
laboratory type environment and not by the end users in their usual workplaces11, 12.

Beta testing includes comments and suggestions of the users. Unlike Alpha testing, users
outside the company are involved in the testing. Their feedback is valuable and can be used
to fix defects and errors that were missed, and also contributes in the preparation of
support teams that will deal with expected issues. Frequent beta testing results in last
minute software changes. In some cases, the Beta version will be made available to the
general public. This can provide vital real- world information and feedback11, 12

Dry - run testing is conducted using pen - and-paper by the programmer. During dry run testing
the programmer mentally runs the algorithm. Fie examines the source code and decides on
what the output of a run should be ( execution ) .

During unit testing, individual parts of the system are tested separately.

During the integration testing, the entire system is tested at the same time to verify that
that all components can work together.

User acceptance testing is used to determine if the system satisfies the customer needs and
in most cases is conducted in user premises before accepting transfer of ownership. This
type of testing is the last stage of the software testing process.

Debugging is a systematic process of finding and correcting the number of bugs ( errors ) in a
computer program .
It is important to mention that there are computer programs that can automatically test
other programs. This makes the testing process faster and cheaper.

11
Alpha vs. Beta Testing, ( n.d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http : // www.centercode.com/ blog/ 2011/01/ alpha -vs -beta -testing/
12
( n.d.) - Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http ://ezinearticles . com/ 7 Alpha -Testing- and- Beta -
Testing& id=433
/ Example 1.9:
Question: Several verification and validation checks are performed on data being
entered into a database by a bank employee. The database contains an "age" field
and a "name" field. Give two examples of invalid data and one example of valid
data for the field "age", and explain how this field could be validated.
Answer: All "age" entries should be checked to see if they are positive numbers
and for consistency with a minimum/maximum range ( e.g. 18-110). This process
includes a type and a range check. Invalid data for the age field could be "Y" and
"234" while valid data would be "25".
Question: How the "name" field could be verified?
Answer : It could be typed twice and the two entries compared. If both entries are
the same then the "name" is verified. This process is called double entry and
\ reduces data entry errors.

2
Validation and verification in relation to data input
• Validation is the process of evaluating whether data input follows appropriate
specifications and is within reasonable limits.
• Verification is the process of ensuring that the data input is the same as the original
source data . A way of ensuring data verification is through double entry.

Verification vs. validation software testing

Verification is the confirmation that a computer product meets identified specifications,

while validation is the confirmation that a computer product meets its design function or is
appropriate for the intended use.

• Validation : Are we developing the correct system ?

• Verification: Are we developing the system correctly?
• Validation: Does the product meet the customer-needs ?
• Verification : Does the product comply with a specific regulation or condition ?

User focus

1.1. 8 Importance of user documentation

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Identify the importance of proper user documentation.

Describe the way proper documentation affects implementation.
 Programs and systems may become increasingly complex as their aim gets more and more
and convoluted. Additionally, the user's way of thinking may differ from the developers';
hence the way the product functions may not be clear to the user. All of the above may lead
to serious problems during the implementation or operational stage of the Software Life
Cycle ( SLC ). The user might not know how to use the product to its full capacity, and even
specialized technicians may not be able to set up the new system properly for the firm they
work for. With appropriate external documentation, these issues can be easily countered,
since there will be a user manual explaining every component of the product.

A systematic and organized software development procedure ensures that all supporting
documents are produced in an orderly and methodical fashion. It is very important to
distinguish between internal documentation and external documentation.

Internal documentation is the code comprehension features and details provided as part of
the source code itself . Proper internal documentation includes:

• Appropriate module headers

Appropriate comments
Useful and meaningful variable names
Useful module, classes, methods and function headers
Appropriate code indentation
Appropriate code structuring
Appropriate use of enumerated types
Appropriate use of constant identifiers
Appropriate use of data types defined by the user

It is very difficult and likely impossible for the source code to be read by the final user.

External documentation is typically written as a separate document from the program itself.
It is provided through various types of user supporting documents such as a users ' guide,
software requirements specification document, detailed description of the design and
implementation features of the program and test document.

1.1.9 Different methods of providing user documentation

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Identify the importance of proper user documentation.

Suggest various methods of user documentation.
Describe the way propped documentation affect implementation.

User documentation can either be in a written or in an online form, so that the user can
search the document more easily and quickly. The user documentation should include all the
instructions that are mandatory for the system to operate and should contain frequently
asked questions, which are always necessary for new users. The document should be well
structured and divided into the appropriate categories.
 Manuals

These can be provided online or

offline. One of the advantages of
online manuals is the potential use
Information Feedback of multimedia features. Manuals
can also be provided online as pdf
files which one can download and
print. The advantage of a printed
manual is that it can be read
Support Responsibility Customer without the use of a PC or an
internet connection.

i #0$
Service Contacts Solution
Email support

Online support is an asynchronous

type of support and can be provided
via an email address. Users contact
the support team of the company to
Image 1.5 : Different methods of user documentation
resolve any problems with the help
of specialized technicians.

Embedded Assistance or integrated user assistance

Software suites like MS Office have inbuilt help systems ( tool tips and dynamic page content
within the system itself ) . One example is when the user hovers the mouse over an icon a
small text box appears with valuable help information. This kind of assistance is considered
an excellent way to increase the usability of a software application . Embedded user
assistance is context - specific, task - specific, and does not require novice users to ask the right
question to find the suitable answer.

Frequently Asked Questions

Frequently Asked Questions ( FAQ) are listed questions and answers, all supposed to give
users answers to a common set of problems and pertaining to a particular topic . The format
is commonly used on online forums. The list of questions contains questions that tend to
recur.

Live chat sessions

Online support is a type of real time support that is extremely useful for emergency
situations. A live chat technician will ask for the description of the occurring problem, and
try to present a list of possible solutions. A telephone call, a live chat session or a video
session provides a feeling of being supported by a real person, which is preferred by many
users.

Online portals or web portals

Online support is provided in many ways, depending on the product or service that is being
documented. Online portals can provide updated manuals, support pages and FAQ pages.
 Remote desktop connections

Remote Desktop is a function that enables a specialized person to connect to the user's PC
across the Internet from virtually any computer . Remote Desktop will actually allow a
specialized technician to take control of the user's PC as though he / she /she was sitting
directly in front of it . This solution is ideal if the user is not very experienced. This solution
has some security disadvantages because the technician is allowed to have full access over
the user's PC.

1.1. 10 Different methods of delivering user training

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Identify the importance of proper user training

Suggest various methods of user training
Describe the way propped user training affect implementation

It is impossible to take full advantage of a new advanced IT system without proper training.
Moreover even the highest investment in technology requires users that are able and wish
to use it . User training is extremely important in almost every case.

All the staff must be familiar with the new system as they will make mistakes if they are not
properly trained. Staff can be trained by self -instruction, formal classes or online training.
Furthermore, the developers of the new software have to create clear educational material
for solving any kind of questions a user might have.

User training can be delivered in a number of different ways depending on a variety of

factors, such as the number of the students, the availability of instructors, the size of the
business, and the training budget.

Self-Instruction or self-study
Self-instruction allows the user to learn in his/her own time, until he/she achieves mastery
of the subject. Printed manuals, books, e-books or other resources such as video tutorials or
online exercises can be provided and used whenever the user needs to improve his skills.

A user can benefit a lot through self - study. First of all, there is no tuition fee. Furthermore
the user can study whenever he / she wants ( no formal class at a fixed time and a fixed
place). The disadvantages include lack of guidance or teacher support and the final result
depends on the motivation of the user and their ability to learn on their own.
 Formal classes

A formal class offers an

interactive setting that
promotes open and free
Ctrtifott
discussion between students
and the teacher ( instructor ) .

u Having
learning
several students
in the same
Virtual education classroom has the additional
advantage of allowing
students to exchange ideas
with one another. Direct
Business education interaction with the expert
allows for ideas to be
exchanged easily and
without any technical
communication barriers.
Web training

A classroom situation may

Image 1.6: Different methods of user training disadvantage shy members.
The classroom can also
obstruct one's ability to learn by allowing other, more self -assured students to dominate the
discussion environment.
13
Remote/ distance learning / online training

The main benefit of asynchronous online learning is that it allows participants to take part in
high quality courses from anywhere in the world provided they have a PC and Internet
connection. This type of Virtual Classroom is accessible 24/ 7/365. Time efficiency and time
management are valuable strengths of distance learning. Students can access their virtual
courses, lectures, course materials, and class discussions at any time, day or night. The use
of interactive learning environments contributes to self - direction and promotes critical
thinking, and thus is highly supported by the literature of adult education and training.

An online educational program requires participants who are able to access the online
learning environment. Lack of the required infrastructure will exclude otherwise eligible
students from the online course. Students and instructors must possess a minimum level of
IT skills in order to function effectively in an online environment. Online asynchronou
s

education places greater responsibility on the student and gives students control over their
learning experience, and thus is considered inappropriate for more dependent and
immature learners.

Illinois Online Network : Educational Resources , ( n.d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
”1 Q

http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/overview/
System backup

1.1. 11 Causes of data loss .

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Identify the negative impact of data loss.

Identify various causes of data loss.

1A
Data loss refers to an error condition where data is lost or destroyed due to system failure,
storage negligence, or even transmission or processing errors. Various precautions can be
taken, in order to prevent or restore data loss, through both hardware and software. The
cost of data loss depends on how costly it may be to go on without the data, how costly it
may be to recreate the data, as well as how costly it may be to notify users of data loss.

Causes Comments/Solutions
Very common cause of data loss
Accidental deletion
Use of file recovery software
Administrative errors Need for care
Poor data storage organization system Data can't be found
( misplacement ) Restructure data organization
Rare
Building fires
Store data in two locations
Very common cause of data loss
Closing the program without saving the file
Need for care, use of autosave features
Very common cause of data loss
Computer viruses Need for antivirus software
Regular backups
Need for Self-Monitoring, Analysis and
Reporting Technology ( SMART)
Continued use after signs of failure
Need for PC checkup
Regular backups
Errors in computer data
Data corruption
Regular backups
Hard disk failure
Firmware corruption
Regular backups
Rare
Natural disasters ( floods, earthquakes) Store data in two locations
Regular backups
Regular backups
Outsiders wanting to delete, alter or steal
Need for a firewall
the information.
Need for authentication methods
Physical damage of the storage device Regular backups
( intentionally or not ) Need for care
• Need for UPS ( uninterruptible power
Power failure supply )
• Regular backups

14
.
Data loss. ( 2014, August 25 ) In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:06, November 23,
2014, from http:// en.Wikipedia.org/ w /index.php ?title= Data _loss& oldid=622747408
1.1. 12 Consequences of data loss in a specified situation
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Outline the negative impact of data loss in various situations.

Identify various consequences of data loss in a given scenario .

In all cases data loss is something that we want to prevent, but there are cases where data
loss could have extremely serious consequences. For example, if the medical records of a
patient in a hospital are lost, then the patient's life can be in danger if the data cannot be
retrieved, and some painful examinations might have to be repeated. Data loss is not that
dangerous in all cases, but retrieval is time consuming and might not always be possible,
which is a problem . Imagine a situation where a client books a hotel room over the phone .
But when he/she arrives at the hotel, the receptionist informs him/her that there is no
record of his booking and no rooms are available. The client ( after the initial shock ) has to
search for another hotel perhaps informing friends and colleagues on social media of his
discomfort and disappointment.

1.1. 13 Range of methods that can be used to prevent data loss

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define failover systems, redundancy, removable media, offsite storage and online
storage.
Give details about the methods used to prevent loss of data .

In the case of system or hard drive crashes, the data we

have stored in them can be lost forever, or are inaccessible.
In order to prevent this, specialists have created different
methods by which one can be prepared for the above
situation :

Regular backup of files using hard disks or magnetic

tapes
Firewall installation
Data storage in two or more locations ( offsite
storage )
Removed hard copies ( printed versions of data )
Installation of an Antivirus program for antivirus
protection
Image 1.7: Data loss
 Example 1.10:

Question: A bank uses a database server that provides database services to various
computers. Describe a secure strategy for backing up and restoring the data on the
database server after a failure.

Answer: A secure back -up strategy would be to use high-capacity magnetic tapes
because the tapes are very cheap per Gigabyte and have great longevity. The first
step is to back up the files of the hard disks to tapes every night. The back -up
process should be completely automated and the tapes should be secured and
stored off - site in a fire-proof room. A suitable strategy for restoring the data after
the failure would be to use these tapes to restore the database on the server.

• Human error reduction techniques and/ or failsafe ( accidentally deleted files )

• Online auto save backup ( iCIoud, Dropbox )

In computers science, redundancy is

the duplication of storage devices
and stored data of a computer
system with the intention of securing
the stored data. It is considered as a
failsafe method.

Diskettes, Blu-ray discs, CDs, DVDs,

USB ( Universal Serial Bus ) are
removable media that are used for
fast data backup and data storage .
These removable media can store
Image 1.8: Removable media backup tape ( high- capacity data permanently and are non-
magnetic tape )
volatile.

A failover system is a computer system which is on standby capable of switching to a spare

computer system upon hardware failure, network failure, or any other type of error, such as
software malfunction. The main difference between a failover and a switchover is the
degree of needed human intervention. Typically, a failover is automatic and handles
abnormal situations without human interference . In a failover system when primary server
fails the standby server is made primary. In a switchover system the primary and the
secondary server interchange the primary role. Critical systems typically allow for failover to
take place on system failure so as to provide reliability and continuous availability.15

Failover. ( 2014, June 25 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:07, November 23, 2014,
15

from http :// en.Wikipedia . org/ w /index.php ?title=Failover & oldid=614395973

i
Software deployment

1.1. 14 Strategies for managing releases and updates

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define updates, patches, upgrades and releases.

Give details about the management of updates and releases.
Describe automatic update process.

There are several ways in which updates can be made available. First of all, most of the
times the purchasing of a product means access to free online updates, released by the
company. There are automatic updates that function through the net . These types of
updates usually aim to improve the product, fix various deficiencies or perform minor
changes. When the company decides that it no longer wishes to support software and
wishes to promote a newer version, it stops releasing updates ( the life cycle of the new
system having started some time before ) .

Patches are used by software companies to update applications by fixing known

bugs and vulnerabilities. Be aware that, patches may introduce new bugs as side
16
effects.
Upgrades always contain novel functionalities or characteristics, as well cumulative
17
bug fixes. In most cases upgrades need to be bought .

Updates improve a product in a minor way by adding new functionalities or fixing

known bugs. In most cases updates are free.
17

Releases are final, working versions of software applications. These applications

have already gone through alpha and beta software testing. Releases relate to new
18
or upgraded applications.

Patch ( computing) . ( 2014, November 11). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:08,
16

November 23, 2014, from

http://en.Wikipedia.org/ w /index.php ?title=Patch_ ( computing) & oldid=633351269
What is the difference between and Upgrade and an Update? (n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2014,
17

from http:// www. enfocus.com/en/support/knowledge -base / what-is -the-difference - between-an -

upgrade - and- an - update /
18
Release, ( n . d . ). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http :// searchsoftwarequality.techtarget.com / definition / release
 Example 1.11:

Question: State two stages of the "data migration process".

Answer: Plan and validate

Example 1.12:

Question: State one difference between "alpha" and "beta testing".

Answer: Alpha testing takes place inside the company which develops the software
while beta testing includes selected users that are not employees of the software
company and test the software in their premises.

Example 1.13:

Question: Does a programmer needs a computer to conduct "dry run testing" ?

Answer: No, because dry run testing is conducted manually using a pencil and a
paper in most cases.
Example 1.14:

Question: State one difference between "internal" and "external" documentation.

Answer: Internal documentation facilitates programmers while external

documentation focuses on the user of the product.

Example 1.15:

Question: state one major advantage of "formal classes"

Answer: Direct interaction with the expert allows immediate answer to students'
questions without any technical communication barrier.

Example 1.16:

Question: State three methods that can be used to prevent "data loss".

Answer: Regular backup of files using hard disks or tapes, online auto save backup,
\ Data storage in two or more locations ( offsite storage).
1.2 System design basics
Components of a computer system

1.2 . 1 Hardware, software, peripheral, network , human resources

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Give the precise meaning of the terms hardware, software, peripheral, network and
human resources.

Computer hardware: The physical elements of a

computer, e.g. screen, CPU etc.

«
rag
Software : A series of instructions that can be
understood by a CPU. These instructions guide
the CPU to perform specific operations.

Ï Software is comprised of both programs and

data.19

Peripheral device : any auxiliary device that can

communicate and work with a computer. For
example : input / output devices, printers, etc. A
peripheral device extends the capabilities of the
computer system it is connected to. The
peripheral is not a core, essential, part of the
computer.
1

Computer Network : A set of computer systems

that are interconnected and share resources, as
well as data. For example: Local Area Network,
Wide Area Network, etc.
1

Human Resources: People who are used or

could be used in an organization, business or
economy.

image 1.9 : Hardware, software & network

19
Software. ( 2014, November 19). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:09, November
23, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Software&oldid=634491568
1.2 . 1 The roles that a computer can take in a networked world
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define client, server, email server, DNS server, router and firewall.
Describe the different roles that a computer can take.

The computer can assume several roles in a networked world. It can function as a client,
server, e-mail server, domain name system server ( DNS server ), router or firewall.

A dumb terminal is a device that usually consists of a keyboard, a monitor, and a network
card that is connected to a server or a powerful computer . Dumb terminals depend entirely
on the computer to which they are connected for computations, data processing and data
management.

A thin client is a relatively low performance terminal, which heavily but not entirely,
depends on the server to which it is connected.

A client receives data via the network, whereas the server has saved data on it and offers it
to clients. A server may be a program or a computer that provides services requested by
clients connected over a network while a client is an average computer or terminal ( dumb
terminal, thin client ) used to access a computer - based system.

An email server is the equivalent of a post office that manages the flow of email in and
out of the network, checks that an email address is valid, allows users to access their
email, etc.

A router is a networking device that accepts incoming quanta of information ( data packets ),
reads their destination address and distributes them across networks, according to a routing
table or routing policy ( policy based routing). A router identifies the destination of
messages and sends them via an appropriate route and is used to forward data packets
between networks.

A Domain Name System Server attributes names to network addresses and therefore
resolves names by assigning them to the appropriate network entity ( a resource that is part
of the network ) . A DNS server allows you to type names into the address bar of your web
browser like "mit.edu" and the web browser automatically finds that address on the
Internet. The Domain Name System is a protocol within the set of the TCP/ IP protocol suite
and is used for managing public names of web sites . One can always bypass a DNS lookup by
entering the Internet Protocol ( IP ) address directly into a browser.

A firewall is a hardware or software network infrastructure that controls data flow access
among network entities. The firewall is mainly used to offer protection and limit access to a
network. The ideal firewall system configuration consists of hardware and software
components.
A client - server refers to a software network architecture system where clients request
information and servers perform tasks in order to provide the information. At least one
server machine is required as a prerequisite for the client - server architecture. The main
difference between server and clients is that servers share their resources, whereas clients
1, 20
do not.

( Client ) < > Web server

Computer
W Database client < > Database server

21
Figure 1.3: Client Server example

Example 1.17: Figure 1.5 depicts a client server example that includes a client
computer running a web browser ( Internet Explorer, Firefox, Chrome etc.) and a
server computer running a database server. The user on the client computer needs
to access the bank central server. In order to do that, the web browser of the client
sends a specific request to the web server of the bank. The web server receiving the
request needs to access the central database of the bank and sends its own request
through the database client. The requested information is then returned from the
central database to the database client and from the web server to the client
through the web browser.

1.2 . 3 Social and ethical issues associated with a networked world

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Give the precise meaning of IT subjects of social and ethical significance.

Develop a balanced and thorough review of a given scenario that involves social and
ethical issues.
Explain the effects that are associated with continued developments in IT.

Issues of social and ethical significance can arise whenever information technology is used.
These issues have positive and negative ethical and social impacts. Many people can be
affected and it is sometimes difficult to identify the person who is to be held responsible. An

Client-server model. ( 2014, October 7 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 18:09,
20

November 23, 2014, from

http://en.Wikipedia .org/ w/ index.php ?title=Client%E 2%80%93 server _model&oldid=628622834
21
Experts you should follow, ( n. d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http:/ / www. wikianswers.eom /Q/ ln _ a _client _ server _ environment _ what _ is _ a _ server
 Hi

introduction of a new system may affect the life of thousands, millions, or even billions of
22
users ( take for example the Internet ). The IT subjects of social and ethical significance are :
• Reliability , which refers to how well an IT system functions. Computer failures cause
data loss, time loss, money loss, injury or even death. The reliability of IT systems
determines confidence in their value.
• Integrity , which refers to protecting the completeness and accuracy of data. Data
lacks integrity if it is incomplete, out of date, or has been purposely or
unintentionally altered.
• Inconsistency . Problems may also arise if information is duplicated in a database and
only one copy is updated, causing inconsistency ( e. g. telephone field).
• Security , which refers to the protection of hardware, software, peripherals and
computer networks ' from unauthorized access. Biometrics, proprietary tokens,
passwords, firewalls, and locks are some of the most common security systems
placed to restrict access to IT systems. Authenticity , which involves a person proving
their identity to gain access to a computer system beyond reasonable doubt. It is
important to mention that requiring more than one independent factor increases
the difficulty of providing false credentials.23
• Privacy , which is the ability to control how and to what extent data is used and
disseminated to others. It includes issues such as : how long data is stored, who has
access to the data and how the data is used.
• Anonymity . becomes
Privacy
anonymity when, for instance, an
individual uses an IT system to conceal
his /her true identity in order to cyber-
bully another person, commit illegal
actions or crimes, hack computers,
commit terrorism etc.

• Intellectual property , which refers

Image 1.10: Anonymity to ideas,
discoveries, scientific
endeavours, photographs, films, essays,
and art works. Copyright laws are designed to protect intellectual property from
unauthorized and illegal reproduction. Modern "copy and paste" and file- sharing
practices and devices make it easy to break copyright laws.
• The Digital Divide and Equality of Access. The growth and the use of IT systems have
not developed at the same rate for everybody in all parts of the world, or in all areas
of the same country. Even within advanced countries there are people who lack
access to IT infrastructures, and online services. Economic costs, financial costs, lack
of literacy, lack of language skills ( English ) and lack of basic resources such as
electricity are the main reasons that sustain the digital divide.

22
IBDP, 2010, ITGS Guide, International Baccalaureate Organization.
23
Multi- factor authentication. ( 2014, November 6 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved
18:12, November 23, 2014, from http :// en.Wikipedia.org/ w /index.php ?title =Multi-
factor authentication & oldid= 632725562
 • Surveillance, which involves using IT to monitor individuals or groups of people
either with or without ( also a privacy issue ) their knowledge or permission.
Governments, law enforcement, private groups, employers, traffic control etc. may
perform surveillance.
• Globalization and Cultural Diversity . IT helps to diminish the importance of
geographical, political, economic and cultural boundaries while speeding up the
global spread of political, financial, sport and cultural news. Traditional cultures and
values may diminish gradually over time .

Image 1.11: Surveillance and addiction

\
\
/
Useful Information Multi-factor authentication ( MFA ) is an authentication
technique used to control computer access. A user can enter by exhibiting
authentication factors from at least two of the three categories:

• Something you know . Knowledge factors ( "things only the user knows" ) ,
passwords
• Something you have. Possession factors ( " things only the user has" ), ATM
cards
\ • Something you are. Inherence factors ( " things only the user is" ) , biometrics /
\ /
s
.
N

• IT Policies. Policies are enforceable procedures and measures that promote the
appropriate use of computers, networks, information systems and technologies.
Governments, public authorities, local authorities, businesses, private groups or
individuals are developers of various IT policies. The fast pace of Information
Technology progression means policies often quickly made obsolete.
\
/ \
Example 1.18:

Question: Is it possible to use two or more authentication methods to control a

computer access ?

Answer: Yes, multifactor authentication technique is used when there is a need for
advanced security. /
/
 • Standards and Protocols , which are predefined technical rules and conventions that
developers of hardware and software should follow . Standards and protocols allow
for compatibility, facilitate communication and interoperability. They are needed to
ensure different systems are compatible with each other ( examples: GIF, USB, ASCII
etc.) .
• People and machines . Internet addiction is a social impact. The use of Al in military
or law - enforcement situations is also an issue of social concern. This subject
analyzes all aspects of the interaction between IT and humans.
• Digital Citizenship , which covers appropriate behavior in a digital world. Appropriate
behavior includes using IT ethically, in a way that respects society, the law and does
not expose any person to threats, danger, or a contravention of their human rights.

Computer Science ( CS ) issues

CS situation
CS scenario

Social impacts Ethical issues

stakeholders responsibility
pros / cons accountability
alternative solutions policies
feasible solutions rules
decisions
consequences

Figure 1.4: A possible diagram to be used when anlysing different CS and IT scenerios

The following tables illustrate some very simple examples. An IT system has pros and cons.
Cause Positive Effects
Constant exposure to communication • Citizens better informed about the
technology world
Internet • Email, WWW
• Easier communication in emergencies
Use of smartphones • Use of useful applications ( GPS
application for example )
Gaming • Better hand- eye coordination
• Easier communication with family
Mobile phones ( children, elderly )
• Easier communication in emergencies

Cause Negative Effects

Constant exposure • Psychological impacts such as stress, poor concentration and
to communication short attention span
technology • Obstacle to personal one-to - one relationships
 Neglected real life
Internet addiction
Social media obsession
Anxiety
Use of smartphones
Increasing expense of hardware
Lower levels of concentration because of lack of sleep
Gaming addiction Social desensitization
Neglected education and personal development
Overuse of mobile Possible health consequences
phones Possible car accidents

s \
/ \
f

Example 1.19:

Question: There is a vast amount of scientific information and educational material

available on the WWW. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of students
having unrestricted and unsupervised access to a PC that is connected to the
Internet.

Answer:

Pros:
o Allows students to learn at their own speed
o Allows students to access information to help with their studies
o Allows students to access educational videos, podcasts, etc.
o Facilitates communication
Cons:
o Some sites do not give accurate information
o Some sites encourage and facilitate illegal or inappropriate
activities ( illegal downloading of videos, photos or music, ordering
drugs, watching pornography )
o Some sites facilitate plagiarism or cheating
o Usually students that spend too much time on the Internet are
deprived of "real" social contact and social skills
o Typing and using the computer display for prolonged periods of
time may cause health problems such as RSI or eye problems

/
\ /
s

System design and analysis

1.2 . 4 Relevant stakeholders when planning a new system

.
Exit skills Students should be able to :
1

Give the precise meaning of the terms end -user and stakeholder.
Distinguish between the end user and the stakeholder in a given scenario.
-
Outline the role of individuals when planning a new computer system .
 Stakeholders are individuals, teams, groups or organizations that have an interest in the
realization of a project or might be affected by the outcome of a project 24. So, any person
who has interests in an existing or proposed information system can be described as a
stakeholder of the system . The end - user is the person who is going to use the product. A
relevant stakeholder can also be a frequent user of the current system. He /she will be able
to identify flaws and errors of the current system or inconveniences that he / she has spotted.
He/ she will be able to propose some improvements that will be crucial to the update of the
system. The manager or supervisor of the procedure that the system performs may also
have some comments. Specialists who have dealt with a similar situation in the past can be
asked for their advice.

* S
s
/
\
! Example 1.20: \

Question: Most university students have computers with Internet access. The
WWW can be a useful resource when researching educational information for
classwork and homework and can be used to communicate by chatting online.
Discuss possible advantages to university students when chatting online.

Answer: One possible benefit for university students using the Internet for
chatting online is that they can exchange ideas, ask other students or scientists
questions about courses and lectures, and get answers or clarifications. Also, other
students may suggest useful sites to find educational material and scientific
information. Chatting on-line facilitates making acquaintances and connections
from all over the world ( social and business networking) . In most countries it is
considered a cheaper way of communication than using the telephone, since if the
user's home is equipped with a broadband connection, a fixed amount is paid to
the Internet Service Provider ( ISP) regardless of how long the user spends online
\
( connected to Internet ). /
/
\
\
-
x

1.2 . 5 Methods of obtaining requirements from stakeholders.

Exit skills. Students should be able to1:

Describe processes that involve surveys, interviews and direct observations.

Distinguish between the different methods of obtaining requirements .
Outline the role of different stakeholders during the data gathering process .

24
How to Identify stakeholders, ( n. d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http:// www.prince 2.com / blog/ how -identify -stakeholders
Gathering various details about an existing system and obtaining stakeholder requirements
25
for a planned system, will involve :

• Interviewing stakeholders . An interview is a direct face -to- face procedure that

focuses on obtaining reliable and valid data in the form of verbal responses from a
person or a group ( group of stakeholders ) .
o Structured interviews are strictly standardized and prescribed. A set of
prepared questions is presented in the same manner and order to each
stakeholder.
o Unstructured interviews are flexible. Stakeholders are encouraged to
express their thoughts and personal beliefs freely.

An interview is a time - consuming

conversational process allows the
that
interviewer to clarify questions and to observe
verbal and non- verbal behaviors of the
stakeholders. A disadvantage is that
unstructured interviews often yield data too
difficult to summarize, evaluate or perform
any form of statistical analysis on them.

Image 1.12: Interview

• The use of questionnaires is effective when the questions are carefully constructed
so as to elicit unambiguous responses. Survey methodology refers to a domain of
applied statistics that focuses on taking samples from a population, as well as
26
improving on the various data collection techniques ( e.g. questionnaires ) .

Closed or restricted questionnaires involve "yes" or "no " answers, short response
questions and box checking. Such a questionnaire facilitates statistical analysis,
tabular presentation of data, and summarizing processes.

Open or unrestricted questionnaires involve

free response questions but allows for greater
depth of responses from the stakeholder. Such
a questionnaire is difficult to interpret or
summarize and makes statistical analysis
impossible.

Questionnaires guarantee uniformity of

questions and therefore yield data that is easier
comparable than information obtained through
Image 1.13: Questionnaire

Data Tools, ( n.d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from

25

http:/ / www.okstate.edu/ag/agedcm 4h/academic/aged5980a /5980/newpagel6.htm

Survey methodology. ( 2014, August 18 ) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:13,
26

November 23, 2014, from

http://en.wikipedia .org/ w/index.php ?title=Survey _methodology& oldid= 621707547
 an interview. It is a time - saving, cost - efficient method to obtain data and reach a lot
of stakeholders quickly. However, respondents' motivation is difficult to assess and
stakeholders may not respond at all, answer only some questions, or misinterpret
the question.

• Direct observation of current procedures involves spending time in different

departments. It is considered as a time-and -motion study that can show where
procedures and processes could be made more efficient, or where possible
bottlenecks may be present . Direct observation makes possible the collection of
different types of data and information. Being on-site over a period of time
familiarizes the analyst with the case study, thereby facilitating involvement in all
activities and processes. Observation is independent of user bias but is a time-
consuming method.

However, people sometimes change their behavior when they know they are
observed. The term " Hawthorne effect" is used to describe situations where workers
better perform when they know that they are participating in an observation
27
process.

Example 1.21:

Question: Suppose a supermarket wants to develop a new system for online

ordering with free delivery. Who are the stakeholders ?

Answer: System owners, system users ( clerical employees, service workers,

technical staff, professional staff, customers, suppliers), system designers ( security
experts, database administrators, web architects ), system builders ( application
programmers, network administrators), system analysts, system testers, etc.

1.2 . 6 Appropriate techniques for gathering the information needed to arrive at a

workable solution
Exit skills. Students should be able to1:

Describe processes that are involved to arrive at a workable IT solution .

Describe methods and techniques used to examine current systems, competing
products, organizational capabilities and the use of literature searches.
Distinguish between the different methods for gathering data and information.

Examining current systems is a process that involves the detailed examination of the current
system, analysis of its functions and procedures, studying the business and system

27
Hawthorne effect. ( 2014, November 9 ) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 18 :14,
November 23, 2014, from
http://en.Wikipedia. org/ w / index.php ?title =Hawthorne _ effect & oldid=633077463
documents such as current order documents, logistics documents, and computer systems
procedures and reports used by operations and senior managers.

According to Auston et al (1992) literature search refers to the identification, retrieval and
management of various sources in order to find information on a topic, areas that might be
interesting for further studies, derive conclusions, as well as develop guidelines for
28
practices.

Nowadays the most efficient way to identify published studies and to search for specific
information is with the use of online databases, search engines etc .

Examining competing products may include the analysis of competitive factors, their
benefits, vulnerabilities, successful characteristics, the breakthroughs that they introduce,
their design features as well as the users' and stakeholders' acceptance.

Example 1.22:

Question: Compare unstructured interviews and restricted questionnaires as

methods of data collection.

Answer :

Interviews Questionnaires
More complete data can be collected A lot of people can be reached in a
short period of time
It is a time consuming method A lot of employees may not respond
Clarifications may be given Easy to perform statistical analysis

Example 1.23:

Question: State three possible ways to conduct surveys.

Answer : Online, face -to- face and telephone surveys. /

\
N

During the analysis and design phases all critical organizational capabilities that are essential
to support effective planning and developing of the new IT system should be identified. A
successful IT system should result in a competitive advantage . According to Hall ( 2011)
organizational capabilities such as sense-making, decision - making, asset availability, and
operations management are completely associated with effective implementation of an
information system, which in turn positively affects organizational performance. Information
systems used in modern companies play a critical role and most companies use data and

lone Auston, MLS, Marjorie A . Cahn, MA, Catherine R . Selden, 1992, MLS, National Library of
28

Medicine, Office of Health Services Research Information, prepared for Agency for Health Care Policy
and Research, Office of the Forum for Quality and Effectiveness in Health Care, Forum Methodology
Conference. December 13 -16, 1992. Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
.
http :// www . nlm.nih.gov / nichsr / litsrch.html
 information as assets to gain competitive advantage. We should keep in mind that a modern
information system should be planned to 29:

• increase client trust

• preserve brand strength
• preserve organization reputation
• maintain corporate resiliency
• enhance organizational piece

1.2 . 7 Suitable representations to illustrate system requirements

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Develop system flow charts, data flow diagrams and structure charts for a given
scenario .
Distinguish between different diagrams used in computer science.
Suggest the optimal way to represent system requirements.

System requirements are specified through a document called a requirements specification

document . This document defines the specific customer requirements of a computer
system . It is included within the system analysis and may be later used to test the system,
after implementation, in order to evaluate it.2

Before proceeding with the various representations that are used to illustrate system
requirements, it is very useful to examine the types of processing.

Types of processing: According the IBDP Computer Science Guide ( 2004) 2 there are three
types of processing. The following table contains the equivalent definitions:

Data processing performed by a single processor

Online processing ( interactive ) through the use of equipment that it controls. For
example: airline reservation.
Data processing performed on -the - fly in which the
Real - time processing generated data influences the actual process taking
place. For example: aircraft control.

Data processing performed on data that have been

Batch processing composed and processed as a single unit. For example:
payroll.

29
Examining Impacts of Organizational Capabilities in Information Security: 2011, A Structural
Equation Modeling Analysis by Flail, Jacqueline Fluynh, Ph.D., THE GEORGE WASFIINGTON
UNIVERSITY, 2011, 204 pages; 3449269. Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http ://gradworks . umi.com / 34/49/3449269.html
/
Example 1.24:

Question: State two applications of real time processing.

Answer: Aircraft control, heart -rate monitoring.
\
.
v

1
System flowcharts

A system flowchart refers to the description of a data processing system, including the flow
of data through any individual programs involved, but excluding the details of such
programs. System flowcharts are frequently constructed during analysis activities and
represent various computer programs, files, databases, associated manual processes, etc.
They are able to show batch, real-time and online processing, and they are the only way to
refer to hardware.

ACTION OR PROCESS INPUT OR OUTPUT DEVICE DOCUMENT

ANNOTATION LINES CROSSING LINES JOINING

1 DATA FLOW
DATA FLOW DATA FLOW

4
4 4
*
TAPE DISK ONLINE STORAGE

COMMUNICATION LINK (TWO WAY UNLESS INDICATED )

Table 1.1: System flowchart symbols

I
Example 1.25: The following system flowchart describes the hardware and software
components of a system that is used to extract upcoming client birthdays from an
online database. A computer program, "Calculate", reads the clients' file ( "Clients")
from the online database and writes the names to a new online file called "Birthday".
The date is entered through a keyboard. All errors are sent in an error report to a
monitor.
Date / keyboard

Clients / online ï
database P Calculate

Ï
Error report / monitor

Example 1.26: ( System flowchart ) During the preparation of the monthly payroll run,
the hours of each employee are entered through a keyboard. A validation and a
verification process takes place . The name of this process is "Check". After this
process data is stored in a transaction file on a local hard disk. If the "Check" process
finds errors an error report is sent to a monitor. The "Calculate" program reads the
transaction file and updates the master file, held on an online magnetic disk. All
transfer details are stored on a magnetic tape and all pay slips are printed. A printout
for each employee is created.

Hours / keyboard

Check y Error report /

Transaction monitor
file/ hard disk

Calculate
Pay slips /printer

Ï
Master Transfer Printouts for each
file / on line details / employee
storage tape
/
Data Flow Diagrams ( DFD )
A DFD may usually be used to describe the problem to be solved ( analysis ). A DFD shows
how data moves through a system and the data stores that the system uses. A DFD does not
specify the type of the data storage and the type of data.

Data flow diagram element Symbol

Process
An operation performed on the data
Calculate
VERB

Data flow
Direction of data flow Name
NOUN *
Data store
File held on disk or a batch of documents Details
NOUN
External entity
Data source or destination Person
NOUN

/ \
I Example 1.27: ( use of a DFD ). Drivers can apply to renew their driving license using a
specialized national web site . Drivers input their personal details and various checks
are made to ensure that the driver has all necessary qualifications ( age and medical
examinations). If the results are acceptable the online application is approved
otherwise it is rejected.

Drivers with valid age

1
Driver
Valid or invalid

Details
»
* Driver details

Check age and

examinations
Result of
> Driver
y application
Valid or invalid med. exams j Driver details
Drivers with valid
medical examinations
/

Structure charts
A structure chart describes functions and sub- functions of a system, as well as the
relationships between modules of a computer program. The organization of a structure
chart is straightforward, allowing the analyst to split a large problem into smaller ones. Each
module performs a specific function and each layer in a program performs specific activities.
A structure chart makes the modular design development much easier.

Modular design is the process of designing system modules individually and then combining
the modules to form a solution to an overall problem.
 \
Example 1.28: (use of a DFD ). Students applying for a scholarship complete
an online
application form. The institution checks the student's marks with the help
of an
external consultant and contacts the student's school to confirm their
grades. A
decision is then made to approve or decline the scholarship application.

External consultant database

Rating Mark details

Approved
Student Details Approve Student
or not
Confirmation of marks | Student's details
School' s database

System

Part 1 Part 2 Part 3

Part 6 Part 4

Figure 1.5: A structure chart

The following terms are closely related to modular design and were
present in the
previous CS IB guide ( 2004)2:

• Top -down design or "stepwise refinement" is a software design and problem

solving
technique that involves the partition of a problem into smaller sub-problems
. Each
sub-problem is further broken down until all sub-problems are detailed enough
and
no more partition is required. Programmers are able to attack its sub- problem and
develop the equivalent programming code.2
• Pseudocode is an artificial language that is not directly related to any particular
hardware and is used to describe algorithms. Pseudocode does not follow
the
grammar of any specific computer language and requires conversio
n to a computer
language before the resulting program can be used. 2
 • Module is a complete and independent part of a program or an algorithm. 2
• Modular programming or "Modularity" is the method of partitioning a computer
program into separate sub-programs. The main advantage is that each sub-program
can be easily modified and maintained without the necessity to alter other sub -
programs of the program.
2

2
• Modular language is a language that supports modular programming.

Example 1.29:

Question: State two high-level computer languages that support modularity.

Answer: Java, JavaScript.

1.2 . 8 Purpose of prototypes to demonstrate the proposed system to the client

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the need of prototyping during the design stage

Describe the need for user / client feedback .
Explain the need for effective collaboration
J

There are many advantages to creating a

prototype. A prototype is either a working
or non- working preliminary version of the
final product or a simple version of the final
system that is used as part of the design
phase to demonstrate how the final product
will work.

A prototype:

• Attracts the attention of the client,

since it encourages them to use it and "get a
feel for it"

Image 1.14: Prototype creation

• Provides just enough of the concept
for the investors to decide if they want to
fund the full production or not
• Encourages active participation between users and developers
• Gives an idea of the final product
• Helps in the identification of problems with the efficiency or the design
• Increases system development speed
 Example 1.30:

Question: A robot company develops various robotic systems. In most cases a

test
prototype is produced.

1. Suggest a situation where the development of a prototype is justified

and
needed, and a situation where the development of a prototype will not help

2. Suggest an alternative testing method

Answer: Answers may include:

l.a. A prototype will help: Robotic cleaner, robotic kit ( LEGO NXT ),
robotic
lawnmower, security robots. Justification: All these robots would be
developed
for sale to the general public in large quantities; all these can be produced easily
.
1.b. A prototype will not help: A robot that will carry out dangerous tasks
in a
nuclear reactor, a robot that will be used in a specific space mission Justifica
. tion:
Immediate need, time and money taken to produce and test a prototype may
be
considerable, special operational circumstances unable or too dangerous
to be
reproduced.

2 . Computer simulation that will be based on detailed mathematical models

. Use
of the computer simulation for testing purposes.

1.2 . 9 Importance of iteration during the design process

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Define iteration.
Explain the importance of iteration during the system and software lifecycle
.
Explain the importance of iteration during the design process.

Iteration refers to the repetition of a set of instructions for a specific number

of times or
until the operations yield a desired result 2. It is impossible to design a system
, an interface or
software that has no initial functional or usability problems. During the design
process, the
designers of the product may have to step back several times and reconsid
er choices they
have made. Even the best designers cannot design perfect products in single
a attempt, so
an iterative design methodology should be adopted. As they proceed to
decide how the
product will finally look and function, they may stumble on
several difficulties or
inconsistencies that will force them to return to previous steps or versions and
modify them,
or even start the process from the very beginning. Iterative developm
ent of software
involves steady improvement of the design based on various evaluation and
testing methods
( e.g. user testing) . Hence, to make sure that everything works as
it should, the producer may
have to run through the process again and again.

211
 Useful Information: It is a good idea to read the article: "Iterative user interface
design" by Jacob Nielsen. Originally published in IEEE Computer Vol. 26, No . 11
( November 1993 ), pp. 32 -41.

http:// www .nngroup.com/articles/iterative-design/

1.2 . 10 Possible consequences of failing to involve the end - user in the design
process .
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the importance of end- user involvement during the design stage.
the
Identify possible consequences when the end- user does not actively participate in
design process.
Discuss the importance of clearly defined goals.

ers
For a system to be successful, the analysis and the design must involve all key stakehold
users
including the client ( the person or organization paying for the project ) and the end
( people who will use the system ). Involvement, collaboration and active participation
are

critical because a project with poorly- defined stakeholder goals is unlikely to be successful
.
The developed system may either solve a different problem, or deal with issues that
are

outside of the project's scope.

Example 1.31:
Question: A school saves its student records and files on paper, which are kept in file
cabinets. The school hires a system analyst to help on the computerization and
.
automation of the file storing process Explain why the school administration has to
work together with the analyst to define the problem accurately.

Answer : The school administrator is the expert on the problem, while the system
analyst is the computer expert and responsible for the analysis phase. Both parties
need to collaborate to come up with a clear and precise definition of the problem.
They have to predefine the outcomes and the criteria of success so that when the
system is realized there is a concrete set of criteria to use for evaluation.

1.2 .11 Social and ethical issues associated with the introduction of new IT
systems
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the importance of the introduction of new IT systems.

Analyse the social and ethical issues that relate to a given scenario.
Identify possible consequences associated with new IT systems.
 Tip: It would be a good idea to revise section 1.2.3 - IT subjects of social and
ethical
significance.

Automated Teller Machines ( ATM ) replaced bank tellers, E - pass systems replaced
highway
toll collectors, internet travel sites replaced small travel agencies, automat
ed voice systems
replaced service representatives, email replaced mail carriers, voice recognitio
n systems
replaced typists, and reporters are being replaced by blogs and "citizen journalist
s" and
social media users. Machines are replacing humans in countless tasks,
forcing millions of
individuals into unemployment . A counterargument is that jobs don t vanish
' , but change.
Finally, advances in robotics and artificial inteligence may eventually replace
an increasingly
large amount of workers with smart robots. This could create social disturban
ce similar to
that during the Industrial Revolution ( when the introduction of machines had
a similar
impact on society).

Image 1.15: A robot

Introducing new information technology systems and applications ( constantl

or y developing
old ones ) certainly has a great impact on society and starts to pose ethical
questions about
the extent to which this uncontrollable development can or should
continue. Take the
creation of Facebook and Twitter, for instance. These social networks became
increasingly
popular, penetrating users' social and personal lives, ultimately becomin
g a vital component
of them . Facebook changed the way social interractions occur. It is importan
t to mention
that social interaction is also an essential element of social change that
affects ideas, beliefs,
moral values etc . Other IT developments may have a more indirect social impact, but still,
since the primary purpose of developing information technology systems should be to
improve human life, this impact should be examined.

Continuous development of computerized systems may absorb people and cause them to
drift apart from the physical world and become enclosed in virtual environments.
Participation in virtual environments may completely disorient some users. In addition,
automated environemnts, such as the "smart home",which takes care of everyday tasks like
checking the refrigerator contents and making appropriate orders of supplies, may deprive
people of socialization and interaction opportunities that these tasks once offered to them.
Considering these possible outcomes, further moral and ethical questions arise.

A surprising finding is that in a business environment, the introduction of a new improved

information system often places more stress on the personnel because they have to study,
learn, and familiarize themselves with the new system while completing their regular duties.

The extent to which IT advances are benefical must be determined in order to be sure that it
will not affect human society negatively.

Human interaction with the system

1.2 . 12 Usability
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Give the precise meaning of the term usability, ergonomics and accessibility.

Accessibility refers to the potential of a service, product, device or environment to serve and
meet the needs of as many individuals as possible. A system characterized by high
accessibility can meet the needs of many people, while a system with low accessibility
presents barriers to specific groups of people. Frequently, accessibility is studied in parallel
with disabled people ( people with special needs ) and the use of various assistive
technologies.
30

Usability refers to the potential of a product, application or website to accomplish user

goals. The term is not limited to computer science but extends to other products and
services of all kinds. Factors that influence usability are described in section 1.2 . 13. Usability
relates to effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use.
31

30
Accessibility. ( 2014, September 22). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 18:19,
November 23, 2014, from http:// en. wikipedia .org/ w / index.php ?title=Accessibility& oldid=626601064
31
Usability, ( n. d . ). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http ://searchsoa.techtarget.com / definition/ usability
 Ergonomics or human engineering refers to the design of safe and
comfortable products,
systems or processes, specifically for people . For example, compute
r hardware, such as
keyboards, are shaped by ergonomic consideration in order to improve
users' comfort.32

1.2.13 Usability problems with commonly used digital devices

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Explain the effect of usability problems.

Identify usability problems in modern devices.

Students should analyze the overall usability of a device using the eight
quality components
of usability 33, 34.

1 .
Complexity /Simplicity : Amount of effort to find a solution or get a result
.
2. Effectiveness : Comparison of user performance against a predefined
level.
.
3 Efficiency : Task completion time after the initial adjusting period
.
4. Error : Number of errors, type of
errors and time needed to
recover from errors.
5. Learnability : Time used to
accomplish tasks on the first
use.
6. Memorability : Time, number of
button clicks, pages, and steps
used by users when they return
to the device after a period of
not using it.
7. Readability /Comprehensibility :
Reading speed.
8. Satisfaction : Attitude of users
toward applications after using
them; i.e. if users like it. Image 1.16: Usability problems with different devices

USABILITY PROBLEMS - DIFFERENT DEVICES

GPS/navigation systems

1. Small screen.

32
Ergonomics, ( n. d.). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http :/ / www.webopedia . eom /TERM / E / ergonomics.html
33
( n.d.) . Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http: userpages .
34 // umbc.edu/~zhangd/ Papers/IJHCIl.pdf
Nielsen Norman Group, ( n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
http :// www .nngroup.com/articles/ usability -101-introduction -to -usability
/

ri f t
 2. Low - quality speakers.
3. Antenna with poor performance that makes it difficult to receive a satellite signal.
4. Inaccurate geographical data .
5. Outdated street data .
6. Inefficient routing software.

TABLETS

1. Accidental touches leads to undesired selections.

2. Difficult to learn different gesture features' of various manufacturers.
3. Bad or poor scaling and zoom control.
4. Difficult -to-use control features.
5. Small side buttons.
6. Poorly written instructions.

Game consoles

1. Some portable game consoles have relatively small screens.

2. Buttons may be too small.
3. Difficult to use outdoors ( insufficient brightness).
4. Short battery life .

PCs:

1. Excessive keyboard use may lead to RSI ( Repetitive Strain Injury ) syndrome.
2. Excessive use of a large, bright screen may cause eyesight problems or tire the eyes.
3. Poor room lighting conditions may lead to distracting reflections on the screen.
4. The mouse of a PC is designed for right -handed people, making its use difficult for
left -handed people .

Digital Cameras:

1. Incorrect calibration of touch screen menus.

2. The need to hold the camera vertically, does not allow convenient navigation
through the touch- screens. An auto rotate screen option would increase usability.
3. If a camera does not have a flash capability or it is equipped with an inadequate
flash, then the user has to purchase and carry an extra hardware component.
4. The buttons are too small, making it difficult to push them.
5. Some cameras require specific software to connect them with a computer and store
or transfer files ( no drag and drop files option ).

Mobile phones

1. The keyboard of a mobile phone is very small and as a result many novice users
elderly people or users with bad eyesight struggle to use it.
2. Some users don't really need all the special features; they just need a basic device
for calls and SMS messaging.
MP3 Devices:

1. Tiny buttons.
2. Insufficient memory.
3. Fragile.
4. Lack of a screen in "micro" or "shuffle" devices.
5. Overall usability can be improved by use of NLP ( natural language processing) and
making the overall interface more intuitive, so that even people not familiar with
technology can use them.
6. Use of acceleration sensors or gesture control to enhance functionality ( e.g. shaking
the device to change the song).

Example 1.32:
Question: Tablets are often too small to have a usable virtual keyboard. Most of
them provide the option of handwriting recognition for input. Discuss whether this
input method is convenient for tablets.

Answer: Handwriting recognition is a suitable form of input on tablets as it is

quicker and easier for the user. This means that the touch screen on tablets can
have smaller dimensions than a keyboard, allowing the whole tablet to be smaller.
On the other hand, handwriting recognition is not always accurate and it takes time
to train the software to understand a user's handwriting. Also, a user's handwriting
may be different in difficult and demanding circumstances, for example when
writing quickly or writing on a moving bus. In most cases the tablet would still
require an alternative input method ( such as the small virtual keyboard) to input a
word if not successfully recognized using handwriting recognition.

Example 1.33:
Question: State some health and safety issues that secretaries and typists ( keyboard
operators) should be aware of. Suggest measure that can be taken to improve the
working conditions.

Answer:

• Issues: RSI, dry eyes, back problems, headaches

• Measures: regular breaks, properly - designed chairs, wrist supports

1.2 .14 Methods that can be used to improve the accessibility of systems
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the importance of accessibility.

Identify how different devices improve accessibility.

Sir
/ \
Useful Information: A keyboard that is mounted too high to be used by children lacks
accessibility. A laptop that weights 20 kilos is not portable. These are straightforward
examples. The following notes focus on methods that make the use of IT easier for
disabled individuals.

35
The World Health Organization ( WHO ) suggested the following definitions :

• "Impairment: a loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical

structure or function .
• Disability : any restriction or lack ( resulting from an impairment ) of the ability to
perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a
human being."

Some critical aspects to consider when evaluating the accessibility of an IT system

36
( according to Burgstahler, 2012 ) :

1. Visual impairment, from blindness to colour vision deficiency

Input methods and devices:

Braille input devices are available. Most blind people or seeing-impaired use touch
type with standard keyboards.

Output methods and devices:

Speech output devices can read the screen text . Screen readers are commonly used
to convert text to speech using speech synthesizers. A braille display is a device that
allows for braille characters to be displayed using pins, in order for blind users to be
37
able to read text. For people with colour blindness the capability to adjust the
colour of the display or change the background and foreground colours is also of
great value .

2. Hearing and speech impairments

Input methods and devices:

No problem with commonly used devices

35
UN Enable : First 50 Years : Chapter I! - What is a disability ? ( n . d . ) . Retrieved November 23, 2014,
from http:// www.un. org/esa /socdev/ enable/ dis50yl0.htm
36
Adopted by: Burgstahler, S., 2012, Working Together: People with Disabilities and Computer
Technology, Retrieved November 23, 2014 from
http:// www. washington.edu / doit / Brochures/Technology/ wtcomp.html
37 Refreshable braille display. ( 2014, August 27). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved
18: 20, November 23, 2014, from
http://en. wikipedia .org/ w/ index.php?title=Refreshable_ braille_ display& oldid= 623037113
 Output methods and devices:

Replace sound signals with visual effects. Use of subtitles to replace audio speech
track.

3. Cognitive Problems and learning disabilities

Input and output methods and devices:

Special software that provides active participation, multi-sensory experiences,

strong interaction, positive reinforcement, personalized instruction, individualized
instruction, and repetition can be useful in skill building. A basic word processor can
be a useful tool for persons with dysgraphia or dyslexia.

4. Mobility impairments, limited hand mobility, Parkinson disease

Input methods and devices:

Specialized disk guides can assist while inserting and removing CDs, DVDs, diskettes
etc.

Disabled people that cannot use a normal keyboard can instead use a pointing
device to press keys and control a personal computer. Mouth and head-sticks can
36
also be used to control a personal computer if needed.

Left - handed and right -handed keyboards are available for individuals who lack one
arm or who have lost the ability to use one arm, and those who have fine motor
control but lack a range of motion great enough to use a standard keyboard or
suffer from severely reduced strength. These keyboards provide more efficient key
arrangements than usual keyboards designed for two-handed users.

Track balls and specialized input devices such as wearable computer interfaces can
replace mouse and keyboard. Modified gloves are wearable computer interfaces
that facilitate people with mobility
impairments.

it For individuals who cannot move

their fingers independently, all fine
motor skillswill be affected. They
may not be able to use conventional
keyboards or keypads, etc. Some
special devices and hardware
modifications completely replace
the common input devices ( mouse,

i ItAlA
/
keyboard ) forindividuals who
cannot operate these input devices.

Expanded keyboards equipped with

Image 1.17: Disabilities larger keys can replace usual

48
 keyboards for users with limited fine motor control.

Scanning and Morse code input that emulate the keyboard are suitable for people
with severe mobility impairment or reduced ability to coordinate the movements of
the arms and hands.

In some cases, special knobs rely on a muscle whose action is normally controlled by
the individual's will (voluntary control ) . To make selections, disabled users take
advantage of knobs activated by movement of the head, neck, finger, foot, lips,
tongue, breath, etc.

Another assistive technology includes the sip-and -puff ( SNP ), which can be used to
control using air pressure by inhaling and exhaling through a tube. Disabled users
input Morse code by activating specialized switches ( e. g., a sip - and -puff mechanism
registers a "dot" with a sip and "dash" with a puff ) . A translation process converts
38
Morse code into a computer understandable form.

Natural language processing, voice recognition and speech -recognition are emerging
alternatives for people with disabilities. These technologies allow disabled users to
interact with their PCs by speaking or spelling words.

People with mobility impairments can take advantage of word prediction software
that can reduce text input difficulties for commonly -used words. Word - prediction
software predicts entire words after several keystrokes and auto-completes users'
frequently -used words and phrases. This makes typing faster, and orthographically
correct, and thereby reduces effort.

Output methods and devices:

There is no necessity for different output devices.

Useful Information: The computer science department of the Colorado State

University is making an effort to provide accessible distance classes, and on campus
classes to students. http:// www . cs.colostate.edu / accessi/ ?page=index

1.2 .15 Range of usability problems that can occur in a system

Exit skills. Students should be able to1:

Explain the effect of usability problems

Identify usability problems in various systems.

i
Tip: It would be a good idea to recall the "eight quality components of usability"
( 1.2 . 13 )

38
Sip - and- puff. ( 2014, August 22) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 18:21, November
23, 2014, from http:// en.Wikipedia.org/ w /index.php ?title =Sip - and- puff & oldid= 622302284
If a website is difficult to use, or if a website fails to clearly state what a company offers and
what users can do, users will leave. If users get lost on various pages of the site then the
website will not serve its original purpose. If a site ' s information is hard to read, doesn 't
answer users ' key questions or contains irrelevant information, then the site has low or no
usability. If an interface is not appealing then it will not attract users. For websites that serve
e-commerce it is important for the users to quickly locate a product. Successful intranets
increase employee productivity and decrease time wasted.

Ticketing systems:

Important : Ticketing systems may refer to public transportation ticketing systems, to theater
ticketing systems etc. or to helpdesk software that tracks customer requests. ( Known as
"support tickets" ).

Usability quality component Usability considerations

Complexity / Simplicity: Amount of effort to find Unclear instructions on how to obtain
a solution. a ticket. Lack of built -in help.
Not abiding to international
Effectiveness: Comparison of user performance
standards. Foreign people find it
against a predefined level.
difficult.
Efficiency: Task completion time after the initial Complicated site that makes user
adjusting period. perform unnecessary actions.
The user books more tickets than
Error : Number of errors, type of errors and time
he/she wishes and he/ she has to
to recover from errors.
restart the booking process.
The first time someone enters the
Learnability : Time used to accomplish tasks at site, gets confused and it takes
first use. him/her some time to understand the
required procedure.
Easy to remember : Time, number of button
People get confused and it takes some
clicks, pages, and steps used by users when they
time to remember the required
return to the device after a period of not using
procedure.
it.
The font and the background selected
Readability / Comprehensibility : Reading speed.
are not appropriate.
Satisfaction: Attitude and satisfaction of users Unsatisfied customers because of
after using the application. poor system.

Online payroll systems:

Usability quality component Usability considerations
Complexity/ Simplicity: Amount of effort to find Unclear instructions on how to
a solution. calculate taxes. Lack of built -in help.
The system is designed for another
Effectiveness: Comparison of user performance
country. Other systems have been
against a predefined level.
localized.

i
 The system is not suitable for the
Efficiency: Task completion time after the initial user's needs and he / she has to
adjusting period. perform a lot of modifications every
time he / she needs to use it .
Error : Number of errors, type of errors and time No verification and validation rules.
to recover from errors. Prone to errors.
Learnability : Time used to accomplish tasks at The design of menus is not straight -
first use. forward.
Easy to remember: Time, number of button
clicks, pages, and steps used by users when they
The interface is not intuitive
return to the device after a period of not using
it.
Readability / Comprehensibility: Reading speed. Hard -to-read interface.
Satisfaction: Attitude and satisfaction of users
Difficult to use, unhappy users.
after using the application.
It would be a good idea to read
http://neoinsight.com/insights/articles/ 2009/05/16/usability-catastrophe-payroll-
calculator/ to understand more about how usability is very important.

Scheduling systems:
Usability quality component Usability considerations
Complexity/ Simplicity: Amount of effort to find Unclear instructions on how to use the
a solution. system . Lack of built -in help.
Effectiveness: Comparison of user performance Other applications have better
against a predefined level. synchronization capabilities.
System may be difficult to understand
Efficiency : Task completion time after the initial
making a simple task, like organizing
adjusting period.
your schedule, complex.
Error : Number of errors, type of errors and Time to reschedule a wrong
time to recover from errors. appointment ( entry ).
Learnability : Time used to accomplish tasks at
Complicated menus.
first use.
Memorability: Time, number of button clicks,
pages, and steps used by users when they Difficult to remember the optimal way
return to the device after a period of not using to add a task .
it.
Readability / Comprehensibility: Reading speed . Very small characters.
Ideal for another country with
Satisfaction : Attitude and satisfaction of users
different time/ date/ distance unit
after using the application.
format .

Voice recognition systems:

Usability quality component Usability considerations
Complexity/ Simplicity: Amount of effort to find
Lack of built -in help.
a solution.
Effectiveness: Comparison of user performance Other competing solutions produce
against a predefined level. better results.
 Efficiency : Task completion time after the initial Poor word -recognition performance.
adjusting period.
Error : Number of errors, type of errors and time Prone to errors.
to recover from errors.
It takes time for the software to
Learnability: Time used to accomplish tasks at recognize the voice of a new user.
first use. The user has to be very patient
during the initial use of the system.

Memorability: Time, number of button clicks, the software needs

Sometimes
pages, and steps used by users when they return retraining.
to the device after a period of not using it.

Readability / Comprehensibility : Reading speed. N/ A

The user needs to speak loudly,
Satisfaction: Attitude and satisfaction of users which results in problematic and
after using the application. embarrassing situations when in
public places.

Systems that provide feedback :

Usability quality component Usability considerations
Lack of intuitive interface.
Complexity/ Simplicity: Amount of effort to find No support of native language.
a solution. Difficult to obtain feedback.
Effectiveness: Comparison of user performance Give incorrect or irrelevant feedback.
against a predefined level.
Give feedback when the user can't
Efficiency: Task completion time after the initial use it.
adjusting period.
Give feedback rarely.
Error : Number of errors, type of errors and time Difficult to re - enter information after
to recover from errors. a wrong input .
Learnability : Time used to accomplish tasks at Difficult to learn.
first use.

Memorability: Time, number of button clicks,

pages, and steps used by users when they return Difficult to remember .
to the device after a period of not using it.

Readability / Comprehensibility: Reading speed . Difficult to read the instructions.

Satisfaction: Attitude and satisfaction of users Inconvenient interface, menus etc.
after using the application.

Tip: It would be a good idea to study some case studies from this web site:
http:// www.usabilityfirst.com/about -usability/usability -roi/ case-studies/

Also, read http:/ / www.designprinciplesftw.com / to learn the 10 usability heuristics

for user interface design.
1.2 .16 Moral , ethical, social , economic and environmental implications of the
interaction between humans and machines
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the difference between ethics and moral.

Identify moral, ethical, social, economic and environmental implications of the
interaction between humans and machines in a given scenario.
Develop a balanced and thorough review of a given scenario that involves moral,
ethical, social, economic and environmental implications.

i
Tip: It would be a good idea to revise section 1.2.3 - IT subjects of social and ethical
significance.

Artificial Intelligence ( Al) and robotics are two computer science fields that point towards a
very different future. A difficult question yet unanswered is: how can we replicate living
beings using silicon chips, computer networks, and software ? Advances in Al make it possible
to predict that in the near future, computers will achieve a kind of intelligence. Artificial life
does not have two of the principal characteristics associated with organic planetary life. It is
not carbon and water based. Furthermore, has not evolved along with others forms of life.
Many scientists are concerned that advances in Al might lead to unpredictable and
dangerous situations with no human control over Al robots.

Imagine a situation where manipulation of sound, picture or video fools your senses to
experience something that has never happened. It is acceptable to watch a science fiction
movie or listen to digitally -augmented vocals, but it is unacceptable to blackmail someone
using a digitally-altered video.

39
Useful Information : Although ethics and morals both refer to "wrong and right" they
should be considered under different frameworks. Religion, society, profession and family
set the ethic framework, while one owns principles set morals.

Despite predictions to the contrary, I.T. has dramatically increased the amount of printed-
paper. Even when users are careful about printing, vast reams of paper ends up in the
recycling bin every day. Even recycling paper requires extensive use of chemicals and
energy. The environmental consequences should be considered when printing documents
from the computer. Furthermore, electronic waste contains lead, cadmium, mercury,
chromium, PVC, and other dangerous chemicals that end up in landfills causing pollution.

The digital divide exists not only between high and low income households but also between
countries. Laptops, tablets, smart -phones, interactive whiteboards, multimedia, wireless
technologies, search engines, social networks, file sharing, digital music and photography,
and other cutting-edge information technologies are part of everyday life for the fortunate,
but just a dream for many more. The consequences of the digital divide result in increasing
inequality and reduced opportunities for education, entertainment and income.

Ethics vs. Morals, ( n.d.). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from

39

http://www.diffen.com/ difference/Ethics_vs_Morals
Example 1.34:

Question: A hospital holds a lot of confidential information about patients. The

administration stores this information on a computer system. Explain the measures
and methods that the administration should take to ensure that such information
remains absolutely confidential.

Answer: Use of passwords, only qualified staff are allowed to access patients' files,
use of physical locks, use of encrypted data, use of firewall, etc.

Example 1.35:

Question: A secret intelligence agency is highly concerned about security and keeps
biometric details of all visitors and personnel on a database system. The agency is
introducing the use of biometric features as a security measure and has recently
installed iris scanning and recognition equipment at the entry points of their
building. Describe any resulting issues.

Answer: Agents should be scanned at least once per working day and this may raise
concerns about their health. The long-term effects of daily scanning of
photographing a person's iris are not yet fully researched. Social issues include
concern over the storage of visitors' biometric information on the database system.

Example 1.36:

Question: Compare and contrast the suitability of humans and computers in

relation to various tasks.

Answer:

Computers are more consistent than humans

Computers are very good at repetitive tasks
Computers can make precise calculations
Computers can perform accurate calculations
Computers can perform complex calculations
Computers can process large volume of quantitative data in short periods of
time
Computers don't need breaks
Computers have the ability to work in conditions too dangerous for a human
Humans adapt
Humans can easily identify shapes
Humans can easily process sounds
Answer cont.:

Humans can handle unexpected circumstances

Humans can process qualitative data
Humans have creativity
Humans have emotions
Humans have senses ( debate differences from sensors)

Example 1.37:

Question: Some governments are introducing e- passports. Such a passport stores

personal and biometric data about the passport holder. What is meant by the term
biometric property ? Give an example of a biometric property.

Answer: A biometric property of a person that can be used to identify him/ her.
Facial structure, fingerprint, iris pattern, DNA profile and voice profile.

Example 1.38:

Question: Identify a mission that could be carried out by a robot.

Answer : Any of the following:

Mission that requires consistent task completion

Mission that requires continuous operation
Mission that is dangerous
Mission that is repetitive
Mission that is unpleasant
Mission that requires precise movement
Mission that requires a robot able to operate in environments humans
cannot work in
Mission that requires robots to act faster than humans
Mission that requires robots to provide increased productivity

Example 1.39:

Question: A chemical company decides to adopt a fully automated system. Before

the introduction of the new system the company reassigns daily tasks and
assignments to each worker. Describe the effects on the workers.

Answer:

• Administrators will be able to check up on their daily work through the new
system; good for some workers, not for others
• Anxiety about being made redundant
Answer cont.:

• Fear that they will not be able to cope with new system
Tedious tasks will be performed by the new system, not the workers
Various tasks may be made safer
Workers will have to learn new skills
New skills will mean better qualifications
New skills will mean better salaries

Example 1.40:

Question: Why is working from home better than working from an office ? Justify
your answer.

Answer:

• Economic issues and implications for the company

o No need for large and expensive offices
o Lower utility bills
o No need for parking fees
o Training costs ( use of technologies)
• Social issues and implications
o Global workforce
o Group working can become difficult
o Employees lose social interaction
o More time can be spent with family
• Environmental issues and implications
o Less traffic and less pollution
• Moral issues and implications
o Harder to monitor what employees are doing
o Greater security issues (insecure home network and Internet
connection )
• Ethical issues and implications
o Some employees will need to take important decisions without the
presence of their coworkers
o Some employees will have difficulties keeping pace without
continuous supervision
o Employees feel like their own boss
• Health issues and implications for the employees
o Less stress
o Quality of life improved with peace and quiet

Example 1.41:

Question: A company decides to build a web - site for marketing purposes. An analyst
is asked to help. Explain what information the analyst must collect before the design
process.

Answer: Languages, format, possible colour scheme, information and data that the
site will include, internal and external links etc.
Example 1.42:

Question: State some new IT solutions in the Banking sector that benefit the client.

Answer:

• Mobile banking
• Online banking
• ATMs

Example 1.43:

Question: State some new IT solutions in the Banking sector that benefit the
employees.

Answer:

• Automatic validation and verification of transactions

• Online databases that do not allow duplicate entries
• Automatic balancing

Example 1.44:

Question: State some new IT solutions in the education sector that benefit students.

Answer:

• Use of simulation educational software facilitates the deeper understanding

of difficult concepts
• Use of tablets to better organize all resources and access multimedia
content

• Use of Learning Management Systems to collaborate with peers

Example 1.45:

Question: State some new IT solutions in the education sector that benefit teachers.

Answer :

• Spreadsheets could be used to effectively calculate grades

• Use of Smart Boards to enhance student participation and interest
• Use of online resources to enrich teaching material and content

Example 1.46:

Question: State one disadvantage of continuous development of computerized

systems.

Answer: The participation in virtual environments may completely disorient users.

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ni
 Chapter 2

TOPIC 2- Computer Organization

r

© IBO
2012
Topic 2 Computer organization1

Computer Architecture
2.1.1 The central processing unit ( CPU ) and its elements

Computer systems consist of hardware and software components and follow the concept of
the input, process, output and storage model . This means that a computer system takes in
some data as input, processes it in a manner that we have requested and outputs the result
in some way. During the processing phase, other data, may be needed apart from the
inputted. This data will exist in the storage of the computer system and will be used during
the processing phase . Furthermore, any new information that may arise from the processing
phase may also be saved in the storage.

Example 2.1: Imagine that we have a digital camera which is a sort of computer
system . In order to take a picture the system, follows the input, process, output and
storage model.
The input is the pressing of the shutter button to notify the system that we want to
take a photograph. The process that the computer system performs is to capture
the light through the camera lens and transform it to create digital image. This
transformation requires instructions that exist in the storage. These instructions are
loaded and used by the processing phase. Finally, the output is the digital image
that we view on the monitor screen of the camera . This output is also saved on the
\ storage ( memory ) .

The input, process and output model is shown in Figure 2.1, outlining the relationship
between the components of a computer system. More specifically, a computer system
accepts data or instructions as input from an input device ( from a keyboard, a sensor, a

1
International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Computer Science Guide
 Input
( Data )
Process

Â
A Output
( Information )
i
V
1

Figure 2.1: The input, process and output model

digital camera button etc.). Data or instructions are then processed by the computer system.
It may be the case that other data or instructions, apart from the input, are necessary during
processing. These exist in the storage and may be loaded and used. Finally, the computer
system outputs the processed data into information that we can see and use ( using a
monitor, speakers, a printout, etc . ) . This output is also saved on the storage ( memory ) .

Data or instructions that are processed by a computer system in the process phase of the
input, process, output and storage model are processed by the central processing unit (CPU ).
The CPU is a hardware component of a computer system and can perform basic arithmetic,
logical or input / output operations, in order to process data from input devices into useful
information. The CPU is the "brain" of a computer system and can process data very quickly
but can only process data by following instructions - it cannot think for itself. The CPU can
also be referred to as the processor or chip. A block diagram can be created to represent the
elements that compromise it. This block diagram is shown in Figure 2.2. The CPU functions in
the process phase of the input, process, output and storage model. It retrieves and saves
data and information from and to the storage, which is the primary memory of the
computer system. Any data or information that is to be saved on or retrieved from some
storage medium ( ex. hard disk, CD, DVD, floppy disk, USB stick ) first has to pass through the
primary memory in order to be accessed by the CPU. As such, the CPU can retrieve data only
from the input or primary memory of the computer system.

The CPU contains the :

• control unit ( CU )
• arithmetic logic unit ( ALU )
• memory address register ( MAR )
• memory data register (MDR )

The control unit (CU ) is responsible for the operation of the CPU. It controls the retrieval of
instructions from the primary memory as well as the sequence of their execution.
The arithmetic logic unit ( ALU ) performs all the basic arithmetic, logical or input /output
operations. The CU is responsible for providing the ALU with the data that needs to be
processed as well as the instructions of how the data should be processed.

As shown in Figure 2.2 the primary memory used as storage contains two types of memory -

The terms bit (b), Byte ( B) and their multiples

Computer systems are binary systems. That means that all the data and instructions
that are stored in a computer system are stored in sequences of binary digits that can
take only two possible values, 1 and 0. Thus a binary digit (bit) is the basic unit of
information in computer systems and can have only two values: either 1 or 0. Eight
bits form a byte .

1 Byte = 8 bits

A bit is denoted by the small letter b, whereas a byte is denoted by the capital letter
B. Thus, IB = 8b . One byte can store a single character (ex. the letter A).

In a 64 bit computer each memory location holds 64 bits. A 64 bit Memory ( Address )
Bus transfers 64 bits at any one time ( which are the contents of a memory location in
a 64 bit computer system).

In computer systems we describe everything in bits and bytes. As such, they are used
to denote file sizes stored on memory or disks ( ex. a 12MB file) or even connection
speeds ( ex. 50Mbps). However, since files can become quite large and connection
speeds quite fast, multiples of bits and bytes are used. The following table depicts the
prefixes that can be used to denote multiples of bits and bytes.

Term Size in binary system Size approximation

Kilo ( K ) 1,024 1, 000
Mega (M) 1,0242 1,000,000
Giga ( G ) 1,0243 1,000, 000, 000
Tera (T) 1,0244 1,000,000,000, 000

In the decimal system, one kilometer is 1,000 meters. However, since computer
systems are binary, a "Kilo" is 1,024. Since these two values are close there is a
tendency to use multiples of 1,000 instead of 1,024 in the binary system as well.

It is important not to mix the meaning of bits and bytes and their multiples. For
example, the values of 12 Mb (twelve mega bit ) and 12MB (twelve mega bytes) are
different.

12 Mb = 12 * 1,0242 bits whereas 12 MB = 12 * 1,0242 Bytes

Since 1 Byte is equal to 8 bits, 12 MB is an amount 8 times greater than 12 Mb.
the random access memory ( RAM ) and the read only memory ( ROM ).

The RAM stores the executing program instructions as well as any data that is needed.
Instructions and data in the RAM are stored in unique memory locations and every such
location has an address as well as content . The content is where the instructions and data
reside, whereas the memory location is used by the CU to find, retrieve and access the data
in order to send it to the ALU for processing.

Similar to the RAM, the ROM holds instructions and data in unique memory locations. Every
such location has an address as well as content. Unlike the RAM however, the ROM is used
to store permanent instructions and data that cannot be changed and are used to boot and
operate the computer. As such, nothing can be altered in the ROM.

Example 2.2: In order to move from higher prefixes to lower prefixes, we multiply by
1,024. For example, if a file has a size of 2GBs the file size in KBs will be 2 * 1,024 *
1,024. We multiply 2 by 1024 in order to get the file size in MBs and then multiply by
1,024 again to get the file size in KBs.

2GBs = 2 * 1,024 MBs = 2,048 MBs = 2,048 * 1,024 KBs = 2,097,152 KBs
In order to move from lower prefixes to higher prefixes, we divide by 1,024. For
example, if a file has a size of 2KBs the file size in GBs will be ( 2 / 1,024) / 1,024. We
divide 2 by 1,024 in order to get the file size in MBs and then divide by 1,024 again to
get the file size in GBs.

2 KBs = 2 / 1,024 MBs = 0.001953125 MBs = 0.001953125 / 1,024 GBs =

0.0000019073486328125 GBs I
\ /
\
x

Processor ( CPU )

CU

ALU
MAR MDR ÀOutput
i
Data Bus
Memory ( Address ) Bus

RAM ROM

Figure 2.2 : CPU block diagram

64
The CU contains various registers. In general, a register is a small storage location that can
hold data, usually a multiple of 8 bits. For example, a 64 bit computer has 64 bit registers.
The size of the register in bytes is known as a word . For example, the 64 bit register holds 64
bits = 8 * 8 bits and since 1 byte is equal to 8 bits, 64 bits = 8 Bytes. Thus, a 64 bit computer
system has a word size of 8 bytes. This means that each memory location will hold 64 bits
( or 8 Bytes ).

The basic registers in the CU are the memory address register ( MAR ) and the memory data
register ( MDR ).

The MAR holds the memory address of the data to be used by the ALU, so that the ALU can
fetch the corresponding content from the memory and process it accordingly. The MAR may
also hold the memory address of where data that has been processed will need to be stored.
In order for the MAR to communicate with the primary memory, a connection is necessary.
This connection is accomplished by the Memory ( Address ) Bus.

The MDR holds the data that is to be used by the ALU and then saved to the RAM. The MDR
is closely related to the MAR, since whichever memory address location the MAR is holding,
the corresponding data will be loaded onto the MDR for processing by the ALU. After the
processing has taken place, the ALU places the result onto the MDR and the data is copied to
the memory address location in RAM specified by the MAR. The connection between the
RAM and the MDR is accomplished by the Data Bus.

I Example 2.3:
Question: Describe the function of the data bus found in a PC.
Answer: It carries data to the MDR and then to the ALU from memory and from ALU to
the MDR and then to memory.
Example 2.4:
Question: Outline the function of the ALU ( arithmetic logic unit ).
Answer: The ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations. It performs various
calculations and comparisons using various logic gates.

2.1.2 RAM and ROM

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the use of primary memory.

Define the terms RAM and ROM.
Explain the differences between RAM and ROM.

The primary memory is the only storage that is directly accessible by the CPU. At any point in
time, the primary memory may hold both data and instructions that are currently running on
the computer system. These data and instructions are stored in the primary memory as
binary machine code (i.e. a series of Os and Is).
As depicted in Figure 2.2 the primary memory consists of two types of memory:

• Random Access Memory ( RAM )

• Read Only Memory ( ROM )

RAM is a general-purpose storage area

meaning that the data stored can be over -
written. This allows data and instructions to
be loaded for execution and use whenever
they are necessary. However, RAM is
volatile, which means that whenever power
is lost the contents of its memory are wiped
( ex. if an unsaved document with changes is
open when the power is lost, all the changes

Image 2.1: RAM

that had been made will be lost ) .

On the other hand, ROM is used to store

instructions and data and cannot be over - written. This means that the instructions that are
embedded in ROM cannot be changed, even if power is lost, and as such is considered non-
volatile memory. ROM is used to store programs and instructions that do not need to be
updated or change ( ex. the start -up instructions of the operating system ) .

Example 2.5:
Question: Identify some differences between ROM and RAM found in a PC.

Answer:

• ROM cannot be written to, but RAM can be written to.

• ROM holds the ( BIOS) Basic Input / Output System, but RAM holds the
programs running and the data used.
• ROM is much smaller than RAM.
• ROM is non-volatile ( permanent ), but RAM is volatile.

2.1.3 The cache memory

Exit skills. Students should be able to1:

Define cache memory.

Explain the function of cache memory.
Describe various types of cache memory.

RAM has two main types:

• Dynamic RAM ( DRAM )

• Static RAM (SRAM )
SRAM is faster but more expensive than DRAM, and as such DRAM is preferred for the main
RAM of a computer system. However, a small amount of SRAM is placed between the main
RAM and the processor and it is called cache ( Figure 2.3 ). As such, cache is a smaller and
faster RAM ( SRAM ) that temporarily stores instructions and data so that the processor does
not need to access the slower main memory ( DRAM ).

Cache holds the information from the RAM that is most actively used, and accessed most
frequently. The computer system will run faster as the slower main memory will need to be
accessed less frequently. When the processor needs to read from the main memory, it first
checks if a copy of the data exists in the cache. If so, the processor reads from the cache,
instead of reading from main memory. This action speeds up the process. If the data to be
read do not exist in the cache, the data are first copied to the cache and then used. When
the processor needs to write to the main memory it does so through cache memory.

Processor ( CPU )

ALU
MDR
.A Output

LI Cache
A
Memory ( Address ) Bus Data Bus

Primary Memory

L2 Cache

RAM

Figure 2.3: Cache

! Example 2.6:
Question: State some differences between Cache Memory and RAM.

Answer:

• Cache memory is nearer to the CPU than RAM.

• Cache memory is much faster than RAM.
• Cache memory is more expensive than RAM.
• Cache memory is separated in LI and L 2.

We are interested in two types of cache memories that reside between the main RAM and
the processor. These two types are LI cache and L2 cache. LI cache is placed on the
microprocessor itself whereas L 2 cache is placed between the primary memory and the
microprocessor .

2.1.4 The machine instruction cycle

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define Machine instruction cycle.

Describe machine instruction cycle.
Explain the use of data bus and address bus during the machine instruction cycle .

Computer programs are stored in the primary memory as a series of instructions in machine
code. These instructions, as well as any other necessary data, have to be moved from the
primary memory and into the CPU in order for the computer program to operate. In order
for that to happen, specific steps are followed. The following functions are carried out by the
CPU in order to run a computer program:

1. Fetch instruction from primary memory to control unit

The CPU is responsible for knowing which instruction it needs to take from the
primary memory in order to operate correctly. To do that it sends the appropriate address
through the memory ( address ) bus to the primary memory. The instruction that resides in
the specific address is then copied into the data bus and sent to the control unit ( CU ).

2. Decode instruction in control unit

The instruction that has been received by the CU is then decoded. Decoding an
instruction allows the CPU to be aware of any additional data that are necessary for the
execution of the instruction. Any required data that need to be loaded from the primary
memory in order for the instruction to be executable are then fetched. The addresses of
these data are placed into the memory ( address ) bus and the data from these addresses are
received by the CPU through the data bus.
 3. Execute instruction

The CPU executes the instruction using the necessary data that have been loaded
and calculates a result. Depending on the result, additional data may be needed. These data
are fetched from the primary memory for further calculations. As before, the addresses of
these data are placed into the memory ( address ) bus and the data from these addresses are
received by the CPU through the data bus.

4. Store result of execution and check for next instruction

After executing the instruction and computing the result the CPU then stores the
result in the primary memory. To do so, it specifies the address where the result will reside
in the primary memory, using the memory ( address) bus and sends the data through the
data bus. The CPU then checks for the next instruction and repeats the steps described
above by fetching, decoding, executing and finally storing the result.

The four steps presented above describe the machine instruction cycle.

Example 2.7:
Question: What is an instruction cycle ?
Answer: It is the basic operation cycle of a computer, taking place in a definite time
period, during which one instruction is fetched from memory and executed. It typically
consists of four stages: fetch, decode, executer and store.

Secondary Memory
2.1. 5 Persistent storage and secondary memory
Exit skills. Students should be able to

Define persistent storage.

Explain the need for persistent storage.
Define virtual memory.
Explain the use of virtual memory.

As described in section 2.1. 2 the primary memory of a computer system consists of both
random access memory ( RAM ) and read only memory ( ROM ) . The primary memory is the
only storage that is directly accessible by the CPU, meaning that any data that is stored
elsewhere needs to first be copied onto the RAM, since the ROM cannot be written to but
only read from, in order to be used by the CPU. RAM however is volatile, meaning that
whenever power is lost the contents of the memory are wiped. Furthermore, RAM is a
relatively fast memory but has only a restricted capacity to hold data . As instructions and
data are saved onto the RAM, the RAM will inevitably become full at some point . At that

69
point some instructions or data from the RAM will need to be moved in order to make space
for new instructions or data. This is where secondary memory comes into play.

Secondary memory ( a.k.a. secondary or auxiliary storage) is a relatively slow memory that
may be written to ( just like the RAM ) but is also non-volatile ( just like the ROM ); meaning
that the contents of the memory are not wiped if power is lost but are persistent. That is
why secondary memory is also known as persistent storage. Furthermore, secondary
memory has a relatively high capacity to hold data compared to the primary memory.

When the computer starts-up the RAM is empty. Instructions and data ( such as the
operating system ) need to be copied into the RAM in order for the computer system to run.
In most computer systems these are copied from the secondary memory. Secondary
memory is thus what provides persistent storage to computer systems. This is very
important since if secondary memory did not exist a computer system would be unable to
store instructions and data persistently. Whenever it shut down all the contents of the only
existing primary memory would be lost.

Without the availability of secondary memory only ROM, would be able to store programs
and instructions. That would mean that since ROM cannot be over - written, a computer
would only be able to perform fixed operations and any user data would have to be re-
inputted every time the user wished to use them. This would be acceptable for devices such
as simple calculators, but imagine a mobile telephone user, who would have to re-enter the
names and telephone numbers every time the mobile telephone was powered on. Such a
system would be very hard or impossible to use as the user would have to remember all the
telephone numbers or carry an address book everywhere !

Since data is very important, if not critical, for computer systems to function correctly, the
loss of data would be detrimental. As such, computer systems that need to hold persistent
data and not have data loss cannot function properly just with primary memory.

Figure 2.4 depicts the way that the CPU, primary and secondary memories are connected.
The CPU can only access the volatile primary memory that is relatively fast but moderate in
capacity. The primary memory is connected to the non-volatile secondary memory that is
relatively slower but has a higher capacity to hold data.

CPU Primary
Secondary Memory
Memory

Figure 2.4: CPU, Primary and Secondary Memory

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Example 2.8: Imagine that we have a computer system that has a primary memory
of 4GBs. When the system is off the volatile primary memory is empty. When the
system is turned on various programs are loaded into the memory ( including the
operating system) in order for the computer system to run correctly. Say that these
programs need 2GBs of primary memory. There are only 2GBs of primary memory
left for any other programs we might use.

Secondary Memory

Imagine that we need to design a new logo for our school. We run a web browser so
as to look for other logos and get some ideas. Assume the web browser needs
around 500MBs (0.5 GBs ) of primary memory in order to run. There are only 1.5 GBs
of primary memory left for any other programs we might use.

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After we look at a few other logos, we decide on an idea for our logo and we also
run a graphic design program that will allow us to create the logo. However, we
decide to keep the web browser running so as to look at the other logos as we go
along. Assume the graphic design program needs around 1GB of primary memory in
order to run. There are only 500MBs ( 0.5 GBs ) of primary memory left for any other
programs we might use.

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 While designing our logo in our graphic design program, we decide that a 3 D sphere
would look great. In order to create the 3 D sphere, we would need to run a 3 D
modeling program . Assume this program needs around 1GB of primary memory in
order to run. However, we only have 500MBs ( 0.5 GBs ) of primary memory left.

If secondary memory did not exist, we would not be able to run the 3 D modeling
program without closing some of the other programs in order to release some
primary memory. However, the secondary memory allows us to run all these
programs concurrently and seamlessly. Since there is not enough space in the
primary memory to load the 3 D modeling program, some other program loaded by
the user ( either the web browser or the graphic design program ) is copied into
secondary memory, this making space for the 3 D modeling program to be loaded
into primary memory. Whenever the program that was moved into the secondary
memory is needed, some other program in the primary memory is copied to the
secondary memory. The first program is again copied back into the primary memory
and is ready to be used by the user . The process described above is called Virtual
memory and can be defined as the use of secondary memory as if it was primary
memory.

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As depicted in the example, secondary memory is required to hold information that may not
be needed all of the time or may be too large to fit as a whole in primary memory ( virtual
memory ) . This makes secondary memory a necessity in most computer systems.

There are a number of different secondary memory ( storage ) devices. The main ones are
listed below:

Hard drive ( a.k.a . hard disk )

CD-RW, DVD -RW
USB Flash drive
Secure Digital ( SD) or Compact Flash ( CF ) card
Zip disk
Floppy disk
Magnetic tape Image 2.2: Hard drive

1
 Different storage devices

Image 2.3: An old 5.25 inch floppy disk

Image 2.4: A loaded DVD drive

Image 2.5: An old 3.5 inch floppy disk

00
*1*

Image 2.7: A ZIP drive with a disk

Image 2.6: Multipe Compact flash memory cars

Image 2.8: A Solid state drive for notebook and a hard Image 2.9:Various USB sticks
disk drive for desktop computer
As secondary memory is obviously crucial to computer systems it becomes apparent that
advances in the technology surrounding secondary memory are beneficial to computer
systems as a whole. New technologies appear and existing ones strive to become more
efficient, robust, and faster, as well as to hold more data than before.

As the modern world is characterized by an increasing amount of computer systems, masses

of data are produced continuously which have to be stored somewhere. All these data have
to be stored in non- volatile secondary ( storage ) memory. As such, the need for such
memory is ever -increasing.

Example 2.9:
Question: State some differences between primary and secondary memory.
Answer:

• Most computers are equipped with a smaller amount of primary memory and
a larger amount of secondary memory.
• Primary memory is volatile, which means it does not retain data when the
power is turned off.
• Primary memory is more expensive compared to secondary memory.
• Primary memory is much faster than secondary memory.
• Primary memory is directly accessed by the CPU.
• Secondary memory is not directly accessible by the CPU.
• Secondary memory is non-volatile, which means it retains data when the
power is turned off.

Operating and application systems

2.1.6 Functions of an operating system

An operating system (OS ) is a set of software that controls the computer's hardware
resources and provides services for computer programs. It is a very important part of a
computer system since it acts as an intermediary between software applications ( i.e.
programs) and the computer hardware .
This relation is shown in Figure 2.5. In a computer system a user would interact with an
application that has been designed to meet the user's needs. This application would require
an operating system in order to function. This operating system would allow the application
to interact with the hardware of the
User
computer system thanks to a number of
services.
0
The main services that an operating system Application
provides are listed and described below :

• Peripheral communication
0
Operating System
• Memory management
• Resource monitoring and
multitasking
Networking Hardware
•
• Disk access and data management
• Security Figure 2.5: User, application, operating system
and hardware interaction
Peripheral communication

Peripheral devices are all the hardware components of the computer system that reside
outside the CPU. Examples of peripheral devices include keyboards, monitors, mice, printers,
microphones, etc. The operating system is responsible for communicating directly with the
hardware and providing an interface between hardware devices and applications. This
allows for applications to use hardware devices in a trouble -free manner.

Memory management

An operating system (OS) is responsible for all the memory that is available in a computer
system. This means that an OS manages how the memory is used by applications and
ensures that one application does not interfere with memory that is being used by some
other application. If one application interferes with another application's memory, the latter
may stop functioning or its data may be affected or overwritten.

Resource monitoring and multitasking

An application that is running on a computer system takes up resources. These resources

include the amount of memory the application is occupying, or how much processor time it
needs in order to function properly. An OS is responsible for the efficient allocation of
resources so that an application can run as effectively as possible on a particular computer
system .

Multiple applications may run on a computer system at any one time, appearing as though
they are performing tasks simultaneously. Most computer systems however have a single
CPU that can perform a single action at any particular time. That means that applications
must share the CPU time in order to accomplish their goal. This is known as multitasking and
it is a core OS service.
wmmmm

Networking

An operating system manages connections to and interactions with networks of other

computer systems so as to allow the sharing of resources ( such as files and printers ).
Networking is essential to modern computer systems, most connected with either a local
area network or the Internet. An operating system acts as an intermediary between
applications and networks, allowing applications to interact with networks in a
straightforward manner.

Disk access and data management

An important function of an operating system is its ability to access data stored in memory
and disks. Data are stored using files, which are structured in such a way so as to make
better use of the space available to the system, as well as to provide reliability and fast
access times. The OS is responsible for keeping track of these files, as well as which files are
being used by which applications so that an application does not overwrite another
applications' files. The OS is also responsible for coordinating the transfer of data from the
disk files into the primary memory and vice versa .

Security

Apart from allowing applications to run successfully, the

operating system is also responsible for the overall security of
a computer system. The most common but effective method
of protection is to provide some form of identity to the user
that will allow his/ her authentication. Most often a username
and a password must be provided . However, other methods
of authentication may be used, such as magnetic cards or biometric Linux
data. Apart from authentication methods, an additional security
A measure is the use of log files
Username
Password'
Username

* * * * * * * ** *
* that keep trace of the activity of image 2.10: os logos
any user in the computer
Cancel
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system . Anything a user does ( reads, writes or
deletes files, changes some settings, etc.) is
recorded so that unauthorized users and activities
may be discovered.

Some important examples of major operating

Image 2.11: Security
systems at the moment are OS X, Linux, UNIX and
Microsoft Windows.

Example 2.10:
Question: Outline the memory management function of an operating system.
Answer: The OS deals with different passwords and the equivalent access levels. This
ensures that only appropriate users can access particular files. Different uses have
different access levels and different rights ( add a file, edit a file, delete a file, view a file
etc.).
2.1. 7 Software application
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the term application software.

Define the terms word processors, spreadsheets, database management systems,
email, web browsers, computer - aided design ( CAD ) and graphic processing software,
and describe the use of these applications.

A computer system has the ability to run at least one software application, which has been
installed by the manufacturer, to complete some predefined tasks. For example, a digital
camera is on its own a computer system. It consists of both hardware and software
components and follows the input, process, output and storage model as described in the
example of section 2.1.1. The software components of the digital camera are preloaded
when it is manufactured and complete predefined tasks ( ex. when the shutter button is
pressed, the software is run that is responsible for capturing the image in digital form and
storing it into memory after processing it is run ) . These software components of the digital
camera can only be altered by receiving their updated versions from the manufacturer.

However computer systems include devices such as desktop and laptop computers, tablets,
mobile smart phones etc. These allow the user to install a large number of software
applications on to them. This allows for the use of a range of software applications on them,
instead of being able to complete only one predefined task . The main software applications
that may be installed on such computer systems include:

• Word processors
• Spreadsheets
• Database management systems
• Web browsers
• Email
• Computer Aided Design ( CAD)
• Graphic processing software

Word processors

A word processor is a software application that is used for the production of any sort of
document. It includes tools for the composition, editing, formatting and possibly printing of
documents. Word processing, is the action of creating documents using a word processor.
This is the most common of all the main software applications that can be installed on a
computer system .
Some well-known word processing applications are Microsoft Word ( see Figure 2.6) and
Apple iPages.

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A spreadsheet is a software application that is used for the organization and analysis of data.
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These cells may contain numbers, text or results of formulas that calculate and display
values automatically on the basis of the contents of other cells. Spreadsheet software
applications allow not only for the fundamental operations of arithmetic and mathematical

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functions to be shown but also provide common financial and statistical operations and can
display graphical data as well. Spreadsheet software applications are used not only in
accounting or finance, but also in any context that requires arithmetic data to be entered,
processed and presented.

Some well-known spreadsheet applications are Microsoft Excel ( see Figure 2.7 ) and
OpenOffice Calc .

Database management systems ( DBMS )

A database management system ( DBMS) is a software application that manages ( creates,

queries, updates stores, modifies, and extracts information) databases and is designed to
provide an interface between users and a database. A well-known DBMS is MS ACCESS
( Figure 2.9 ).

A database can be defined as an organized collection of data. This data is organized into
records and model some relevant aspect of reality. For example, a database can store
information about a school. All the data will be organized in records with each student's
information organized in one record as shown in Figure 2.8.

Student ID First Name Last Name Telephone Number

1572 Tom Jones 510-572 - 8276
1573 John White 510-537-3456
1574 Wendy Stevens 510- 591- 6374

Figure 2.8: A database with three records (rows )

The database in Figure 2.8 represents structured data items in a table. It contains three
records ( also called rows or tuples ) and four fields ( also called columns ) . Each record
represents a set of related data, which in this example is the information about a specific
student. A key feature of a database is the unique key. A unique key is one ( or more ) specific
fields that uniquely identify each record. In our example, the Student ID field is the unique

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key because each student will have a specific unique Student ID that can identify him/ her
and differentiate him/her from all the other students in the school.

\Neb browsers

A web browser ( or browser ) is a software application used to access, retrieve, and present
content on the World Wide Web. This content may be web pages, images, videos or other
files and may be identified by a URI (Uniform Resource Identifier ). An example of a URI is
http :// en.wikipedia.org/. The web browser uses a URI to connect to the appropriate web
servers and request the wanted information. The web servers send back the information
which the web browser then displays to the user.

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Figure 2.10: Microsoft internet Explorer, an example of a web browser application

Some major web browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer ( see Figure 2.10 ), Google
Chrome, Mozilla Firefox and Apple Safari.

Email

Electronic mail ( email or e-mail) is a software application that allows for the exchange of
digital messages from a single author to one or more recipient ( s ) . The author and the
recipient ( s ) do not need to be online simultaneously to exchange the email. The author of
the email sends the email to the email server of the recipient ( s ), and when the latter
connects to the server, they will receive the message.

An email consists of three components: the envelope, the header and the body. In order for
an email to be transferred from the author to the recipient ( s ), the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP ) is used. This protocol communicates delivery parameters using the message
envelope. The message header contains information about the sender and recipient ( s )
addresses, as well as the subject field and a date /time stamp. Finally, the message body
contains the actual message which the author wants to send to the recipient ( s ) .
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Figure 2.11: Microsoft Outlook, an example of an email application

Email software applications can be web-based, or as software that is installed on a personal

computer system. Web - based email ( a .k.a. webmail ) can be accessed by any computer
system that supports a web browser. The main disadvantage of web- based email software
applications is the need to be connected to the internet while using it.

Some important software applications for email are Microsoft Outlook ( see Figure 2.11) and
for web - based email Google Gmail.

Computer Aided Design (CAD )

Figure 2.12: Autodesk AutoCAD, an example of a CAD application

 I
A computer - aided design ( CAD) application is a software application that assists engineers to
create, modify, analyze and optimize a design. CAD is used in many fieldsand its purpose is
to increase the productivity of the designer and the quality of the resulting design. Some
examples of circumstances where CAD applications are used include automotive,
shipbuilding, architectural design, and many more.

CAD applications allow engineers to inspect a design from any angle or position. Computer -
aided designs can convey more than just shape information. Materials, dimensions,
tolerances can all be represented in such a way that when an engineer changes one value all
the other dependent values automatically change accordingly.

Some major CAD applications are Autodesk AutoCAD ( see Figure 2.12 ) and Dassault
Syst èmes Solid Works.

i Example 2.11:

Question: State some difference between a Spreadsheet software application and a

Database Management System.
Answer:

• A Database Management System could be used for various data associations

that cannot be created with spreadsheets.
• A Database Management System manages databases and serves a lot of
users.
• A Database Management System preserves data integrity easier.
• A spreadsheet can be used to produce charts and graphs using automated
software tools.
• A spreadsheet can hold a limited amount of information.
• A spreadsheet usually serves the needs of a single person.
• Spreadsheet software can perform a lot of mathematical functions and
perform data analysis.

Graphic processing software

Graphic processing software ( aka graphics software or image editing software) allows a user
to manipulate visual images on a computer. A user can edit an image with the use of tools in
various ways, such as selecting and moving, cropping, scaling, erasing, etc.

Some popular graphic processing software applications are Adobe Photoshop ( see Figure
2.13 ) and Corel Draw.
 CP

Adobe Photoshop* CS6

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Figure 2.13: Adobe Photoshop, an example of a graphic processing software application

2.1 . 8 Common features of applications

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the terms toolbars, menus, dialogue boxes, graphical user interface (GUI) and
command line interface ( CLI ).
Identify features that are provided by the application software and features that are
provided by the operating system.

Software applications installed in computer systems, as described in 2.1.7, typically include a

graphical user interface (GUI ) to allow the user to interact with them in a number of ways,
instead of just typing in commands. A GUI includes components such as graphical icons and
visual indicators, as well as toolbars, menus, and dialogue boxes. These allow the interaction
between the user and the software application to be performed more smoothly through
direct manipulation of the graphical elements.

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Software applications have improved greatly
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Directory of C:\Users\kdim
over the years. Early software applications
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Favorites
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interfaces (CLIs ). Later ones took advantage
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Figure 2.14: Example of a Command Line Interface

 *

Command Line Interfaces ( CLIs) Graphical User Interfaces ( GUIs )

Pros • Easier to implement by a • Users do not need to
programmer remember specific
• Requires less memory to run commands - easier for new
• Can be run on computer systems users to use
without a graphical monitor • Users use icons to remember
• Quicker to type in a command than commands
to use a mouse - experienced users • Commands are grouped in
may find it useful menus and toolbars
Cons • Users need to remember specific • More complex to implement
commands - hard for new users to by a programmer
use • Requires more memory
• Requires a graphical monitor
and a pointing device
Table 2.1: Pros and Cons of CLIs and GUIs

Common GUI elements include the following:

• Toolbar
Menu
• Dialogue box

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Figure 2.15: Microsoft Office Word Toolbar

A toolbar is a GUI element on which buttons, icons, menus, or other input or output
elements are placed. An example of a toolbar is shown in Figure 2.15.

A menu is a GUI element that displays a list of commands that can be chosen by the user to
perform various functions. An example of a typical menu that displays operations related to
creating, opening, closing and saving a file is shown in Figure 2.16.

He Edit Window Help

D New Ctrl+N
Open Ctrl+O
Close
y Save Ctrl+S
Save As • • .
Exit

Figure 2.16: A generic menu

A dialogue box is a GUI element that is used to communicate information to the user and
allow him/ her to respond by choosing an option from a list of specific choices. An example
of a dialogue box that notifies the user that the file that is about to be closed is unsaved and
allows the user to select from a list of possible events is shown in Figure 2.17.

Do you want to save changes you made to Document 2?

Don't Save Caned

Figure 2.17: A dialogue box

GUIs provide ways that allow users to understand and interact with computer systems in a
more direct and natural way than CLIs. GUIs are described using the acronym WIMP, which
stands for Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointers .

These, and other GUI elements are common and can be found in almost every software
application. Since this is the case, it would be a waste of time for every software application
programmer to have to go through implementing these common GUI elements over and
over again for every separate software application. Therefore, some common GUI elements,
such as toolbars, menus, dialogue boxes, windows, etc., are provided by the operating
system, so that the programmer only needs to state their existence. For example, a
programmer that wants to implement a program which will run in a window and have some
menus needs to specify what commands the menus will include, what will happen when the
user initiates them by clicking them, as well as where they will reside within the window.
However, the actual menus and windows themselves are provided by the operating system,
as well as what happens when the window is minimized or moved.

The fact that some features are provided by the application software and some by the
operating system not only saves time for the programmer. It also improves usability for the
users, since all these features (toolbars, menus, dialogue boxes, windows, etc.) are displayed
in a familiar way across the software applications. This minimizes the possibility of confusion
and provides a smoother learning curve for each new software application. For example, the
steps for creating a new document, saving or closing it is the same in almost all programs:
under the file menu on the upper left corner of the application toolbar.
Computer Organization - Binary representation
2.1.9 Bit, byte, binary, decimal and hexadecimal
Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Define the terms bit, byte, binary, denary / decimal, and hexadecimal.
Perform various conversions between different numbering systems.

bit and Byte

The terms bit and Byte where initially encountered in 2.1.1. In this section we restate the
terms for bit and Byte provided in 2.1.1and look into further definitions.

Computer systems are binary systems that use sequences of bits to represent data. A binary
digit ( bit ) is the basic unit of information in computer systems and can have only two values:
either 1 or 0 . Eight bits form a byte.

1 Byte = 8 bits

A bit is denoted by the small letter b, whereas a Byte is denoted by the capital letter B . Thus,
IB = 8b. One Byte can store a single character ( ex. the letter "A").

bit

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

Byte
Decimal number system

The decimal number system is a positional system that uses ten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9) to represent any number, no matter how large or small. The decimal number system
( or base-10 ) has ten as its base and it is the most widely-used number system . The digits in
the decimal number system can be used with a decimal separator to represent a fractional
part, as well as a plus/ minus sign (+/ -) sign to indicate whether the number represented is
greater or less than zero.

Since base-10 is a positional system, the position of each digit within a number provides the
multiplier by which that digit is multiplied. Table 2.2 shows the initial four place values in the
decimal number system. Note that the multiplier is always a power of ten, with a base of 10
and an exponent that increases by one compared with the exponent of the position to its
right. Thus, each position has a value ten times that of the position to its right.

multiplier (power of ten) 103 102 101 10 °

multiplier 1000 100 10 1
multiplier (in writing) thousands hundreds tens units
Table 2.2: Initial place values in the decimal number system

86
1
An example of a number in the decimal number system is 6275 base 10 or 6275i0. All
numbers should state the base in which they belong (10 in this example ) . However, since the
decimal number system is the most widely used number system if the base is omitted it is
assumed that the number is in the base -10 system.

Example 2.12: Imagine that we need to understand what quantity is represented by

the number 0.627 base 10 or 0.62710. The table below depicts the digits of the
number as well as the multiplier.

1
10 2 10 3
"

multiplier (power of ten)

' "

10
multiplier 0.1 0.01 0.001
digits 6 2 7

The value represented by the number 0.627i0 is:

6 * 0.1 + 2 * 0.01 + 7 * 0.001 = 0.627

In the same manner, fractional quantities to the right of the decimal point can be
represented. The position of each digit within a number again provides the multiplier with
which that digit is multiplied. Table 2.3 shows the initial three place values in the fractional
part of the decimal number system. Note that the multiplier is always a power of ten, with a
base of 10 and an exponent that decreases by one compared with the exponent of the
position to its left. Thus, each position has a value ten times less that of the position to its
left.
_
multiplier (power often) 10 1 10 2
'

103
multiplier 0.1 0.01 0.001
multiplier (in writing) one tenth one hundredth one thousandth
Table 2.3: Initial place values in the decimal number system

Apart from the decimal number system, which is base-10 and uses ten digits to represent
any number, there exist a couple of other useful number systems that are used widely in
computer systems. These two are the binary and hexadecimal number systems. The binary is
base - 2 whereas the hexadecimal is base-16. We look into both.

Example 2.13: Imagine that we need to understand what quantity is represented by

the number 6275 base 10 or 6275i0. The table below depicts the digits of the
number as well as the multiplier.

multiplier (power of ten) 103 102 101 °

10
multiplier 1000 100 10 1
digits 6 2 7 5

The value represented by the number 6275i0 is:

6 * 1000 + 2 *100 + 7 * 10 + 5 *1= 6275
Binary number system

The binary number system is a positional system that uses two digits (0 and 1) to represent
any number . The binary number system ( or base- 2 ) has two as its base. It is the most widely
used number system in computer science. Numbers represented in this system are known as
binary numbers. Since base- 2 is a positional system, the position of each digit within a
number provides the multiplier with which that digit is multiplied. Table 2.4 shows the initial
eight place values in the binary number system. Note that the multiplier is always a power of
two, with a base of 2 and an exponent that increases by one compared with the exponent of
the position to its right. Thus, each position has a value two times that of the position to its
right.

multiplier (power of two) 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 °

2
multiplier 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Table 2.4: Initial place values in the binary number system

An example of a number in the binary number system is 101110 base 2 or 1011102. The base
number cannot be omitted in the binary number system.

Image 2.12: All computer processes are in binary form

88
 \
(
Example 2.14: Imagine that we need to convert the number 101110 base 2 or
1011102 to a decimal integer equivalent. The table below depicts the digits of the
binary number as well as their multiplier, depending on their respective positions.

s
multiplier (power of two) 27 26 2 24 23 22 21 °
2
multiplier 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
digits 1 0 1 1 1 0

To calculate the decimal value represented by the binary number 1011102 we must
multiply every digit of the number with its respective multiplier and then sum the
results, as such :
0 *1+ 1* 2 + 1* 4 + 1* 8 + 0 * 16 + 1* 32 = 46i0

Example 2.15: In a similar manner we may need to convert the number 46i0 to a
binary number equivalent . We can do this in two ways:

1) Repeatedly divide the decimal number by two and retain the remainders. When
the number to be divided is zero, the algorithm stops. Reading the retained
remainders from last to first gives us the decimal number as a binary number.

46 divided by 2 gives 23 and remainder 0

23 divided by 2 gives 11 and remainder 1
11 divided by 2 gives 5 and remainder 1
5 divided by 2 gives 2 and remainder 1
2 divided by 2 gives 1 and remainder 0
1 divided by 2 gives 0 and remainder 1
0 divided by 2 - algorithm has finished

The result ( reading the remainders from last to first ) is 46i0 = 1011102.

°
2) Write the powers of two from right to left, starting with 2 and incrementing the
exponent by one. The list of eight elements would be the following:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Pick the value from the list that is closest but not greater than the decimal number.
In our example, 32 is closest to 46 but not greater . Write a 1 under that number and
subtract it from the initial value. Repeat the above steps until the initial value is
reduced to zero. We put a 0 under any numbers that do not have a 1 under them.
Reading the list of Is and 0s from left to right gives us the binary number.

In our example, we add a 1 under 32 and subtract 32 from 46. 46 - 32 = 14.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1
/
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t

Then, we add a 1 under 8 and subtract 8 from 14. 14 - 8 = 6.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1

Then, we add a 1 under 4 and subtract 4 from 6. 6 - 4 = 2 .

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1

Then, we add a 1 under 2 and subtract 2 from 2 . 2 - 2 = 0.

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 1

The initial value has been reduced to zero. We put a 0 under 16 and 1.
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 1 0

The result ( reading the list of Is and Os from left to right ) is 46i0 = 1011102. /
\
/
N

Binary number system and negative numbers

Two' s complement is the way most modern computers represent signed binary numbers.
The main advantage of this representation is that addition, subtraction and multiplication
are carried out easily. Suppose that an 8 bit register stores the number 28. In this
representation, positive binary numbers start with 0 while negative binary numbers start
with 1.

128 64 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0

In this example the MSB ( most significant bit ) is 0. The MSB is the bit position in a binary
number having the greatest value while the LSB ( least significant bit ) is the bit on the right,
which gives us what we call the units value. In binary arithmetic it is easy to understand from
the LSB whether the number is even or odd.
s
\
Example 2.16: Suppose we want to find - 28 ( 8 bit register ). 28 in an 8-bit register is:
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

First we invert the digits. All ones become zeros and all zeros become ones.
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1

Then we add 1.
1 1 1 0 0 1 1
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
/
 /
/ \
And the output is \

1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
So this is - 28 in two's complement representation. It is important to mention that in
a 16 bit register - 28 would be 11111111111001002

Example 2.17: Suppose we want to find -56 ( 8 bit register).

56 in binary is:

0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
First we invert the digits. All ones become zeros and all zeros become ones.

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
Then we add 1.

1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
And the output is

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
So this is -56 in two's complement representation.

Example 2.18: This method also works when we want to convert a negative number
to its positive equivalent. Suppose we want to convert 110000002 which is -64i0 to
64 ( using an 8 bit register ) .

1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
First we invert the digits. All ones become zeros and all zeros become ones.

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
Then we add 1.

0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
And the output is

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
So this is 64 in two' s complement representation . /
\ /
\

Using two' s complement the largest positive number that can be stored in an 8 bit register
is: 01111111
^+127 io

Using two' s complement the largest negative number that can be stored in an 8 bit register
is: 11111111 -110
^
Using two' s complement the smallest positive number that can be stored in an 8 bit register
is: 00000001- lio
^
Using two's complement the smallest negative number that can be stored in an 8 bit register
»
is: 10000000 - -12810

Binary fractions

Unsigned numbers

In the binary system and in the decimal system the binary point is used to separate the
fractional from the whole part. For example the number 4.5 has 4 in its integer part and 'A in
its fractional part. Suppose we want to convert this to binary. Assume that we will work
using 8 bits. We are going to use 4 bits for the integer part and 4 bits for the fractional part.
So this is a fixed point representation method.

4 is 01002

0.5 or 0:A is 2
1

23 l
2
21 °
2 2
1 ’
2
2
2
3
2
4

8 4 2 1 % % 1/8 1/16
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
So the output is 0100.10002

\
1 Example 2.19: Suppose we want to find 12.3125

12 is 11002

0.3125 is 0.25+0.0625 or 2 2+2-4

'

23 22 ° 2-
-4
21 2
"

2
2 3
2
1 1 0 0 1 0 1
So the output is 1100.01012

V /

Signed numbers

The two's complement method will be used to represent signed binary fractions. The fixed
point method will be used.

Suppose we want to find - 2.75

First we will find 2.75

2 is 00102

1 2
'
0.75 is 0.5+0.25 or 2 + 2

4
23 22 21 2
" 2
2
3
’

2
0 0 1 1 0 0
Then we invert the digits. All ones become zeros and all zeros become ones.

i i 0 i 0 0 1 1
After that we add 1.

1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
+0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
And the output is

0
1 1
So this is 2.7510 in

/
- two' s
0
complement
1 0
representation.
^ 1 0

Example 2.20:
Question: Write the representation of the decimal number 4.25, in fixed-point, using
8 bits, where 4 bits are used for the fractional part, in two's complement
representation method.
Answer:
4io is 01002
0.25 IO=01002
OIOO.OIOO2 result

Example 2.21:
Question: Write the representation of -4.25, in fixed-point, using 4 bits for the
fractional part, in two's complement representation method.
Answer:
0100.0100 convert 0 to 1and 1to 0
1011.1011 add 1
IOII.IIOO 2 result /
\
\

Hexadecimal number system

The hexadecimal number system is a positional system that uses 16 digits ( 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

.
7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F ) to represent any number Digits A to F represent quantities from
10 to 15, thus A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14 and F = 15 . The hexadecimal number
system ( or base-16 ) has sixteen as its base and is used in computer science. Numbers
represented in this system are known as hexadecimal numbers.

Since base-16 is a positional system, the position of each digit within a number provides by
the multiplier which that digit is multiplied. Table 2.5 shows the initial five place values in
the hexadecimal number system . Note that the multiplier is always a power of sixteen, with
a base of sixteen and an exponent that increases by one compared with the exponent of the
position to its right. Thus, each position has a value sixteen times that of the position to its
right.

multiplier (power of sixteen) 164 163 162 161 16°

multiplier 65536 4096 256 16 1
Table 2.5: Initial place values in the hexadecimal number system
 Example 2.22: Imagine that we need to convert the number 1EB 5 base 16 or 1EB 516
to a decimal integer equivalent. The table below depicts the digits of the binary
number as well as their multiplier, depending on their respective positions.

multiplier (power of sixteen) 163 162 161 16 °

multiplier 4096 256 16 1
digits 1 E B 5

To calculate the decimal value represented by the hexadecimal number 1EB 5I6 we
must multiply every digit of the number with its respective multiplier and then add
all of the results, like so:
1* 4096 + E * 256 + B * 16 + 5 *1
= 1* 4096 + 14 * 256 + 11* 16 + 5 *1 ( since E = 14 and B = 11)
= 4096 + 3584 + 176 + 5
= 7861io

Example 2.23: In a similar manner we may need to convert the number 7861i0 to a
hexadecimal number equivalent. Below, we describe the way to achieve this. Note
that the algorithm followed is similar to the one that converts decimal to binary
numbers.

Repeatedly divide the decimal number by sixteen and retain the remainders. When
the number to be divided is zero the algorithm stops. Reading the retained
remainders from last to first gives us the decimal number as a hexadecimal number.

7861 divided by 16 gives 491 and remainder 5

491 divided by 16 gives 30 and remainder 11 (11 = B)
30 divided by 16 gives 1 and remainder 14 (14 = E )
1 divided by 16 gives 0 and remainder 1
0 divided by 16 - algorithm has finished

The result ( reading the remainders from last to first ) is 46i0 = 1EB 5I6.

An example of a number in the hexadecimal number system is 1EB 5 base 16 or 1EB 2I6. The
base number cannot be omitted in the hexadecimal number system.
 N .
/ \

Example 2.24:
Question: An 8-bit register is used to store integers in two's complement. Calculate
8FI6 + 2BI6. IS it possible to store the result in this 8-bit register?
Answer: The output is BA16. This is 186 in the decimal number system. The maximum
number that can be stored in this register is 127. So it is impossible to store this result
in this register.

Example 2.25:
Question: Determine the value of A10 in the following expression:
Aio = A 3i6+2316
Answer:
Aio = A3i6 ^ 23i6= C6i6= 198io
‘‘

OR

Aio -A 3i6+ 23i6-163io+35io-198io

or
A10 =1010 0112+0010 00112=1100 01102=19810 /
\ /

s' \
\

Example 2.26: Imagine that there is a computer system that uses 1 bit to represent
text characters.

With 1 bit, the possible number of different representations that can be achieved is
2, since this one bit can take the values:
0 or 1

With only two different representations it would mean that the computer system
would only be able to distinguish between only two different states. One state
could be used to represent the capital letter "A", the other the capital letter "B",
but there would not be any other different states to represent all the other letters
in the Latin alphabet .

If the computer system uses 2 bits to represent text characters, the number of
different representations that can be achieved is 4, since these two bits can take
the values :
00, 01, 10, or 11

Clearly, a sequence of 2 bits is still not enough to represent as many different

representations as are needed.

A larger sequence of bits is needed. The important thing to understand is that a

larger sequence of bits used to represent something in a computer system allows
.
for a larger possible number of distinct representations /
/
\

N
2.1. 10 Data representation
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Outline the way in which strings, integers, characters and colours are represented in
the computer .
Outline the space required to store strings, integers, characters and colours in a
computer
Describe the relation between the hexadecimal colour code and the number of
colours available.

Computer systems are binary systems, meaning that there are only two possible values that
they can represent: the values 0 and 1. These two values can be represented by a single
binary digit ( bit ) . In order for such systems to represent more complex data, sequences of
binary digits are used. The length of these binary digit sequences determines the possible
number of different representations that can be achieved.

The relationship that exists between the number of bits used by a computer system and the
number of different representations that can be achieved is the following:

n
2 where n is the number of bits used

Table 2.6 presents the number of different representations that can be achieved when n
number of bits are used, where n takes the values from 1 to 8.

Number of bits used 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Distinct representations
2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256
Table 2.6: Distinct representations with n number of bits

In order for computer systems to effectively communicate and exchange data, the way they
represent data must be consistent and similar . For example, imagine that a computer
system uses 8 bits to represent the letter "A" while another computer system uses the same
8 bits to represent the letter "B". Whenever the second computer system receives a text file
from the first, all the "A" symbols would be represented as "B", and the text file would not
be consistent between the two computer systems. As such, it is important that there is
consistency between computer systems in how they represent and exchange data . That is
why the standard formats exist.

Some of these standard formats are the following:

Integers

Table 2.6 represents the number of different representations for "n" number of bits, where
" n" is between 1 and 8. The relationship 2 can be used to calculate the number of different
n

representations for any number of bits "n".

Imagine that we use 8 bits to represent an integer number . That means that there can be 28
= 256 different representations, which means that 256 integer numbers can be represented.
This would allow us to represent all the unsigned positive integers from 0 to 255, thus 256
different integer numbers.

Examples of unsigned positive integers represented with 8 bits:

OOOOOOOlz = 110

000001012 = 510

OOOIIOOI2 = 2510

111111112 = 255 m
The twos complement method was presented in the previous section. However, we may
wish to represent both positive and negative numbers using the "sign - and -magnitude
number representation". This method represents a number' s sign by allocating the left -most
bit as a sign bit to represent the sign. As mentioned before, the left -most bit is termed the
most significant bit ( MSB) . The MSB is set to 0 for a positive number or 1 for a negative
number. The rest of the bits indicate the magnitude of the number. As such, if we use 8 bits
to represent an integer number and the MSB is the sign bit, only 7 bits remain for the
magnitude, which means that 21- 128 absolute values can be represented. This allows for
numbers -127 to +127 to be represented.

Examples of integers using the "sign -and-magnitude number representation" represented

with 8 bits:

000000012 = lio

lOOOOOOlz = - lio

111111112 = -12710
OIIIIIII2 = 127io

IOOOOOOO2 _ 010 and OOOOOOOO2 - 010

As can be seen from the last example, in this approach there are two ways to represent the
number zero. Overall, in this representation the MSB is comparable with the common way
of showing a sign ( 0 for "+" and 1 for

Characters

The American Standard Code for Information Interchange ( ASCII) is a character -encoding
scheme originally based on the English alphabet. This means that ASCII is used to represent
text in computer systems. To do that a number is assigned to each letter from 0 to 127. For
example letter K is assigned the number 75. ASCII uses 7 bits to represent each character
which means that it can achieve 27 = 128 different representations (i.e. 128 different
characters ) . It holds the Latin alphabet, ( lower case letters a -z and capital letters A -Z ) as well
as all the digits of the decimal numbering system 0-9.
Since the Latin alphabet has only 26 letters, 52 different representations are needed for
both lower case and capital letters. Furthermore, 10 more different representations are
needed for the decimal digits. The remaining 66 different representations are used to hold
the space and punctuation characters, as well as some control characters. An example of a
control character is the carriage return character that is used to indicate that the rest of the
document should start from a new line. Table 2.7 represents the ASCII character-encoding
scheme.

Code Char Code Char Code Char Code Char Code Char
0 NULL 26 SUB 52 4 78 N 104 h
1 SOH 27 ESC 53 5 79 0 105
2 STX 28 FS 54 6 80 P 106 J
3 ETX 29 GS 55 7 81 Q 107 k
4 EOT 30 RS 56 8 82 R 108 I
5 ENQ 31 US 57 9 83 S 109 m
6 ACK 32 [Space ] 58 84 T 110 n
7 BEL 33 59 85 U 111 o
8 BS 34 60 < 86 V 112 P
9 TAB 35 # 61 87 W 113 q
10 LF 36 $ 62 > 88 X 114 r
11 VT 37 % 63 7 89 Y 115 s
12 FF 38 & 64 @ 90 Z 116 t
13 CR 39 65 A 91 [ 117 u
14 SO 40 ( 66 B 92 \ 118 v
15 SI 41 ) 67 C 93 ] 119 w
16 DLE 42 * 68 D 94 A
120 x
17 DC1 43 + 69 E 95 121 y
18 DC 2 44 70 F 96 122 z
19 DC 3 45 71 G 97 a 123 {
20 DC4 46 72 H 98 b 124
21 NAK 47 / 73 I 99 c 125 }
22 SYN 48 0 74 J 100 d 126 rv

23 ETB 49 1 75 K 101 e 127 DEL

24 CAN 50 2 76 L 102 f
25 EM 51 3 77 M 103 g

Table 2.7: The ASCII character- encoding scheme

There are other character -encoding schemes available that allow for additional characters to
be represented. This allows non -English characters, graphic symbols and mathematical
symbols to be represented. For example, the most widely known character -encoding
scheme is Unicode.
Strings

In a computer system, a string is a sequence of characters. If the UTF-8 encoding- scheme is

used, each character will consist of 8 bits, and assuming that the average length of a word in
the English language is 5 letters, then on average 5 * 8 bits = 40 bits will be needed for each
word to be stored.

Colours

Many computer systems have a video display unit or monitor as an output device in order to
communicate with the user. Monitors use pixels to display information and have a specific
display resolution, such as 1024 x 768, that represents width x height in pixels ( ex, a monitor
having a resolution of 1024 x 768 has a width of 1024 pixels and a height of 768 pixels). A
pixel is the smallest controllable element in a display or of a picture represented on the
screen. Figure 2.18 demonstrates how an image is made up of individual pixels rendered as
small squares. We can see this by enlarging the image until the pixels become apparent.

Example 2.27
Question: Why is the Unicode character - encoding scheme needed ?
The ASCII character-encoding scheme can represent 128 different characters. This is
enough for the lowercase and capital letters of the 26 -letter Latin alphabet, as well
as the space, punctuation and control characters.
However, not all languages are written with the Latin alphabet. For example, the
Arabic alphabet consists of 28 letters, very different from the Latin alphabet, and it
is written from right to left. In the same manner, the Greek alphabet consists of 24
letters, which also are different from both the Latin and the Arabic characters.
In order to incorporate all these different characters as well as the space,
punctuation, mathematical and control characters into a single character -encoding
scheme, it is necessary to represent far more than the 128 different characters of
ASCII. That is why the Unicode character - encoding scheme was designed and is
necessary throughout computer systems.
The Unicode character -encoding scheme contains all the ASCII characters as well as
more specialized Latin letters with diacritics, as well as a number of other alphabets
such as Greek, Hebrew and Arabic.

Every pixel in a computer colour monitor may have only one colour at any moment.
However, each colour is made up of a combination of shades of red, green and blue. Each
pixel stores information about its state and colour in a memory location . There are many
ways to represent and store an individual colour.
 Figure 2.18: When an image is enlarged pixels become apparent

One such way is in the hexadecimal RGB colour values that specify the amount of Red,
Green and Blue light that need to appear at a pixel, in order to produce a specific colour. By
combining different shades of Red, Green and Blue a large variety of colours can be
displayed.

Each colour value is represented as a hexadecimal value of two digits that may take up
values from 00 to FF. Thus, in order to describe a colour value in this way, a six-digit
hexadecimal number is needed such as 70EF 5 A, which is shown in Figure 2.19. The first two
hexadecimal digits represent the Red colour, the next two the Green colour and the last two
the Blue colour. A little red (112), a lot of green ( 239) and a little of blue ( 90) combines to
make a "lime" shade of green ( Figure 2.19).

Figure 2.19 Representation of hexadecimal RGB colour value 70EF 5 A

100
The range of a two-digit hexadecimal number is from 00 to FF, which in decimal is from 00i6
= 0 * 16 + 0 *1 = 010 to FF16 = 15 * 16 + 15 *1 = 25510. The range of a six digit hexadecimal
number is from 000000i6 to FFFFFFI6. Since two hexadecimal numbers can represent 256
colours (from 0 to 255 ), six hexadecimal numbers ( which are used to describe colours in
computer monitors) can represent 256 * 256 * 256 = 1677721610 distinct colours.

Example 2.28:
Question: Does binary represent an example of a lingua franca ?
Answer: A lingua franca is a language that is used as a "bridge" language to make
communication possible between people who do not have the same mother
tongue. For example, English is the native language in the United Kingdom, but it is
used as a lingua franca in the Philippines in order for all foreigners and natives to
communicate with each other.
Binary allows the representation of data as a series of Os and Is. This includes text,
which means that binary is actually used to represent letters, sentences and
paragraphs of text. This text could be created by a user in one place of the earth and
read by some other user, of different nationality, residing in another place. Thus,
binary is used to represent any digital data that we want and allows us to
communicate with other people. From this point of view one could argue that
binary does represent an example of a lingua franca.
However, binary is not used as a language by people, but rather by computers in
order to represent ( amongst other things), languages used by people. That is, the
user of one computer would draft a document in a specific language ( such as
English) and not in binary, so that when another user opened up the document
he /she would still need to be able to read the specific language ( English in this case )
rather than the binary. So Binary is used to represent data, including languages, and
not as a communicative language itself . Binary would be extremely difficult for
people to use as they would need to know a specific character -encoding scheme
( such as Unicode) by heart and be able to use it. But comprehending and writing in a
language of Os and Is would be tremendously hard, as it was when the first
programmers had to write programs in binary. As such, seen from this point of view
binary does not represent an example of a lingua franca.

Example 2.29:
Question: A photograph measures 80 by 100 pixels and is stored as a graphic file.
The colour representation is 15 -bit high colour and uses 5 bits for Red, 5 bits for
Green and 5 bits for Blue. An extra bit is set aside for an alpha channel which is
normally used as an opacity channel. As such, the colour representation uses 16-bits
in total, which is 2 Bytes. Determine how many different colours can be
represented. Calculate the size of the file assuming that each pixel of this
photograph uses two bytes.

Answer:
• 25 * 25 * 25= 32768 possible colours
• SIZE = Bytes used * Dimensions = 2 * 80 *100=16000 Bytes

101
Simple logic gates
2.1. 11 Boolean operators
Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Define the Boolean operators: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR .
Develop truth tables for the Boolean operators: AND, OR , NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR .

Computer systems are made up of electrical circuits and use the binary system to represent
and store data. In order to do so, electrical circuits have been designed to receive one or
more binary numbers as their inputs and produce a single output. The logical operations of
these circuits are governed by the rules of Boolean logic.

There are six Boolean operators available: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR. In order to
understand how they work, look at the simple electrical circuit in Figure 2.20. It involves a
single switch, a light, a battery and some connecting cables. Since both a light and a switch
can either be on or off, the circuit can be in one of the two states, and as such resembles the
binary system used in computer systems.

switch

\
Figure 2.20: Simple electrical circuit

There are only two states that both the switch and the light can have at any point in time:

• When the switch is open, the light is off. In the binary system, the switch and the
light in this state are represented by a 0.
• When the switch is closed the light is on. In the binary system, the switch and the
light in this state are represented by a 1 .
In Table 2.8 we represent the above two states in a table that is known as a truth table. In
this example we only have one input ( the switch, and whether it is open or closed) and one
output (the light, and whether it is on or off ).

Input Output
Switch Light
Open ( 0) Off ( 0)
Closed (1) On (1)
Table 2.8: Simple truth table
The electrical circuit in Figure 2.20 described above is the simplest electrical circuit. It
resembles a simple on/off switch. Computer systems however demand more complex
circuitry in order to accomplish their tasks and so we must examine the six Boolean
operators and their truth tables.

Another way to represent Boolean operators is with the use of Venn diagrams. One is shown
in Figure 2.21. There is one circular region for each input variable ( the switch in our
example ). The interior of the circular region corresponds to when the input variable is 1/ true
(in our example the switch is closed) and the exterior to when the input variable is 0/false (in
our example the switch is open). The shaded region denotes when the single output ( in our
example the light ) will be 1/ true, and the white region denotes when the output will be
0/ false.

Figure 2.21 represents exactly the same information that the truth table in Table 2.8
describes. The output ( the light ) is 1/true when the input (the switch) is 1/ true ( the inside of
the circular region) and 0/ false when the input ( switch) is 0/false.

switch

Figure 2.21: Venn diagram of the simple truth table

The AND Boolean operator

The AND Boolean operator, shown in Figure 2.22, is slightly more complicated than the
simple electrical circuit of the on/ off switch. The main difference is that there are two
switches, instead of one, in series .

0 light

switch 1 switch 2

Figure 2.22: Electrical circuit representing the AND Boolean operator

There are four states that the switches and the light can have at any point in time:

• When both switches are open (0) the light is off (0)
• When switch number 1is open (0) and switch number 2 closed (1) the light is off (0)
• When switch number 1is closed (1) and switch number 2 open ( 0) the light is off ( 0)
• When both switches are closed (1) the light is on (1)
We can represent the above four states in Table 2.9. We have two inputs ( switch 1 and
switch 2 ) and one output (the light ).

Inputs Output
Switch 1 Switch 2 Light - AND
Open ( 0) Open (0) Off ( 0)
Open ( 0) Closed (1) Off (0)
Closed (1) Open ( 0) Off (0)
Closed (1) Closed (1) On (1)
Table 2.9: AND truth table

From the truth table we can understand that only when both switches are closed (1) the
light will be on (1). The AND Boolean operator is also denoted by the symbol

As a Venn diagram, the AND Boolean operator can be described as shown in Figure 2.23.
There are two circular regions, since there are two inputs ( switch 1 and 2 ). The inside of
these regions represent when the respective input has a value of 1/true. Where they overlap
both inputs have a value of 1/true ( both switches are closed) and the output is 1/true ( the
light is on ). That is where the shaded region appears. Only when both switches are closed is
the light on.

switch 1 switch 2

Figure 2.23: Venn diagram of the AND truth table

The OR Boolean operator

The OR Boolean operator, shown in Figure 2.24, has two switches, like the AND Boolean
operator. But instead of having them in series, the OR Boolean operator has the two
switches in parallel .

I
switch 1
light

switch 2

Figure 2.24: Electrical circuit representing the OR Boolean operator

There are four states that the switches and the light can have at any point in time:
 • When both switches are open ( 0 ) the light is off ( 0)
• When switch number 1 is open ( 0) and switch number 2 closed (1) the light is on (1)
• When switch number 1 is closed (1) and switch number 2 open ( 0) the light is on (1)
• When both switches are closed (1) the light is on (1)

We can represent the above four states in Table 2.10. We have two inputs ( switch 1 and
switch 2 ) and one output ( the light ) .

Inputs Output
Switch 1 Switch 2 Light - OR
Open ( 0) Open (0) Off ( 0)
Open ( 0) Closed (1) On (1)
Closed (1) Open (0) On (1)
Closed (1) Closed (1) On (1)
Table 2.10: OR truth table

From the truth table we can understand that only when both switches are open ( 0) the light
will be off ( 0). Otherwise, if one or both of the switches are closed (1) the light will be on (1) .
The OR Boolean operator is also denoted by the symbol

As a Venn diagram the OR Boolean operator can be described as shown in Figure 2.25. The
shaded region appears inside the circular regions since whenever at least one switch is
closed (1/true ) the light will be on (1).

switch 1 switch 2

Figure 2.25: Venn diagram of the OR truth table

The NOT Boolean operator

This Boolean operator has a single input and a single output . What this operator
accomplishes is to take the input and output the reverse. If the input is 1/true the output
will be 0/ false, and if the input is 0/false the output will be 1/true. We can represent the
above two states in Table 2.11. We have one input and one output .

Input Output - NOT

0 ( false ) 1 (true)
1 ( true) 0 ( false)
Table 2.11: NOT truth table

The NOT Boolean operator is also denoted by a bar on top of an input ( ex.switch) .
As a Venn diagram, the NOT Boolean operator can be described as shown in Figure 2.26. The
shaded region appears outside the circular region, since whenever the input is 1/true the
output is 0/false and vice versa.

Figure 2.26: Venn diagram of the NOT truth table

The NAND Boolean operator

The NAND Boolean operator is similar to the AND Boolean operator, but with its outputs
inverted. As in the AND Boolean operator, the NAND Boolean operator has four states that it
can be in, which are described in Table 2.12. Instead of having an output of 1/true when
both the inputs are 1/true, as is the case for the AND Boolean operator, the NAND Boolean
operator has an output of 1/true when one or both inputs are 0/false.

Inputs Output
Input 1 Input 2 NAND
Open ( 0) Open (0 ) On (1)
Open ( 0) Closed (1) On (1)
Closed (1) Open (0) On (1)
Closed (1) Closed (1) Off ( 0)
Table 2.12: NAND truth table

As a Boolean operator NAND is very important in computer science since any Boolean
function can be implemented by using a combination of NAND gates. The NAND Boolean
operator is denoted by a bar on top of an AND symbol ( ex. Input 1 Input 2 ).

As a Venn diagram the NAND Boolean operator can be described as shown in Figure 2.27.
The shaded region appears outside the intersecting circular region since whenever the
inputs are both 1/true the output is 0/ false . Otherwise the output is 1/true.

input 1 input 2

Figure 2.27: Venn diagram of the NAND truth table

1
The NOR Boolean operator

The NOR Boolean operator is similar to the OR Boolean operator but with its outputs
inverted. As in the OR Boolean operator the NOR Boolean operator has four states that it
can be in, which are described in Table 2.13. Instead of having an output of 1/true when one
or both inputs are l/ true as is the case for the OR Boolean operator, the NOR Boolean
;

operator has an output of 1/true when both inputs are 0/ false.

Inputs Output
Input 1 Input 2 NOR
Open (0) Open (0) On (1)
Open (0) Closed (1) On (0)
Closed (1) Open ( 0) On ( 0)
Closed (1) Closed (1) Off (0)
Table 2.13: NOR truth table

The NOR Boolean operator is denoted by a bar on top of an OR symbol ( ex.

Input 1 + Input 2 ) .

As a Venn diagram the NOR Boolean operator can be described as shown in Figure 2.28 . The
shaded region appears outside the circular regions since whenever both inputs are 0/false
the output is 1/true.

input 1 input 2

Figure 2.28: Venn diagram of the NOR truth table

The XOR ( exclusive OR ) Boolean operator

The XOR Boolean operator can be thought of as one or the other but not both. As in the OR
Boolean operator, the XOR Boolean operator has four states that it can be in, which are
described in Table 2.14.

Inputs Output
Input 1 Input 2 XOR
Open (0) Open (0) On (0)
Open (0) Closed (1) On (1)
Closed (1) Open ( 0) On (1)
Closed (1) Closed (1) Off (0)
Table 2.14: XOR truth table

The XOR Boolean operator is denoted by the following Boolean expression: A B + A B.

As a Venn diagram, the XOR Boolean operator can be described as shown in Figure 2.29. The
shaded region appears inside the circular regions but not where they overlap, since the
output is 1/true only when input 1 or input 2 are 1/true but not both.

input 1 input 2

Figure 2.29: Venn diagram of the XOR truth table

Various symbols and shapes used for Boolean operators

It is very useful to know that various symbols are used to represent the Boolean operators
described in the previous part. Table 2.15 depicts these symbols. It should be mentioned
that the IB computer science guide1 clarifies that when constructing logic diagrams "The
gate should be written as a circle with the name of the gate inside it".

Symbols Shapes

OR + V II

AND

NOT
A &
=D -

XOR ® V

=5>
NAND

NOR
A

v
=r> NAND

Table 2.15: Logical Operations and gates

I
2.1.12 Truth tables using Boolean Operators
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Convert sentences to Boolean expressions.

Develop and evaluate Boolean expressions using truth tables.
Develop truth tables by combining the various Boolean operators: AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR and XOR.

Using the six Boolean Operators described in section 2.1.11 ( AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and
XOR ), one can construct truth tables that represent the inputs and single output of more
complex logical statements such as "Tania won't go to play if it is cold and raining, or if
he/ she has not done her homework".

Before we move on, let us take note of an interesting fact about truth tables. Table 2.8:
Simple truth table and Table 2.11: NOT truth table had one input each that could be either
0/false or 1/true. This is so because we are working with Boolean operators that resemble
the binary system, and each input can have only one of two values: 0/ false or 1/true. As
such they had two rows describing the possible combinations of inputs. All the other truth
tables for the Boolean operators had two inputs, and had four rows describing the possible
combinations of inputs. Truth tables can be built to have as many inputs as necessary but we
are interested only in truth tables with up to three inputs, which will have eight rows
describing the possible combinations of inputs, as shown in Tables 2.16- 2.18. There is always
only one output.

Input Output
0 ( false ) 0 ( false)
1 ( true ) 1 (true )
Table 2.16: Truth table with one input

Inputs Output
Input 1 Input 2 OR
0 ( false ) 0 ( false ) 0 ( false )
0 ( false) 1 (true) 1 (true)
1 ( true) 0 ( false) 1 ( true)
1 ( true) 1 ( true) 1 (true)
Table 2.17: Truth table with two inputs

Inputs Output
Input 1 Input 2 Input 3 ( Input 1 AND Input 2) OR Input 3
0 ( false ) 0 ( false) 0 ( false ) 0 ( false )
0 ( false) 0 ( false) 1 ( true) 1 ( true )
0 ( false ) 1 ( true ) 0 ( false ) 0 ( false )
0 ( false ) 1 (true ) 1 ( true) 1 ( true)
1 ( true ) 0 ( false ) 0 ( false ) 0 ( false )
1 ( true) 0 ( false) 1 ( true) 1 ( true)
1 ( true ) 1 ( true) 0 ( false ) 1 ( true)
1 ( true) 1 (true ) 1 ( true) 1 ( true )
Table 2.18: Truth table with three inputs

109
Let' s look into the earlier statement in detail in order to figure out the inputs and outputs:

"Tania won't go to play if it is cold and raining, or if she has not done her homework"

We are interested in whether Tania will not go to play. As such, this is our output. Whether
Tania goes to play or not depends on whether it's cold and raining ( pay attention to the AND
Boolean operator ) or if she has not done her homework ( pay attention to the OR and NOT
Boolean operators). The inputs of this statement are 1) whether it's cold, 2 ) whether it's
raining and 3 ) whether the homework is done.

The statement under consideration could be re- written, using the notation for the Boolean
operators as follows:

Will not go to play = ( Cold Raining) -I- (Homework)

As such we can construct the following truth table:

Output
Input Will not go
to play
( Cold AND
Cold AND Raining) OR
Cold Raining Homework NOT Homework
Raining ( NOT
Homework)
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1
Table 2.19: Complex truth table

The approach described above with the truth table of Table 2.19 can be used in any
statement. This allows us to examine all the possible inputs and outputs that can appear.

• So, ' if it is hot and sunny, then we will go for a walk ' becomes
o 'If ( it is hot •it is sunny ) = go for a walk '
o A •B = C where A = sunny, B = hot, C = walk
• So, ' if it is hot or it is sunny, then we' ll go for a walk becomes1

o if ( it is hot + it is sunny ) - go for a walk 1

o A + B = C where A = sunny, B = hot, C = walk

• So, ' if it' s hot and it' s not raining, then we' ll go for a walk 1 becomes
o if ( it' s hot •it’ s raining ) = go for a walk ’
o A • B = C where A = hot, B = rain, C = walk
• So, ‘ if it' s hot or sunny, but not both, we' ll go for a walk' becomes
o ' if ( it' s hot 69 it' s sunny ) = we' ll go for a walk'
o A (B B - C where A - hot, B = sunny, C = walk
The sentence "If the airplane is late and there are no taxis in the airport, then we will have
to cancel our tomorrow meeting" could be analysed with the help of the following table.

Propositions ( statements) NOT ( sentence )

A = Airplane is late NOT A = Airplane NOT late
B = Taxis are not available NOT B = NOT ( Taxis are not available )
F = Cancel our meeting NOT F =NOT ( Cancel our meeting)
Table 2.20: Logical analysis of sentence

The logical expression that describes this sentence is: A AND B = F

The equivalent truth table follows:
A B Cancel meeting
Airplane NOT late - NOT (taxis are not available) 0 0 FALSE - 0
Airplane NOT late - taxis are not available 0 1 FALSE - 0
Airplane late - NOT (taxis are not available) 1 0 FALSE - 0
Airplane late - taxis are not available 1 1 TRUE - 1

\
/ \
/ Example 2.30:
Question: A chemical factory is equipped with three safety mechanisms. These
safety mechanisms are used to warn the local authorities for a potential accident. If
safety mechanism A or safety mechanism B are in the OFF position and if safety
mechanism C is in the ON position, then there is no reason to worry about an
upcoming accident.

Answer : Assume that ON position is 1 and OFF position is 0. It is possible to convert

this problem into a logic statement. Suppose that "no worry" is depicted with W,
then :

W = (A + B) * C
A B C F = NOT A OR NOT B W = F AND C
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0
/
\ /

N
 s
N
\
Example 2.31:
Question: Construct truth tables for the following two Boolean expressions and
determine if they are equivalent.

X= A © C

Y= A + C

Answer:

A C X= A © C Y= A + C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1

Two Boolean expressions are equivalent when the equivalent columns are identical.
These two expressions are not equivalent . When A = 1 and C =1, X value is not equal
to Y value ( fourth row ) .

Example 2.32:
Question: Construct truth tables for the following two Boolean expressions and
determine if they are equivalent.

A = P XOR Q OR R

B = P OR Q OR R

Answer:

P Q R A B
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0

These two expressions are not equivalent.

\ /
 \

Example 2.33:
Question: An alarm system has three inputs Q, W, R and one output I. When signal
at Q is FALSE then the output at I is the same as input signal R . When signal at Q is
TRUE then the output at I is the same as input signal W. Construct the truth table for
this alarm system and then write the equivalent Boolean expression.

Answer:

Q W R I
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

I = Q' * W' * R +Q' * W * R +Q* W * R'+Q* W * R

Example 2.34:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression : p OR q AND r
Answer:
P q r p V ( q A r)
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

Example 2.35:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression: p XOR q AND r
Answer:
P q r (P - q ) A r
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
I
\ /

113
 \
1
/

Example 2.36:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression: p AND q AND r

Answer:

P q r pA qA r
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

Example 2.37:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression: ( p OR q) AND r

Answer:

P q r (p V q) A r
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

Example 2.38:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression: ( NOT p OR q) AND NOT r

Answer:

P q r -
(- p V q) A -T
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

\
/
s
N

4
 N
\
\
Example 2.39:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression :
NOT ( p OR q ) AND ( NOT r AND NOT p )

Answer:

P q r - -
-> (p V q) A (- r A - p)
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Example 2.40:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression :
NOT ( p OR q ) AND NOT ( r AND NOT p )

Answer:

P q r -> (p V q) A -> (r A -> p)

1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Example 2.41:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression : ( p NAND q ) NOR r
Answer:

P q r (p A q) v r
1 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0

\
I
\
/
y
N
 / N
/ \
Example 2.42:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression: r XOR ( p NAND q ) Answer:
P q r r v (p  q )
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

Example 2.43:
Question: Construct a truth table for the expression : A XOR B Answer:
P q A Â B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

/
\
/
y

2.1.13 Simplification and Boolean expressions

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Use simplification rules to simplify a an expression.

The following table shows some properties of algebra used to simplify Boolean expressions.2
Property EXPRESSION 1 EXPRESSION 2
Absorption A+A * B=A A * ( A + B) = A
Adjacency A * B + A * B'= A ( A + B ) * ( A + B') = A
Associative A + ( B + C) = ( A + B ) + C A * ( B * C ) = ( A * B) * C
Commutative A+B=B+A A * B=B* A
Complement A + A' = 1 A*A 0
Consensus ( A * X ) + ( A' * Y) + ( X * Y) = ( A + X ) * ( A' + Y) * ( X + Y ) =
( A * X ) + ( A' * Y ) ( A + X ) * ( A' + Y )
DeMorgan ( A + B )' = A' * B' ( A * B)' = A' + B'
Distributive A * ( B + C) = A * B + A * C A + B * C = ( A + B) * ( A + C )
Idempotency A+A=A A*A=A
Identity A+0= A A * 1= A
Involution ( A')' = A
Null A + 1= 1 A *0=0
Simplification A + A'B = A + B A * ( A' + B) = A * B
Table 2.21: Properties of algebra

Marcovitz, A . ( 2009 ). Introduction to Logic Design. McGraw -Hill.

2
 N

Example 2.44:

If it rains, or it does not rain and is very cloudy, I will need an umbrella
The parts of this sentence are:
A = If it rains
A' = does not rain
B = is very cloudy
F = I will need an umbrella.

So the Boolean expression for this sentence is:

F = A + A' B

Using the Simplification property from the previous table

F = A + A' B = A + B

So the sentence could be simplified us

If it rains or is very cloudy I will need an umbrella
Example 2.45:

If it rains or it doesn' t rain I will need an umbrella

A + A' = 1 (complement property ). Always true so always need umbrella.

Example 2.46:

If it rains and it doesn' t rain I will need an umbrella

A * A' = 0 (complement property ). Impossible to have both conditions at the same
time in the same place, so the output is always false. No need for umbrella.

Example 2.47: Construct the truth table and simplify the following Boolean
expression:

F=A * B * C + A' * B * C' + A' * B * C

Solution

C F
0 0
1 0
0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 /
\ /
 I
/*
/ \

Exercise 2.47 cont. \

By applying the rules of the previous table:

F = A' * B * C' + A' * B * C + A * B * C = A' * B * C' + B * C * ( A' + A ) = A' * B * C' + B *

C * l=
A' * B * C' + B * C = B * ( A' * C' + C) = B * (A' + C) = B * A' + B * C

Example 2.48: Construct the truth table and simplify the following Boolean
expression:

F=A * B * C + A' * B * C' + A' * B * C

Solution

A B C F
0 0 0 1
0 10 0
01 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1

By applying the rules of the table 2.21,

F = A' * B' * C' + A' * B * C' + A * B' * C + A * B * C =

A' * C' * ( B + B') + A * C * ( B + B') = A> * C' + A * C

Example 2.49: Simplify the following Boolean expression: F = A + B> * A+B* A

By applying the rules of table 2.21, F = A + B * A + B * A = A + A * ( B' + B ) = A + A = A
f

Example 2.50: Simplify the following Boolean expression:

F = (A * B)' + A' + B' + A * ( A + B ) + B * (A + B )

By applying the rules of table 2.21,

F = (A * B)' + A' + B' + A * ( A + B) + B * ( A + B ) =

A' + B' + A' + B’ + A * (A + B) + B * (A + B) =
A' + B' + A * ( A + B) + B * ( A + B) =
A' + B' + A + B =l
/
\ /
2.1. 14 Logic and Venn diagrams using logic gates
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Use AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR gates to develop a logic or Venn diagram.
Convert a Boolean expression to logic or Venn diagram.

A variety of electrical circuits are used to build a computer system. These electrical circuits
require binary inputs and produce a single binary output. Electrical circuits are constructed
using the Boolean operators discussed in section 2.1.11 and are implemented by what are
known as logic gates . A logic gate is a real electrical circuit that simulates a specific Boolean
operator . There are six logic gates, as there are six Boolean operators.

The six logic gates are written as a circle with the name of the gate inside it, as bellow :

AND OR NOT

NAND NOR XOR

All the logic gates have a single output on their right, indicated by a line. The NOT gate has a
single input on the left, whereas all the other gates have two inputs, indicated by the two
lines on the left of the circle.

Let's create a logic diagram using some of the above logic gates for the statement we
encountered in section 2.1.11:

"Tania won't go to play if it is cold and raining, or if she has not done her homework"

In section 2.1.12 we saw that the statement under consideration could be re- written, using
the notation for the Boolean operators, as follows:

Will not go to play = (Cold Raining) + (Homework)

Looking at the above statement we identify that we need an AND gate, an OR gate and a
NOT gate in order to create the logic diagram.

Raining
Will not go
to school

Homework

119
 Inputs are shown on the left hand side whereas the output is shown on the right hand side.
Problems associated with constructing logic diagrams will require an output dependent on
no more than three inputs.
*K
\
I
Example 2.51: Draw the logic circuit for the expression: ( p OR q) and ( r XOR s) i
——————————————————————————————————————————————————
Logic circuit for expression: ( p V q ) A ( r v s )
y

P
q

r
s
>
\
i
I Example 2.52: Draw the logic circuit for the expression: ( p AND NOT q ) OR NOT s I
/

- -
Logic circuit for expression: ( p A q) V s

N
I \
Example 2.53: Draw the logic circuit for the expression: ( p OR NOT q ) and NOT ( r XOR s ) I

'
- -
Logic circuit for expression: ( p V q) A ( r v s )

y
 -

-
.

/ \
I I
i
Example 2.54: Draw the logic circuit for the expression: p OR ( NOT q AND p AND q) i
\ /

-
Logic circuit for expression : p V ( q A p A q )

/ \
I \
I Example 2.55: Draw the circuit for the expression: I
I I
I ( p AND q) OR ( q XOR ( p AND r AND q )) /
\
>»

Logic circuit for expression (p A q) V ( q v ( p A r A q))

P
q

/ \
\
Example 2.56: Draw the Venn diagram for the expression: p AND NOT q OR NOT s /
V /

Venn diagram:

121
 '

Example 2.57: Draw the Venn diagram for the expression:

I
I q OR p AND NOT p OR s AND NOT s
\

Venn diagram:

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
/

Example 2.58: Draw the Venn diagram for the expression : p OR NOT q AND p AND q
v

Venn diagram:

Example 2.59: Draw the Venn diagram for the expression: p OR NOT q

Venn diagram:

122
 Chapter references
1. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Computer Science Guide.
2. Marcovitz, A. ( 2009 ). Introduction to Logic Design. McGraw -Hill.

123
 Chapter 3
f
TOPIC 3 - NETWORKS

© IBO
2012 Topic 3. Networks1

Introduction and some definitions

Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Define the terms: bus topology, cable, check digit , data

integrity, check sum, data packet, gateway, handshaking, hub,
ISDN ( integrated services digital network ), local area network,
microwave transmission, modem, network, packet, packet
switching, networking, parity bit, protocol, TCP /IP
(transmission control protocol/ Internet protocol ) and wide
area network ( WAN ). Image 3.1: Aristotle

Aristotle said2 "Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and
not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more than human. Society is something that
precedes the individual. Anyone who either cannot lead the common life or is so self-
sufficient as not to need to, and therefore does not partake of society, is either a beast or a
god." The ways in which we interact are continually altering and evolving. Technological
advancements influence communication methods. Today the Internet is the major driving
factor and the change agent that determines our everyday communication habits. Sounds
and gestures are transformed into bits and bytes and allow us to live in a networked world.
The extended influence and the reduced cost of information exchange across the Internet
have changed the way people interact. Early data networks were limited to exchanging
character-based information between interconnected computer systems. Modern networks
have developed to carry voice, music, video streams, text, and graphics between different
devices such as computer systems, smartphones, tablets, etc. Instant messaging, blogs,
podcasting, wikis, intranets, extranets, on-line gaming, on line movie rentals, collaboration
tools and CMSs have this in common; they are all network dependent. The following table
contains some definitions from the old syllabus ( 2004) . These terms are also used in the
3

new syllabus.

Term Definition
bus topology Computer network in which a "bus" connects all the devices
together through a common cable.
coble Copper wire (usually coaxial and twisted pair ) and fibre ( fibre

International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Computer Science Guide.

1

Copied by: A quote by Aristotle, ( n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
2

http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/183896-man-is- by-nature-a -social-animal-an-individual-who

International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2004). IBDP Computer Science Guide.
3

124
 optic cable-made from glass ) . Cables allow for the connection of
computers over a network.
check digit Extra digit added to numerical data that is used to check data
integrity after input, transmission, storage and processing.
The accuracy of data after input, transmission, storage or
dota integrity
processing .
check sum Error - detecting procedure that generates a sum from the digits
of a number.
Portion of a message that is transmitted through a network.
doto packet
Contains data such as check digits and destination address.
gateway Link that resides between computer networks and is responsible
for converting data passing through into the appropriate format
so it can be understood by the receiving network.
Exchange of predetermined signals to signify that a connection
handshaking
has been established between two systems.
hub Network connection point for devices. Data arriving at a hub is
copied and send to all the devices on the network.
International communications standard that allows for the
ISDN ( integrated services
transmission of audio/video and other data over digital
digital network )
telephone lines.
local area network ( LAN ) Computer network where all the connected computers are
within a limited geographical area (ex. a home, school, etc.).
Connection between the computers may be through cables
and/ or microwave transmission.
microwave transmission Electronic communication without the need for cables.
modem ( abbreviation of Electronic equipment that converts computer digital signals into
modulator / demodulator ) audio signals and back. The audio signals are transmitted over
telephone lines, which allows for distant communication.
Computer systems that are interconnected and can share
network
resources and data.
packet Group of bits. May include control signals, error control bits,
coded information, as well as the destination for the data.
Network communication method that creates and transmits
packet switching small units of data, called packets, through a network,
independently of the overall message.
networking Making use of a network.
Error - detecting procedure that appends a binary digit to a group
of binary digits. The sum of all the digits, including the appended
parity bit
binary digit, establishes the accuracy of the data after input,
transmission, storage or processing.
protocol International rules that ensure the transfer of data between
systems. A protocol that is recognized as the standard for a
specific type of transfer is called standard protocol. For example:
TCP/IP is a standard protocol.
TCP / IP ( transmission
Communications protocols used to connect hosts on the
control protocol /
Internet.
Internet protocol )
wide area network Computer network where all the connected computers are in a
( WAN ) larger geographic area than that served by a LAN or a MAN
( metropolitan area network ) .
Table 3.1: Definitions from the syllabus
 Network fundamentals
3.1. 1 Different types of networks
Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Identify and define local area network ( LAN ), virtual local area network ( VLAN ), wide
area network ( WAN ), storage area network ( SAN ), wireless local area network
( WLAN ), internet, extranet, virtual private network ( VPN ), personal area network
( PAN ) and peer- to - peer ( P 2 P ).

A computer network is comprised of two or more computer systems that are connected and
able to communicate and exchange data. Such computer systems are connected by using
either cable or wireless media. There are two key terms in computer networks that play an
important role:

• Server
• Client

4
Server .

A server can either be a computer system or a software application that provides a service
to the other computer systems connected to the same network. For example, a server can
provide the ability to the rest of the computers on the network to store and to share files,
taking the role of a file server.

3
Client

A client can either be a computer system or a software application that requests a service
from a server connected to the same network. For example, an email client software
application can request from an email server software application to fetch any new emails
that may have been received.

In summary, a server computer system is a host running server software applications and
sharing its resources with clients that make requests. A client, on the other hand, does not
share any of its resources but requests content from a server . Servers thus wait for incoming
requests for content from clients.

There are a number of ways that one can connect two or more computer systems in order
to create a network. However, the following three are the most commonly used network
components that play an essential part in the creation of a network : Hub, Switch and Router .
Although all three components have been integrated into a single box, they remain different
devices that are essential to networking and with significant differences between them. A
typical box hosting a hub or a switch and a wired or wireless router would be similar to the
device depicted in Figure 3.1.

4
Client/ server ( client / server model, client /server architecture ), ( n. d.) . Retrieved December 23, 2014,
from http ://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/ definition/ client -server

126
 Figure 3.1: A device that includes a hub or a switch and a wireless router

Hub5

A hub is the connection point for devices on a single network. Network devices and
computer systems connect to a hub using Ethernet cables that attach to a port. For example,
the hub in Figure 3.1 has eight ports, which means that eight devices or computer systems
can connect to it. Thus, a hub consists of multiple ports. When a network device wishes to
send data to some other device on the network, it sends the data to the hub. The hub then
copies the data and sends it to all devices connected to its ports. The device waiting to
receive the data accepts the data. All the other devices just ignore it. Although passing the
data along to every port ensures that it will reach its destination, a lot of traffic is generated
on the network, since all the other ports that just ignore the data have to nevertheless
receive it. This slows down the network.

4
Switch

A switch is also the connection point for multiple devices on a single network. However,
unlike a hub, the switch can identify which network device is connected to which port . This
allows the switch to transmit data to the exact port and network device for which it is
intended. This means that when a network device wishes to send data to some other device
on the network, it sends the data to the switch and the switch sends the data to the
appropriate receiver rather than all the ports and devices connected to those ports. As such,
networks connected with a switch are faster than networks connected with a hub.

4
Router

A router is a more sophisticated device than both a hub and a switch. Its use is to join
multiple networks and serve as an intermediary between these networks so that data can be
exchanged effectively and efficiently between network devices of those networks. For
example, a router is used to connect a home network to the Internet. A hub or switch would
not be able to accomplish such a task in a simple manner.

As stated, a hub or a switch and a router are commonly integrated into a single box, allowing
the creation of a wired or wireless network, as well as connection of that network to other
networks, such as the Internet .

How do hubs, switches, routers, and access points differ ? - Windows Help. ( n. d.) . Retrieved
5

December 23, 2014, from http:// windows.microsoft .com / en -us/ windows/ hubs - switches- routers-
access-points-differ#lTC=windows -7

127
There are various different types of networks that can be established, as well as different
protocols or "rules" that need to be followed in order for the computer systems involved to
exchange data efficiently .
The network types that will be described briefly are the following:

Local Area Network ( LAN )

Wireless Local Area Network ( WLAN )
Virtual Local Area Network ( VLAN )
Wide Area Network ( WAN )
Storage Area Network ( SAN )
Internet
Extranet
Virtual Private Network ( VPN )
Personal Area Network ( PAN )
Peer -To - Peer ( P 2 P )

All of the network types described below have assisted in the globalization phenomenon of
the recent decades. Globalization has been accelerated by the technical advances linked to
network development. All of these different networks have played their part in
interconnecting computer systems, whether locally or globally, and thus allowing people
across the globe to communicate, do business and so on.

Example 3.1:

Question:

Describe some characteristics of the Internet .

Answer:

The Internet is a global collection of countless types of computers and computer

networks that are connected together. Billions of interconnected devices form a
network of solutions for various human problems and boost information exchange,
marketing solutions, educational advances, health endeavors etc. WWW, email, file
transferring, peer to peer networks are services that are supported by the Internet
infrastructure. The Internet has no centralized control but governments have the
power to restrict what citizens in their countries can access. Internet service
providers can also restrict access to specific sites.

128
 Car/Electronics
Personal area controller area
network network
Body area
network

Near field
Communication

Nanoscale
communication
network

Wide area Internet

network
Metropolitan
area network

Local area
network

Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3: Computer network types by spatial scope

6
Local Area Network ( LAN )

LAN is a computer network that connects computer systems that are within a limited
geographical area such as a room, a home, an office building or a school. Computer systems
interconnected with a LAN usually have high data -transfer rates between them.

A client - server mode of operation is commonly used. This allows for a single computer
system to act as the server and be responsible for supplying various services to the clients in
the network.

Local area network. ( 2015, May 16 ) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16: 43, June 15,
6

2015, from https:/ / en.wikipedia .Org/ w /index.php ?title= Local_ area _network & oldid= 662633873

129
 LANs allow the sharing
of peripheral devices
Iv lev ^eT between the connected
^
computer networks.

^vivA-1ev That means that

peripheral devices, such
as printers, scanners or
external hard drives,
B can be used by any
computer system in the
C\ \ LAN that is desired. This
eliminates the need to
buy certain peripheral
cT^ e.
PDA devices for every
LAN Network Diagram
computer system used.
Image 3.2: Local Area Network
For example, instead of
having to buy a number
of printers, one printer can be bought and connected to the server of the LAN, with the rest
of the computer systems, the clients, accessing and sharing the printer through the server .

Another benefit of forming a LAN is that, apart from peripheral devices, data can also be
shared. This allows for the exchange of data between clients, thus eliminating the need to
physically send data using other means, such as by exchanging CDs or memory sticks. This
increases flexibility and reduces wasted time.

The most common technology used to build wired LANs is a hub or a switch using Ethernet
cabling. Figure 3.4 presents a wired LAN comprised of one server, three clients and a printer
connected to the server though a hub or a switch.

o J {
A
—
A
o o
Client Server Printe Client Client

Hub/Switch

Figure 3.4: A local area network ( LAN )

Wireless Local Area Network ( WLAN )7

A WLAN links two or more computer systems within a limited geographical area, similar to
LAN. The difference from a LAN is that WLAN devices are connected using some sort of

7
Wireless LAN. ( 2015, June 14). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:46, June 15, 2015,
from https://en.Wikipedia .org/ w/index.php ?title=Wireless_ LAN & oldid=666879923

130
wireless connection method. This allows users to have mobile devices and laptops
connected to the network and be able to move around.

WLANs have all the benefits of LANs, as well as the ease of wireless connection that allows
the use of mobile devices on the move. However, WLANs can be less secure than wired LANs
since a potential intruder does not require having a physical connection to the network. For
example, an intruder may try to access a school WLAN even outside the school premises if
the wireless network signal is strong enough.

The most common technology to build wireless LANs is Wi-Fi, which allows the exchange of
data between computer systems using radio waves. Figure 3.5 presents a LAN comprised of
one server, three clients and a printer connected to the server. Two of the clients are
connected wirelessly through a wireless hub or switch.

(_ _) ( M
Client f Printer Client Client
Serveur
iQgjciQ-d
Hub/Switch
Figure 3.5: A local area network ( LAN )

• Example 3.2: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between LAN '
and WLAN.
Answer:
Similarities Differences
LAN- Both act on a local level. They use different transmission
WLAN medium .
Both allow communication. A LAN is safer.
Both used to connect devices The LAN is faster .
Both allow sharing of WLANs offer greater flexibility.
resources /
\ /

Virtual Local Area Network ( VLAN )8

Imagine that a business has created a LAN and has connected all its computer systems and
departments together. Departments such as accounting, human resources, sales and
production have all been interconnected and all of the computer systems, from any
department, can have access to any shared resources from any department. That may not

8
VLAN ( Virtual Local Area Network ) , ( n.d.) . Retrieved December 23, 2014, from http :// orbit -
computer -solutions.com / VLAN -and-Trunking.php
be desirable, since departments may not want or need to exchange any data with other, and
having access to each other's shared resources may confuse instead of help.

The solution to this problem would be to set up a LAN for every department, so each
department will have its own isolated network that cannot be accessed from the outside .
These LANs could be connected together, connecting the switch from every LAN to a central
switch, so as to be able to communicate between them whenever necessary without having
access to each other's shared resources.

Instead of having to set up switches and cabling in order to create separate LANs for every
department, a VLAN can be used to partition the initial LAN, where every department is
connected, into logical separate networks . Each logical separate network cannot see the
computer systems or the shared resources of other such logical separate networks, without
specific set up that allows it to see them.

VLAN
Logical separate network 1 Logical separate network 2^\
A

Client Client Client

Server Hub/Switch & Router

Figure 3.6: A virtual local area network ( VLAN) with two logical separate networks

/ '
i Example 3.3 : Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between LAN
and VLAN.
Answer:
Similarities Differences
LAN- Both act on a local A VLAN delivers better performance,
VLAN level.
They both have the A VLAN is safer ,
same attributes.
Both allow The formation of virtual workgroups is easy.
communication.
Both used to VLANs offer greater flexibility. Even if someone who
connect devices is using a laptop moves to another place he/she will
remain in his/her dedicated VLAN.
Both allow sharing The partitioning of resources is easier.
of resources
VLANs are independent on the medium and the
physical topology of the network.
Sometimes the management/ administration of a
VLAN is complex.
Figure 3.6 presents a VLAN comprised of two servers ( each for a different department in a
business ) and four clients ( two at each department ). The VLAN is set up in such a way so that
the LAN is segmented into two smaller logical separate networks.

/ Example 3.4: Compare and contrast LAN and VLAN.

\

Answer:
LAN VLAN
Pros Cons Pros Cons
Sometimes the A LAN delivers A VLAN delivers Sometimes the
management worst better performance. management of a
of a LAN is performance. VLAN is complex.
easier
A LAN is not that A VLAN is safer, A network can
safe. accommodate a
maximum number of
VLANs ( this number
is big and so it is not
a real disadvantage.)
It does not The formation of
provide virtual workgroups is
formation of easy.
virtual
workgroups.
LANs offer less VLANs offer greater
flexibility. flexibility. Even if
someone who is
using a laptop moves
to another place
he/she will remain in
his/her dedicated
VLAN.
The partitioning The partitioning of

_
of resources is
harder.
resources is easier.

LANs are VLANs are

dependent on independent on the
the medium and medium and the
the physical physical topology of
topology of the the network.
\
\ network. /
/
/
x
-"
 9
Wide Area Network (WAN )

WAN is a computer network that connects computer systems that are within a large
geographical area. The most obvious example of a WAN is the Internet . A WAN covers a
broad area, such as a city, a country or even a network of countries allowing individuals,
businesses and governments to carry out their daily business regardless of location. A WAN
typically consists of LANs connected together over a broad geographical area. Figure 3.7
presents a WAN comprised of four LANs connected together throughout the globe.

Figure 3.7: A wide area network ( WAN ) that consists of four LANs that are scattered around the globe

10
Storage Area Network ( SAN)

A SAN is a network that is created so that large

storage devices can be accessible from servers in
a convenient and easy way. There can be various
servers connected to a network such as a
company' s LAN. For example, in Figure 3.8 a LAN
is depicted with four clients ( two of them
wirelessly connected ) and three servers all of
which are connected with a Hub/Switch . There
are three servers because they provide three
Image 2.3: Storage Area Network
distinct services to the clients. One server is a

Example 3.5: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between LAN
and WAN.
Answer:
Similarities Differences
Both allow communication. A LAN is usually faster .
Both used to connect devices. A WAN is more expensive.
Both allow sharing of resources. LAN is easier to maintain than WAN.
LAN serves local areas while WAN serves large
\ geographic areas.

9
Wide area network. ( 2015, May 20 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:47, June 15,
2015, from https://en.Wikipedia.org/ w /index.php ?title= Wide_ area _network & oldid= 663323837
10
Storage area network. ( 2015, May 20). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:51, June
15, 2015, from https://en.Wikipedia.org/ w / index.php ?title =Storage _ area _network & oldid=663172345

134
mail server, responsible for managing emails. The other server is an application server,
responsible for managing centralized applications that can be used by clients. Lastly, the
third server is a database server that is responsible for managing company data stored in a
database ( ex. client list with details).

These servers require storage space in order to store their data and create backups to
prevent data loss, if any storage space fails. This is where the storage area network is
required. The SAN is a network that connects the servers to the storage devices so that they
have enough storage space to complete their tasks. In Figure 3.8 the SAN is comprised of
three storage devices connected with the three servers described before using a switch and
Ethernet cabling. Examples of storage devices are disk arrays and tape libraries.

Client Client
A Client

a
Hub /Switch

Mail Server Application base

S er Server

3^ -I
Switch

Storage Device Storage Device Storage Device

Figure 3.8: A storage area network ( SAN ) connected to an enterprise LAN

11
Intranet

An "intranet " is the broad term for a collection of private computer networks within a
company, a school or an organization that utilizes standard network protocols like TCP / IP,

Intranet. ( 2015, June 11). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:16, June 15, 2015, from
11

https:// en. wikipedia.org/ w /index.php ?title=lntranet & oldid= 666458905

 I
which will be described in section 3.1.3 . It could be considered as a private analogy of the
Internet. Its main purpose is to facilitate communication between individuals or work groups
and to improve data sharing. Intranet resources and services are not available to the world
outside the company. In all cases where an intranet is connected to the internet, a firewall is
used for protection.

Internet

The Internet is a global WAN connecting millions of computer systems. Since it is a WAN, the
Internet connects a large number of smaller networks together, thereby creating the largest
WAN network used by billions of users worldwide.

The Internet provides an extensive number of

services to users such as the World Wide Web
(WWW ), which consists of websites and
webpages, as well as support for email, file
transfer and other services. As such, the Internet
is not the same as the WWW but rather the
WWW is a service of the Internet.

Unlike other networks, the Internet is

decentralized by design. That means that its
resources are not centrally stored or controlled
by a single server. Each computer system that is
connected to the Internet is independent and can
share services with the global Internet
Image 3.4: Internet of things
community, thus becoming, in essence, a server
of its own.

For most, access to the Internet must go through a commercial Internet Service Provider
( ISP ), which is a company that provides Internet services and allows a computer system to
connect to the Internet for a monthly fee. Contrary to most LANs and WANs, the Internet is
not owned by a single entity, such as a person or organization.

Internet of Things ( loT ) .

It is the network of individual "things" that are able to connect to the Internet, communicate
and exchange data. All "things" carry the necessary hardware and software and are assigned
an IP-address. Each "think" is a physical object such as a patient with an implant, a car with
an emergency system, an alarm system with advanced warning, a wild animal with a tracking
system, etc. Each physical object has a unique embedded system that uniquely identifies it.

Some ways to access the Internet:

• Broadband access via DSL or cable modem, a T1 or T 3 line.

• Wi-Fi access via Wi-Fi router or Wi- Fi hot spots.
• Dial-up access via modem. Used where broadband access is not available or too
expensive, or no Wi-Fi available.

136
 • Mobile networks via 3G, 4G networks, etc.

12
Extranet

An extranet is a computer network that utilizes the Internet to allow controlled access by
specific users to a specific LAN or WAN.

For example, imagine a business that operates a network of computer systems for its
everyday operations. This private network is contained within the business, whether it ' s a
LAN or a WAN, and can only be accessed by the personnel that have the required credentials
( ex. username and password). The specific business may wish to securely share part of its
network ( and information) with suppliers, partners, customers or other businesses without
making its whole network available to them or the public. This part of the network that is
extended to users outside the company is termed as extranet. Extranets require security and
privacy techniques so as the public or outside users are not permitted to access any secure
data. Extranets could be considered as intranets that are partially accessible to authorized
outsiders. A firewall controls the access rights and allows access to the intranet only to
people who are authorized.

Virtual Private Network ( VPN )13

Secure/
VPN Turr

Unsafe /

Internet

Private/
Network /
Virtual/
Private/
Network/ CUD
CUD

'Remote'
E
Computer Office' Office' Server
Computer Computer

Image 3.5: Virtual Private Network

Mitchell, B. ( n. d.). Intranets and Extranets. Retrieved December 23, 2014, from
12

http ://compnetworking.about.com/od/ filetransferprotocol

13
Virtual private network. ( 2015, June 11). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 16:53, June
15, 2015, from
https:// en. wikipedia .Org/w / index.php ?title=Virtual_ private _network & oldid= 666500623

137
 y N

/ Example 3.6: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between VPN \
l
and EXTRANET.
Answer:
Similarities Differences
Both use the internet. A VPN provides a secure connection to
employees of the company, while an extranet
limits access to the company network to
selected (authenticated) outsiders.
They are both considered VPN provides more security ( data send and
inexpensive solutions. received always encrypted).
They both provide some security. /
' /

Imagine that there is a company with a LAN that connects two or more computer systems
within a limited geographical area: its office. Imagine that there are some employees that
need to travel abroad on work, but still time is needed to access the company' s LAN in order
to access files and shared resources. That would not be possible with a LAN, or even a
WLAN, if the employee is far away and not physically near the LAN or WLAN to connect in a
wired or wireless method. VPN solves this problem.

A VPN is a computer network that connects two or more computer systems, similar to a LAN
or a WLAN, but also allows clients from remote locations to connect to the network and
appear to be inside the LAN as if they were physically present. Thus, a VPN allows the
creation of a LAN that is managed through a server software application, to which clients
can also connect from a remote location, even through a different network ( e .g. the
Internet ).

A VPN has all the benefits of a LAN, allowing users to share data and resources without
compromising security. Furthermore, a VPN can securely and cost -effectively connect
geographically disparate offices of a business within a network with all the functionalities of
a single LAN.

VPN

O
Client Server Printer Client
Internet

HaMi
/
Hub Switch & Router

Figure 3.9 : A virtual private network ( VPN )

138

1
 ' Example 3.7: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between LAN
and PAN.
Answer:
Similarities Differences
Used for data transmission A LAN connects computers and devices that
belong to different people, while a PAN suits
the needs of a single person.
A PAN operates on a smaller area than a LAN
A PAN does not require a device such as a hub
or switch. USB and Bluetooth technologies are
used instead.

Figure 3.9 presents a VPN comprised of one server, two clients and a printer connected to
the server. One of the clients is connected to the VPN remotely through the Internet using a
username and password .

Personal Area Network ( PAN )

PAN is a network that interconnects devices

that are centered around an individual
person's workspace. It can be understood as Printer Drawing Tablet
a LAN that supports only one person,
instead of a group of people, and covers a
very short range, a maximum of 10 meters.
An example of a typical PAN would involve a
mobile computer, a smartphone and a tablet Camera Mobile

all interconnected and sharing data such as Client

Figure 3.10: A PAN
emails, calendars, photographs, etc . Devices
on PANs can connect both wired ( typically through USB ) and wirelessly ( typically through
Bluetooth ) depending on the technologies used.

A PAN using a wireless group of devices using Bluetooth technology in order to interconnect
is also known as a piconetu.

15
Peer -To-Peer ( P2P )

P 2 P is a network that does not utilize the client / server model where clients request
resources and servers provide them. Instead, a P 2 P network uses a distributed network
architecture where all the computer systems ( called nodes or peers ) in the network are
decentralized and are both clients and servers at the same time, consuming and supplying
resources from and to the other computer systems connected to the network. The need for

14
What is Piconet ? - Definition from Techopedia . ( n. d.). Retrieved December 23, 2014, from
http :// www.techopedia .com / definition/ 5081/ piconet
15
Peer -to - peer. ( 2015, June 3 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 16:56, June 15, 2015,
from https:// en.wikipedia . org/ w / index.php ?title= Peer -to -peer & oldid=665302579

139
centralized servers is removed, in order to avoid bottlenecks, while each computer system
makes part of its resources available for other network computer systems to use.

' Example 3.8: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between the
client -server model and P 2 P.
Answer:
Similarities Differences
The client -server model offers a centralized
They both serve a lot of devices
and users. control of services. In a P 2P model, the control
is decentralized
They both can act on different The client -server model is based on a server
scales ( local, wider). that provides services and clients that request
services, while the P 2 P model includes
computers that act as both servers and clients
(suppliers and consumers).
\ The client-server model offers better security. /

3.1. 2 Importance of standards in the construction of networks

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Define the term standards.

Outline the importance of standards.
Appreciate the importance of compatibility.

Imagine that a business needs to setup a LAN with a number of clients and servers. If the
hardware does not follow some common rules ( or specific standards ), the computer systems
may not be able to interconnect together to create the network.

(
Useful Information: There are two organizations standardize networking protocols:
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE) and Internet Engineering Task
Force ( IETF).

If there existed many standards with hardware or software manufacturers following

different ones, the result would be incompatible hardware and software. For example, in a
hypothetical situation without standards, a computer system might be developed, which
only supported USB ports, and a switch might be developed that only supported Ethernet
ports. These two hardware elements would be unable to connect to each other, since they
would have been using different communication standards.

Standards play an important role in the construction of networks. Standards describe the
common ground on which hardware and software manufacturers ( Apple, Microsoft, Linux
etc.) can depend on in order to build systems that are able to communicate with each other .

140
As such, standards can be thought to provide a common international "language" that
enables compatibility for all computer systems throughout the globe.

3.1. 3 Networks, communication and layers16

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain how communication over networks is analyzed into different layers.

List the OSI ( reference model ) layers.
Explain how the OSI model facilitates abstraction.
List the TCP / IP ( protocol model ) layers.
Explain the function of TCP / IP.

If only one computer system manufacturer existed, offering one type of computer system to
be used everywhere, the communication between computer systems would be easy. There
would only be one standard for communication and non other. However, this is not the case
in the world today. There are a number of computer system manufacturers and a wide
variety of different types of computers. Although hardware in these computer systems
differs, we may need these different computer systems to communicate. To achieve this, a
specific standard has to be followed.

Software application developers have to abide by some standards in order to develop an

application capable of communicating with other software over a WAN (Internet). Imagine a
simple program that asks for services from an online database. This process requires the
program to:

1. Pass the request through different layers

2. Obtain an answer through different layers

It is clear that different layers serve different functions and use different protocols for
information exchange . Organizing a network design in layers makes the process less complex
because any problem is broken down into distinct modules. The protocol of a layer carries
out a sequence of operations.

Every computer system that is connected to a network uses a specific process to transfer
data or receive data from the connection medium ( e. g. cable). Imagine that a software
application on a computer system creates some data to be sent to another software
application on another computer system, both of which are connected to a network . The
data to be sent must be placed in a format understandable by both software applications.
Once this is done, the data is encoded into a format that is suitable to be placed on the
network. Therefore, the data is broken up into small groups that are termed packets. Each
packet contains a small amount of data, as well as other important information such as the
destination of the packet. The packets then travel through the network and reach their final
destination. Various procedures handle the routing of packets across a network through

4 Understanding the Communication Layers, ( n.d.). Retrieved December 23, 2014, from
1c

https:/ / docs.oracle.com / cd / E18283 _01/ network .112 / el0836/ layers.htm

141
 intermediary devices. Only bits, Os and Is, travel over media. Finally the receiving
application gets the reassembled data in a suitable form.

application application

Figure 3.11: Data communication throught different layers

Advantages of Layers

1. Easy to manage.
2. Greater understanding of each layer.
3. Common language for each layer.
4. Makes protocol design easier.
5. A manufacturer can focus on technologies of a particular layer.
6. Products of different manufacturers can work together.
7. Technology advances of a layer are independent of technology advancements of
other layers ( wireless technology advances are not dependent on advances of media
format compression ( GIF ) )

OSI (reference model )17

The most - widely used networking standard is the Open Systems Interconnection model
( OSI ) . The OSI Model was established by the International Standards Organization ( ISO ) and
aims to facilitate communication across a variety of systems. It contains seven layers. It
should be mentioned that the Open Systems Interconnection model providing an abstract
depiction and explanation of the network communication process. It is just a reference
model.

17
OSI reference model ( Open Systems Interconnection ) , ( n. d . ) . Retrieved December 23, 2014, from
http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/definition/OSI

142
 Layers Examples
Physical
1 Cabling system
communication components
1 Physical
Mostly hardware 2 Network interface
cards
2 Data link
[
3 Routing

r 3 Network

4 Transmission-error
4 Transport detection

5 Retransmission of
5 Session
[ data if it is not
received by a device

6 Presentation 6 Encryption and

Mostly software decryption of a
message for security

r 7 Application Virtual
communication
7 Electronic mail

18
Figure 3.12: OSI MODEL

No LAYER Description and protocols used

Performs various services for the applications used by the end users.
Application
Example protocol : HyperText Transfer Protocol ( HTTP )
Provides data format information, data compression information and
Presentation data encryption information to the application. Example protocol:
Portable Network Graphics ( PNG ).
Manages sessions between two users. Example protocol: UNIX X
Session
Window system core protocol.
End to end connections ( hosts ). Definition of data segments
- assignment of numbers - data transfer - reassemblage of data at
>
Transport
^
the destination. Example protocol: TCP . ^
Handles routing of packets across a network through intermediary
Network
devices. Example protocol: IP.
Error handling of physical transmission. Builds frames and amends
Data Link transmission rate according the buffer of the receiver ( flow control ) .
Example protocol: Ethernet, HDLC.
Transmits Os and Is over media between devices. Definition of media
Physical
specifications. Voltage levels. Example protocol: RS 232-C ( serial port ).
Table 3.2: OSI Model

18
The OSI Model: Understanding the Seven Layers of Computer Networks Expert Reference Series of
White Papers Introduction, ( n.d.) . Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
http:// www.academia .edu/ 7212126/The_OSI_ Model_Understanding_the_Seven _ Layers_ of _ Comput
er _Networks_Expert _ Reference _Series_ of _ White_Papers_ lntroduction

143
 TCP/ IP ( protocol model )19

The TCP/ IP ( Transfer Control Protocol / Internet Protocol ) describes all the functions that
take place at each layer of protocols within the TCP / IP suite . It is a hierarchical model
protocol that models and represents all the functionality required for successful
communication between users . Its functionality is structured into four abstraction layers.

OSI MODEL TCP/ IP MODEL

r 1 Physical
1 Network Access

r 2 Data link

r 3 Network
2 Internet

r 4 Transport 3 Transport

r 5 Session

r 6 Presentation
n 4 Application

r 7 Application

Figure 3.13: Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP models

No LAYER Description and protocols

used (TCP / IP)
Performs various services
for the software
Application applications used by the end
user . Example protocol:
HyperText Transfer Protocol
End to end connections
( hosts ) . Definition of data

^
segments assignment of
numbers- data transfer -
Transport
^
reassemblage of data at the
^
destination . Example
protocol: TCP.
Handles routing of packets
across a network through
Internet
intermediary devices.
Example protocol : IP .

19
OSI reference model ( Open Systems Interconnection ) , ( n. d.) . Retrieved December 23, 2014, from
http :// searchnetworking.techtarget .com / definition/ OSI

144
 Network Access Media and devices
Table 3.3: TCP/IP Model

3.1.4 Technologies required to provide a VPN

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define VPN.
Analyze the technologies needed to set up and provide a VPN .

A Virtual Private Network makes a

Security "tunnelled" network connection through

the Internet or any other public network.
Reliability It is considered ideal for establishing a
secure connection between private
Scalability
networks with remote users and remote
Network
Management sites. A VPN enables a device to exchange
Policy data across the internet as if it was
Management
directly connected to a private network.
Users can use a VPN to access data, files,
databases and resources that are stored
in their computer at work from their
computer at home. VPN users can
Figure 3.14: Features of a well- designed VPN
exchange data maintaining privacy
through the use of a "tunnelling" protocol
and various security procedures.

20, 21
VPN technologies

A. Hardware and software requirements

1. Internet access
22
2. VPN software ( client software, utilities and server software). VPN software enables
private communication over the Internet )
23
3. VPN routers
4.
24
VPN appliances
5. VPN concentrators
25
. A single device to handle a large number of incoming VPN
tunnels

20
Cisco. " How Virtual Private Networks Work ." Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
http:/ / www.cisco.com /application / pdf / paws/14106/how _ vpn _ works.pdf
What you need to know about VPN technologies, (n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
21

http :// www.computerworld.com / article / 2546283 / networking/ what - you-need-to - know -about - vpn -
technologies.html
Mitchell, B. ( n.d.) . Free VPN Client and Server Software Downloads. Retrieved December 21, 2014,
22

from http:/ / compnetworking.about.com /od / vpn/tp /vpnsoftwarefree.htm

23
Cisco RV180 VPN Router, ( n.d. ). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
http:// www. cisco.eom/ c/ en/us/products/ routers/rvl80 - vpn- router/index.html
24
Barracuda Networks, ( n. d.) . Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
https:// www.barracuda.com/ products/ sslvpn

145
 6. VPN servers
26

B. Secure VPN

All traffic on the VPN must be encrypted, authenticated and then sent along virtual tunnels.

Secure VPN technologies:

1. Internet protocol security protocol (IPSec ) which functions in both transport and
tunnel mode:
• allows the secure transmission of data over public IP-based networks
• uses standard encryption algorithm to provide confidentiality ( AES)
• provides authentication via digital certificates
2. Secure Sockets Layer ( SSL ) 3.0 or Transport Layer Security ( TLS ) with encryption.
SSL/ TLS-based VPNs are much simpler than IPSec based VPNs. The use of this
technology does not require special client software because all Web servers and
Web browsers support this method of providing a VPN.

C. Trusted VPN

All traffic on the VPN relies on the security of a provider's network to protect the network.
Modern service providers offer many different solutions of trusted VPNs. These can
generally be separated into "layer 2" and "layer 3" VPNs.

Trusted VPN technologies:

1. Technologies for trusted layer 2 VPNs include:

• Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM ) circuits
• Frame relay circuits
• Transport of layer 2 frames over Multiprotocol Label Switching ( MPLS )
2. Technologies for trusted layer 3 VPNs include:
• Multiprotocol Label Switching ( MPLS ) with constrained distribution of
routing information through Border Gateway Protocol ( BGP)
D. Hybrid VPN

Hybrid VPN technologies: A combination of both secure and trusted technologies or a

combination of two VPN technologies.

25
VPN Concentrators: A Must for Small Business -- Redmondmag.com. ( n.d.). Retrieved December 21,
2014, from http://redmondmag.corn/ articles/ 2008 /05 /01/vpn- concentrators-a - must - for -small -
business. aspx
26
How to Create a VPN Server on Your Windows Computer Without Installing Any Software , ( n.d.).
Retrieved December 21, 2014, from http:// www.howtogeek.com/135996/how -to-create - a -vpn-
server -on- your - windows- computer - without - installing- any -software/

146
Common VPN types

27
1. Site-to-site VPN
This type of VPN connects entire networks and facilitates secure data interchange between
different sites. VPN gateways are used.

Headquarters
Branch

Branch Branch

Figure 3.15 Site to site VPN

26
2. Remote-access VPN

This type of VPN connects individual hosts to private networks and facilitates teleworkers
who need to access their company's network securely using the Internet. Every host has
VPN client software installed.

Headquarters

nternet / Intermediate
network
Hotel

Figure 3.16 Remote access VPN

What are the differences between a site -to - site VPN and a VPN client connecting to a VPN server ?
27

( n. d.). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from http:/ / searchnetworking.techtarget . com / answer / What -
are- the - differences -between- a -site - to -site - VPN - and-a - VPN- client -connecting-to -a - VPN- server - Wh
3.1.5 Use of a VPN
Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

List the benefits of VPN.

Explain how the use of VPN has changed traditional working patterns.

VPN benefits:
1. Communication is easier
2. Companies take advantage of the Internet to provide secure connections
3. Decreases operational costs versus traditional Wide Area Networks
4. Employees work as if they were directly connected to the company's network
5. Extends connections across numerous geographic sites without the use of a leased line
6. Improves overall productivity
7. Improves productivity of remote employees
8. Improves security
9. Offers the flexibility to employees to take advantage of the company' s Intranet over an
existing Internet connection
10. Offers flexibility to remote offices
11. Offers global networking opportunities
12. Provides teleworker support
13. Reduces environmental footprint
14. Reduces travel times and traveling costs for remote users
15. Simplifies network topology for administrators and companies
16. Positive changes in working patterns

! Example 3.9:
Question: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between OSI and
TCP /IP.
Answer:
Similarities Differences
Both include a number of The OSI has more layers than the TCP/ IP.
different layers.
They are used to describe OSI is a reference model while TCP/IP is a
network functionality. protocol model.

Example 3.10:
Question: What the acronyms OSI and TCP/IP stand for ?
Answer:
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection and TCP/IP stands for Transfer
Control Protocol / Internet Protocol

148
Example 3.11:

Question: State in which layer does IP belongs.

Answer: Network Layer

Example 3.12:

Question: Which from the layers listed below does not belong to the ISO-OSI
model ?

1. Security Layer
2. Physical Layer
3. Data Link Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Transport Layer

Answer: Security Layer

Example3.13:

Question: Discuss the differences between VPN and Intranet.

Answer: Although both can be found in modern business environments, they have
significant operational and functional differences. VPN utilizes Internet to establish
connections between distant offices or between teleworkers and their offices. A
VPN connection uses encryption technologies to guarantee security. An Intranet is
a network that makes use of Internet technologies to provide various services,
access resources and share data. A VPN offers the advantages of a leased line
without the extreme cost of a leased line. An Intranet serves a network of
computers found in the same area while a VPN serves remote and distant
connections. Intranet is a network while VPN is a method of connection that uses a
public network .
Example 3.14:

Question: Discuss the main characteristics of cloud storage.

Answer: Cloud storage is provided by cloud storage providers such as Dropbox,

Microsoft for OneDrive, Apple for iCIoud, and Google for Google Drive. These
providers use various servers, infrastructure and software to provide free or paid
data storage to individuals and companies. All cloud storage providers have the
responsibility for keeping the data available and accessible and maintain in the
best possible way their infrastructure.

149
 Data transmission
3.1.6 Protocol and data packet
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the terms protocol and data packet .

Defined in the introduction.

3.1. 7 Necessity of protocols

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the terms: data integrity, source integrity, flow control, deadlock, congestion
management, error correction and error checking.
Explain the importance of network protocols.

Without predefined rules, communication would be impossible. The rules of communication

are called protocols . Consider them as strict predefined rules.
28
Some of the protocols required for communication to take place include :

1. The presence of an identified sender

2. The presence of an identified receiver
3. The presence of an agreed-upon method of communicating ( email, IM, smartphone,
gestures, face-to- face, telephone, fax, letter, photograph, etc.)
4. The presence of a common language
5. The presence of a common grammar
6. The presence of an agreed-upon speed and timing of delivery ( "Slow Down, You're
Talking Too Fast !" )
7. The presence of confirmation or acknowledgment requirements ( for example, "Does
that make sense ?" "No, please explain!")
Computer Network Protocols also provide:

1. Rules about the message format

2. Rules about the way intermediary devices should facilitate communication
3. Rules about initiation and termination of a communication session
4. Rules about the type of error checking to be used
5. Rules about the data compression methods and algorithms ( if compression takes place)
6. Rules about an error detection and correction mechanism
7. Rules about recovery and resending of data

Computer Network Protocols also guarantee:

Data integrity . This means that the information has not been changed / corrupted
deliberately or accidentally during transmission, from source to destination. Checksum
mechanisms provide data integrity.

Adapted by: ( n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from http:// www.netakademija. rs/pdf /ccna
28

r & s/Ol.Introduction to Networks/ ITN_instructorPPT_Chapter 3 _final.pdf

150
Source integrity . It means that the identity of the sender has been validated. Digital
signatures prove source integrity.
Flow Control . Network infrastructures have limited memory and bandwidth. The transport
layer is responsible for taking advantage of its protocols and facing situations where an
overload of resources occurs. These protocols can request from a sending application to
slow down data flow rate. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through
flow control.
Congestion management . Congestion happens when the request on the network resources
exceeds the offered capacity.

Deadlock 29 prevention. Deadlock is a situation in which two or more network competing

actions are each waiting for the other to finish, and thus neither ever does. The persistence
timer is used to resolve the situation.

Error checking . A process to determine the error.

Error correction . The ability to repair the error.

3.1. 8 Speed of data transmission across a network .

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the terms: bandwidth, throughput, goodput and bottleneck.

Describe why the speed of data transmission across a computer network is not stable.
List the factors that affect speed of data transmission.

It is important to mention that different media support different transfer speeds. The main
unit that we use to measure data transfer is bps ( bits per second). Nowadays improvements
in network technologies have increased transfer speed and so it is more convenient to use
kilobits ( kbps) or megabits ( millions of bits per second ( Mbps)).

The theoretical speed of data in a medium is called bandwidth and it depends on the
signalling technique used and the physical properties of the medium. The actual transfer
rate is called throughput and it is affected by various factors such as interference, traffic, the
number of connected devices and errors. In a network with many segments the slowest
segment creates a bottleneck that affects the throughput of the network. In this case
throughput is only as fast as the slowest link of the path from source to endpoint. Goodput
measures the transfer rate of usable data.

30
Factors that affect speed of data transmission

1. Bandwidth of the network

2. Data transfer rate of storage devices
3. Interferences

( n.d.) . Retrieved December 21, 2014, from

29

http://medusa.sdsu.edu / network/CS576 /Lectures/chl 2_TCP.pdf

30
Digital Imaging Tutorial - Delivery, ( n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
https:// www.library.cornell.edu/preservation/ tutorial/technical /technicalD-04.html
 4. Malicious software
5. Number of connected devices
6. Number of users' and users demand at any particular time (traffic)
7. Packet loss and retransmission
8. Read speed of storage devices
9. Slowest segment
10. Speed, technology and capacity of the network server
11. Time required for user authentication and various security checks that take place
12. Type of files send
13. Type of transmission medium
14. User's PC CPU speed
15. User's PC RAM /disk caching
16. User's PC various subsystem performance

3.1. 9 Compression of data

. 1
Exit skills Students should be able to :

Define the terms: data compression, lossy data compression and lossless data
compression .
Explain the importance of data compression during transmission over a network .
List some file formats that use data compression .

All networks have a limited bandwidth. Data compression reduces the size of files to be
transmitted over a network. A compressed file takes up less bandwidth. When we reduce
the size of a file, the time required to send this file over a network is also reduced. Data
compression ( a.k.a. bit -rate reduction ) is the reduction of bits by encoding data using fewer
bits than the original representation. File compression is commonly used when sending a file
from one computer to another. It makes the file smaller and the transfer faster with no data
loss. The receiver must have a program that will decompress the file.

There are two types of data compression:

• Lossy data compression: With this compression method, some loss of information is
acceptable and there is no way to get the original file back. Examples: JPEG, MPEG 2.
• Lossless data compression: this compression method reduces the number of bits by
first identifying and then eliminating any statistical redundancy. There is no loss of
information during lossless compression. Examples: compression - decompression
software.

Graphics, sound, music and video formats that use compression algorithms to decrease the
size of the original file have become ubiquitous on the Internet. The following are examples
of such formats:

• The Graphics Interchange Format ( GIF) is a graphic file format that is used extensively
on the Web and uses a form of lossless compression algorithm ( if we are dealing with
a graphic file that has fewer than 256 colours).
 • Mp 3 is an audio coding format that uses a form of lossy data compression. Almost all
music now comes in mp3 format and this format dominates the Internet .
• MPEG- 2 combines lossy audio data compression and lossy video data compression
methods and is used in the transmission of video over the Internet ( e.g. movies ).

3.1 . 10 Characteristics of different transmission media 31

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Describe the characteristics and use of metal conductors, fiber optic cables and
wireless transmission.
Discuss the speed, reliability, cost and security of metal conductors, fiber optic cables
and wireless transmission.

1. Wired communication
• Copper cable ( metal conductors): Copper cable is the
most common kind of cabling in computer networks.
• Coaxial Cable : It consists of two copper conductors. It
was used in computer networks, as well as to carry TV signals.
Low cost of installation.
• Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable ( UTP ) : Very popular in
LANs. Easy to install. Prone to electrical interference. Low cost
of installation. Good for short
distances between repeaters. Used in
fr.

.
telephone networks. Very secure .
• Shielded Twisted Pair Cable :

Image 3.6: Wired media

More difficult to install than UTP.
Reduced interference.
• Fiber Optic Cable : Optical
fiber carries a beam of light . Very
w
Image 3.7: RFID
expensive. Offers higher speeds.
Needs fewer repeaters. Extremely
secure. It is used for data transmission
and telephone lines.

2. Wireless communication
• Microwave Radio : Used extensively for mobile
Image 3.8: Infrared connection
telephone networks and LANs. Information is carried through
air . Microwave signals offer high bandwidth ( but lower than
cables ). For optimum results no buildings and other structures should be between
the transmitter and the receiver. Weather conditions affect the performance.
Difficult to guarantee reliability. Less secure than wired communication.
• Satellites : Use microwave signals.

31
Traditional Transmission Media for Networking and Telecommunications, ( n.d. ) . Retrieved
December 21, 2014, from http://www .informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=683070
 • Infrared: Used only for very short distances. Infrared transmission cannot pass
through objects and it is directional. A line of sight is required. Advanced security.
• RFID: Uses various radio technologies. Active RFID needs internal power. Passive
RFID needs no internal power source.
• Bluetooth : Bluetooth devices use microwave radio to exchange data. They transmit
at very low power levels. Their frequencies change regularly.
• Free Space Optics: Use of lasers for wireless computer communication.

Transmission Characteristics ( scale worst:l- best:3)

media speed reliability cost security
metal conductor 2 2 2 2
fiber optic 3 3 3 3
wireless 1 1 1 1
Table 3.4: Transmission media characteristics

3.1 . 11 Packet switching

1
Exit skills . Students should be able to :

Define the term data packet

Describe the packet switching communication method.

I
I Useful Information: It is important to mention that there are three kinds of switching:
I
I circuit switching, packet switching and message switching.
I
/

Data packet is a unit of information in a form suitable to travel between computers.

In a packet switching network the datagram is the basic transfer unit and sometimes is used
instead of the term data packet. The analysis of differences between data packets and
datagrams is beyond the scope of this book.

Packet switching refers to a communication method used in computer networks ( digital ) in

which data are grouped into packets. The original file is divided into packets before
transmission and each packet may follow a different path to the destination. Each packet is
sent individually, possibly reaching the destination via different routes. With packet
switching the communication channel can be used more efficiently and delays are
minimized. Packet switching can be distinguished in:

1. Datagram Packet Switching: with this method, each packet contains the receiver
address. The path that datagrams take between the same source and destination
can be different.
2. Virtual Circuit Packet Switching: with this method, a route from source to
destination is set up before any transmission takes place.

154
3.1.12 Network topologies
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Describe the characteristics and use of metal conductors, fiber optic cables and
wireless transmission.
Discuss the speed, reliability, cost and security of metal conductors, fiber optic cables
and wireless transmission.

There are eight basic topologies: point -to -point, bus, star, ring, mesh, tree, fully connected
and hybrid.

0 G
point - to -point

mesh

fully connected
Figure 3.17: Network topologies

\
Example 3.15:

Question: what is star network topology ?

Answer: A star network consists of one central node ( computer or hub), to which all
other nodes ( computers) are connected.
V
 Wireless networking
All wireless devices communicate and exchange data through radio transmissions, without
any physical connection or cabling. Wireless systems and devices include cell phones,
cordless computer keyboards, local area networks, mouse devices, personal networks,
remote controls, wireless headphones, wireless hi- fi stereo headsets, wireless microphones,
etc.

Useful Information: Nowadays laptops, smartphones and tablets are equipped with
various network adapters and cards that facilitate the integration between Wi- Fi and
Mobile Phone Networks.

3.1. 13 Advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Describe advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks and communication.

Describe how wireless networks have led to significant changes in working and
studying patterns.
Describe health concerns that relate to the extensive use of wireless networks.
Describe how wireless networks affect social activities.

The extensive use of wireless and mobile devices and networks has raised various concerns:

• What are the long term health effects of extensive use of mobile phones and Wi- Fi
networks ? This is a health issue.

According to World Health Organization ( 2014) 32:

Short -term effects:

"To date, research does not suggest any consistent evidence of adverse health effects from
exposure to radiofrequency fields at levels below those that cause tissue heating. Further,
research has not been able to provide support for a causal relationship between exposure to
electromagnetic fields and self-reported symptoms, or "electromagnetic hypersensitivity"."

Long-term effects:

"While an increased risk of brain tumors is not established, the increasing use of mobile

Useful Information: In a recent interview Dr Olle Johansson at the Department of

Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, spoke about exposure to electromagnetic waves
from mobile phones causing learning cognitive difficulties in children:
https:// www.youtube.com / watch ?v=bXCCvoiWtOg.

32
Copied by: WHO, 2014, Electromagnetic fields and public health: Mobile phones, ( n.d.). Retrieved
December 21, 2014, from http://www. who.int /mediacentre /factsheets/fsl93/en/
phones and the lack of data for mobile phone use over time periods longer than 15 years
warrant further research of mobile phone use and brain cancer risk . In particular, with the
recent popularity of mobile phone use among younger people, and therefore a potentially
longer lifetime of exposure, World Health Organization ( WHO) has promoted further
research on this group. Several studies investigating potential health effects in children and
adolescents are underway."

• How many car accidents happen every day due to misuse of mobile phones?
This is a social issue .

33
According to National Safety Council ( 2014 )
report ( NSC releases latest injury and fatality
statistics and trends) "the use of cellphones
causes 26% of all motor vehicle crashes" and
"only 5% of cellphone-related crashes involve
texting while the majority of the accidents
involve drivers talking on handheld or hands-
free cell phones."

Image 3.9: Misuse of mobile phones

• What happens with all these devices

when improperly disposed ?
This is an environmental issue.

A study reported that the number of active mobile phones will reach 7.3 billion by 2014.34
Cell phones, tablets, laptops and Wi-Fi devices contain hazardous materials including,
mercury and lead. The improper disposal of these materials harms the environment,
humans and wildlife. All electronic devices should be recycled and never buried in landfills or
burned.35

• Is there a change in working patterns due to wireless technology?

This is a social issue.

36
A study conducted at MIT ( 2005) ten years ago indicated that the use of MIT WLANs
changed the way students worked and studied. This study indicated that "factors like
comfort, convenience, spatial qualities, presence of other people, presence of food etc.

Copied by : NSC ( 2014, March 25 ) . News release. Retrieved December 21, 2014,
33

http:// www.nsc.org/NewsDocuments/2014-Press-Release-Archive/3-25-2014- lnjury-Facts-release.pdf

Number of mobile phones to exceed world population by 2014. ( 2013, February 28). Retrieved
34

December 21, 2014, from http:// www.digitaltrends.com/ mobile/ mobile -phone- world- population-
2014/
35
.
Disclaimer, ( n.d . ) . Retrieved December 21, 2014, from http://www.dec ny.gov/ chemical/8818.html
Copied by : Sevtsuk, A and C. Ratti, 2005, iSPOTS. How Wireless Technology is Changing Life on the
36

MIT Campus. Retrieved December 21, 2014, from

http://senseable.mit.edu/papers/pdf/SevtsukRatti 2005CUPUM.pdf
 Example 3.16: State the advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks.
'
Advantages Disadvantages
Installing a cable can often be difficult. Wireless communication gives relatively
low speed.
Installing a cable can often be expensive. Wireless communication gives high
error rates.
Easy to set up a temporary link. Wireless communication is affected by
weather.
Wireless communication is truly wireless. Wireless communication offers weakest
protection, security, privacy .
It costs less to set up a wireless network. Wireless networks are less reliable.
Easier to plan a wireless network. Health concerns .
A lot of public access points exist. Some old devices don't have wireless
connection capability.
It is the only way to connect some
devices (tablets, smartphones).
v Flexibility / convenience.

affected the way laptops were used." The following paragraph copied from this study gives a
clear picture of the current trends: "According to graduate resident tutors at the new
Simmons Hall dormitory, designed by Steven Hall, most undergraduates spend long evening
hours in comfortable lounge spaces, where they can socialize with other students, while
working on their laptop computers. Simultaneous physical communication and Internet
communication through e -mails, instant messengers, chat forums and videoconferences
have become commonplace for most students. The notorious amount of problem sets and
homework demanded from MIT students is often facilitated by consulting and checking
answers with fellow students through Instant Messengers over the Internet and many
homework assignments can be turned in on -line." Similar trends take place in modern
software companies like Google, Microsoft etc.

3.1.14 Hardware and software components of a wireless network

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Describe and explain the hardware and software components needed to set up and
run a wireless network .

Hardware devices needed:

• A modem allows you to connect to the Internet .

• A wireless router serves a similar function to traditional routers in wired networks.

In most cases it also provides the functions of a Wireless Access Point ( used to
connect to an existing wired network ). A Wireless Access Point ( WAP ) allows

158
Useful Information: In most cases we buy a single device that integrates a modem, a
switch and a router into a single box. This allows the creation of both a wired and a
wireless network, as well as a connection of that network to other networks, such as
the Internet ( a firewall is provided as software or as an integrated hardware
component ).

wireless data transfer between a device and a network. A router normally has some
LAN jacks for other wired devices.

A wireless network adapter also known as wireless NIC ( Wireless Network Interface
Controller or Wireless Network Interface Card ) is required for each device on a
wireless network.

A device that has the ability to connect to the wireless network such as a PC,
laptop, sensor, smart phone, printer, game console, tablet, etc.

Wireless antennas. Access points and routers frequently utilize Wi- Fi antennas that
significantly increase the effective communication area of the wireless network.
These antennas are fixed, optional or removable.

A wireless repeater ( signal boosters or range expanders) connects to a router or

access point. Their purpose is to receive an existing signal from a wireless router or
access point and to rebroadcast it.

Ethernet to Wireless Access Point or Ethernet to wireless repeater . It uses Ethernet

cables to carry the signal to the wireless repeater or WAP.

Ethernet over power line to wireless repeater or WAP . It uses power lines to carry
the signal to the wireless repeater or WAP.

Printer

Laptop

phone
'

Figure 3.18: A WLAN

159
Software needed:
37
• DHCP : Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol ( DHCP ) is a network protocol that
allows a server to automatically assign an IP address to a client device. It is very
efficient and convenient to let the router automatically assign IP addresses to
devices. This client operates in the client - server model, which is widely used in many
networks, including local ones. It is important to mention that when a wireless
device enters the wireless network it may be able to acquire an IP address from the
router. The alternative would be to disable the DHCP functionality and configure
each one of the wireless network devices with a static IP address.

• Software Firewall : A network security system that determines what data comes in
and goes out of a network or a PC.

• Name / SSID : A service set identification ( SSID ) is a set of 32 alphanumeric characters.

It is used to differentiate one WLAN from another and is case sensitive.

• NIC drivers : A Network Interface Card driver is a device driver for the NIC card. A
Network Interface Card driver operates or controls the hardware of the card. It acts
like a translator between the wireless card and the applications or operating system
of the device.

• OS: The Operating System handles system resources and is responsible for managing
all the protocols, hardware, and applications that have to cooperate in order that a
network can exist and function correctly.

33
• Security Software : Security software includes all software that prevents
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection,
recording or destruction. It includes access control, firewall, anti- spyware, anti-
subversion software, anti-tamper software, antivirus software, cryptographic
software, anti-key loggers, intrusion detection system ( IDS), intrusion prevention
system ( IPS) and sandbox.

39, 40
• WAP : Wireless Application Protocol specifies a set of protocols for accessing
information over a mobile wireless network. It allows users to access the Internet,
exchange e-mails, surf the web etc. It is used in radio transceivers and cellular
phones. The WAP protocol supports most wireless networks and is supported by
most operating systems. Most devices in Europe and the USA no longer need WAP

37
.
Bradley, C (n.d.). Don 't Invite Strange Devices to Play on Your Network . Retrieved December 21,
.
2014, from http://netsecurity.about .com/ od/quicktipl/ qt / qtwifistaticip htm
38
Security software. ( 2015, March 24 ) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:01, June 15,
2015, from https:// en.Wikipedia. org/ w / index.php?title =Security _ software& oldid=653304393
39
Wireless Application Protocol. ( 2015, June 10 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 17:04,
June 15, 2015, from
https://en.Wikipedia. org/ w /index.php ?title= Wireless_ Application_ Protocol & oldid = 666351127
40
.
WAP - Wireless Application Protocol, ( n.d.) Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
http:// www.webopedia .eom /TERM / W/ WAP.html

160
 and its use has almost disappeared. Modern browser approaches for mobile devices
support HTML and don't need to use WAP to achieve webpage compatibility.

• WEB- BROWSER: A Web browser is an application software that is used to find,

retrieve and display content on the WWW, including web pages, text, images, audio,
videos and other content. Most browsers have functions like "favorites", "history",
"search a web page" etc.

' Example 3.17: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between OS
and Network OS (NOS).
Answer:

Similarities Differences
They both manage a system's A network operating system is more expensive
resources. to obtain, install and maintain.
They both manage access and A NOS is installed on network servers,
permissions on a system.
They are both system software. A NOS can also be found in a router or a
hardware firewall.
A NOS has the ability to manage multiple
users, security policies and other functions of a
network.
Example 3.18: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between
software and hardware firewall.
Answer:

Similarities Differences
They both control the data flow. A hardware firewall is used to protect many
devices.
They serve the same purpose. A hardware firewall is more expensive.

3.1.15 Characteristics of wireless networks .

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Describe and explain the characteristics of WiFi networks.

Describe and explain the characteristics of WiMax networks.
Describe and explain the characteristics of 3G, 4G and 5G mobile networks.
Describe and explain the characteristics of LTE .

Bit rates
kilobit per second kbit /s 103
megabit per second Mbit /s 10s
gigabit per second Gbit /s 109
terabit per second Tbit/s 1012
Table 3.5: Bit rates

161
 • IG, 2G: The first generation of mobile technology ( lG/year 1981) used analog
transmission, and in 1992 2G appeared and used digital exchange.

41,42
• 3G : 3 G is the third generation of mobile networking and telecommunications
technology. 3 G is widely used in wireless telephony, GPS and location based
services, mobile internet access, video calls and mobile TV. It is based on standards
used for mobile devices and mobile telecommunications. It can provide a data
transfer rate of 200 kbit / s. 3 G networks are more secure than 2 G networks. There is
a significant difference between Wi- Fi ( IEEE 802.11 technology ) and 3 G. The first one
is a short range wireless network that offers high -bandwidth designed for data
transfer while the second focuses on cellular telephones and Internet access.

I Example 3.19: Compare and contrast the similarities and differences between 1G
and 4G .
Answer:

Similarities Differences
Both are mobile wireless 4G is a lot faster than 1G
networks

1G is an analog telecommunication standard while 4G is

a digital telecommunication standard

4G offers greater telecommunication capabilities and

the ability to exchange multimedia
\
\

• 4G43: 4G mobile is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications technology

that was released after 3 G. It is used for mobile Internet access to laptops,
smartphones and other devices. The speed requirement for 4G services is at 100
Mbit /s for various forms of high mobility communication such as use from trains,
buses and cars, and 1Gbit / s for low mobility communication that serves walking and
static persons. It doesn't support traditional circuit - switched telephony service ( 2G
and 3G did ) but only IP- based communication like IP telephony.

45
• LTE : LTE ( Long Term Evolution ) is a 4G network, as well as a
standard for wireless communication of high-speed data for

3 G. ( 2015, May 19 ) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 17:06, June 15, 2015, from
41

https:// en.Wikipedia . org/ w /index.php ?title=3 G & oldid=663146953

42
What is a 3 G Network ? ( n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from http:// www. wisegeek.org/ what -
is - a -3 g- network .htm
43
4G . ( 2015, June 1) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 17:09, June 15, 2015, from
https://en. wikipedia.org/ w / index.php ?title=4G & oldid=665002346
44
LTE (telecommunication ). ( 2015, June 12 ) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 17:08,
June 15, 2015, from
https://en.wikipedia .Org/ w/index.php ?title=LTE_ ( telecommunication ) & oldid= 666645572
 smartphones and mobile data terminals. Its goal is to be fast and to have a large
capacity. Its highest download rates are as high as 300 Mbit / s and upload rates 75
Mbit /s. 4G LTE has evolved to LTE Advanced that provides even more data capacity.

• WiMAXM’ 46, 47, 48: WiMAX ( Worldwide Interoperability for \

Microwave Access ) , is a 4G network originally designed as
an alternative to DSL Cable and T1 lines. It is a wireless rnnax
communications standard intended to provide 30 to 40 mbps data rates for a great
number of users. Recently WiMAX 2.0 was released, promising data transfer rates of
1 Gbit/ s for fixed devices, and 100 Mbit /s for various mobile devices. WiMax is
intended to serve long-range networking (spanning kilometers) as opposed to
WLANs. WiMAX is used to provide portable mobile broadband connectivity across
cities or even countries through many devices. Its setup has a low cost in
comparison with 3 G, because the provider does not need to run cables. It provides a
line- of -sight connection service which offers more stable connection than the non-
line of sight WiFi service which
service most users. The most
important application of WiMax
is that it allows connectivity
even in remote and isolated
Kinr areas where there is no WiFi,
dial-up or broadband access.
WiMAX poses a great threat to
providers of DSL and cable-
modem services.

49
• 5G : 5 G is the fifth
generation of technology for
Image 3.10: WiMAX mobile telecommunication. It is
also known as Tactile Internet .
It has not been made publically available. Samsung has announced that its goal for
2020 is to deliver 5 G at lGbps. Various analysts estimate that by 2020, 50 billion to
100 billion devices will be connected to the internet, many of which will be every
day - devices that now are not network -enabled.

WiMAX vs LTE - What is a better 4G technology. ( 2014, March 4) . Retrieved December 21, 2014,
45

from http:// thebestwirelessinternet.com / wimax- vs-lte.html

46
WiMAX . ( 2015, June 12 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 17:11, June 15, 2015, from
https://en.Wikipedia. org/ w /index.php ? title=WiMAX & oldid= 666576611
47
Mitchell, B. ( n.d.). What Is WiMAX Broadband Wireless Networking? Retrieved December 21, 2014,
from http:// compnetworking.about.eom/od/ wirelessinternet/g/ bldef_ wimax.htm
48
WiMAX Wireless Network - HowStuffWorks. ( n.d.) . Retrieved December 21, 2014, from
http:// computer.howstuffworks.com /wimaxl.htm
5G . ( 2015, June 3 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:12, June 15, 2015, from
49

https://en.Wikipedia. org/ w / index.php?title=5 G & oldid=665329464

163
 50
• Sensor networks , can be used to measure data and parameters, such as
temperature, sound, pressure etc. for physical or environmental reasons such as
environmental sampling, security and surveillance, health-care monitoring of critical
patients, underwater measurements etc . Sensors are placed at fixed locations and
are linked by a wireless network to perform distributed sensing tasks. Most modern
networks also enable control of the activity of the sensors. Wireless communication
enables processing of events at the node, local neighbourhood, and global levels. A
wireless sensor network requires multiple nodes to communicate and ensure
appropriate coordination and cooperation.

• WiMAX versus LTE

1. WiMAX and LTE are both considered 4G technologies and are both all IP
technologies.
2. They use different channels.
3. It is important to mention that LTE is compatible with 2G and 3 G systems while
WiMAX network doesn't support these "legacy" systems.
4. Building a LTE network is more expensive than the cost of building a WiMAX
network.
5. LTE allows much greater speed for mobile users. LTE-A is the only true 4G
technology ( according to the 4G specifications).
6. The WiMAX isn't as popular and LTE is much more widespread.
7. WiMAX is considered a better choice for low -cost network installation in
developing countries.

U Image 3.11: various 4G services

Wireless sensor network, ( n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from

50

http:// en. wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Wireless_ sensor _ network

164
3.1. 16 Different methods of network security51
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the terms symmetric key encryption, public key encryption and trusted media
access control ( MAC ) addresses.
Explain the use of symmetric key encryption, public key encryption and trusted media
access control ( MAC ) addresses.
Describe the different methods that can be used to increase security of the user' s
data .

As wireless technology improves, innovative devices are being developed to provide

advanced functionality, portability, ease of use, smarter features and complex functions.
Wireless networks, tablets, laptops, smart -phones and PDAs provide services such as web
access, voice, email, text messaging ( SMS), multimedia messaging ( MMS), paging, GPS,
navigation, and voice recognition services. Wireless networks, devices and services are more
vulnerable than conventional wired networks. Intruders, hackers and unauthorized users
can:

disable operations
disturb the privacy of legitimate users
gain unauthorized access
insert viruses or malicious code
launch denial of service attacks
steal identities
steal devices and
steal sensitive information that is stored or transmitted
, 53
Encryption 52

Encryption is absolutely necessary to protect data from unauthorized access during Internet
use or any other untrusted network. The process of encryption uses complex mathematical
algorithms and encryption keys to alter a message into a form that is not understandable to
an unauthorized person. Only the person with the correct key can decode the message and
read it. There are two computer encryption categories:

• Symmetric-key encryption, single key encryption or secret key encryption . The same
key is used for encryption and decryption. In this encryption method each device has
a secret code that is used to encrypt a packet before it is sent over an untrusted
network. The receiving device should know and use the same key to decode the
packet received. A well-known symmetric algorithm developed for computers was

51
NETGEAR Support | Answer | Introduction to Wireless Security, ( n. d.) . Retrieved December 21,
2014, from http:// kb.netgear.fr/app/answers/ detail/ a _ id/ 20049/~/ introduction-to- wireless- security
52
( n.d.) . Retrieved December 27, 2014, from
https:// www .cs.utexas.edu /~byoung/ cs361/lecture 44.pdf
53
An Overview of Cryptography, ( n.d.). Retrieved December 27, 2014, from
http:// www.garykessler.net / library/crypto.html

165
 the Data Encryption Standard ( DES), which uses a 56-bit key. Although
72,057,594,037,927,936 possible combinations might seem enough, a brute force
attack of from modern computer can crack the code and reveal the original
message. Advanced Encryption Standard ( AES), which uses 128 to 256-bit keys
offers :

3.4028236692093846346337460743177 e +38 to
1.1579208923731619542357098500869e+77 key combinations.

• Public-key encryption or asymmetric key encryption . This uses a public key for
encryption and a private key for decryption . These two keys are mathematically
linked. This type of encryption is used on the Internet. Transport Layer Security ( TLS)
and Secure Socket Layer ( SSL) encryption protocols, used for secure web
communication, are based on public key encryption.

Method Advantages of method Disadvantages of method

Public-key The two sides don ' t need to Messages take more time to encrypt
encryption have already shared their and decrypt.
secret key in order to The authenticity of the public key
communicate using encryption. needs to be verified.
Symmetric- Key Encryption speed is faster than Keys must be shared before they can
encryption with public - key encryption. be used.
Uses less computer resources. If the key becomes known by
unauthorized individuals then another
key must be used.
Table 3.6: Methods of network security

Free access

• No security: Wireless data transmission extends beyond walls and window screens.
In many cases when you buy a wireless router or an access point, its security
features are not enabled. Some public authorities provide free access to their Wi - Fi
but this is not normally the case for the average user . When you set up a wireless
network you may not want to provide open and free Internet access to your
neighbours. So you have to enable some security features.

Methods of network security

• Use a password to access your device. Remember, weak passwords are easy to
crack. Choose a password with at least eight characters, a combination of numbers,
upper and lower case letters, and other keyboard symbols.
• Install an antivirus program on your device to prevent, detect and remove
malicious software.
• Use a software firewall installed on each device that will help keep intruders,
hackers and malicious software from getting into your devices.

166
 • Use a password to access the web interface that is used to setup your wireless
routers or access points.
• Turn On/ Off Wireless Connectivity. It is very important to mention that many
commercial models of router have a button that enables or disables the wireless
connection. This is a very good option if you don't need wireless access.
• Enable/Disable SSID Broadcast. A wireless router or an access point broadcasts its
wireless network name ( SSID ). All wireless devices in range can identify it. By
disabling this broadcast, devices in range will not be able to find the wireless
network unless a user enters the correct SSID manually. Some users think that this
provides a security measure against unauthorized access. This is a common mistake,
because an intruder can easily detect hidden wireless networks and "sniffer" tools
can even discover the SSID.
• Block access to wireless devices by MAC address: Mac stands for Medium Access
Control, follows MAC protocol and is a sub-layer of the data link layer Every .
Network Interface Card ( NIC) has a unique MAC address given when it is
manufactured. A MAC address is a string of 12 digits /characters, with a size of 48-bit
(e.g. in the hex format: 00:40:96:9d:68:16 ). Network security can be enhanced by
permitting access to only specific trusted wireless devices, based on their MAC
addresses. An untrusted device would not be able to connect to the wireless
.
network MAC address limitation increases the wireless network protection but, it
can be very difficult to maintain an up-to-date list of allowed MAC addresses.

Useful Information: All security protocols require a password (key) and the use of
encryption algorithms. Any wireless network is vulnerable without the use of an
encryption method. All encryption methods and techniques follow certain security
protocols.

• WEP Wireless Security: The most common data encryption techniques that have
been designed for the 802.11 is the WEP. WEP is a Wireless Encryption Protocol.
WEP stands for Wired Equivalent Privacy . It was introduced in 1999 to provide data
confidentiality and usually provides 40/ 64bit and 128bit encryption key lengths.
WEP adds processing overheads that slow down the wireless connection. WEP
cracking is possible but novice users are not able to hack it. A key advantage is that
it offers interoperability with older devices ( access to a legacy wireless device).
• WPA, WPA2 Wireless Security: WEP was superseded by Wi - Fi Protected Access
( WPA ) which was adopted in 2003 by the Wi-Fi Alliance as an interim security
measure while the WPA 2 wireless security standard was developed. WPA 2 was
finally approved in June 2004. It uses an Advanced Encryption Standard ( AES) block
cipher and is now available in a broad range of wireless devices. It is considered the
best protection but, the administrator should still use a strong password.
• Wireless Protected Setup ( WPS ) sometimes referred as Quick Security Setup (QSS) :
This protocol is specially designed to allow novice and residential users to securely
operate their wireless network. Wireless Protected Setup requires a WPS router and

L
167
 WPS compatible devices. WPS has known security weaknesses and it is strongly
recommended to disable WPS if you are not using it.

WPS methods

a. PIN. A personal identification number ( PIN ) should be entered in the device

that we wish to connect in the network. This must be read from:
i. a sticker attached on the wireless router or access point or
ii. a GUI application that helps the setup process.
b. Push button. The user pushes a WPS button on both devices ( wireless router
or access point and the client device ) .
c. Near field communication ( NFC) method. The new device should be close to
the access point /router .
d. USB transfer method to transfer data between wireless router or access
point and the client device.

• Prevent physical access: It is possible for a building to be shielded from

electromagnetic interference. Directional antennas can be used to restrict the
spread of the signal. Both methods offer great protection but the cost is extreme. In
wired networks this process is extremely simple.
• Use router hardware firewall: It is very important to mention that the built-in router
firewall is the first line of defence that prevents hackers on the Internet from getting
access to your device. It protects your connection and is able to block incoming
traffic. It can also be used to control or limit the user's own access to the Internet.
Most firewall systems can't stop people in range of your Wi - Fi from getting onto
your Wi- Fi network.
• Use encryption software for sensitive information sent over the Internet e.g.
attached files sent with email.

3.1.17 Advantages and disadvantages of each method of network security 54

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Evaluate different methods of network security

Describe the pros and cons of each method of network security

Each method has advantages and disadvantages. The perfect security method simply does
not exist.

Advantages Disadvantages
No security High speeds. Anyone can access the
network.
Use a password to Easy to use. Takes some time to enter the
access your device. It will prevent user name and password. If it
unauthorized access. is weak then it is easy to crack.

Wireless Networking Security , ( n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2014, from

54

http:// technet.microsoft.com / en -us/library / bb 457019 . aspx

168
Install an antivirus Very good protection May slow down your device.
program on your device from malicious software.
Use a software firewall It will monitor and May slow down your device.
installed on each device control the traffic flow
between your computer
and the network and
prevent unauthorized
access to your device.
Use a password to If a person has access to Takes some time to enter the
access the web interface the LAN, uses a web user name and password. If it
that is used to setup browser and enters the IP is weak then it is easy to crack.
your wireless routers or address of the router,
access point he/she will need a
password to log into the
web-based Utility page of
the modem / router /
access point.
Turn On/ Off Wireless Complete security. If the wireless is disabled then
Connectivity there is no wireless network.
Enable / Disable SSID Invisible to novice users. Experienced attackers can
Broadcast easily find your SSID.
Limit access to wireless Extra security. By sniffing the wireless
devices by MAC address transmissions, the allowed list
of MAC addresses can be easily
discovered.
Difficult to manage the list .
WEP Wireless Security Works with legacy Outdated.
systems.
WPA, WPA 2 Wireless The best option.
Security Strong encryption.
Wireless Protected Ease of use. New technology.
Setup ( WPS) No need to know the SSID Works only with WPS certified
and security keys or devices.
passphrases. Some known security issues.
Prevent physical access Limited to the interior of Very expensive.
( wireless networks) the user' s premises.
Use routers' hardware Prevents hackers and Can't stop persons in range of
firewall unauthorized persons on your Wi- Fi from getting onto
the Internet from getting your Wi- Fi network.
access to your network.
Use encryption software Extremely difficult for an This process takes some time.
for sensitive unauthorized person to
information sent over read your sensitive files.
the internet
Table 3.7: Advantages and disadvantages of network security methods

169
 \
! Example 3.20:

Example 3.20.a:

Laptops and computers are able to connect to wireless network. State five other
devices that are able to connect to a wireless network.

Answer:

Game consoles, smartphones, TVs, printers, PDAs.

Example 3.20.b:

All these devices need a hardware component to connect to the wireless network.
State the name of this component.

Answer:

Wireless network interface card.

Example 3.20.c:

State the name of the hardware component that is essential to set up a wireless
network.

Answer:

Wireless router

Example 3.20.d:

State one reason to use WEP instead of WPA 2.

Answer:

It offers interoperability with older devices ( access to a legacy wireless device).

Example 3.20.e:

State why WPA 2 is better than WEP.

Answer:

Because it uses an Advanced Encryption Standard ( AES) block cipher that allows
stronger encryption than WEP. So, it offers greater security.

\ /

170
.
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 Chapter 4
TOPIC 4 - COMPUTATIONAL THINKING
r
© IBO
2012
Topic 4. Computational thinking1

Tools used
1. Most IB compatible pseudocode examples of this book have been tested using the EZ
Pcode practice tool found at:

https:// dl.dropboxusercontent. eom/ u/ 275979/ibcomp / pseduocode / pcode.html

This excellent tool was developed by Mr. Dave Mulkey. The Authors wish to express
their gratitude to the developer of this valuable educational resource .

2. Most flowcharts were developed using the Flowgorithm software. It can be downloaded
using the following link.

http:// www .flowgorithm.org/

This software was developed by Mr. Devin Cook and is highly recommended.

3. All Java programs were tested in BlueJ. It can be downloaded using the following link.

http:// www .bluej.org/

The BlueJ development environment was created by the University of Kent and is ideally
suited for students.

The concept of a problem

Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the concept of the problem.

According to the Cambridge dictionary: "A problem is a situation that needs attention and
2
needs to be dealt with or solved /' Whenever we have to deal with a problem, we have to
take one or more decisions. Herbert A. Simon3 ( Nobel prize in Economic sciences, 1978) 4 was

1
International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ). IBDP Computer Science Guide.
2
Problem definition, meaning - what is problem in the British English Dictionary & Thesaurus -
Cambridge Dictionaries Online, ( n. d.). Retrieved May 30, 2015, from
http :// dictionary.cambridge. org/ dictionary/ british/ problem
Herbert A . Simon . ( 2015, June 9 ) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 :07, June 19,
2015, from https:// en . Wikipedia.org/ w / index.php ?title=Herbert _ A ._Simon & oldid=666130799
4
Herbert A. Simon - Biographical, ( n. d.) . Retrieved May 31, 2015, from
http://www.nobelprize.org/ nobel_ prizes/ economic -sciences/ laureates/1978/simon - bio.html

174
a pioneer in many fields including decision -making. He originally defined three steps in
Decision Making: Intelligence gathering , Design and Choice ( SimonI9605) . Other researchers
( Mintzberg et al, 1976 ) redefined these three stages as a sequence of Identification,
6

Development and Selection . In both cases an implementation phase follows ( Figure 4.1) .
Every time you need to solve a problem, you have to make a decision according to these
steps. Sometimes a person finding a solution to a problem must return to a previous phase
and improve the outcome, before proceeding to the next phase. Imagine a situation where
during the selection phase the chosen alternative does not return the desired results in an
efficient way. It is then necessary to return to the development phase and explore again
various alternatives ( Figure 4.2 ).

•identify the problem

Identification •understand the problem
•formulate the problem

Development •explore various alternatives

Selection
•choose the best alternative

Implementation •implement the selected solution

Figure 4.1: Decision making process

Following the above process will solve most problems, but it does not guarantee the
solution of all problems.

There are many mathematical problems that remain unsolved. Some mathematical unsolved
problems include7:

• The Goldbach conjecture

• The Riemann hypothesis
• The conjecture that there exists a Hadamard matrix for every positive multiple of 4
• The twin prime conjecture

Simon, H.A . (1960). THE NEW SCIENCE OF MANAGEMENT DECISION. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
5

Mintzberg, H., D. Raisinghani and A. Té or èt. (1976 ). The structure of unstructured decision
6

processes. Administrative Science Quartely, 21, pp. 246- 275.

( n. d.) . Retrieved May 30, 2015, from http:// mathworld. wolfram.com /UnsolvedProblems.html
7
 • Determination of whether NP -problems are actually P -problems
• The Collatz problem

However, we can posit that all these will, one day, be solved, and almost certainly by using
the decision-making process below.

Identification

<
Development

Selection

Implementation

Figure 4.2: Decision making process is not linear . Sometimes it is necessary to return to a previous stage

Other problems such, as accurate earthquake prediction, how the Universe began, and
question of “Free Will" are still under examination and may be forever ! It is very important
to understand that computers can only solve problems that are solvable by humans, but also
that computers can't solve some problems that are solvable by humans. Take, for example
the Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart
( CAPTSHA ) . This is a program used to prevent bots or automated software from distorting
online polls, registering email accounts etc . Some problems need human intelligence, human
perception, human intuition and human logic, and only advanced Artificial Intelligence
programs can come close to imitating human performance in these areas.

Programming involves the creation of a series of steps that will solve a problem . It is a
process of solving a problem in phases. It is very important to understand that a computer
program is a sequence of instructions that explains to the computer how to solve a specific
problem . Some problems are very complicated, while other problems are easy to solve.
Compare the following problems:

1. Write a program that will calculate the probability of an earthquake in USA the
following 34 minutes .
2. Write a program that will output "Hello world".

A Google search of the first problem returns 72,200,000 results. It will take you something
like 4178 days reading for 10 seconds, half of the results. And the funny thing is that it is
practically impossible to write a decent program to address the particular problem .
On the contrary Google will return 1,280,000 results for the second problem, and you will
find a perfect answer by clicking the first link .
8

Luckily, all problems that you are going to face during CS IB exams are easily solvable by
experienced students and it is easy to write an algorithmic solution !

Algorithm
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the concept of the algorithm.

Explain the key properties of an algorithm.
Describe the ways used to express an algorithm.

An algorithm is a series of unambiguous instructions designed in order to solve a problem

9
and achieve a certain goal in a finite number of steps . According to Knuth (1968) an
10, 11 .
algorithm must possess the following properties

• Finiteness: " An algorithm must always terminate after a finite number of steps ... a
very finite number, a reasonable number "
• Definiteness: " Each step of an algorithm must be precisely defined; the actions to be
carried out must be rigorously and unambiguously specified for each case "
• Input : "...quantities which are given to it initially before the algorithm begins. These
inputs are taken from specified sets of objects"
• Output: "...quantities which have a specified relation to the inputs "
• Effectiveness: "... all of the operations to be performed in the algorithm must be
sufficiently basic that they can in principle be done exactly and in a finite length of
time by a man using paper and pencil "

Think of an algorithm as a recipe. It's easy to write a recipe for a boiled egg.

1. Start with an egg at room temperature.

2. Bring a small pan of water to the boil.
3. Put the egg in the pan.
4. Boil for 4 minutes.

Now consider a recipe for making an omelette.

1. Whisk two eggs with some milk and some salt and pepper.

List of Hello world program examples. ( 2015, June 14 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
8

Retrieved 17:11, June 19, 2015, from

https://en. wikipedia. org/ w /index.php ?title = List _ of _ Hello_ world_program _examples & oldid=6668805
19
9
International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2004 ) . IBDP Computer Science Guide.
10
Knuth, Donald E. (1968). The Art of Computer Programming Second Edition, Volume 1,
Fundamental Algorithms ( First ed.). Addison- Wesley Publishing Company.
( n.d.). Retrieved May 30, 2015, from http:// www.statemaster.com / encyclopedia /Algorithm -
11

characterizations
 2. Heat some oil in a frying pan and add the mixture.
3. After one minute, stir and reduce heat.
4. Add ham, mushrooms and cheese onto the surface.
5. Wait for the omelette to set underneath.
6. Fold in half and serve.

Boiling an egg isn't as simple as boiling water. The simpler the problem, the simpler the
algorithm will be. The harder the problem, the bigger and more complicated the algorithm
will be. It is very important to understand that writing an algorithm is in essence, just
problem- solving.

Expression 1

Algorithm 1 Expression 2

Problem Algorithm 2 Expression 3

Algorithm 3

Figure 4.3: Many expressions can solve the same problem

For each problem, there may be many different algorithms and for each algorithm, there
may be many different expressions ( implementations). An algorithm may be expressed in a
number of ways, including:

1. Simple English ( natural language ): Not very common because it is usually verbose
and ambiguous.
2. A flow chart: A formalized graphic representation method which avoids most issues
of ambiguity.
3. Pseudocode: is a generic artificial language that describes computer algorithms but
does not use the syntax of any particular programming language. Pseudocode may
often contain natural language to describe various parts of an algorithm. These
9
parts, written in natural language, are later replaced.
4. Programming language: is an artificial language designed in such a way so that it
may be used by humans in order to communicate with a computer system. Various
programming languages exist that may be used for different purposes or problems.

178
 One thing that all programming languages have in common is that they may be used
12
to describe algorithms, create programs and control machinery.

Flowcharts
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the various symbols used in flowcharts.

A flowchart is used to diagrammatically describe an algorithm. The following symbols are

widely accepted:

FLOWCHART SYMBOLS

INPUT WHILE

OUTPUT
c START/ END
)
CALL A
DECLARATION ASSIGNMENT METHOD/
FUNCTION

CONNECTOR

Table 4.1: Flowchart symbols

Programming language. ( 2015, June 10) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:20, June
12

19, 2015, from

https:/ / en.Wikipedia, org/ w / index.php ?title=Programming_ language& oldid=666292926

179
Pseudocode13
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the concept of the pseudocode.

The main purpose of pseudocode is to help programmers develop computer programs.

Because pseudocode is written for humans the syntax used is not as strict as the one used in
computer languages. Pseudocode normally omits details that are not important for human
understanding of the algorithm . Computers can't interpret a solution in pseudocode form
thus it should be converted to a computer language. When a programmer develops
pseudocode he / she does not necessarily think of a particular computer language. Normally a
pseudocode could be converted to any computer language with relative ease. It is important
to understand that writing pseudocode involves paper and pencil.

An algorithm and its expressions

Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Express an algorithm to flowchart, pseudocode and natural language .

An algorithm
Begin
Display the message "THIS WILL BE PRINTED TWICE" two times

Display the message "THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED FOUR TIMES"

four times
End

The same algorithm expressed in the pseudocode form used in IB syllabus,

loop A from 1 to 2
output "THIS WILL BE PRINTED TWICE"
end loop
C = 1
loop while C < 5
output "THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED FOUR TIMES"
C = C +1
end loop

The same algorithm expressed as a Delphi/Pascal program

program MyProgram;
uses Math, SysUtils;
{ Headers }
{ Main }
var
A : integer;
C : integer;
begin

13
( n. d.). Retrieved May 30, 2015, from
https:// cs.brown.edu/courses / cs015 / labs/ Lab6Pseudocode.pdf

180
 for A := 1 to 2 do
begin
WriteLn ( 'THIS WILL BE PRINTED TWICE');
end;
C := 1 ;
while C < 5 do
begin
WriteLn('THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED FOUR TIMES ');
C := C + 1;
end ;
end.

The same algorithm expressed as a flowchart is presented:

14

Important : the IB CS Approved

Main
notation for developing pseudocode
I does not illustrate this method. This
symbol represents the for loop and
Declare Integer A
it is widely accepted.

Next
A = 1 to 2

Done
/ Display THIS WILL BE PRINTED TWICE"
7
Declare Integer C

I
Set C = 1

True
C <5

False
Display THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED
FOUR TIMES”

I
Set C = C +1

End

14
International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ). IBDP Approved notations for developing
pseudocode.

181
The same algorithm expressed as a Java program
import java.util. Scanner;
import java .util.*;
import java.lang. Math ;
class MyProgram {
public static void main (String[] args) {
int A;
for (A = 1 ; A <= 2 ; A += 1) {
System.out .println("THIS WILL BE PRINTED TWICE");
}
int C;
C = 1;
while (C < 5) {
System.out. println("THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED FOUR
TIMES");
C = C + 1;
}
>
}

The output of the algorithm

THIS WILL BE PRINTED TWICE
THIS WILL BE PRINTED TWICE
THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED FOUR TIMES
THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED FOUR TIMES
THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED FOUR TIMES
THIS MESSAGE WILL BE PRINTED FOUR TIMES

The programming concept

Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the programming concept .

15
It is very useful to understand the concept of programming. According to etymonline :

• "program (n. )
1630s, " public notice," from Late Latin programma "proclamation, edict," from
Greek programma " a written public notice," from stem of prographein " to write
publicly," from pro - " forth" ( see pro - ) + graphein "to write" ( see - graphy ) .
General sense of " a definite plan or scheme " is recorded from 1837. Meaning
" list of pieces at a concert, playbill " first recorded 1805 and retains the original
sense. That of " objects or events suggested by music " is from 1854. Sense of
" broadcasting presentation " is from 1923. Computer sense ( noun and verb ) is
from 1945. Spelling programme, established in Britain, is from French in modern
use and began to be used early 19 c., originally especially in the " playbill" sense.
Program music attested from 1877."

Online Etymology Dictionary, ( n. d.). Retrieved May 30, 2015, from

15

http://www.etymonline.com/ index.php?term=program

182
 • "program ( v.)
1889, " write program notes;" 1896, " arrange according to program," from
program ( n.) - Of computers from 1945. From 1963 in the figurative sense of "to
train to behave in a predetermined way." Related: Programmed; programming ."

• "programmer (n.)
1890, " event planner," agent noun from program ( v.). Meaning " person who
programs computers " is attested from 1948."

When referring to computer programs it is not acceptable to use the word "programme". A
programme or program is a plan of action to accomplish a task. A programme or program
includes various activities to be followed. A computer program is a sequence of instructions,
written to instruct a computer to perform a specified task.

4.1 General principles

Thinking procedurally

4.1.1 Procedure appropriate to solving a problem

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Explain the importance of various steps to solving a problem.
Identify the correct order of steps.
Identify the overall procedure for problem solving.

When a particular problem has to be solved, an effective method or procedure should be

identified. This procedure reduces the solution to a series of simple steps. These steps have
to be followed in the correct order to obtain the desired output . It is impossible to ride a
motorcycle if you don't know how to ride a bicycle. So first you have to learn to ride the
bicycle and then you will be able to ride the motorcycle.

4.1. 2 Order of activities and required outcome

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Explain the importance of order in which activities are performed.

A company wishes to develop a new information system. The analysis phase will be the one
that the company should complete before proceeding to the next stages of the project. If
the company tries to implement the new system without first analyzing the problem
domain, then a total waste of money, effort and resources will almost certainly occur.

183
4.1. 3 The role of sub - procedures in solving a problem
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Define the term sub- procedures.
Define the term identifier.
Explain the importance of sub-procedures.

A good approach for confronting a complex problem is to develop a method of breaking up

the problem into smaller sub -problems. This method is very effective and efficient because it
is much easier to attack a number of sub-problems instead of a big complex problem. The
resulting sub-problems can be further divided to smaller and smaller sub-problems until
finally they can be dealt individually. This strategy is often called top-down design or
stepwise refinement .

The very same approach could be used when developing complex computer programs. Using
top - down program design, the complex problem is decomposed and for each sub-problem,
an appropriate sub-procedure is developed. A sub- procedure contains a series of commands
that perform a task. When a sub-procedure is called all statements included in the particular
sub -procedure are executed. All the sub-procedures that represent different parts of the
problem solution can be used at the right time using their identifiers. So the procedure is
divided into a series of sub-procedures; this process is referred as a modular programming
approach. An identifier is the name that is used by the programmer to uniquely identify a
variable, an object a sub -procedure etc.

Programming Example 1: Sub procedure

For example: Let's imagine a program that calculates the solutions of a quadratic equation. A
sub procedure called discriminant could be used to calculate the discriminant "D". So the
algorithmic solution could look like :

Input a, b, c
D=Call Sub procedure Discriminant that returns the value D
If D>0 then
Calculate xl =
b+
„
2a
^
b
Calculate x 2 = -—
2a
Else if D=0 then
Calculate xl = —
Else
, x 2 = -2a
2a' ^
Output no solutions
End if
Output xl, x2

Sub procedure Discriminant

Calculate D=b2-4*a*c
Return D

184
Thinking logically

4.1.4 Decision-making in a specified situation

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Identify the importance of alternative decisions.
Identify the importance of alternative procedures.

The addition process does not require any decision to be taken. The following algorithm is
straight forward:

Input A
Input B
C=A+B
Output C

Some problems require the use of decisions. Suppose there is a pedestrian crossing that is
equipped with a light signal. If the signal is green, then crossing the road is safe and the
pedestrian can cross. If the signal is red, then the pedestrian should stop and wait. The
following figure illustrates the flowchart and the algorithm that corresponds to this scenario.
Two different alternative procedures ( WAIT, PASS ) could be followed.

Main

False True
Light is green If Light is green
Then
Set pedestrian = PASS
Set pedestrian = WAIT Set pedestrian = PASS Else
Set pedestrian = WAIT
End If

End

Figure 4.4: Conditional operations

4.1.5 Decisions required for the solution to a specified problem

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Identify the various decisions and procedures to solve a problem.

Identify the cause ( conditions ) and effect ( actions ) in a given situation.

In everyday life people are constantly identifying the necessary decisions and the different
actions that are relevant to a problem or a situation. It is clear that we take different
actions according, to the prevailing conditions.

185
Programming Example 2: Logic and algorithm

A student is allowed go to a football game if the following conditions are fulfilled: homework
done AND Weather is good. The following truth table illustrates this scenario.

Homework done Weather is good Allowed

TRUE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE FALSE
FALSE TRUE FALSE
FALSE FALSE FALSE
The logic expression is Allowed = Weather is good AND Homework done

The equivalent algorithm is (this not IB compatible pseudocode):

Boolean Homework done

Boolean Weather is good
Boolean Allowed
Input Homework done
Input Weather is good
If Homework done AND Weather is good Then
Allowed = True
Else
Allowed = False
End If

4.1.6 Iteration associated with a given decision in a specified problem

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Define iteration.
Identify the importance of iteration in a given situation.
Identify the importance of Boolean tests.

C=C+1

Loop while C < 5

C = C+1
End loop

Figure 4.5: The loop while (as illustrated in the approved notation )

186
 Tip: An important difference between the while loop and the from/to loop is
that the first performs some tasks when the condition is evaluated as true while the
second does something when the condition is evaluated as false.

Iteration is the process of repeating a series of instructions. It is extremely useful in

programming and is used to repeat a statement or a block of statements within an
.
algorithm Iteration is expressed using the "from to loop" and the "while loop"
statements. The IBO approved notation for developing pseudocode 14 includes the following
flowcharts and pseudocode to represent these statements. The diamond shape performs a
Boolean test, evaluates an expression and returns a Boolean value ( true or false).

C=0

NO
05 ? C= C+1
»

Loop C from 0 to 5
YES Do something
End loop
> f

Figure 4.6: The from to loop (as illustrated in the approved notation)

The IB approved notation for developing pseudocode 14 does not include the following
flowchart symbol although it is widely accepted.

r
— C=0

NO
C = 0 TO 5 DO SOMETHING

Loop C from 0 to 5
YES Do something
End loop
y

Figure 4.7: The from to loop ( the C= C+1 statement is accommodated in the Decision shape)

187
 Programming Example 3: LOOP WHILE

//use of while loop

//to print a message
//user selects the number of times
1 = 0
X = input("How many times do you want to see the message" )
loop while I < X
1=1+1
output ( "it will be printed (number entered) times ")
end while

Programming Example 4: LOOP FROM TO

//use of from to loop

//to print a message
//user selects the number of times
1 = 0
X = input("How many times do you want to see the message")
loop I from 1 to X
output ( "it will be printed (number entered) times")
end loop

4.1. 7 Decisions and conditional statements

Exit skills. Students should be able to1:

Define the term conditional statement.

Identify the importance of iteration in a given situation.
Identify the importance of Boolean tests.

A conditional statement performs different instructions depending on a Boolean test . The

if-then-else conditional statement is common across many programming languages and
human logic. Although some variations are common, the structure in pseudocode form is:

IF (Boolean condition) THEN

(Consequent)
ELSE
(Alternative)
END IF
When an if is used in an algorithm a Boolean condition is evaluated ( x>0 , x=Y etc.). If the
condition is true, the ( Consequent ) statement or statements will be executed. Otherwise,
the execution continues to the ( Alternative) statement or statements. If there is no else
branch, the algorithm continues after the end if.

Programming Example 5: Convert the following algorithm to an equivalent algorithm that

will use only simple conditionals statements.

Initial algorithm Solution

A = input("Type a number ") A = input("Type a number ")
if A = 0 then if A = 0 then
output "1" output "1 "

J
else if A+2 > 6 then end if
output "2" if A+2 > 6 then

188
 else output "2"
output "S" end if
end if if NOT ( A+2 >6) AND NOT ( A=0)
then
output M 3"
end if

Programming Example 6: Convert the following algorithm to an alternative algorithm that

will use multiple conditionals statements.

Initial algorithm Solution

A = input("Type a number") A = input(" Type a number" )
if NOT ( A = 0) AND NOT (A = 3) if A = 0 then
then output "0"
output "not 0 or 3" else if A = 3 then
end if output " 3"
if A = 0 then else
output "0" output " not 0 or 3"
end if end if
if A = 3 then
output "3"
end if

Programming Example 7: IF THEN ELSE (1)

//A way to use if-end if

//it finds if a numbered entered is positive, negative or 0
X = input ("Please enter a number" )
if X > 0 then
output "Positive"
end if
if X = 0 then
output "0"
end if
if X < 0 then
output "Negative"
end if

Programming Example 8: IF THEN ELSE (2)

//A way to use if -then-else-end if

//It finds if a numbered entered is positive , negative or 0
X = input ("Please enter a number")
if X > 0 then
output "Positive"
else if X = 0 then
output "0"
else
output "Negative"
end if

189
 4.1. 8 Logical rules for real - world
Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Derive rules of inference from a real life situation.

Logical rules or rules of inferenceare obvious rules to most humans. Programming and
algorithmic thinking involves the translation of these rules into algorithms. The following
everyday examples involve the use of common sense: If it rains I will wear a raincoat. I will
study all my lessons. I have to pay my bills. Sometimes logic leads to brilliant discoveries, like
Einstein's equation E=m * c 2, which is a mathematical way to express logic. Einstein was able
to successfully combine his logic with scientific knowledge and we really hope all IB students
will follow his example !

Thinking ahead

4.1.9 Inputs and outputs required in a solution

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Define the terms input and output.
Identify inputs and outputs in a situation.

Input is something that put into a program while output is something that is produced by the
program after a process .
It is known that Velocity ( V ) is defined as the speed of an object in a given direction. We use
the equation V = s / t to calculate an objects average velocity V .
So V equals velocity and is the output of our solution.
s equals the total displacement from the object ' s starting position, and it is one of the inputs
required in the solution .
t equals the time elapsed, and it is one of the inputs required in the solution.

process
input s, t output V
s/ t
r
Figure 4.8: Calculation of V

190
4.1.10 Pre - planning in a suggested problem and solution
Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:
Define the term pre-planning.
Define the term Gantt chart .
Define the term pre- fetching.
Define the term software libraries.
Identify the importance of pre- planning in problem solution.

Pre- planning is the process of planning something in advance.

Suppose a customer desperately wants to buy a gadget as soon as possible. He / she can
place an order for this gadget before it is available for purchase. When the gadget comes
onto the market he/she will be one of the first to obtain the gadget. This is a typical example
of preordering.

A lot of cooking recipes instruct us to put the food in a preheated oven. That means that the
cook needs to preplan such an action.

Suppose a student wants to find his/her textbook; he / she knows that he / she stores it inside
his /her locker in school. So first he/ she has to go to school then he/she has to open his/her
locker where he / she will eventually find his /her textbook. This is a typical example of
procedural thinking and preplanning.

Prefetching in broad terms means getting data or instructions from memory into the cache
before they are actually needed. When a program requests data that was previously
prefetched, it can use the prefetched data and continue with execution, instead of waiting
for the data from RAM . This is a typical example of preplanning an action so as to save time
and improve efficiency.

Another example of effective preplanning is the use of software libraries . These consist of pre-
formed elements and are ready for future use. A software library consists of pre- written code,
classes, procedures, methods etc. that a programmer can use to add more functionality to
his/her programs, without having to rewrite the equivalent code.

A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart, named after Henry Gantt. It is widely used for project
schedule and project management, as a way of showing activities, tasks and events against
time. On the left of the chart is a list of the tasks, activities and events. Along the top is an
appropriate time scale. All tasks, activities and events are represented by bars. Each bar
represents the duration, start day and end day of the task, activity or event . A Gantt chart
allows easy inspection of the project's activities, overlapping activities, the total duration of
the project etc.

The following Gantt chart represents a construction project. This chart provides details such
as: the project includes 8 activities. Site work should take place before plumbing and
electrical tasks. Plumbing and electrical are carried out concurrently ( that means to do both
tasks at the same time). Site work and plumbing are carried out sequentially.

191
 2015
9 Task Start End Dur
K

Jan Feb Mai Apr May Jun Jui Nov Dec

Construction
$ 20/1/ 15 2/ 12/ 15 227 i
Schedule
1 Contract Writing 20/1/15 16/ 2/ 15 20

2 Obtain Permits 20/ 2/ 15 23/ 3 / 15 22

1 Site Work 15 / 3 / 15 30/6/ 15 77

» Plumbing 22 / 7 / 15 29/ 9/ 15 49

5 Electrical 22 / 7/15 29/ 9/ 15 49

6 Roof 22/ 8/ 15 24 /11/15 66

7 Inspection 6/ 11/ 15 24 / 11/ 15 li

8 Move In 2/ 12/ 15 2 /12/ 15 05

Figure 4.9: A Gantt chart of a construction project

The following Gantt chart represents a general project. This chart provides details such as:
the project consists of four activities. Task 1 and Task 2 are carried out sequentially ( the
second task cannot begin before the other is completed ) . The total duration of the project is
21 days. Task 2 is the longest task.

2015
Task Start End Dur Jan
PROJECT ® 1/1/15 29/ 1/15 21 9
1 Task 1 1/ 1/ 15 7/1/15 5
2 Task 2 8/ 1/ 15 16/ 1/ 15 7
3 Task 3 14/ 1/ 15 20/1/ 15 5
4 Task 4 22/1/ 15 29/ 1/ 15 6
Figure 4.10: A Gantt chart of a general project

4.1. 11 Need for pre - conditions

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Define the terms pre and post conditions.

Explain the need for pre- conditions in programming.

In most cases, when a programming team deals with a large problem, the large problem is
broken down into more easily solvable and controllable sub - problems. Each member of the
team will solve one or more of these "easy" sub-problems. Each solution will be a sub-
procedure, and it will be expressed as an algorithm . Each sub -procedure will be called using

192
its identifier and will have a certain task to accomplish. The pre-condition indicates what
must be true before the sub - procedure is called. The post -condition indicates what will be
true when the sub -procedure completes its task. Pre-condition describes the starting state
before the execution of an algorithm; post -condition describes the final state after the
execution of an algorithm.

4.1.12 Pre - and post- conditions

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Describe pre- and post- conditions for a specified situation.

When cooking a meal for dinner all the necessary ingredients should be available before
cooking. This is the pre -condition of the algorithm cooking. After cooking a table is needed
to facilitate eating. This is the post -condition for a proper dinner.

The following algorithm fragment has as pre-condition A=2 and as post -condition B= 30

//pre-condition A=2
X =3
B= X +A
if A >0 then
B = B* 6
else
B= 0
end if
/ /post -condition B= 30

The following algorithm calculates and prints the square root of an integer x. It has as pre-
condition x accepted >= 0 and as post - condition the calculation of V
*
/ /Pre-condition: x > = 0
/ /Post-condition: calculates the square root of x

Sub-procedure square root(accepts x as a parameter)

K= yfx
output X
End of Sub - procedure

The algorithm fragment Sub- procedure(9 ) will output 3. The output algorithm fragment
Sub-procedure ( 0) will output 0. The output algorithm fragment Sub- procedure(-1)
will violate the preconditions because the square of a number is always positive.

4.1.13 Exceptions that need to be considered

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the term exception.

Explain the importance of exceptions in programming.

193
Exception is an act or event that disrupts the anticipated flow of the program' s execution .
The exceptions take place during the execution of the program and can be effectively
handled by specific mechanisms that most modern programming languages provide. The
term exception at this point of the syllabus refers to an occasion or case that is not
compatible with the general rule.

The next example clarifies the importance of identifying various exceptions in a specified
problem solution.

Programming Example 9: Alternatives and pre-conditions

A company has the following policy to calculate the end- of -year bonus for its employees:
If the employee has worked for the company for 9 months or more then the bonus equals to
30% of his / her monthly salary. If the employee has worked for the company for less than 9
months and his /her salary is less than 2000 then the bonus equals to 20% of his/her
monthly salary. If the employee has worked for the company for less than 9 months and
his/her salary is equal or more than 2000 then the bonus equals 10% of his /her monthly
salary.

A programmer didn't understand the problem and wrote the following pseudocode which
apparently violates both pre-conditions and post -condition:

//Pre-condition violated : Months the correct number of months the

employee worked for the company
// Post-conditions violated : the program calculates and outputs the
correct bonus for each employee according to the company's policy.

//Wrong Bonus program

BONUS = 0
TOTAL = 0
SALARY = 1200
BONUS = ( 30 /100)*(SALARY)
TOTAL = BONUS+(SALARY * 12)
output "TOTAL IS:" , TOTAL ,"Euros"
output "BONUS IS:" , BONUS , "Euros"

The following pseudocode satisfies the pre - and post- conditions to the specified problem.

//Correct Bonus program

MONTHS = 0
SALARY = 0
BONUS 0
TOTAL 0
SALARY = input("what is the salary of the employee?")
MONTHS = input("How many months did he/she work?")

if MONTHS >= 9 then

BONUS = (30/100) *(SALARY )
TOTAL = BONUS +(SALARY * MONTHS)
else if MONTHS < 9 AND SALARY < 2000 then
BONUS = (20/100) *(SALARY )
TOTAL = BONUS+(SALARY * MONTHS)
else if MONTHS < 9 AND SALARY > = 2000 then
BONUS = (10/100) *(SALARY)

194
 TOTAL = BONUS+(SALARY * MONTHS)

end if

output "TOTAL IS:" , TOTAL /’Euros"

output "BONUS IS :" , BONUS /’Euros ”

Thinking concurrently

4.1.14 Parts of a solution that could be implemented concurrently

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the term concurrent .

Describe tasks that can be performed concurrently.

Concurrent means something that happens at the same time as something else. Imagine a
situation where a user replies to his/ her e- mails while listening to his/ her favorite song. Or
imagine another situation where a person is searching for information on the WWW, is
printing an essay and is downloading some drivers for his/ her PC. In both scenarios, the
tasks are implemented concurrently.

In computer science, concurrent processing means the execution of different instructions

simultaneously by multiple processors so as to achieve the best performance. A simplified
explanation of this process is that programs are broken down into procedures and
procedures are broken down to sub-procedures. These are then assigned to separate
processing units to perform simultaneously. Sequential processing is the execution of all
sub -procedures one after the other by a single processor.

4.1 .15 Concurrent processing and problem solution

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Describe the importance of concurrent processing in real life.

Imagine a world where there is no concurrent processing; House building would last much
longer, people would have to finish their breakfasts before they listen to the morning news,
a person would have to either hear or see, to understand or write, and to feel or think.
The famous "pasta with sauce" preparation example can further clarify the situation. There
is no need to cook the pasta before the sauce, because most people can use two burners to
prepare both pasta and the sauce . The average person saves valuable time and enjoys hot
pasta accompanied by warm sauce.

195
4.1.16 Decision to use concurrent processing in solving a problem
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Describe the pros and cons of concurrent processing in real life.

Concurrent processing requires better planning and coordination of resources. Without this,
concurrent processing may cause serious problems and the decision to use serial or
concurrent processing in solving a problem should be carefully examined.

For example, an accountant is making changes to an electronic financial database. As he is

doing so, a second accountant opens the same database which includes all the modifications
made so far by the first accountant, and uses it to retrieve information. The first accountant
then decides the changes made so far are invalid and brings the database records to the
previous condition. The first accountant saves the database. The information retrieved by
the second accountant no longer exists, but the second accountant is not aware of this
crucial information. This problem could have been avoided if no one could read the altered
16
database until the first accountant decided that the edits and amendments were final.

Thinking abstractly

4.1.17 Examples of abstraction

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define abstract thinking.

Describe examples of abstract thinking.

Abstract thinking means reflecting on events, ideas, attributes and relationships in a general
manner that hides all unnecessary details of specific objects. All information, that is not
necessary to accomplish a goal, is removed and ignored and a generalization technique is
implemented. A concrete thinker may identify and count two cats and two cars, while an
abstract thinker may identify their common relationship which is the number two.

Abstract art as the name implies, is a typical example of abstraction. An abstract painting
represents a principle or idea, but doesn't deal with detailed description and representation
of reality.

The explanation of the various components of the motherboard requires the use of
abstraction. Although the RAM and the CPU are considered as fundamental physical parts, it
is known that they are abstractions of gates and integrated circuits which contain millions of
transistors.

Concurrency Problems, ( n.d.). Retrieved May 30, 2015, from https:/ / technet .microsoft.com/ en-
16

us/library/aa 213029 ( v=sql.80).aspx

196
A level of abstraction occurs in most computer programs. Decades ago, a programmer had
to work with the low -level circuitry instructions of the CPU and the computer used.
Nowadays, high-level programming languages allow the user to use English-like commands
and syntax in which one command statement corresponds to many machine instructions. In
Java computer language, System.out. println displays a message on the screen. The
user is not required to understand the function of the monitor and the various procedures,
interfaces, graphic card drivers and libraries used to create the corresponding pixels on the
screen.

4.1. 18 Abstraction and computational solutions for a specified situation

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Define Object Oriented Programming.
Define Collections.
Explain the concept of objects.
Explain the importance of abstraction in computational solution.
Explain the importance of abstraction in programming.

Object-oriented programming

Object-oriented programming uses abstraction, and is based on the principle that all
everyday tasks can be considered as entities. These entities are either objects or events. The
table is an object where we have our dinner . The car is an object; it has wheels and the
driver can change the gears. Object -oriented programming uses programming objects that
describe data ( properties) and behavior ( methods) of real objects, and facilitates code
reusability and abstraction. It makes complex software faster and easier to develop, and
facilitates maintenance. It is an evolution of procedural (structural ) programming, which
uses procedures that are able to interact and exchange data as building blocks of programs.

The following table shows two different car objects. The first one has two properties ( speed
and gear) and three behaviors ( methods) that could be applied to data . The second one has
three properties ( colour, equipment level, and availability and manufacturer stock ) and
three behaviors ( change colour, change level of equipment and availability ) that could be
applied to data ( properties of the object ). The role of abstraction is profound; the first object
( carl) could be used in a program that simulates the driving experience of such a car, while
the second ( car 2 ) could be used in a program suitable for sales purposes. In each case, the
programmer hides the unnecessary details and concentrates only on properties and
behaviors that are important to the particular implementation.

Object carl Object car2

Data: Data:
integer speed = 0; String Colour = Black
integer gear = 1; String Equipment = Silver
String Availability = True
Integer ManufacturerStock = 0

197
 Methods: Methods:
changeGear changeColour
Accelerate changeEquipment
Brake Availability

Suppose a salesman uses a program that facilitates his / her job. When a customer chooses a
car and finalizes the deal, a new object is created. Each deal has some unique attributes. The
salesman deals with a collection of items ( cars). This collection is organized in a particular
way to represent the sale of cars. Some common operators could be applied to all items in
the collection ( add a car, read details of a car etc.). So a collection is a data structure that
consists of the data and the predefined methods which operate on the data . A collection as
used in the computer science guide is an abstract data type like queues and stacks. An
9

Abstract Data Type, or ADT, is a group of operations and data . In object oriented languages,
a collection is an object that assemblies and contains a lot of elements in a single structure.
A collection is used to add, store, manage, retrieve, manipulate and communicate the data
using predefined methods.

Object manipulation

Suppose a programmer wants to create one object named Vehiclel of type vehicle with
the following data fields: [Colour: "red"-Type: "car"- Engine : 2000 j. All vehicle objects have
the same data fields: Colour, Type and Engine.

The programmer will use the set method to define the properties of the particular object:

Vehiclel = new vehicle ( setColour = "red", setType = "car", setEngine

= 2 0 0 0)
Suppose the programmer wants to retrieve information from this object. The programmer
will use the get method to retrieve a particular data field of this particular object :

Vehiclel.getColour will return "red"

Vehiclel.getEngine will return 2000

Vehiclel .getType will return "car"

Modelling and simulation

Mathematical modelling refers to a process where a system is understood well enough and
scientists describe it using mathematical language. A set of mathematical rules is used to
describe the function of the particular system. It is clear that the mathematical model is an
abstraction of the real system. A mathematical model contains only the necessary details,
rules and objects for studying the real system or an aspect of it. A mathematical model could
be transformed into an algorithm and then to a program that replicates the behavior of a
real system. A computer simulation runs on a computer and reproduces the behavior of a
real system. The simulation uses an abstract mathematical model that is expressed as a

198
computer model (computer program) to simulate the system . A computer simulation is
always based on a computer model.

4.1.19 Abstraction from a specified situation

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Analyze various situations and develop abstraction from real life situations.

A modular program is easier to understand and facilitate the use of abstraction. The
programmer is able to focus on the important things and ignore all unnecessary details. Life
and programming would be very boring without the use of abstraction. For example, a
person can create a list of tasks to finish today :

Go to school
Buy a CS book
Visit my uncle
Without abstraction, the list would go something like:
Wake up
Eat breakfast
Brush my teeth
Put my jacket on

Return to home

And so on and so forth.

The "go to school" task could be split to hundreds and even thousands of steps. It is
impossible to consider every tiny detail before moving to the next step. So life is easier when
tiny insignificant tasks are considered as part of a wider task.

Procedures and sub- procedures facilitate abstraction. For example, the following program
can call a sub-procedure named computeSomething ( ) . When this sub -procedure is called
from the main program, it executes a sequence of instructions and returns a value. If the
programmer trusts the performance of computeSomething ( ) , then he /she does not have
to worry about the details that are contained in this sub-procedure. So: modularization
facilitates abstraction.

199
 Declarations

computeSomethingO <
Input
a,..n
Calculate 1

v computeSomethingO

Calculate 2

ri

*
Return X

Figure 4.11: A program that contains a sub- procedure

4.1. 20 Real - world and abstraction

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Compare and contrast real- world entities and their abstractions.

A thematic map is an abstraction of reality that shows the spatial distribution and
emphasizes a particular theme, such as the average distribution of income in a specific
geographic area.

Topographic maps show abstractions of selected physical features of the three-dimensional

real world at a reduced scale in two - dimensions, paper or a screen.

Political maps are designed to show on data such as the boundaries of countries and states
and the location of major cities. These maps are an abstraction of political territory.

In these cases, various levels of abstraction occur. The earth is unique but the point of
interest guides the way scientists represent its surface on a piece of paper. This "selective
ignorance" approach facilitates the study and understanding of specific components and
interactions.

200
4.2 Connecting computational thinking and program design
4.2 .1 Searching, sorting and other algorithms on arrays
Exit skills. Students should be able to . .
1 17

Define the term variable.

Define the term array.
Explain the characteristics of sequential search and binary search.
Explain the characteristics of bubble sort and selection sort .
Develop various algorithms on arrays.

Variables

In computer science, a variable acts as a storage location that can be used to store a value.
Each variable has a name ( the term identifier is also used ) that is used to refer to the stored
value . The value of the variable can be changed during program execution. Each variable can
store a particular type of data like strings, reals, boolean and integers .

One dimensional arrays or linear arrays

One variable can only store a data element of a program. If a second data element is needed
then another variable should be created. The more data elements needed, the more distinct
variables should be created by the programmer. An array can hold multiple data elements of
the same type ( integers, strings, boolean etc.). An array has a name, a size that cannot be
changed during program execution ( in most cases is a static data structure ) and a data type
that describes the type of data that it can store. A one - dimensional array is a type of linear
array. Many programming languages, including Java, always define the lower bound of an
array starting with the number 0. The pseudocode described in the IBO Computer Science
Guide1, uses zero-based arrays by default ( unless otherwise specified). Consider the
following array of integers: The size of the array is 10, the type is integer and the name is A .

Array index 0. A [ 0] Array index 1. A [l] Array index 9. A [ 9 ]

The first storage area of The second storage area of the The tenth storage area of
the array A array A the array A
Table 4.2: Array

Programming Example 10: Use of array ( array of numbers)

The following program will fill the array A with values from 1 to 10 and then print the values
of the array.

/ / ==== Arrays ======

A = new Array()
N = 0

Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E., Rivest, Ronald L. (1990 ) . Introduction to Algorithms
17

(1st ed.). MIT Press and McGraw -Hill. ISBN 0- 262 - 03141-8.

201
 loop N from 0 to 9
A [ N ] = N+ l
end loop

loop N from 0 to 9
output " Array position " , N , " contains the value " , A[ N ]
end loop

Output:
Array position 0 contains the value 1
Array position 1 contains the value 2
Array position 2 contains the value 3
Array position 3 contains the value 4
Array position 4 contains the value 5
Array position 5 contains the value 6
Array position 6 contains the value 7
Array position 7 contains the value 8
Array position 8 contains the value 9
Array position 9 contains the value 10

Programming Example 11: Symmetric ID array

The following program evaluates if an array is symmetric with respect to its middle element.
If the array size is even, then the program stops.

ARRAY = new Array()

1 = 0
J = 0
X = 0
N = input("Enter the size of array " )

if (N mod 2 = 0) then
output "Works only with odd numbers (eg 357 )"
else
loop I from 0 to N-l
ARRAY[I] = input("Enter the next element")
end loop
I (N div 2) - 1 / / for pseudocode tool div( N ,2)-l
J (N div 2) + 1 / / for pseudocode tool div(N, 2)+ l
loop while (I>=0) AND (J <N)
if ARRAY[I] = ARRAY[J] then
X = X+l
end if
I = 1-1
J = J+ l
end loop
if X (N-l ) /2 then
output "Array is symmetric "
else
output "Array is not symmetric"
end if
end if

202
 Programming Example 12: Smallest distance between two neighboring numbers of an
array

Write an algorithm that finds the two neighboring numbers in an array with the smallest
distance to each other. The program should output the distance, index of the first number
and the index of the second number. For example, in the array A = [5 ,1,4,7,9,-12] the
.
minimum distance is 2 ( between array element 3 and 4) This algorithm should return:
distance 2 between element 3 and element 4.

Useful Information: In this problem the use of a function that returns the absolute
.
value of a number is essential According to the IBO document Pseudocode in
19
Examinations, Standard Data Structures and Examples of Pseudocode : "If such a
specialized method is to be used in an examination, it will be fully specified as part of
the question in which it is needed." /

// Use of Math.abs( ) function that returns the absolute value of a

/ /number . It is not included in the approved notation.
A = [5, 1,4 , 7 , 9,-12 ]

SIZE = 6
MINIMUM = Math. abs(A[0]-A[1])
MININDEX 0
loop I from 1 to SIZE-2
if Math. abs(A[I ]-A [1+1]) <MINIMUM then
MINIMUM = Math . abs(A [I]-A [I+1] )
MININDEX I
end if
end loop
output "DISTANCE ” , MINIMUM, "BETWEEN ELEMENT" , MININDEX, " AND
ELEMENT", MININDEX+ 1

Parallel arrays

Parallel arrays are extremely useful when a programmer wants to store different properties
of an entity ( fields of a record). All elements of an array should be of the same data type. So,
if a programmer wants to store different data types of an entity ( e.g. student ) parallel arrays
offer a convenient solution. The data are organized as a table. Each row represents a
particular student and all columns are of the same data type.

Programming Example 13: Parallel arrays (names and grades)

In the following example 10 students' names and their equivalent grades will be used. The
array NAMES of type String will be used to hold the names of the students, while the array
GRADES of type Integer will hold the equivalent grades. The index of each array is the
same for the same student . It is very important when using parallel arrays to always access
each array at the same index when storing or retrieving values. This process guarantees the
reference of corresponding data elements.

203

L
 // ===== Arrays =====
NAMES =["May" ,"Eri" ,"Elen","Rit" ,"Rato","More" ,"Epi" ,"Ent" ,"Ronal","Bib"]
GRADES = [99 ,55,77 ,45 ,89,98,76,45,33 ,75]
MIN = GRADES[0]
MAX = GRADES[0]
AV 0
AVERAGE = 0
M = 0
BEST = "0"
WORST = "0"

output ”
output "STUDENTS LIST"
output "
loop M from 0 to 9

GRADES[M]
--
output "No", M+l , " Student " , NAMES[M] , " --Mark ",

end loop
loop M from 0 to 9
if MIN >= GRADES[M] then
MIN = GRADES[M]
WORST = NAMES[M]
end if
end loop
loop M from 0 to 9
AV = AV + GRADES[M]
if MAX <= GRADES[M] then
MAX = GRADES[M]
BEST = NAMES[M]
end if
end loop
AVERAGE = AV/10
output " "
output "Statistics"
output " "
output "Minimum mark " , MIN , "Student " , WORST
output "Maximum mark " , MAX , "Student " , BEST
output "Class average " , AVERAGE

Output:

STUDENTS LIST

No 1-Student May -Mark 99

No 2 -Student Eri -Mark 55
No 3 -Student Elen -Mark 77
No 4 -Student Rit -Mark 45
No 5 -Student Rato -Mark 89
No 6 -Student More -Mark 98
No 7 -Student Epi -Mark 76
No 8 -Student Ent -Mark 45
No 9 -Student Ronal -Mark 33
No 10 -Student Bib -Mark 75

Statistics

204
Minimum mark 33 Student Ronal
Maximum mark 99 Student May
Class average 69.2

Arrays of objects

An array of objects is an array of reference variables. Each reference variable is an element

of the array and it's a reference to an object.

Programming Example 14: Use of array of objects

Suppose a programmer wants to create an array of vehicle objects named A . Each vehicle
object has the following data fields: Colour, Type and Engine. The programmer wants to
construct an array of vehicle objects with the following objects:

Vehiclel [ Colour: "red"-Type: "car"-Engine:2000]

Vehicle 2 [ Colour: "green"-Type: " bus"-Engine:4000]

Vehicle 3 [ Colour: " blue"-Type: "motorcycle"- Engine:800 ]

Elements of array A OBJECT DATA FIELDS

A[0] IS A REFERENCE TO Vehiclel [ Colour: " red"-Type: "car" - Engine:2000 ]
A[ 0]= Vehiclel
A[ 1] IS A REFERENCE TO Vehicle2 [ Colour: "green"-Type: " bus"- Engine :4000 ]
A[ 1 ]= Vehicle2
A[2] IS A REFERENCE TO Vehicle3 [ Colour:" blue"-Type :" motorcycle"- Engine:800]
A[2]= Vehicle 3

//Use of an array of objects vehicle to find the location of

//an object that has data field type = "bus"

Vehiclel = new vehicle (setColour ="red", setType="car, setEngine

=2 0 0 0)
Vehicle2= new vehicle (setColour ="green", setType="bus, setEngine
=4000)
Vehicle3= new vehicle (setColour ="blue", setType="motorcycle,
setEngine =800)

A [Vehiclel , Vehicle2 , Vehicle 3]

loop I from 0 to 2
if A[I].getType = "bus" then
output "bus found at array position" , I
end if
end loop

Two dimensional arrays

Although two dimensional arrays do not appear in the SL syllabus it is strongly

/

recommended to study them. The understanding of the structure and function of 2 D arrays
enhances various algorithmic skills.

205
A one dimensional array should be considered as a single line of elements. However, in
many cases, data come in the form of a data table. A typical example is a table that depicts
the average monthly temperature for 10 cities.

City 1 City 2 City 3 ••« City 10

Index 0 Index 1 Index 2 Index 9
January temperature Index 0 15 28 20 20
February temperature Index 1 14 27 20 19
•* •

December temperature Index 11 15 26 21 20

Table 4.3: Two dimensional arrays

2 D arrays are indexed by two subscripts. The indices must be integers. The first one refers to
the row and the second to the column. TEMP[1 ][1] refers to February temperature of City
2. The value is 27. Each element in a two dimensional array must be of the same data type.

Programming Example 15: Two dimensional array (temperatures)

/ /This program will use the array TEMP which is a 2D ARRAY

/ /It will print the contents of the array
// 12 months 5 cities
TEMP =
[[10,11,12 ,13,10],
.. .
[ 10.13 14.12 12 ],
.
[13.13 14.15 12 ],
[16,17,17,17,16 ],
.. .
[22.23 24.24 24],
..
[26.25 24.25 26],
.
[29.28 26.27 26],
[29 ,28 , 27 , 28 , 28],
.
[24.23 24.25 25],.
[20,21,22 , 23, 24],
[15, 16, 17,18, 18],
[ 12 , 11, 13 , 11, 11] ]
MONTH 0
CITY = 0
loop MONTH from 0 to 11
output MONTH +1, "Month"

loop CITY from 0 to 4

output "City", CITY+1 , TEMP[ MONTH][CITY ]
end loop
end loop

Programming Example 16: Extracting information from a 2D array to various one

dimensional arrays.

//
A = [[ 0,1,2],
[ 2 , 3,4 ],
[ 5 , 6,7 ]]

LINEl = new Array ()

LINE2 = new Array ()

206
LINE3 = new Array()
C0LUMN 1 = new Array()
C0LUMN2 = new Array()
C0LUMN3 = new Array()
DIAGONAL = new Array ()

1=0
COUNT1 = 0
COUNT2 = 0
COUNT3 = 0
COUNT4 = 0
COUNT5 = 0
COUNT6 = 0
COUNT7 = 0

loop I from 0 to 2
loop J from 0 to 2
if J == 0 then
COLUMN1[COUNT1] = A[I][J]
COUNT1 = COUNTl +1
else if J == 1 then
COLUMN2 [COUNT2] = A [I][J]
COUNT2 = COUNT2+1
else
COLUMN3 [COUNT3] = A [ I ][J]
COUNT3 = COUNT3+1
end if
if I==J then
DIAGONAL [COUNT4] = A [I][J]
COUNT 4 = COUNT4+1
end if
if I = 0 then
LINE1[COUNT5] = A [ I ] [J ]
COUNT5 = COUNT5+ 1
else if I== l then
LINE2[COUNT6] = A [ I][J ]
COUNT 6 = COUNT 6 +1
else
LINE3 [COUNT7] = A[ I][ J ]
COUNT7 = COUNT7 +1
end if
end loop
end loop

output "LINEl:"
loop I from 0 to 2
output LINEl [ I ]
end loop

output "LINE2:"
loop I from 0 to 2
output LINE2[I]
end loop

output "LINE 3:"

loop I from 0 to 2
output LINE 3[I]
end loop

output "COLUMN1:"
loop I from 0 to 2

207
 output C0LUMN1 [I]
end loop

output "C0LUMN2 :"

loop I from 0 to 2
output C0LUMN2[I]
end loop

output "C0LUMN3:"
loop I from 0 to 2
output C0LUMN3[I]
end loop

output "DIAGONAL:"
loop I from 0 to 2
output DIAGONAL[I]
end loop

Programming Example 17: Two dimensional array ( lesson grades)

//The following table contains grades for lesson

/ / a and b for three students (x, y , z)
A [[ 85 , 72],
[82 , 93],
[75 , 56 ]]
output
loop J from 0 to 1
output "next lesson"
loop I from 0 to 2
output "lesson", J , "student " , I, A [I][J]
end loop
end loop
output " "
loop J from 0 to 2
output "next student"
loop I from 0 to 1
output "student", J, "lesson ", I , A[J][I]
end loop
end loop

Programming Example 18: Smallest difference between two neighboring numbers of a 2D

array

Write an algorithm that finds the two neighboring numbers in a two dimensional array with
the smallest difference to each other. The program should output the difference, index of
the first number and the index of the second number . For example in the array

- 22, 12,-33
33, 62, 21
54, 22, 42
the smallest difference is 20 = abs ( 22 -42 ). Between array element [ 2,1] and [ 2,2 ].

// Math.abs will be given as a part of the examination question

A = new Array()
A = [[-22,12,-33],
[33,62,21],

208
 [54 , 22,42 ]]
N = 3
INDEXROW = 0
INDEXCOLUMN 0
\ rr
DIRECTION \

MINIMUM = Math .abs(A[0][0]-A[0][1])

loop I from 0 to N-l
loop J from 0 to N-2
if Math.abs (A[I][J]-A[I][J+l]) <MINIMUM then
MINIMUM=Math.abs(A [I][J ] -A[I][J+ l ])
INDEXROW=I
INDEXCOLUMN=J
DIRECTION = "ROWS"
end if
end loop
end loop
loop J from 0 to N- l
loop I from 0 to N-2
if Math.abs (A[I][J] -A[I+1][J])<MINIMUM then
MINIMUM=Math.abs (A[I][J ] -A[I+1][J])
INDEXROW=I
INDEXCOLUMN=J
DIRECTION = "COLUMNS"
end if
end loop
end loop

output "DISTANCE" , MINIMUM

if DIRECTION == "ROWS" then
output "BETWEEN ELEMENT" , INDEXROW, INDEXCOLUMN , " AND ELEMENT",
INDEXROW, INDEXCOLUMN+1
else
output "BETWEEN ELEMENT" , INDEXROW , INDEXCOLUMN, "AND ELEMENT",
INDEXROW+1, INDEXCOLUMN
end if

Output:
DISTANCE 20
BETWEEN ELEMENT 21 AND ELEMENT 22

Comparison of one- dimensional arrays, two dimensional arrays, parallel arrays and arrays
of objects.

Suppose a programmer wants to develop a program that will use a data structure to store
lesson grades information for five students. Each student is represented by a record. Five
different data fields are used for each student . Two data fields of type string will be used to
store Name and Surname while two integer data fields will be used to store the grades for
Math and Chemistry respectively. The following table illustrates the scenario described :

Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4

Name Surname Math grade Chemistry grade
Record 1 James Smith 89 78
Record 2 Mary Johnson 89 80
Record 3 John Williams 78 78
Record 4 Patricia Jones 89 67
Record 5 Linda Brown 88 70

209

.
A one dimensional array is not able to store all the necessary information because it can
only store one data type and apparently it can only store one field. So, the programmer
should use five different one dimensional arrays, which shall be used as parallel arrays.

A two dimensional array cannot solve the problem because it can only store one data type.
So, the programmer will need one two dimensional array to store data for Name and
Surname fields and one two dimensional array to store data for Math grade field and
Chemistry grade field. The programmer will use these two arrays as parallel arrays.

The creation of an array of Student objects named A can facilitate the situation. Each
Student object will have the following data fields: Name, Surname, Math _grade and
Chemistry_grade. The programmer will construct an array of student objects with the
following objects:

Studentl [ Name: "James"-Surname:" Smith"- Math _grade:89 -Chemistry_grade:78 ]

Student5 [ Name: "Linda"-Surname:"Brown"-Math_grade:88 -Chemistry _grade:70]

Sequential search

A sequential or linear search algorithm is a very simple method to find a particular element
in an array. It is considered to be the simplest search algorithm. The implementation of this
algorithm does not require the use of ordered elements ( sorted arrays ). It relies on brute
force strategy to accomplish its purpose.
Programming Example 19: Sequential search

//== == Sequential Search =========

N [2 , 9, 5 , 6 , 7, 8]//Array elements
X 7 //Search value
Found= false //Boolean value
Counter = 0 //It will be used for the loop

loop Counter from 0 to 5 //Number of array elements - 1

if N[Counter] = X then
Found = true
output N[Counter],"found at position" , Counter
end if
end loop

if Found = false then

output X, "not found "
end if

Output:

7 found at position 4

210

J
 18
Binary search

Binary search ( or algorithm is a searching method used only in sorted

half interval search )
arrays. It relies on divide and conquer strategy to accomplish its purpose. In every search
iteration, half of the elements of the array are eliminated as possible solutions. Binary
search is very efficient for large arrays. Its performance makes it ideal when resorting is not
required.

In each iteration, the algorithm

1. Compares the search value with the value of the middle element of the array .
a. If the values match, then the value was found .
b. If the search value is less than the middle element of the array,
• then the algorithm repeats its action on the sub-array to the left of
the middle element.
c. if the search value is greater than the middle element of the array,
• then the algorithm repeats its action on the sub- array to the right of
the middle element.
2. If the remaining array to be searched is empty, then the value was not found.

Programming Example 20: Binary search

//==== Binary Search =====

VALUES = [11 ,12 ,15,16,112, 118,123, 145] //sorted array elements
TARGET 15 //search value
MIN = 0
HIGH = 1 1 1 Number of array elements - 1
FOUND false
ANSWER = 0
MID =0

loop while FOUND = true AND MIN <= HIGH

MID ((MIN + HIGH ) div 2)
if VALUES[MID] TARGET then
FOUND true
ANSWER = MID
else if TARGET > VALUES[MID] then
MIN = MID + 1
else
HIGH = MID - 1
end if
end while
if FOUND true then
output TARGET , "FOUND AT ARRAY INDEX" , ANSWER
else
output TARGET , " was not found"
end if

Output : 15 FOUND AT ARRAY INDEX 2

18
Binary search algorithm. ( 2015, June 11). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 06:33, July
1, 2015, from
https://en.Wikipedia. org/ w /index.php ?title= Binary _ search _algorithm & oldid=666547193

211
Construct a trace table for the previous algorithm showing what happens after the finish of
each loop pass.

TARGET MIN HIGH FOUND ANSWER MID output

Before the first loop 15 0 7 true 0 0
After first loop pass 15 0 2 true 0 3
After second loop pas 15 2 2 true 0 1
After third loop pass 15 2 2 false 2 2 15
FOUND
AT
ARRAY
INDEX 2

START
Declare Array Values and Fill with values
[11,12,15,16,,112,118,123,145]
Declare and Set Integer TARGET =15
Declare and Set Integer MIN = 0
Declare and Set Integer HIGH = 7
Declare and Set Integer ANSWER = 0
Declare and Set Boolean FOUND = true
Declare Integer MID

True
FOUND == true &&
M!N<=HIGH

False Set MID = (MIN+HIGH)/2

False True
VALUESIMIDI —

Set FOUND = false

False True
TARGET>VAL UES[MID) I
Set ANSWER = MID

Set HIGH = MID- 1 Set MIN = MID+1

?
False True
FOUND == false

/ Display TARGET / Display TARGET

I 1
/ Display ‘was not found" J Display "FOUND AT ARRAY INDEX "
/
i
J Display ANSWER /

c
T)End

Figure 4.12 Binary search flowchart

212
 Comparison table of linear search and binary search

Binary search Linear search

Works only on sorted elements Works on sorted as well as unsorted items.

Generally number of comparisons are less Efficient for few elements

Efficient if the element to be found is located

in the beginning of the array or list

Generally more number of comparisons are

required if the element to be found is not
present in the beginning of the array or list

Time complexity: 0(log n) Time complexity: O (n)

19
Bubble sort

Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the array to be
sorted. It compares adjacent items ( pairs of adjacent array elements) and exchanges them if
they are not in the correct order ( ascending or descending). The algorithm makes multiple
passes until no swaps are necessary and the elements of the array are sorted. The algorithm
is named for the way elements " bubble " to the top of the array. After each loop, one less
element (the leftmost ) needs to be compared. The algorithm is very slow and impractical for
most cases.

Programming Example 21: Bubble sort

//== Bubble Sort ===

ELEMENTS [1,663,8,2,4 ,1,22,66, 20,122]
loop I from 0 to 8// Number of elements - 2
loop J from 0 to (8-1)
r - *
— ,
if ELEMENTS[J] < ELEMENTS[J + 1] then //for descending order
OR
L
if ELEMENTS[J] > ELEMENTS[J + 1] then //for ascending order
TEMP = ELEMENTS[J]
ELEMENTS[J] = ELEMENTS[J+l]
ELEMENTS[J+l] = TEMP
end if
end loop
end loop

output "Sorted elements"

loop E from 0 to 9
output ELEMENTS[E]
end loop

Bubble sort. ( 2015, June 15 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17: 26, June 19, 2015,
19

from https://en.Wikipedia.org/ w/index.php ?title=Bubble_sort & oldid= 667050446

213
 if ELEMENTS[J] < ELEMENTS[J + 1] if ELEMENTS[J] > ELEMENTS[J + 1]
then //for descending order then //for ascending order
output: output :
Sorted elements Sorted elements
663 1
122 1
66 2
22 4
20 8
8 20
4 22
2 66
1 122
1 663

Construct a trace table for the previous algorithm showing what happens after the finish of
each inner loop pass ( descending order ).

Loop pass 1 1= 0 J= 0 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS [ J] = 663 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 1

Loop pass 2 1 = 0 J= 1 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS [ J] = 8 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 1
Loop pass 3 1= 0 J= 2 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS [J ] = 2 ELEMENTS[J+ l ]= 1
Loop pass 4 1= 0 J= 3 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 4 ELEMENTS[J+ l ]= 1
Loop pass 5 1= 0 J= 4 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 1 ELEMENTS[J+l ]= 1
Loop pass 6 1= 0 J= 5 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 22 ELEMENTS[J+ l ] = 1
Loop pass 7 1= 0 J= 6 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 66 ELEMENTS[J+ l ]= 1
Loop pass 8 1= 0 J= 7 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 20 ELEMENTS[J+ l ]= 1
Loop pass 9 1= 0 J= 8 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J] = 122 ELEMENTS[J+ l ]= 1
Loop pass 10 1= 1 J= 0 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J] = 663 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 8
Loop pass 11 1= 1 J= 1 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 8 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 2
Loop pass 12 1= 1 J= 2 TEMP= 2 ELEMENTS[J ] = 4 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 2
Loop pass 13 1= 1 J= 3 TEMP= 2 ELEMENTS[J]= 2 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 1
Loop pass 14 1 =1 J= 4 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 22 ELEMENTS [ J+l]= 1
Loop pass 15 i= 1 J= 5 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 66 ELEMENTS [J+ l]= 1
Loop pass 16 1= 1 J= 6 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 20 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 1
Loop pass 17 l= 1 J= 7 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 122 ELEMENTS[J+ l ] = 1
Loop pass 18 1= 2 J= 0 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 663 ELEMENTS[J+ l ] = 8
Loop pass 19 =
1 2 J= 1 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 8 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 4
Loop pass 20 1= 2 J= 2 TEMP= 1 ELEMENTS[J]= 4 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 2
Loop pass 21 =
1 2 J= 3 TEMP= 2 ELEMENTS[J]= 22 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 2
Loop pass 22 =
1 2 J= 4 TEMP= 2 ELEMENTS[J]= 66 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 2
Loop pass 23 1= 2 J= 5 TEMP= 2 ELEMENTS[J]= 20 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 2
Loop pass 24 1= 2 J= 6 TEMP= 2 ELEMENTS[J]= 122 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 2
Loop pass 25 =
1 3 J= 0 TEMP= 2 ELEMENTS[J]= 663 ELEMENTS[J+ l ]= 8
Loop pass 26 1= 3 J= 1 TEMP= 2 ELEMENTS[J]= 8 ELEMENTS[J+ l]= 4
Loop pass 27 1= 3 J= 2 TEMP= 4 ELEMENTS[J]= 22 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 4

214
Loop pass 28 1= 3 J= 3 TEMP= 4 ELEMENTS[J]= 66 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 4
Loop pass 29 1= 3 J= 4 TEMP= 4 ELEMENTS[J] 20 = ELEMENTS[J+l]= 4
Loop pass 30 1= 3 J= 5 TEMP= 4 ELEMENTS[J]= 122 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 4
Loop pass 31 1= 4 J= 0 TEMP= 4 ELEMENTS[J]= 663 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 8
Loop pass 32 1= 4 J= 1 TEMP= 8 ELEMENTS[J]= 22 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 8
Loop pass 33 1= 4 J= 2 TEMP= 8 ELEMENTS[J]= 66 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 8
Loop pass 34 1= 4 J= 3 TEMP= 8 ELEMENTS[J]= 20 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 8
Loop pass 35 1= 4 J= 4 TEMP= 8 ELEMENTS[J]= 122 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 8
Loop pass 36 1= 5 J= 0 TEMP 8= ELEMENTS[J]= 663 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 22
Loop pass 37 1= 5 J= 1 TEMP= 22 ELEMENTS[J]= 66 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 22
Loop pass 38 1= 5 J= 2 TEMP= 22 ELEMENTS[J] 22 = ELEMENTS[J+l]= 20
Loop pass 39 1= 5 J= 3 TEMP= 20 ELEMENTS[J]= 122 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 20
Loop pass 40 1= 6 J= 0 TEMP= 20 ELEMENTS[J]= 663 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 66
Loop pass 41 1= 6 J= 1 TEMP= 20 ELEMENTS[J]= 66 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 22
Loop pass 42 1= 6 J= 2 TEMP= 22 ELEMENTS[J]= 122 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 22
Loop pass 43 1= 7 J= 0 TEMP= 22 ELEMENTS[J]= 663 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 66
Loop pass 44 1= 7 =
J 1 TEMP= 66 ELEMENTS[J]= 122 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 66
Loop pass 45 1= 8 J= 0 TEMP= 66 ELEMENTS[J]= 663 ELEMENTS[J+l]= 122

Programming Example 22: Bubble sort ( 2)

// Bubble Sort =====

//version with while loops
//sorts in descending order
ELEMENTS = [1,663 ,8,2 ,4,1,22 ,66,20,122]
N = 10
1 = 0
loop while I <= N-l
J = 0
loop while J <= N I 2 --
if ELEMENTS[J] < ELEMENTS[J + 1] then
TEMP = ELEMENTS[J]
ELEMENTS[J] = ELEMENTS[J+l]
ELEMENTS[J+l] = TEMP
end if
J = J+l
end loop
I = 1+1
end loop

output "Sorted elements"

loop E from 0 to 9
output ELEMENTS[E]
end loop

20
Selection sort

Selection sort is a very simple and inefficient sorting algorithm that divides the input array
into two sub-arrays: the first sub-array contains the already sorted elements, and the second

20
Selection sort. ( 2015, June 11). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:28, June 19, 2015,
from https :// en.Wikipedia.org/ w / index.php?title=Selection_sort& oldid=666542512

215
 sub-array contains the unsorted elements and occupies the rest of the array. The first sub -
arrays is built up from left to right at the lowest index position [ 1=0 ]. At the beginning, the
sub - array that contains the sorted elements is empty and the sub-array that contains the
unsorted element is the entire array. The algorithm continues by finding the smallest ( or
largest, depending on the sorting order ) element in the sub-array that contains the unsorted
elements, exchanging it with the leftmost unsorted element ( element located in the lowest
index position) and putting it in sorted order . The algorithm then moves the first sub-array
borders one element to the right.

Programming Example 23: Selection sort

// — Selection Sort =====

ELEMENTS = [1,5 ,3,86,256,420,9, 510,51,24 , 60]
MIN = 0
1 = 0
TEMP = 0

loop MIN from 0 to 9

I = MIN
loop CURRENT from MIN+1 to 10
i
— i
if ELEMENTS[CURRENT] > ELEMENTS[I] then//for descending order ;

OR
if ELEMENTS[CURRENT] < ELEMENTS[I] then//for ascending order
I
end if
end loop
TEMP = ELEMENTS[ I ]
ELEMENTS[I ] = ELEMENTS[MIN ]
ELEMENTS[MIN] = TEMP
end loop

output "SORTED ARRAY"

loop C from 0 to 10
output ELEMENTS[C]
end loop

if ELEMENTS[CURRENT] > if ELEMENTS [ CURRENT ] <

ELEMENTS[I] then ELEMENTS[I] then
OUTPUT: SORTED ARRAY OUTPUT: SORTED ARRAY
510 1
420 3
256 5
86 9
60 24
51 51
24 60
9 86
5 256
3 420
1 510

216

J
 Main

I
Declare Integer A [111

Ï
Declare Integer CURRENT

I
Declare Integer I

I
Declare Integer J

I Next
Declare integer MIN MIN = 0 to 9

ï Done
Set MIN = 0 Set I = MIN

I
=
Set I 0 Next

I J = MIN+1 to 10

=
Set J 0
Done False True
I A[Jl«A[i)

Set A[0] = 1 1
I Set I = J

Set A[1] = 5

ï
Set A[2] = 3

I Set TEMP = A[I]

Set A[3J = 86
I
l Set AO) = A[MINJ

Set A[4] = 256

I
I SetA[MIN] = TEMP
Set A(5] = 420

i
Set A[6l = 9

I
Display Sorted elements
7
Next
Set A[7] = 510 I = 0 to 10

I 1
Set A[8] = 51
Done
7 Display AO]

I
7
Set A[9] * 24

I ( End )
Set A{10] = 60

I
Declare Integer TEMP

I
Set TEMP = 0
T

Figure 4.13 selection sort flowchart

217
4.2 . 2 Standard operations of collections
1
Exit skills . Students should be able to :

Explain the standard operations of collections.

Explain additional operations of collections.

An array is a perfect choice when a programmer wishes to store the same type of
information; a group of strings for example and he/ she knows in advance the number of
items that he/she wishes to store. But what happens when the programmer wishes to store
integers, arrays, objects, booleans and strings in one data structure ? The answer is to use
collections because some collections allow custom specification of the collection item
elements. In C# and Visual Basic for example, generic collections can only hold data of the
same type while non generic collections can hold elements of different data types. The most
significant advantage of collections is that they act like a resizable array. The programmer
does not need to know in advance the number of items that will be placed in the data
structure.

The following operations appear in the IBO CS Approved notations for developing
pseudocode14 and IBO CS Pseudocode in examinations .
21

Standard operations

• addltemO . It is used to add an item in the collection ( addition). TEMPERATURES is

a collection of temperatures. TEMPERATURES .addltem ( 32 ) will add 32 to the
collection TEMPRATURES.
• getNext(). It is used to return the first item in the collection when it is first called
( retrieval ). TEMPERATURES is a collection of temperature measurements.
A=TEMPERATURES .getNext ( ) will assign the value of the first item in the
collection to the variable A. However, getNext ( ) will not remove the item from
the collection.

Additional operations

• resetNext() .
It is used to restart the iteration through the collection .
TEMPERATURES is a collection of temperatures. TEMPERATURES .resetNext()
will restart the iteration through the collection TEMPRATURES.
• .
hasNext () It is used to identify if there are remaining elements in the collection
that have not been accessed by the present iteration. TEMPERATURES is a collection
of temperatures, if TEMPERATURES . hasNext ( ) will return TRUE if there are one
or more elements in the collection TEMPRATURES that have not been accessed by
the present iteration.

International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Pseudocode in examinations.

21

218
 • isEmptyO . It is used to test if the collection is empty. TEMPERATURES is a
collection of temperatures. If TEMPERATURES.isEmptyO will return TRUE if the
collection is empty.

4.2 . 3 Algorithm to solve a specific problem

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain the differences between two or more algorithms.

Explain advantages and disadvantages of algorithms.
Develop and explain an algorithm to address a specific problem.

Programming Example 24: Algorithm to address a specific problem

Suppose a programmer wants to develop a program that records temperatures for four
cities. The program should ask for each city name, and highest and lowest temperature for a
particular year. Three arrays will be used to store the city names, the low temperatures, and
the high temperatures. After storing all the data, the program should display a list of cities
with high temperatures above the average high, and a list of cities with low temperatures
below the average low . The solution to this problem follows.

/ / A program that outputs the cities with temperatures

//above the average of high temperatures and cities
/ /below the average of low temperatures
TOTALH = 0 // Variable declaration and initialization (total high )
TOTALL = 0 //Variable declaration and initialization ( total low)
AVGH = 0 / /Variable declaration and initialization (average of high )
AVGL = 0 / /Variable declaration and initialization (average of low)
CITYNAMES new Array()//Declaration of array that will hold the
names
HIGHTEMP = new Array () / /Declaration of array for high temperatures
LOWTEMP = new Array() //Declaration of array for low temperatures

loop I from 0 to 3 //Iteration to serve the data input process

input CITYNAMES[I] //THIS BLOCK IS EQUIVALENT TO THE NEXT BLOCK

J
input HIGHTEMP[I ] //DONT USE BOTH BLOCKS
l
input LOWTEMP[I]

i CITYNAMES[I] = input( " Type the name of the city" )

HIGHTEMP[I] = input ("Type the Maximum temperature of the city")
LOWTEMP[I] = input("Type the Minimum temperature of the city")

TOTALH TOTALH + HIGHTEMP[ I] / / /Calculation of sum of all high

//temperatures
TOTALL TOTALL + LOWTEMP[I]; // Calculation of sum of all low
//temperatures
end loop // end of loop

AVGH = TOTALH/4 / /Calculation of average for high temperatures

AVGL = TOTALL/4 // Calculation of average for low temperatures

output "Cities Above Avg . High:" //It will print the message
loop I from 0 to 3 //loop to output the cities Above avg. high

219
 if HIGHTEMP[I]> AVGH then //start of if conditional statement. If
true then the following statement will be executed
output CITYNAMES[I] ,"+" //output of cities that fulfil the
//criteria
end if //end of if conditional statement
end loop //end of loop

output "Cities Below Avg. Low:" //It will print the message
loop I from 0 to 3 //loop to output the cities below avg . low
if LOWTEMP[I]<AVGL then //start of if conditional statement. If
true then the following statement will be executed
output CITYNAMES[I] ,"+"
end if //end of if conditional statement
end loop //end of loop

4.2 .4 Analyse an algorithm presented as a flow chart

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Explain a flowchart .
Calculate the output of an algorithm presented as flowchart.
Convert a flowchart to pseudocode.
Trace a flowchart.
Find the output of an algorithm as flowchart.

Programming Example 25 and Example 26: Example of flowchart and explanation

An algorithm that checks if two

strings are equal and outputs correct
or wrong. (This is an algorithm and
Declare String A
not IB pseudocode . )
I
Declare String A Declare String PASSWORD

Declare String PASSWORD I

SetA = "MORGAN”
Set A = "MORGAN"
1
Input PASSWORD
If PASSWORD = = A Then
j Input PASSWORD
J
Display " CORRECT "
Else False True
PASSWORD = A
Display "WRONG "
End If
Display “WRONG" Display “CORRECT

220
 c Main

I
) Program starts

Declare Integer A Variable A declared

I Variable B declared
Declare Integer B

I B gets the value 22 .

Set B = 22

i
Next A gets the value 1
Start of loop
A = 1 to 2 B gets the value 16
B = A +15 will be repeated
: two times
j Step is 1 : A =A+1 ; Done
1
Set B = A+15
A gets the value 2
B gets the value 17
I End of loop ! A gets the value 3

A gets the value 6

Set A = A "2

i
- Output - VALUE OF A, B — 6,17
^
n
Display "VALUE OF A . B" & " & A & V&B j
False True A < 3 FALSE
A< 3 A > 7 FALSE
>
Output - OK
True True
A>7 A< 10

False False
Set A = A-5 Display ''HELLO"

I 1
Set A = A *2

-
Display OK"

Y
Declare Integer C Declare variable C

I
Set C = 1
C gets the valuel

True C< 4 TRUE

C<4

. Start of while loop

•• False
1
Display "VALUE OF A . B CT &, &A&Y&
j It will output the message B&Y&C
«

; two times
| C= C * 2 JÔ >
utp it - VALUE OF A,B,C — 6,17,1

| End of loop Set C = C 2 - C gets the value 2

[ O u t p u t V A L U E OF A,B,C -6,17,2
C gets the value 4

Figure 4.14: Flowchart explanation End END

221
Programming Example 27: Example of flowchart

The following algorithms in pseudocode and flowchart form will produce the same output:

n 0 n 0
loop while n <= 3 loop n from 0 to 3
output "OK" output "OK"
n n +1 end loop
end loop output n
output n

Declare Integer n Declare Integer n

Important: the IB CS Approved notation for

Display n developing pseudocode14 does not use the
following symbol:

n = 0 to 3

The following algorithms expressed in Java language will produce the same result:
import java. util .Scanner; import java. util .Scanner;
import java. util. * ; import java.util .*;
import java .lang.Math; import java.lang . Math;

class MyProgram { class MyProgram {

public static void public static void

main(String[] args) { main (String[] args ) {

int n; int n;
n = 0;
for (n=0; n <= 3; n=n+ l ) {
 while (n <= 3) {
System.out. println( "OK") ;
System.out. println(" OK"); }
n = n + l; System. out .println (n);
} >
System.out.println(n); >
>
}

Output :
OK
OK
OK
OK
4

4.2 . 5 Analyse an algorithm presented as pseudocode

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Explain a flowchart
Calculate the output of an algorithm presented as pseudocode.
Trace an algorithm presented as pseudocode.
Find the output of an algorithm presented as pseudocode.

Programming Example 28: Trace an algorithm

Suppose we want to trace the following algorithm

//Trace the algorithm

MAX = 10
SUM = 0
COUNT = 0

loop COUNT from 0 to MAX-6

if COUNT 0 AND MAX > 0 then
output "Hello"
else if COUNT > 2 then
output "Go for it"
else
output "OK"
end if
end loop
SUM = SUM + COUNT

output "Total = " , SUM

The following table is the trace table for the algorithm:

MAX SUM COUNT OUTPUT COMMENTS

10 0 0 Hello COUNT = 0 AND MAX > 0 TRUE
10 0 1 OK COUNT = 0 AND MAX > 0 FALSE

223
 COUNT > 2 FALSE
10 0 2 OK COUNT = 0 AND MAX > 0 FALSE
COUNT > 2 FALSE
10 0 3 Go for it COUNT = 0 AND MAX > 0 FALSE
COUNT > 2 TRUE
10 0 4 Go for it COUNT = 0 AND MAX > 0 FALSE
COUNT > 2 TRUE
10 0 5 Exit from loop
10 5 5 Total = 5

Programming Example 29: Calculating the output of an algorithm

What is going to be the output of the following algorithm ?

//Find the output of the following algorithm

MAX = 10
SUM = 0
COUNT = 0

loop COUNT from 0 to MAX-4

SUM = MAX - 4
COUNT = MAX - 3
loop SUM from 3 to 4
if COUNT = 0 AND MAX > 0 then
output "Hello"
else if COUNT < 4 then
output "Go for it "
else
output "OK"
end if
end loop
end loop
SUM = SUM + COUNT

output "Total = " , SUM

output "MAX = " , COUNT

Answer :
OK
OK
Total = 13
- MAX = 8

Programming Example 30: Identify the error

The following program is supposed to output all the common factors of two numbers. It
contains an error. Identify this error.

//This program is supposed

/ /to print the common factors of two numbers
//Find the error!!

FIRST = 14

224
 SECOND = 12
output "Common factors of numbers" , FIRST , " and " , SECOND
loop COUNT from 1 to SECOND
if (FIRST mod COUNT = 0) OR (SECOND mod COUNT = 0) then
output COUNT
end if
end loop

Wrong Output:
Common factors of numbers 14 and 12
1
2
3
4
6
7
12

Answer:
if (FIRST mod COUNT = 0) OR (SECOND mod COUNT 0 ) then should be
changed to
if (FIRST mod COUNT = 0) AND (SECOND mod COUNT = 0) then

Correct Output:
Common factors of numbers 14 and 12
1
2

Programming Example 31: Identify the error

The following program is supposed to output common elements that appear in two arrays. It
contains an error. Identify this error.

/ /This algorithm is supposed to

//compare two arrays and finds
//duplicates that appear in both arrays

ARRAY 1 ["aa","11", "34"," ff","mm"]

ARRAY2 ("ff","hh","mn", "33","34"]

output "The following items appear in both arrays"

loop A 1 from 0 to 4
loop A2 from 0 to 4
if ARRAY1[Al] = ARRAY2[A2] then
output ARRAY2[Al]
end if
end loop
end loop

Wrong Output:
The following appear in both lists
mn
33

225
Answer:
output ARRAY2[A1] should be changed to output ARRAY2[A2]

Correct Output:
The following items appear in both arrays
34
ff

4.2 .6 Construct pseudocode to represent an algorithm

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Develop an algorithm in the form of pseudocode to address a specific problem .

Programming Example 32: Pseudocode to represent an algorithm

The following algorithm asks the user to enter five integer values. Then, the values are
stored in an array and it is determined if the values entered are in ascending or
descending order. The program displays a message indicating whether and how the
elements are ordered.

//An algorithm that identifies

//if an array is sorted in
// ascending or descending order .

1 = 0
SORTEDA = 1
SORTEDD = 1
SAMPLE = new Array( )

loop I from 0 to 4
SAMPLE[I] = input("Enter the measurement")
end loop

loop I from 0 to 3
if SAMPLE[I] > SAMPLE[1+1] then
SORTEDA = 0
end if
if SAMPLE[I] < SAMPLE[1+1] then
SORTEDD 0
end if
end loop

output "The array is:"

loop I from 0 to 4
output SAMPLE[I]
end loop

if SORTEDA = 1 then
output "The array is sorted in ASCENDING order"
else
output "The array is not sorted in ASCENDING order"
end if

226

J
 if SORTEDD = 1 then
output "The array is sorted in DESCENDING order"
else
output "The array is not sorted in DESCENDING order"
end if

User enters: 3, 5, 6, 4, 4.

Output 1:

The array is:

3
5
6
4
4
The array is not sorted in ASCENDING order
The array is not sorted in DESCENDING order

User enters: 6, 5, 3, 2, 1.

Output 2:

The array is:

6
5
3
2
1
The array is not sorted in ASCENDING order
The array is sorted in DESCENDING order

User enters: 2, 4, 78, 89, 99.

Output 3:

The array is:

2
4
78
89
99
The array is sorted in ASCENDING order
The array is not sorted in DESCENDING order

Programming Example 33: Algorithm and flowchart ( array of ten integers)

227
The following algorithm builds an array of ten integers. The algorithm uses the Random
function to input random numbers between 0 and 9 to the array. Finally, it outputs the
elements of the array. This algorithm is not expressed in IB pseudocode. The equivalent
flowchart is illustrated in Figure 4.14.

//Declaration of an Integer variable n.

Declare Integer n
/ /Declaration of an array of integers. Length = 10, Name=RandomM
Declare Integer RandomN[10]

//This loop fills the array with random numbers from 0 to 9. The
// first index of the array is 0. So, loop from 0 to 9.
For n 0 To 9
// It will be repeated 10 times.
Set RandomN[n] = random(10)
End For

// This loop will print all the array elements.

For n 0 To 9
// The message will be repeated 10 times. Each time n changes.
Display RandomN[n]
End For
Declare Integer n

Programming Example 34: Algorithm and flowchart ( messages )

The following algorithm uses two while loops and an if conditional clause. This
algorithm is not expressed in IB pseudocode.

The equivalent flowchart is illustrated in Figure 4.15.

Set n = 0
Declare Integer m

Set m = n + 3
While n <= 2
While m < 10
Set m = 13 - 3
Display n + 2
Display "m=", m
End While
Display n 0K"
Set n n + 1
End While
Display Mm=" , m, " n=", n
If m > n Then
Display "n=", n
Else
Display m < n
End If
Display n

228
 c Main )
Declaration of an Integer variable n.

Declare integer n

Declaration of an array of integers . Length =

10, Name=RandomM

Declare Integer RandomN [10]

This loop fills the array with random numbers

from 0 to 9. The first index of the array is 0.
So, loop from 0 to 9 .

Next
n = 0 to 9

Done
i It will be repeated 10 times.

Set RandomN[n] = random( 10)

This loop will print all the array elements.

Next
n = 0 to 9

Done
iThe message will be repeated 10 times . Each
time n changes .

/ Display RandomN[n]

c End )
Figure 4.15: Flowchart for the programming example

229
 Main )
I
Dedare integer n

I
Set n = 0

I
Dedare Integer m

i
Set m = n+3

Set m = 13-3

i
7 Display n+2

i
/ - 7 Display "ms & m

Display "OK"
7
1 Output

7 Duplay “mr" & m & " n=" & n

7 m =10

False True OK
m>n
1 1 OK

7 Display m<n
7 ! Display "nr " & n
J OK

Z
7 7 Display n
m=10 n=3

n =3

i
c ) End
3

Figure 4.16: Flowchart for the programming example

230
4.2. 7 Suggest suitable algorithms to solve a specific problem
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the terms efficiency, correctness, reliability and flexibility.

Explain the suitability of an algorithm in terms of efficiency, correctness, reliability
and flexibility .
Propose suitable algorithms to attack a specific problem

Efficiency of an algorithm refers to the amount of the computer resources required to

perform its functions. Minimizing the use of various resources such as the CPU and
computer's memory is very important.

Correctness of an algorithm refers to the extent to which the algorithm satisfies its
specification, is free from faults, and fulfils all objectives set during the design and
implementation phase.

Reliability refers to the capability of the algorithm to maintain a predefined level of

performance and perform all required functions under stated conditions, having a long
mean time between failures.

Flexibility of an algorithm refers to the effort required to modify the algorithm for other
purposes than those for which it was initially developed.

Programming Example 35: Algorithm for a specific problem

Given an array of n integer elements, develop an algorithm that will output the numbers of
the array and the frequency of their appearance.

//PROGRAM TO CALCULATE THE

//FREQUENCY OF NUMBERS
//IN AN ARRAY
ARRAY ["30,-13,4,-3,-30,-3,-3,-3,-15]
SIZE = 9
COUNTS = new Array()

loop I from 0 to SIZE-2 / /start of bubble sort

loop J from 0 to SIZE-2
if ARRAY[J]> ARRAY [J+ l ] then
TEMP = ARRAY[J]
ARRAY[J] = ARRAY[J+l]
ARRAY[J+l ] = TEMP
end if
end loop
end loop
//the array is now sorted
PREVIOUS = ARRAY[0]
X = 1 / /it will be used to store frequency of appearance

loop I from 1 to SIZE-1

if ARRAY[I] = PREVIOUS then //condition to check if two or more
//subsequent numbers are the same
X = X+ l
if I == 8 then

231
 output "Number:", ARRAY[I],"frequency:" ,X
end if
else
output "Number:", ARRAY[I-1] , "frequency:" ,X
PREVIOUS = ARRAY[I]
X = 1
if I == 8 then
output "Number:",ARRAY[I] , "frequency:" , X
end if
end if
end loop

Output:

Number: -30 frequency: 2

Number: -15 frequency: 1
Number: -13 frequency: 1
Number: -3 frequency: 4
Number: 4 frequency: 1

4.2 . 8 Deduce the efficiency of an algorithm in the context of its use

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:
Define and explain the use of Big O notation.
Analyze the efficiency of an algorithm
Define the term flag.
Define the term list.
Propose modifications to an algorithm to improve its efficiency.

Big 0 notation is extremely useful when analyzing algorithms as it is a measure of the

efficiency of an algorithm. We use to say that an algorithm is O( n ) what is meant is that the
growth rate of the instructions in this particular algorithm shall be executed n times.
Programming Example 36: Improving efficiency

The following algorithms finds the sum of numbers 1+2+3+4+5=15 when n=5. If n=7 the
algorithms will calculate 1+2+3+4+5+6+7 and the output will be 28. Which algorithm is more
efficient ?
Algorithm A
//An algorithm that outputs the SUM 1+2+3+. , +n
// n > 0

SUM = 0
n = 5 //n = 5 as input
SUM = n *(n +1)/2
output "The SUM is:" + SUM
Algorithm B
//An algorithm that outputs the SUM 1+2+3+ . .+n
// n> 0

1 = 0
SUM = 0
 n 5 //n = 5 as input

loop I from 1 to n
SUM = SUM + I
end loop
output "The SUM is:" 4- SUM
Algorithm C
// An algorithm that outputs the SUM 1+2+3 + . . + n
/ /n > 0

1 = 0
SUM = 0
n = 5 //n = 5 as input
m = 0

loop I from 1 to n
loop m from 1 to I
SUM = SUM + 1
end loop
end loop
output "The SUM is:" + SUM

The first algorithm does not use a loop ( constant time requirement ) . This algorithm requires
time proportional to 1, and its Big 0 notation is 0(1). The time requirement is constant, and
is independent of the problem' s size. For this particular algorithm, it is independent of the
size of n.

The second algorithm uses one loop ( linear algorithm - linear time required). This algorithm
requires time proportional to n and its Big O notation is 0 (n) . The time requirement for this
algorithm increases directly with the size of the problem. For this particular algorithm, it is
dependent on the size of n .

The third algorithm use two loops the second inside the first ( nested loops ( quadratic
2
algorithm -quadratic time required) ). This algorithm requires time proportional to n and its
Big 0 notation is 0(n ). The time requirement for this algorithm increases rapidly depending
2

on the size of the problem . For this particular algorithm it is dependent of the size of n .
Suppose the first algorithm takes 1 time unit to output the result for n=10. The second
algorithm will take 10 time units and the third 102 time units. For n=100 the first algorithm
takes 1 time units to output the result, the second algorithm will take 100 time units and the
third 1002 time units.
The following table presents some algorithms and their equivalent Big O notation.

233
 BigO Number of loops
notation ( Algorithm)
Number of loops
(approx.)
(Flowchart )
n = number
of iterations
0(1) 11 If "expression" Then
// End If

O (n) 11 For "variable" = start To end

// End For

2 * 0( n ) = 11 For "variable" = start To end

0(n) // End For
11 For "variable" = start To end
// End For

234
 0( n ) // For "variable" = start To end

c Main
11 "For variable" =start To end
// End For
// End For
Next
For

Done Next
For

Done t

( End

2
2 * 0( n ) = // For "variable" = start To end
2
0( n ) // For "variable" = start To end
( Main
// End For
// End For
Next // For "variable" = start To end
For // For "variable" =start To end
// End For
Done Next // End For
For

Done t

Next
For

Done Next
For

Done t

End

Assumption for time estimation based on complexity class

235
 Example 4.1: Suppose a n 2 sorting algorithm needs 4 seconds to run in a particular
computer system when n = 1000. For how many elements the same algorithm will
need 6 seconds to run?

i
Answer: l
Timel=Constant * Big 0 notation o 4=Constant * 10002 o Constant=4/1000000 l
l
2 2
Time 2=Constant * n <=> 6=Constant * n o n= sqrt ( 6/Constant ) o n=1225. l
I
l
l
l
Example 4.2: Assume that a Bubble Sort algorithm requires 10 seconds to sort an l
i
array containing 1 million numbers. State approximately how long the same i
algorithm would require to sort 8 million numbers on the same computer system.
i
i

Answer:
Timel=Constant * Big 0 notation <=> 10=Constant * 10000002 o
Constant=10/10000002
Time 2=Constant * n2 <=> Time2 =Constant * 80000002 <=> Time2=640

Example 4.3: Assume that a Selection sort algorithm requires 10 seconds to sort an
array containing 1 million numbers. State approximately how long an O( n ) sorting
algorithm would require to sort 16 million numbers on the same computer system.

Answer:
Timel=Constant * Big O notation <=> 10 =Constant * 10000002
Constant =10/10000002
Time 2=Constant * n <=> Time 2=Constant * 16000000 <=i> Time 2=0.00016 seconds
Look what a difference a different type of algorithm can make ! /
\
y

Time = Constant * Big 0 notation, where Constant depends on the computer system that
runs the program. For the same computer system Constant should always be considered to
be the same.

The following table shows some useful common complexities.

Common complexities
Binary search O ( logn)
Linear search O( n )
Bubble Sort 0( n 2 )
2
Select Sort O( n )
Table 4.4: Complexities

Programming Example 37: More efficient sequential search

A flag in programming is a variable used to indicate a condition. When the condition is

changed the value of the flag is changed. The //op is usually a boolean variable and is used to
terminate a loop .

236
Lists in computer science are used to store a sequence of values under a single name. Lists
allow duplicates to act as containers and to be typically implemented either as linked lists or
as arrays. Although the term list appears at this point of the syllabus, it is assumed by the
authors that it should be treated as a synonym to the term array .

The following algorithm corresponds to an inefficient sequential search. Suppose we run this
algorithm searching for 2. This is the first element of the array.

/ /= = == Sequential Search =====

N [2 , 9, 5, 6 , 7 , 8 , 19, 3, 4 , 17 ,18, 29 , 11]//Array elements
X 2
Found= false
Counter = 0
loop Counter from 0 to 12
if N[Counter] = X then
Found = true
output N[Counter],"found at position" , Counter
end if
output Counter, " what a waste! ! ! ! !"
end loop
if Found = false then
output X,"not found"
end if

Output:
2 found at position 0
0 what a waste !!! !!
1 what a waste !!!! !
2 what a waste !! ! !!
3 what a waste ! ! ! ! !
4 what a waste ! !! ! !
5 what a waste ! !! ! !
6 what a waste !!!! !
7 what a waste ! ! !!!
8 what a waste!!!!!
9 what a waste ! ! ! ! !
10 what a waste !!!!!
11 what a waste !!!!!
12 what a waste !! !!!

It is easy to understand that the algorithm found the element and then continued to iterate
through all the element of the array. This is a waste of processing recourses. A better
solution involves the use of Found as a flag that will be used to stop the search immediately
when the element is found.

/ / = === Clever Sequential Search ====

N [2, 9, 5 , 6, 7, 8 , 19 , 3 ,4 , 17 , 18, 29, 11]//Array elements
X 2
Found= 0
Counter = 0
loop while Counter < 12 AND Found = 0 / / Use of flag
if N[Counter] X then
Found = 1
output N[Counter], "found at position" , Counter

237
 end if
Counter Counter +1
output Counter, "what a waste!!!!! "
end loop
if Found = false then
output X,"not found"
end if

Output:
2 found at position 0
1 what a waste !!!!!

4.2 . 9 Determine number of iterations for given input data

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:
Calculate the number of iterations that will be performed for given input data
Analyze the loops presented in an algorithm ( pseudocode, flowchart ).

Programming Example 38: Calculation of number of iterations

The following algorithm corresponds to the flowchart illustrated in Figure 4.17 :

Declare Integer a
Declare Integer b

Input a
Input b
If a > b Then
Set a = b - 3
While a < b
Display "loop 1"
Set b = a * 2
While b > 7
Set b = a - 2
Display "loop 3"
End While
Display "loop 2"
End While
End If

Ql. What is going to be the output when a =10 and b=4 ?

Al. The program will never end. It will be an infinite loop.

Q2. What is going to be the output when a =4 and b=10?

A 2 . No output

Q3 . What is going to be the output when a =10 and b=9 ?

A 3. Output: loopl loop 2 loop 3

Q4. What is going to be the output when a =10 and b=0 ?

A4. Output : loopl loop 2

238
( Main )
I
Dedare Integer a

i
Dedare integer b

i
Input a

I
/ Input b

Set a = b-3

True
a<b

False
Display loop 1
7
I
Setb = a * 2

True
b>7

False
Setb =

I
! Display loop 3" j

J Display "loop 2"

I
J

c End

Figure 4.17: Flowchart for the programming example

239
Programming Example 39: Calculation of number of iterations

Figure 4.18 shows a flowchart. Answer the following questions:

Ql. How many times will the " well done" message appear if the user enters a = 20 and b= 2 ?
Al. Two times.

Q2. What is going to be the output of the program if the user enters a = 20 and b= 2 ?
A 2.

well done Main

well done I
Dedare Integer a
welcome
I
Dedare Integer b

i
Display ' \vell done

Display 'welcome

Figure 4.18: Flowchart for the programming example

240
 4.3 Introduction to programming
We can use Java programming language in order to face various problems. Therefore,
students can be given the chance to convert algorithms into code what can be executed and
tested.

Nature of programming languages

4.3.1 State the fundamental operations of a computer

. 1
Exit skills Students should be able to :
List the fundamental operations ( add, compare, retrieve and store) of a computer .

A computer can perform some fundamental operations . The following simplified example is
used to illustrate some basic computer operations. Suppose that a number is stored as a
string of bits in memory location 20 and another number is stored as a string of bits in
memory location 30. A LOAD 20 instruction is transferred from RAM into the Control Unit
( CU ). The contents of the memory location 20 are loaded ( retrieved from memory ) into the
Arithmetic and Logic Unit ( ALU ). A second instruction is fetched. The CU takes the
instruction ADD 30, loads the contents of memory location 30 into the ALU and adds it to
the number already there ( the number from memory location 20). A final instruction STORE
50 is used to store the output to memory location 50. A variation of this simple code
fragment would be to use a statement that would COMPARE (<, >, =) the contents of the
memory location 20 to the contents of the memory location 40 and change the course of the
program according the result of the comparison. The conditional instructions and basic
operations of Boolean algebra ( AND, OR, XOR, NOT) are critical for the development of
useful programs.

4.3 . 2 Distinguish between fundamental and compound operations of a computer

Exit skills. Students should be able to :
1

Outline the differences between fundamental and compound operations of a

computer .
..
Suggest an algorithm that acts as a compound operation ( e g find max ).

By combining fundamental computer operations, computers can perform compound

operations. For example, finding the maximum value of four numbers is a compound
operation.

Objective: Find the Maximum value of four numbers

Our goal is to write an algorithm in pseudocode form that will find the maximum of four
numbers.
Four numbers as input: a, b, c, d.

241

.
It should give the maximum value of these four as output ( MAX ).
It should always give the Max ( actual numbers or order of numbers should not influence our
algorithm ) .
Begin by setting MAX = a
Compare MAX and b.
If b > MAX, set b MAX
Compare MAX and c.
If c > MAX, set c = MAX
Compare MAX and d .
If d > MAX , set d MAX
Output MAX

This algorithm returns correct maximum. Below is JAVA implementation of this algorithm.

Programming Example 40: Compound operations

// import of a class that handles input from user (Scanner)

import java.util .Scanner;
//definition of the name of the class (program name)
class LargestOfFourNumbers{
// main method heading
public static void main ( String args[])
{
//initialization of variables
/ /all variables are of type integer (int)
int a, b, c, d, Max ;
//System. out . println is equivalent to output
System. out.println ("Enter four integers ");
//use of scanner
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
a = in.nextlnt();
b = in.nextlnt();
c = in.nextlnt();
d = in.nextlnt();
Max=a;
if (b> Max)
Max = b;
if (c > Max )
Max=c;
if ( d > Max )
Max = d;
System.out . println ("Maximum number is "+ Max);
}
>

4.3 . 3 Explain the essential features of a computer language

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the terms syntax and semantics.

Explain the importance of fixed vocabulary, unambiguous meaning, consistent
grammar and syntax for a computer language .

A programming language is described as the combination of its semantics, which refers to

the meaning of every construction that is possible in the language and its syntax , which

242
relates to its structure. A grammar is a meta -language that is used to define the syntax of a
language, while the rules of statement construction are called syntax. Each high level
language has a unique syntax and a specific limited vocabulary. The words import ,
class, int etc. in Java are reserved keywords with special meanings in the Java language .
A command written in a computer language always means the same and there is no
ambiguity of meaning.

4.3 .4 Explain the need for higher level languages

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Outline the differences and similarities between machine language, assembly
language and high- level languages.
Explain the importance of higher level programming languages.
Explain how the use of high level programming languages facilitates abstraction.

Computers can only process Os and Is. Each computer has its own machine language, which
is made up of Os and Is. Machine language is a low-level language and is the only language
that can be understood directly by a computer. Machine language programs are hard to
write, difficult to debug and to maintain. A machine language programmer has to keep track
of memory locations and write from the very beginning all the mathematical functions
required by a program. Machine language programs written for a computer of one kind are
not suitable for a computer of another kind.
The next evolutionary step in programming came with the replacement of binary code for
development of instructions and reference to address locations with symbols called
mnemonics. These low-level computer languages were referred as mnemonic and later as
assembly languages . An assembler was used to convert the assembly language mnemonics
to machine code. The development of computer programs was now much easier, but each
assembly language was still specific to a specific computer system . The lack of abstraction,
the need to focus on problem-solving and to improve efficiency led to the development of
high- level languages.

A high- level programming language is a programming language that uses elements of

natural language, is easy to use, facilitates abstraction by hiding significant areas of
computing systems, and makes the program development simpler, faster and more
understandable.

243
4.3. 5 Outline the need for a translation process from a higher-level language to
machine -executable code
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Outline the function of compilers, interpreters and combinations of both.

Outline the importance of virtual machine.
Explain the importance of translation process from a higher level language to machine
executable code .

Most applications today are written in one of the high-level languages . To execute ( RUN) the
program on a computer system and get the required job done, a translation method is
required. This translation process will convert the program into the machine language of the
computer on which it will run. The original program developed in a selected high-level
language is called the source program or source code . The translated program in machine
language is called the object program or target program . Two methods are used for
translation : compilation and interpretation .

• A compiler is a translator that executes the translation process only once. It normally
translates the whole source program into the object program. The object program is
saved and next time a programmer wants to use the object program no
recompilation is necessary. Compilers issue error messages for all syntax error found
and all errors are communicated to the programmer after the entire program is
checked . The compilation ends only when all syntax errors have been corrected.
Compilers are much faster than interpreters. Examples: C, C++.
• An interpreter is a translator that goes through the process of translation every time
the program is run. Interpretation refers to the process of reading each line
(instruction) of the source program, analyzing it, translating it into the
corresponding line of the object program and executing the line. Syntax errors are
communicated to the programmer for every instruction that is interpreted.
Example: BASIC.
• Java combines compilation and interpretation. Source code is compiled to Java
Virtual Machine bytecode . When a Java program is compiled from .java file to a
.class file, the class file is Java Virtual Machine bytecode. This Java Virtual Machine
bytecode can be interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine interpreter . The Java
architecture allows code to run on any machine to which the Java Virtual Machine
interpreter has been installed. In Java architecture, all details of making the code
function on a specific hardware platform are handled by the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM ) .

Use of programming languages

The Java programming language is used in many examples of this section.

244
4.3 . 6 Variable, constant, operator, object
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Define the terms: variable, constant, operator and object.

Variable : A variable is used to store a data element of a program. The stored value can be
changed during the program execution. A variable has a name ( or identifier ) and a type. The
name of the variable should not clash with reserved keywords and literals of the language. It
is highly recommended to use meaningful variable names (e.g. roomSize).The type of the
variable could be an integer, double, string etc. A variable in most programming languages
can only store a data element of the particular type.

Constant : Constants represent things and quantities that don't change. They can be seen as
non-modifiable variables. The data element stored in a constant cannot be modified during
the execution of the program ( e .g. in Java: final double Pi = 3.14159).

Operator : Operators are used to manipulate operands. The expression 2+3 has as an
operator the "+" ( sign of addition) and two operands "2", "3". Operands can be variables,
literals, boolean values, numerical values, text etc. Operators can be arithmetic, relational,
logical etc.

Object : An object is a comprised of data and actions . Actions refer to the operations that can
be performed by the object. Object data may include a number of data members, while
actions may also be referred to as methods. Data members are used to store the current
state of an object and methods are used to change or access those data members
9
.

4.3 . 7 Define various operators

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Give the precise meaning of the operators =, , <, <=, >, >=, mod, div.
*

The following operators appear in the IBO approved notation for developing pseudocode
14
.
= Defined as "is equals to". It is also used to assign a value to a variable. Min=6 means that
the value of 6 is assigned to variable Min

* Defined as "not equal to". Min#Max means that Min is not equal to Max
> Defined as "is greater than"

>= Defined as "is greater than or equal to"

< Defined as "is less than"

<= Defined as "is less than or equal to"

245
div Defined as "integer part of quotient". For example: 22 div 3 = 7.

mod Defined as "modulo operation". It calculates the remainder of division of one number
by another. The following table illustrates some examples of mod and div usage.

Operandl Operator Operand 2 Result

9 mod 3 0
11 mod 3 2
0 mod 3 0
2 mod 44 2

Programming Example 41: Java quotient and remainder program

The following two programs written in Java ask the user to enter two positive integers and
then they calculate the quotient and the remainder. The first program does not use "/" or
"% ( mod )".

import java .util .Scanner;

class QuotientRemainderVl
{
public static void main(String args[] )
{
int a, b, q=0;
System.out.println("Enter two positive integers ");
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
a = in.nextlnt();
b = in.nextlnt();
int r = a;
while (!(r<b)){
r= r-b;
q=q+ l;
}
System.out.println ("Quotient : "+ q + " Remainder: " +r) ;
}
}

import java.util.Scanner;
class QuotientRemainderV2
{
public static void main(String args[] )
{
int a, b, q=0, r=0;
System. out.println("Enter two positive integers ");
Scanner in = new Scanner (System . in);
a = in.nextlnt();
b = in.nextlnt();
q= a / b;
r= a % b;
System.out.println ("Quotient: "+ q + " Remainder: " +r);
}
}

Programming Example 42: Java encryption-decryption example

246
The following Java program is an encryption algorithm.

import java.util.Scanner;
public class Encryption
{
//Encryption algorithm
public static void main(String args [])
{
int dig_ l;
int dig_2;
int dig_3;
int dig_4;
int a;
int temp;
int encrypted;
System.out. print( "Enter a four digit number to be encrypted: ");
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in );
a = in.nextlnt();
//Extract digits using %
dig_l = a % 10000 / 1000;
dig_2 = a % 1000 / 100;
dig_3 = a % 100 / 10;
dig_ _4 = a % 10 / 1;
//Change digits
digJL = (digJL + 5) % 10;
dig _2 = (dig_2 + 5) % 10;
dig _3 = (dig _3 + 5) % 10;
dig_4 = (dig_4 + 5) % 10;
//Swap digits
temp = dig_ l;
dig_l = dig_4;
dig_ _4 = temp;
temp = dig_2;
dig_ _2 = dig _3;
dig_3 = temp;
// Construct Encrypted Number
encrypted = dig_ l * 1000 + dig_2 * 100 + dig_3 * 10 + dig_4;
System.out. print("Encrypted number is: ");
System.out. print( encrypted);
}
}

Suppose the user enters: 3678.

//Extract digits using %

dig_ l = a % 10000 / 1000 gets the value 3
dig_2 = a % 1000 / 100 gets the value 6
dig_3 = a % 100 / 10 gets the value 7
dig_4 = a % 10 / 1 gets the value 8
//Change digits
_ _
dig l = (dig l + 5) % 10 gets the value 8
_
dig_2 = (dig 2 + 5) % 10 gets the value 1
_ _
dig 3 = (dig 3 + 5) % 10 gets the value 2
dig_4 = (dig_4 + 5) % 10 gets the value 3
//Swap digits
temp = dig_l;
_
dig l = dig_4;
dig_4 = temp;
temp = dig_2;

247
 dig_2 = dig_3;
_
dig 3 = temp;
After this digit 1=3, digit 2=2, digit 3 =1 and digit 4=8.
So the encrypted integer is: 3218.

The following Java program is the decryption algorithm for the previous algorithm.

import java.util.Scanner;
public class Decryption

{
/ / Decryption algorithm
public static void main (String argsf ] )
{
int dig _ l;
int dig_2;
int dig_3;
int dig _4;
int a;
int temp;
int decrypted;
System.out. print( "Enter a four digit number to be decrypted : " );
Scanner in = new Scanner (System.in);
a = in. nextlnt();
//Extract digits using %
dig_ l = a % 10000 / 1000;
dig_ 2 = a % 1000 / 100;
dig_3 = a % 100 / 10;
dig_4 = a % 10 / 1;
//Change dig_ s
dig_ l = ( dig_ l + 5) % 10;
dig_2 = (dig_2 + 5) % 10;
dig_3 = (dig_3 + 5 ) % 10;
dig__4 = (dig _4 + 5 ) % 10;
//Swap digits
temp = dig_ l;
dig__l = dig_4;
dig__4 = temp;
temp = dig_2;
dig_2 = dig_3;
dig_3 = temp;
//Construct Decrypted Nximber
decrypted = dig__l * 1000 + dig__2 * 100 + dig_3 * 10 + dig_ 4 ;
System. out .print("Decrypted number is: ");
System.out.print (decrypted);
}
}

If the user inputs "3218" the program will return the original integer "3678".

4.3.8 Analyse the use of variables, constants and operators in algorithms

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Explain the use of variables in various algorithms.

Explain the use of constants in various algorithms.
Explain the use of operators in various algorithms.

248
It is clear that a constant is a variable whose value does not change during the execution of
the program .
Constant name Value of the constant
Pi (n) 3.141592653
e ( Natural log) 2.718281828
c ( speed of light ) 299,792,458 ( m / sec )
Table 4.5: Examples of constants and their values

In some cases when developing a computer program, it is more convenient and more secure
to use constants instead of variables. When you use the keyword final, Java is instructed
that the data element cannot be changed. If you try to change a constant "Pi" a message
"cannot assign a value to final variable Pi" will appear.

Programming Example 43: Java use of constants

The following inefficient program written in Java clarifies the use of constants. The contents
of the variables ratio and area change many times, but there is no reason for the content of
the constant Pi to be changed during the execution of the program.

import java. util. Scanner;

class AreaOfCircle
{
public static void main (String args[])
{
final double Pi= 3.1415926535;
double ratio = 0, area;
while ( ratio!=999){
System.out . println("Enter the ratio of the circle. Enter 999
to exit ");
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
ratio = in.nextDouble ( );
if (ratio == 999){
System. out. println ("See you ");
}
else{
area = Pi * ratio * ratio;
System.out.println ( "Area: "+ area);
}

>
}
>
Local and global value

The scope of a variable defines the visibility of that variable. It defines which parts of the
algorithm can store, access and retrieve the data of the variable. Sometimes it is very useful
to limit the scope of a variable. A global variable is visible to all parts of your program while
a local variable has a limited scope.

Programming Example 44: Java scope of variables

249
Now consider the following program in JAVA. If this program is executed, the following will
happen.

import java.util.Scanner - First loop pass

import java.util.*;
import java .lang.Math;
class MyProgramwhile {
public static void main (String[] args) {
int n; n variable is initialized ( global)
n = 0; n gets the value 0
while ( n < 2 ) { loop starts ( 0<2 ) =TRUE
System,out.println( " OK "); >
output - OK
n = n + 1; n gets the value 1
int m = n+1; m variable is initialized ( local ), m gets the value 1
.
System,out printlnf ' INSIDE >
output - INSIDE LOOP
LOOP "); >
output - l
System.out.println ( n ); outputs
System,out.println ( m );
}
System.out.printlnf ' OUTSIDE
LOOP ");
.
System out.println ( n);
//System,out.println(m);
}
}

import java.util.Scanner; Second loop pass

import java.util. *;
import java .lang.Math;
class MyProgramwhile {
public static void main (String[] args) {
int n;
n = 0;
while ( n < 2 ) { loop continues (1<2 ) =TRUE
. .
System out printlnf 'OK "); output -> OK
n = n + 1; n gets the values 2
int m = n+1; m variable is initialized ( local ), m gets the value 2
System ,out .printlnf ' INSIDE output - INSIDE LOOP
LOOP" ); ^>
output - 2
System. out .println( n ); outputs
System. out.println( m );
}
System.out.println( " OUTSIDE
LOOP " );
System , out.println ( n );
.
//System.out println( m );
}
}

import java.util.Scanner; Exit from the loop 1

import java.util. *;
import java .lang.Math;
class MyProgramwhile {
public static void main (String[] args ) {
int n;
n = 0;
while ( n < 2 ) { loop ends ( 2 < 2 ) =false
System.out.printlnf 'OK ");
n = n + 1;
int m = n+1;
System.out.printlnf 'INSIDE
LOOP " );
System.out.println( n );
System,out.println( m ); m variable is destroyed ( local ), n variable exists ( global )
} output - OUTSIDE LOOP
>
System.out.printlnf ' OUTSIDE >
output - 2
LOOP " ); Important: if we remove the comments symbol ( / / )
System,out println(n ); a message "cannot find symbol variable m" will

250
 //System.out.println(m); .
appear Variable m is not available here.
}
}

4.3.9 Develop algorithms using loops, branching

1
Exit skills . Students should be able to :

Develop various algorithms, explain their use and justify their purpose .
Develop algorithms that include loops and branching to address a problem.

Programming Example 45: Java leap year program analysed

A leap year is a year containing one additional day ( an extra day for February ).

The algorithm that calculates if a year is a leap year is the following:

if (year is divisible by 400 , year % 400 = 0)then it is a leap year

else if ( year is divisible by 100, year % 100 = 0) then it is not a
leap year
else if ( year is divisible by 4, year % 4 = 0) then it is a leap year
else, not a leap year
By analyzing the same problem using boolean algebra the following boolean variables as
inputs can be set:

A= year is divisible by 400

B= year is divisible by 100

C= year is divisible by 4

The following truth table shows if a year is a leap year or not

A B C Leap year
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

The boolean expression is: Leap year =CA'B'+A=A+CB'=

=year is divisible by 400 OR year is divisible by 100 AND year is divisible by 4
The modulo operator (%) calculates the remainder after division of one number by another.
So the Leap year =CA' B'+A =A+CB' can be written as:

251
Leap year = Year % 400 0 OR Year % 100 != 0 AND Year % 4 0
Notice: != in Java means not equal
A Java version of the algorithm follows:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class LeapYearCalc
{
public static void main(String args[] )
{
int year = 0;
while (year ! =-999){
System.out.println ("Enter the year. Enter -999 to exit ");
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
year = in.nextlnt();
if (year == -999) {
System , out. println ( ’’See you ” );
} else {
boolean isLeap = false;
if((year % 400 == 0) ||(year % 100 != 0)&& (year % 4 == 0)) {
isLeap = true;
}

if (isLeap){
System. out. println("Year " +year+" is a leap year");
} else {
System.out. println ("Year "+year+" is not a leap year");
}
}
}
}
}

A simplified flowchart is the following ( Figure 4.19 ):

ENTER year

if((year % 400 T
== 0)||(year %

1
100 != 0)&&
(year % 4 ===== 0))

LEAP YEAR

NOT LEAP
YEAR

Figure 4.19: Flowchart of the LeapYear program

252
The following test cases are examined:

Suppose the user enters 2006. The variable Year gets the value 2006. So,

Leap year =2006 % 400 = 0 OR 2006 % 100 != 0 AND 2006 % 4 0.

Leap year =FALSE OR TRUE AND FALSE=FALSE

Suppose the user enters 2000. The variable Year gets the value 2000. So,

Leap year =2000% 400 0 OR 2000 % 100 != 0 AND 2000 % 4 0.

Leap year =TRUE OR FALSE AND TRUE=TRUE

Suppose the user enters 2008. The variable Year gets the value 2008. So,

Leap year =2008% 400 0 OR 2008 % 100 != 0 AND 2008 % 4 0.

Leap year =FALSE OR TRUE AND TRUE=TRUE

Another Java implementation is the following:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class LeapYearCalc
{
public static void main (String args [ ] )
{
int year = 0;
while ( year ! =-999){
System.out.println(" Enter the year. Enter -999 to exit ");
Scanner in = new Scanner(System. in);
year = in .nextlnt();
if (year == -999){
System. out . println ("See you ");
} else {
boolean isLeap = false;
if (year % 400 == 0){
isLeap = true;
} else if (year % 100 == 0){
isLeap = false;
} else if (year % 4 == 0) {
isLeap = true;
} else{
isLeap = false;
}
if(isLeap){
System.out.println ( "Year "+ year +" is a leap year" ) ;
} else {
System. out .println("Year "+year+" is not a leap year");
}
}
}
}
}

253
A simplified flowchart is the following.

ENTER year

NOT A LEAP
YEAR

LEAP YEAR

Figure 4.20: The equivalent flowchart

Dry run of the LeapYearCalc Java program:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class LeapYearCalc
{
public static void
main(String args[])
{
int year = 0;
while (year!=-999){
System.out.println("Enter User enters User enters User User
the year. Enter -999 to 1989 2004 enters enters
exit "); 1500 - 999
Scanner in new
Scanner ( System .in);
year in .nextlnt();
if (year == -999){ 1989# false false true
-999,false
System.out. printIn ("See OUTPUT
you ");
}
else {
boolean isLeap = false; isLeap set isLeap set isLeap
to false to false set to
false
if(year % 400 == 0){ false false false

254
isLeap = true;
}
else if (year % 100 false false true
0){
isLeap = false; isLeap
set to
false
}
else if(year % 4 == 0) { false true
isLeap = true; isLeap=true
}
else{
isLeap = false; false
}
if(isLeap){ false true false
System.out.printIn("Year OUTPUT
"+year+" is a leap
year " ) ;
}
else {
System .out.printIn("Year OUTPUT OUTPUT
"+year+" is not a leap
year");
}
}
}
}
}

Programming Example 46: Java print a diamond

The following Java program prints the following diamond shape with efficient use of loops:

#
###
#####
#######
#########
#######
#####
###
#

public class Symbol_ _l

{
//Shape creation

public static void main (String args [])

{
int row ;
/ /top part
for (row = 1; row <= 5 ; row=row+l )
{
for (int space = 1; space <= 5 - row ; ++ space )
{
System.out.print( );
}

255
 for (int symbol = 1; symbol <= 2 * row - 1; ++symbol )
{
System. out.print(' # ' );
}
Sys tern.out .print('\n ');
}
//bottom part
for (row = 4 ; row > = 1; row=row - l )
{
for (int space = 1; space <= 5 - row; space=space + l)
{
Systern.out . print( );
}
for (int symbol = 1; symbol <= 2 * row - 1; symbol=symbol +l )
{
System.out . print('#');
}
System. out . print( ' \n');
}
System. out. print("\n ");
}
>

4.3 .10 Describe the characteristics and applications of a collection

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Outline the characteristics of collections.

Explain the importance of collections in programming.

Frequently in computer programming there is a need to group and store data that will be
used for the problem solution. A collection or container is consisted of zero or more
elements such as objects and values and it is equipped with the necessary operations to
handle data. Collections allow duplicate elements and may contain ordered and unordered
data elements. Important operations of a collection are add , remove etc. Each type of
collection is equipped with its own specific operations. The elements of a particular
collection are typically all of the same type and represent an entity. A fixed- size array is
usually not considered a collection because it holds a fixed number of items.

4.3.11 Develop algorithms using the access methods of a collection

Exit skills. Students should be able to 1:

Develop various algorithms, explain their use and justify their purpose .
Develop algorithms that include the access methods of collections to address a
problem.

Programming Example 47: Use of collections ( surname collection)

Note: The use of Surname.substring( 0,l) will be given as an explanation during examination

256

J
 SURNAMES = new Collection() It will return:
SURNAMES.addl tem ( 11 Pappas")
SURNAMES. addltem("Percy") These names start with P
SURNAMES .addltem("Brox") Pappas
SURNAMES .resetNext() Percy
output "These names start with
P"
loop while SURNAMES.hasNext()
Surname =
SURNAMES.getNext()
if Surname . substring (0, 1)
"P" then
output Surname
end if
end loop

Programming Example 48: Use of collection of objects

Suppose a programmer wants to create a collection of vehicle objects. Each vehicle object
has the following data fields : Colour, Type and Engine. The programmer wants to manipulate
the following objects:

Vehiclel [ Colour: " red"-Type: "car"- Engine:2000 ]

Vehicle 2 [ Colour: "green"-Type: " bus"- Engine:4000 ]

Vehicle 3 [ Colour: " blue"-Type: "motorcycle"-Engine:800 ]

The following program adds the objects in the collection and outputs the one that is of type
"bus".

Vehiclel = new vehicle (setColour ="red", setType="car , setEngine

=2 0 0 0 )
Vehicle2= new vehicle (setColour ="green", setType="bus, setEngine
=4000)
Vehicle 3= new vehicle (setColour ="blue", setType="motorcycle,
setEngine =800)

VEHICLES = new Collection()

VEHICLES. addltem( Vehiclel)
VEHICLES. addltem( Vehicle2)
VEHICLES.addltem( Vehicle3)
VEHICLES.resetNext( )
output "This Vehicle is a bus"
loop while VEHICLES.hasNext ()
VehicleV = VEHICLES.getNext()
if VehicleV.getType ="bus" then
output VehicleV
end if
end loop

Programming Example 49: Use of collection of arrays

The following program uses a collection of arrays. Each array contains student names. The
following program finds the number of times "Bob" is found in the collection of arrays.

257
 //Array1 . length returns the length of the Array used
Monday = ["Tom", "John", "Mary", "Bob"]
Tuesday = ["Bob", "Tom", "Eri"]
X=0
Arrayl = new Array()
ABSENCES = new Collection ()
ABSENCES.addltem(Monday)
ABSENCES.addltem(Tuesday)
ABSENCES.resetNext()
loop while ABSENCES.hasNext()
Arrayl = ABSENCES. getNext()
loop N from 0 to Arrayl . length - 1
if Arrayl[N]="Bob" then
X=X+1
end if
end loop
end loop
output ” Bob found " , X , ,f times"

4.3 .12 Discuss the importance of sub - programmes and collections within
programmed solutions.
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :
Define the term sub- program.
Discuss the importance and advantages of sub - programs.
Discuss the importance and advantages of collections.
Discuss the importance of the use of reusable code and program organization for the
individual programmer, team members and future maintenance.

A sub - program is a unit that contains a sequence of computer instructions that perform a
specific and predefined task. Code reuse is very useful because it allows programmers to
take advantage of existing code and solutions developed by other programmers ( or by
themselves) to speed up their tasks. Code reuse saves time and resources and allows the
completion of demanding projects in the shortest period of time. Authors of new programs
can take advantage of software libraries, which contain subprograms that can be used by
different types of programs 22.

Advantages of breaking a program into sub-programs :

• Breaking down a complex programming job into simpler jobs

• Distributing a very large programming problem among various programmers all over
the world
• Enabling code reuse across multiple programs
• Facilitation of abstraction by hiding implementation details from users of the
subprogram
• Improving maintainability and traceability
• Reducing programming code duplication within the same program

Ambler, Scott (1January 1998 ). " A Realistic Look at Object -Oriented Reuse". Retrieved 2 July 2014,
22

www.drdobbs.com.

258

J
Advantages of using collections:

• The methods of collections are predefined algorithms that the programmer can
immediately use
• Performance is increased by the data management capabilities provided by the
collection
• Software reuse is facilitated because the use of methods is based on a common
language and a standard interface

Programming Example 50: Java and main method ( palindrome )

The following program in Java checks if a string entered by the user is a palindrome or not.
This program has only one method: the main method.

import java.util. *;
/ *
* This is a program that checks if a string is a palindrome or
not .
*/
class Palindrome_String
{
public static void main (String args [])
{
String original_ _string, reverse string = IT II .
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);

System.out. println("Type a string to check if it is a

palindrome or not");
original_string = in.nextLine();
int string_ length = originalestring .length() ;
for ( int i = string_length - 1; i >= 0; i =i-l )
reverse_string = reverse tring +
original_string .charAt (i ) ; ^
if (original_string .equals (reverse_string))
System . out.println ( "String entered is a palindrome.");
else
System. out .println ( "String entered is not a palindrome.") ;

}
}

Programming Example 51: Java and methods (reverse of an integer )

The following program finds the reverse of an integer. It uses the main method to enter the
integer, calls the method that returns the reverse of a number, and outputs the reversed
number. It also uses a method that actually finds and returns the reversed number. This
method could be reused in many other problems that require the calculation of the reverse
of an integer.

import java.util.Scanner;
j *

259
 * This a program that finds the reverse of a number
*/
public class Invert_Integer_ A
{

public static void main(String args[])

{
System.out. println ("Please Enter an integer : ");
int number = new Scanner (System . in).nextlnt ();
System . out .println( "The reserve of the integer :" + number
+ " entered , is "+ (Find Reverse (number)));

//Java method to return the reverse of a number

public static int Find__Reverse(int number)
{
int reverse = 0;
int palindrome = number;
while (palindrome ! = 0)
{
int remainder = palindrome % 10;
reverse = reverse * 10 + remainder;
palindrome = palindrome / 10;
}
return reverse;
}

Programming Example 52: Java and methods (palindrome and reverse)

The following program checks if an integer is a palindrome or not . The method that was
developed in the previous example, which returns the reverse of an integer, is now reused.
Therefore, the programmer does not need to rewrite this method. This is a typical example
of reusable code.

import java.util .Scanner ;

/*
* This a program that checks if an integer is palindrome or not.
*/
public class Palindrome__Integer_ _A
{

public static void main ( String args[])

{
System.out.println ("Please enter the number to check : " > ;
int palindrome = new Scanner (System.in).nextlnt();

if( Find_Reverse(palindrome)==(palindrome)){
System. out .println ("So, number : " + palindrome + " is
a palindrome");
}else {
System .out. println("So , number : " + palindrome + " is
not a palindrome");
}

260
 / /Java method to return the reverse of a number
public static int Find_Reverse (int number)
{
int reverse = 0;
int palindrome = number;

while (palindrome != 0)
{
int remainder = palindrome % 10;
reverse = reverse * 10 + remainder;
palindrome = palindrome / 10;
}
System.out.println ( "The reserve of Number :" + number + "
entered, is " + reverse );
return reverse;
•
<
}

Programming Example 53: Use of methods

The following trivial algorithm developed in IB compatible pseudocode uses four methods.
The objective of the algorithm is to perform basic arithmetic calculations and outputs the
result. The user enters two numbers ( operands) and then selects the desired operation
( operator ) . The main part of the program utilizes four different methods to perform the
equivalent operations. Each method accepts the two numbers, performs the equivalent
operation and returns the result to the main part . All methods could be reused in many
problems that require basic arithmetic calculations

output "Enter first number"

input NUMA
output "Enter second number"
input NUMB
output "Enter operation symbol"
input OPERATION
if OPERATION == "+" then
output ADD(NUMA, NUMB)
end if
if OPERATION == "-" then
output SUBTRACT(NUMA, NUMB)
end if
if OPERATION == "* " then
output MULTIPLY(NUMA , NUMB)
end if
if OPERATION == "/" then
output DIVIDE (NUMA, NUMB)
end if

method ADD(A,B)
return A+B
end method
method SUBTRACT(A,B)
return A-B
end method

261
 method MULTIPLY(A, B)
return A*B
end method

method DIVIDE(A, B)
return A/ B
end method

Programming Example 54: Use of collections (fire stations 1)

Two parallel arrays named FIRE_STATIONS and PERSONNEL hold the names of the fire
stations in a city and the number of their personnel. The arrays are as shown:

Array: FIRE STATIONS Array: PERSONNEL

Alpha 12
Beta 13
Theta 23
Center 44
Railway 23
Harbor 11
Suburbs 43

Each week one fire station is on night duty. A collection named FIRE _ DUTY retrieves the
names from the array FIRE _ STATIONS and uses an automatic procedure to keep track of the
fire station on night duty. The mayor of the city activates this automatic procedure every
Monday morning by writing "true" in an input device located in his /her office. The
procedure iterates through the collection FIRE _ DUTY and changes the name of the fire
station on night duty. When the procedure reaches the end of the collection, it returns to
the first fire station and the procedure starts from the beginning. This process is repeated
for one year ( 52 weeks ) . The Mayor has also asked for an alarm message when the selected
on duty station is understaffed which means that it has the minimum personnel if compared
to all stations. He has also asked for an emergency procedure that will stop the entire
process immediately by writing "false" in the input device.

FIRE_STATIONS = ["ALPHA", "BETA", "THETA ", "CENTER ", "RAILWAY",

" HARBOR", "SUBURB"]
PERSONNEL [2 , 13, 23, 44, 23, 11, 43]
FIRE DUTY = new Collection ()
STATION_ON_DUTY = U I I
M = 0
MIN = PERSONNEL[0]
Il II
UNDERSTAFFED
INPUT DEVICE Il II

FIRE_DUTY.resetNext()
loop I from 0 to 6
FIREJDUTY.addltem(FIREJ3TATIONS[I])
end loop

loop M from 0 to 6
if MIN > = PERSONNEL[M] then

262

I
 MIN = PERSONNEL[M]
UNDERSTAFFED = FIRE_ STATIONS[ M]
end if
end loop

1 = 0
loop while I <= 52
input INPUTJDEVICE
if INPUTJDEVICE == "true" then
if FIRE_DUTY.hasNext() then
STATIONJDNJDUTY = FIREJDUTY.getNext()
if STATIONJDNJDUTY = UNDERSTAFFED then
output "This station is understaffed"
end if
output STATIONJDNJDUTY
else
FIREJDUTY.resetNext()
STATIONJDNJDUTY = FIREJDUTY.getNext()
if STATIONJDNJDUTY = UNDERSTAFFED then
output "This station is understaffed"
end if
output STATIONJDNJDUTY
end if
else if INPUTJDEVICE == "false" then
1=53
output "Emergency stop of procedure"
end if
I = 1+1
end loop

4.3. 13 Construct algorithms using pre -defined sub - programmes, one -dimensional
arrays and /or collections
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to :

Present synonyms of the term sub- program used in programming

Develop various algorithms that include pre- defined sub- programmes, one-
dimensional arrays and/ or collections, explain their use and justify their purpose.

Different computer programming languages use the terms procedure, sub- procedures,
function, routine, method, subroutines, modules etc. to refer to subprograms. A sub -
program is a unit that contains a sequence of computer instructions that perform a specific
and predefined task. This unit can then be used in various computer programs wherever
that specific and predefined task should be implemented. Subprograms may be defined
within programs, or separately in libraries that can be used by multiple programs. In C++
programming language, for example, a procedure performs a task whereas a function
produces information and returns a value. It is important to mention that in most cases a
function returns a value and a procedure just executes commands. Java uses methods to
represent subprograms. A Java method may return a value and the main program may pass
one or more variables to a method. A parameter is the name of the information that is used
in a method, function or procedure while an argument is the value that is passed into a
method, function or procedure. Usually, a module refers to a small section of a program that

263
is customized to perform a particular task. Modules can be customised by a programmer to
do a particular task.

Programming Example 55: Pre-defined sub-programs, one-dimensional arrays and

collections (fire stations 2)

The mayor of the previous example asked for an extra functionality. He believes that a fire
station should have at least 25 firefighters. The program should calculate the fire stations
that have less than 25 firefighters and displays a message. This message should include the
number of personnel that the particular station lacks.

//A method named calculate is used for this additional

//functionality .
FIRE_STATIONS ["ALPHA", "BETA" , "THETA" , "CENTER" , "RAILWAY",
’’HARBOR", " SUBURB"]
PERSONNEL [ 12 , 13, 23, 44, 23, 11, 43]
FIRE DUTY = new Collection ()
STATION_ON__DUTY = ii H
M = 0
MIN = PERSONNEL[0]
UNDERSTAFFED = H H
INPUT _DEVICE = H H
INFO = new Array ()

calculate () //call method calculate

FIRE_DUTY.resetNext()
loop I from 0 to 6
FIRE _DUTY.addItem (FIRE_STATIONS [ I])
end loop

loop M from 0 to 6
if MIN >= PERSONNEL[M] then
MIN = PERSONNEL[M]
UNDERSTAFFED = FIRE_STATIONS[M]
end if
end loop

1 = 0
loop while I <= 52 //weeks of a year
input INPUTJDEVICE
if INPUTJDEVICE == " true" then
if FIRE_DUTY.hasNext() then
STATION_ON__DUTY = FIRE_DUTY.getNext()
if STATION ON DUTY = UNDERSTAFFED then
output "This station has to few personnel!!!"
end if
output STATION_ON_ DUTY
else
FIRE_DUTY.resetNext()
STATION__ON_DUTY = FIRE_DUTY. getNext()
if STATION_ ON__DUTY = UNDERSTAFFED then
output "This station has to few personnel ! !!"
end if
output STATION_ _ON _DUTY
end if
else if INPUT_DEVICE == " false" then
1=53

264
 output "Emergency stop of procedure"
end if
I = 1+1
end loop

; method calculate()
loop M from 0 to 6
if PERSONNEL[M]<25 then
INFO[M] = 25-PERSONNEL[M]
else
INFO[M] = 0
end if
if INFO[M]>0 then
output " "
output FIRE_STATIONS[M], 11 lacks", INFO[M], "firefighters"
end if
end loop
end method

Programming Example 56: Pre-defined sub-programs, one-dimensional arrays and

collections (players ranking)

The following algorithm uses three parallel arrays to store players' names, ages and
rankings. The algorithm adds the names of players that are over or equal to 15 and at the
same time belong to category rank A to a collection named "PASS" . If a player is less than 15
and at the same time belongs to category rank C then he / she is added to a collection named
"FAIL". All other players are not classified and the judgment upon them is pending. The
algorithm also outputs the total number of players added to collection PASS. Three methods
are used: the first and the second take as a parameter the name of the player, and the third
returns the number of items stored in the collection PASS.

NAMES [ "AL", "BETY", "THALIA", "CERNER", "RAY", "HARI" , "SOFI"]

AGES [18 , 13, 18, 15, 16, 18 , 11]
CATEGORY= ["A" , "B", "C", "C", "B" , "A", "C"]
PASS = new Collection ()
FAIL = new Collection ()
X = 0

loop M from 0 to 6
if (AGES[M] >= 15 AND CATEGORY[M] = "A") then
CALC1(NAMES[M])
else if (AGES[M] < 15 AND CATEGORY [M] = "C" ) then
CALC2(NAMES[M])
else
output "Decision for", NAMES[M], "pending"
end if
end loop
output CALC3() , "persons pass this stage "

method CALC1(a )
PASS.addltem(a)
output "Person ",a, "added to collection PASS"
end method

method CALC2(b)
FAIL.addltem(b)
output "Person ",b, "added to collection FAIL"

265
 end method

I method CALC3()
PASS.resetNext()
loop while PASS. hasNext()
PASS.getNext()
X=X+1
end loop
Î return X
end method

Output

Person AL added to collection PASS

Decision for BETY pending
Decision for THALIA pending
Decision for CERNER pending
Decision for RAY pending
Person HARI added to collection PASS
Person SOFI added to collection FAIL
2 persons pass this stage

Programming Example 57: Body Mass Index algorithm and Java program explained

The following algorithm is used to calculate the Body Mass Index , which is an indicator of
/ [ height ( m ) ] . It is very
2
body fatness . The formula used for adults is Formula: weight ( kg)
difficult to use the same formula for kids and teenagers so the program uses a different
approach for them. The main program uses two sub-programs ( modules). The algorithm ( not
IB pseudocode) used is the following:

Module main( )
Declare Integer A
Display "Enter your age"
Input A
If A > 18 Then
Call OVER!8()
Else
Call CHILD ()
End If
End Module

Module CHILD()
Display "It is difficult to compute BMI for kids and teens"
Declare Boolean Diet

Display "Do you have a healthy diet (TRUE or FALSE)?"

Input Diet
If Diet == true Then
Display "Continue... congratulations!!!!"

About BMI for Adults. ( 2015, April 17) . Retrieved May 30, 2015, from
http :// www.cdc.gov/ healthyweight/assessing/ bmi/ adult _ bmi / index.html

266
 Else
Display "Eat more vegetables!!!"
End If
End Module

Module 0VER18()
Declare Integer mass
Declare Integer height
Declare Real BMI

Display "Enter your weight in kg"

Input mass
Display "Enter your height in cm"
Input height
Set BMI = height / (mass / 100 * (mass / 100))
If BMI > 25 Then
Display "Change your diet!!"
Else
Display "Very good !!"
End If
End Module

If the program is written in Java, the Main method will call two methods to achieve the
desired result. The algorithm expressed in the Java language is the following. The two
methods are of type void meaning that they do not return any result ( value) to the main
program. Both methods have no parameters in the method signature, which means no
values are passed to these methods.

import java.util .Scanner;

import java.util.*;
import java.lang .Math ;

public class BMI {

public static Scanner input = new Scanner (System. in);

public static void main (String[] args) { //MAIN METHOD

int A;
System.out. println ("Enter your age");
A = input.nextlnt( );
if ( A > 18) {
OVER18(); //Call of method OVER18
} else {
CHILD(); //Call of method CHILD
>
}

public static void CHILD () { //Method CHILD

System.out .println("It is difficult to compute BMI for kids
and teens");
boolean Diet;

System.out.println("Do you have a healthy diet (TRUE or

FALSE)?");
Diet = input.nextBoolean();
if (Diet == true) {
System.out.println("Continue...congratulations!!!!");
} else {

267
 System.out.println ("Eat more vegetables!!!");
}
}

public static void 0VER18() { / / Method 0VER18

int mass;
int height;
double BMI;

System. out.println("Enter your weight in kg");

mass = input.nextlnt() ;
System.out.println("Enter your height in cm");
height = input.nextlnt();
BMI = (double) height / ((mass/100)*(mass/100));
if (BMI > 25) {
System.out.println("Change your diet!!");
} else {
System.out.println("Very good!! ") ;
}
>
}

The same algorithm expressed as three flowcharts is illustrated in Figures 4.21, 4.22 and
4.23.

c Main

I
)
A is a global value that exists in
Declare Integer A all parts of the program.

I
J Display T- nter your age "
J
I
/ input A

Call CHILD Call OVER 18

Figure 4.21: Flowchat for the programming example

268
 ( CHILD )
i
Display It is difficult to compute BMI for kids
and teens '

I
Declare Boolean Diet

I 7 Diet is a local value that exists

—
..

Display Do you have a healthy diet (TRUE or

FALSE)?" only in this part of the program.

i
z Input Diet
7
False True
Diet =TRUE

* 1

7 Display Eat more vegetables!» '

7 7 Display "Continue . congelations»11

7
(
T End )
Figure 4.22: Flowchat for the programming example

269
 OVER 18

I
Dedare Integer mass

Ï "Mass", "height" and "BMI" are

local values that exist only in this
Declare Integer height
part of the program.
I
Dedare Real BMI

l
Display "Enter your weight in kg"

I
Input mass

I
Display “Enter your height in cm"

I
Input height

I
Set BMI = heighV((mass/1G0)*(mass/lQ 0))

False True
BMI>25
i
Display 'Very good!! '
1
Display “Change your diet!!"

Figure 4.23: Flowchat for the programming example

The following algorithm ( not IB pseudocode ) is another version that produces the same
result as the previous algorithm . The main program ( Module main ) uses two sub-programs.
The Function Boolean CHILD() returns a Boolean value while the Module OVER 18 ( Real BMI)
accepts a parameter ( BMI) . The algorithm used is the following:

Module main()
Declare Integer Age

Display "Enter your age"

270
 Input Age
Declare Integer mass
Declare Integer height
Declare Real BMI

Display "Enter your weight in kg"

Input mass
Display "Enter your height in cm"
Input height
Set BMI = height / (mass / 100 * (mass / 100))
If Age > 18 Then
Call OVER18(BMI)
Else
If CHILD() true Then
Display "Continue...congratulations!!! ! "
Else
Display "Eat more vegetables!!!"
End If
End If
End Module

Function Boolean CHILD()

Display "It is difficult to compute BMI for kids and teens"
Declare Boolean Diet

Display "Do you have a healthy diet (TRUE or FALSE )? "

Input Diet

Return Diet
End Function

Module OVER18(Real BMI)

If BMI > 25 Then
Display "Change your diet !!"
Else
Display "Very good !!"
End If
End Module

If the program is written in Java, the Main method will be used to call two methods so as to
achieve the desired result. The first method will return a Boolean value ( Diet ). This method
does not receive any parameter from the main method. The second method is of type void
meaning that it does not return any result ( value ) to the main method. This method receives
a parameter ( double BMI) from the main method. The algorithm, expressed in the Java
language, is the following.

import java .util.Scanner;

import java.util.*;
import java .lang.Math ;

class BMI_2 {
private static Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in) ;

public static void main(String [ ] args ) {

int Age;

System.out.println ("Enter your age");

271
 Age = input.nextlnt();
int mass;
int height;
double BMI;

System.out . println("Enter your weight in kg");

mass = input .nextlnt();
System. out .println("Enter your height in cm");
height = input.nextlnt();
BMI = height / ((double) mass / 100 * ((double ) mass /
100));
if ( Age > 1 8 ) {
OVER18(BMI);
} else {
if (CHILD() == true) {

System.out.println("Continue...congratulations!!!!");
} else {
System. out.println("Eat more vegetables!!!");
}
}
}

public static boolean CHILD() {

System.out. println ("It is difficult to compute BMI for kids
and teens");
boolean Diet;
»

System.out.println ("Do you have a healthy diet (TRUE or

FALSE)?");
Diet = input.nextBoolean() ;

return Diet;
î.
}

public static void OVER18(double BMI) {

if (BMI > 25) {
System.out.println ("Change your diet!!");
} else {
System.out.println("Very good!!") ;
}
}
}

The same algorithm expressed as three flowcharts is illustrated in Figure 4.24.

272
 c Main

I
:
CHILD Declare integer Age

I i
Display "Enter your age
Display it is difficult to compute BMi for kids
and teens” I
input Age

i i
Declare Boolean Diet Declare integer mass

i i
Declare integer height
Display "Do you have a healthy diet (TRUE or
FALSE)?" I
Declare Real BMi

l i
Input Diet
/ Display "Enter your weight in Kg

l 1
input mass
Return Boolean Diet
1
Display "Enter your height in cm

I
input height

I
Set BMI * height/((mass/100)*(mass /100 »

False True Call OVER 18(BM!)

CH!LDO= TRUE

Display Eat more vegetaOles »» Display "Continue congratulations»» '

2
OVER 18
(Real BMI)
: Ena

False True
SMI> 25

/ Display Very good»» *

7 f Display "Change your diet»'
1

c
T End )
Figure 4.24: Flowchart for the programming example

273
Programming Example 58: Use of collections and 2D array ( weight of children)

The weight (in Kilos ) of five children was recorded every year, for 5 years. The following
table depicts a two-dimensional array that is used to store the values.

WEIGHTS Boy 1 Girl 2 Boy 3 Girl 4 Girl 5

[0] ( 1] [2] [3] [ 4]
Year 2010 [ 0] 9 8 10 9 8
Year 2011 [ 1] 13 2 12 13 2
Year 2012 [ 2] 16 14 14 15 14
Year 2013 [3] 18 16 16 17 16
Year 2014 [ 4] 19 17 17 18 17

A scientist wants to perform various statistical analyses, to which end, he /she

1. wants to store the information to a collection WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT sequentially

2. takes the items from the collection WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT and gets them to an one
dimensional array named FINAL
3. adds WEIGHTS elements to five one dimensional arrays ( column by column), one for
each child
4. outputs elements of GIRL2 array
5. constructs two different methods that will compare the weight of two children ( two
arrays comparison)

BOYl = new Array()

GIRL2 = new Array()
BOY 3 = new Array()
GIRL4 = new Array()
GIRL5 = new Array()
FINAL = new Array()
WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT = new Collection ()
WEIGHTS [[9, 8, 10, 9, 8] ,
[13, 2, 12, 13, 2] ,
[16, 14, 14, 15, 14],
[18, 16, 16, 17, 16],
[19, 17, 17, 18, 17]]

YEAR = 0
CHILD 0
//Adding WEIGHTS elements to collection WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT(line by
//line)
WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT.resetNext()
loop YEAR from 0 to 4
loop CHILD from 0 to 4
WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT.addltern(WEIGHTS[ YEAR][CHILD])
end loop
end loop

//Adding collection elements to array FINAL (line by line)

WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT.resetNext()
1 = 0
loop while WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT. hasNext()
FINAL[I ] = WEIGHTSEXPERIMENT.getNext()
I = 1+1
end loop

274
 //Adding WEIGHTS elements to 5 arrays (column by column)
loop YEAR from 0 to 4
B0Y1[YEAR] = WEIGHTS[YEAR][0]
GIRL2[YEAR] = WEIGHTS[YEAR][1]
BOY3[YEAR] = WEIGHTS[YEAR][2]
GIRL4[YEAR] = WEIGHTS[YEAR][3]
GIRL5[YEAR] = WEIGHTS[YEAR][4]
end loop

//Output array GIRL2 elements

output "ARRAY GIRL2 ELEMENTS"
loop YEAR from 0 to 4
output GIRL2[YEAR]
end loop

//Use of method 1
output "COMPARISON OF TWO ARRAYS FIRST METHOD"
_
loop YEAR from 0 to 4
COMPARE ARRAYS(GIRL2[YEAR],GIRL5[YEAR])
end loop

//Use of method 2
output "COMPARISON OF TWO ARRAYS SECOND METHOD"
Z = 0
loop YEAR from 0 to 4
_ __
Z = Z + COMPARE ARRAYS B(GIRL4[YEAR],GIRL5[YEAR])
end loop
if Z = 0 then
output "All elements are equal"
else
output "Arrays are not equal"
end if

//Method 1
_
method COMPARE ARRAYS(A,B)
if A = B then
output "Year " , YEAR, "elements are equal"
else
output "Year ", YEAR, "elements are not equal"
end if
end method

//Method 2
__ _
j method COMPARE ARRAYS B(A ,B)
|X = 0 !

if A = B then
X = 0
:i
i
! else
i X 1=
end if
j return X !
I end method J

Output:
ARRAY GIRL 2 ELEMENTS
8
2

275
14
16
17
COMPARISON OF TWO ARRAYS FIRST METHOD
Year 0 elements are equal
Year 1 elements are equal
Year 2 elements are equal
Year 3 elements are equal
Year 4 elements are equal
COMPARISON OF TWO ARRAYS SECOND METHOD
Arrays are not equal

Programming Example 59: Use of collections of objects

A smart weighing scale has four buttons and can store different weights for four different
users. These values are stored within a microprocessor as an array shown in the table below.

Weights
[ 0] [ 1] [2] [3 ]
87.5 62.3 77.2 43.6

A display in the smart scale displays the name and weight of the user when the appropriate
button is pressed. The name is manually entered once when the user is initially weighed.

1. Outline how a collection of objects could be used to store the name and weight data
in the scale
2. Construct a pseudocode algorithm to access and display the name and weight of a
user when a button is pressed

Answer:
1 . A new object named SELECTION is created, containing both name and weight. This
object is stored in a collection named COLLECTION .
2.

BUTTON = input("# button pressed " )

COLLECTION . resetNext()
loop while COLLECTION. hasNext()
SELECTION = COLLECTION . getNext()
if SELECTION . getWeight() = WEIGHTS [BUTTON] then
output (SELECTION.getName())
output(SELECTION .getWeight())
endif
endloop

Various one dimensional array operations ( no methods )

Programming Example 60: Java useful 1 D array operations

276
The following program demonstrates various useful array operations. This program in Java
does not use methods to accomplish its goals. Data are obtained by an array that contains
five elements.

import java. util.*;

public class Array_Operations
{
static Scanner console = new Scanner(System . in );
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int[] elements = new int[5]; //declare an array of five elements
int sum ;
System.out.println ("Enter five integers:");
sum = 0;
for (int counter = 0; counter < elements.length; counter++)
{
elements[counter] = console.nextlnt();

//used to calculate the sum of the array elements

sum = sum + elements[counter];
}
System. out. println("The sum of the numbers = " + sum);

// used to print the contents of the array in reverse order

System.out.print("The numbers in the reverse "+ "order are: ");
for (int counter = elements.length - 1; counter >= 0;
counter=counter -1)
System.out.print(elements[counter] + " ");
System.out.println();

//used to print the contents of the array

System.out.println ( " Contents of the array " );
for (int i = 0; i< elements.length; i=i+ l)
{
System.out.println( elements[i] + " " > ;
}
/ / used to find the largest element
int max = elements[0];
for (int i = 0; i< elements.length; i=i+l )
{
if (elements[i]>max) max = elements[i];
}
System.out.println("Max = " + max);

/ /used to find the minimum element

int min = elements[0];
for (int i = 0; i< elements.length; i=i + l)
{
if (elements[i]<min) min = elements [ i];
)
System. out.println ("Min = " + min);

//used to find the smallest index of the largest element

max = elements[0];
int index_of_ max = 0;
for (int i = 0; i< elements.length; i=i+l )
{
if (elements[i]> max)
{
max = elements[i] ;

277
 index of max = i;
}
}
System.out.println(" Max = " + max + " Smallest Index= " +
index of max );

//used to find the largest index of the largest element

max = elements[0];
index__of_jnax = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < elements. length; i=i+l )
{
if (elements[i]>=max)
{
max = elements[i];
index of max = i;
}
}
System.out.println ("Max = " + max + " Largest Index= " +
index of max);

//used to randomly shuffle the elements of the array

System.out.println("Randomly shuffled elements ");
for (int i = 0; i< elements.length; i=i+l )
{
int random = (int)( Math.random()^elements.length ) ;
int temp = elements[ i ];
elements[i]=elements[random];
elements[random]=temp;
}

//used to print the contents of the array

System.out.println ("Contents of the array " );
for (int i = 0; i < elements.length; i=i+l )
{
System.out.println(elements[i] + " ");
}

//used to shift the elements of the array one position left

//the last element will take the value of the first element
// the shuffled array is used
//the original array elements have permanently changed
System.out.println("Shifted elements left");
int temp=elements[0];
for (int i = 1; i< elements. length; i=i+l )
{
elements[i — 1]=elements[ i];
}
elements[elements.length-1]=temp;

//used to print the contents of the array

System.out.println("Contents of the array " );
for (int i = 0; i< elements.length; i=i+ l)
{
System.out. println (elements[i] + " ") ;
}
//used to shift the elements of the array one position right
//the first element will take the value of the last element
//the shifted array is used
//the previous array elements have permanently changed
System.out.println ("Shifted elements right ");
temp=elements[elements.length-1];

278
 for (int i = elements.length-1; i>0; i=i-l)
{
elements[i]=elements[i — 1 ];
}
elements[0] =temp;

//used to print the contents of the array

System.out.println("Contents of the array " ) ;
for (int i = 0; i< elements. length; i=i+ l )
{
System.out. println(elements[i] + " ");
}
}
}

Output:

Enter five integers:

23
45
111
1
345
The sum of the numbers = 525
The numbers in the reverse order are: 345 1111 45 23
Contents of the array
23
45
111
1
345
Max = 345
Min = 1
Max = 345 Smallest lndex= 4
Max = 345 Largest lndex= 4
Randomly shuffled elements
Contents of the array
45
23
345
111
1
Shifted elements left
Contents of the array
23
345
111
1
45
Shifted elements right
Contents of the array
45
23
345

279
Ill
1

Various two-dimensional array operations (use of methods )

Programming Example 61: Various matrix operations ( pseudocode )

//Declaration of a 2-D array

//Fill the array with zeros
A = [[0,0,0],
[0,0,0],
[0,0,0]]
/ /The size of columns and rows
SIZE 3
/ /loop to fill the array with the desired values
loop I from 0 to SIZE-1
loop J from 0 to SIZE-1
input A[I][J]
end loop
end loop
//loop to repeat the menu
//stops if 10 entered
SELECT 0
loop while SELECT != 10
output "Options"
output "Please select 0 to check if the matrix is a (0,1) matrix "
output "Please select 1 to check if the matrix is an Arrowhead
matrix"
output " Please select 2 to check if the matrix is a Binary
matrix"
output "Please select 3 to check if the matrix is a Boolean
matrix"
output "Please select 4 to check if the matrix is a Diagonal
matrix"
output "Please select 5 to check if the matrix is an Identity
matrix "
output "Please select 6 to check if the matrix is a Integer
matrix "
output "Please select 7 to check if the matrix is a Nonnegative
matrix"
output " Please select 8 to check if the matrix is a Permutation
matrix"
output "Please select 9 to check if the matrix is a Symmetric
matrix"
output "Press 10 to exit"
CHOICE = input("Please choose an operation")
//selection of desired operation
if CHOICE == 0 OR CHOICE 2 OR CHOICE 3 then
Binary()
else if CHOICE == 1 then
Arrowhead()
else if CHOICE 4 then
Diagonal()
else if CHOICE == 5 then
Identity()
else if CHOICE == 6 then
Integer ()
else if CHOICE == 7 then
Nonnegative()
else if CHOICE 8 then

280
 Permutation ()
else if CHOICE == 9 then
Symmetric()
else
SELECT = 10
end if
end loop

/ /the following part contains the various methods

/ /use of from to loop
method Binary()
output
output "Also called logical matrix, binary matrix , relation matrix,
Boolean matrix , or ( 0, 1) matrix."
output "This matrix contains only Boolean values (0,1)."
output "It can be used to symbolize a binary relation between a
pair of finite sets."
output
X = 0
loop I from 0 to SIZE-1
loop J from 0 to SIZE-1
if A[I] [J] == 1 OR A [I][J] 0 then
X = X+l
end if
end loop
end loop
if X == (SIZE*SIZE) then
output "It is such a matrix"
else
output " It is not such a matrix"
end if
end method

//use of from to loop

method Arrowhead()
output
output "An arrowhead matrix is a square matrix"
output "containing zeros in all entries except for the first row,
first column, and main diagonal ."
output "They are considered as an essential tool for the
computation of the eigenvalues."
output
X = 0
loop I from 0 to SIZE-1
loop J from 0 to SIZE-1
if (A[0][J] != 0) AND ( A[I][0] != 0) AND ( A[I][J ] != 0) then
X= X+ l
else
if (A[I][J] = 0) then
X= X+ l
end if
end if
end loop
end loop
if x == (SIZE * SIZE) then
output "It is an Arrowhead matrix"
else
output " It is not an Arrowhead matrix"
end if
end method

281
 //use of from to loop
method Diagonal()
output
output "In linear algebra, a diagonal matrix is a matrix "
output "in which the entries outside the main diagonal are all
zero."
output "Any square diagonal matrix is also a symmetric matrix."
output
X = 0
loop I from 0 to SIZE-1
loop J from 0 to SIZE-1
if (I ! = J) AND (A[I][J] == 0) then
X = X+ l
end if
if (I = J) then
X = X+ l
output "x", X
end if
end loop
end loop
if X = (SIZE*SIZE ) then
output "It is a Diagonal matrix "
else
output " It is not a Diagonal matrix"
end if
end method

//use of from to loop

method Identity()
output
output "It is a square matrix with"
output "ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere."
output
X = 0
loop I from 0 to SIZE-1
loop J from 0 to SIZE-1
if I==J then
if A[I][J] 1 then
X = X+ l
end if
else
if A[I][J] == 0 then
X = X+l
end if
end if
end loop
end loop
if X (SIZE*SIZE) then
output "It is an Identity matrix "
else
output "It is not an Identity matrix"
end if
end method

//use of from to loop

method Integer ()
output
output " An integer matrix is a matrix"
output " whose entries are all integers."
output
X = 0

282
loop I from 0 to SIZE-1
loop J from 0 to SIZE-1
if (div(A[I ] [J],1) == A[I ] [J]) then
X = X+ l
end if
end loop
end loop
if x == (SIZE*SIZE) then
output "It is an Integer matrix"
else
output " It is not an Integer matrix"
end if
end method

/ / use of while loop

method Nonnegative()
output
output " A nonnegative matrix is a matrix in which "
output "all the elements are equal to or greater than zero"
output
X = 1
1 = 0
loop while X = 1 AND I < SIZE
J = 0
loop while X = 1 AND J < SIZE
if A[I][J] < 0 then
X = 0
end if
J = J+ l
end loop
I = 14- 1
end loop
if X == 1 then
output "It is an Nonnegative matrix "
else
output "It is not an Nonnegative matrix"
end if
end method

/ / use of while loop

method Permutation ()
output
output " A permutation matrix is a square binary matrix that has"
output "exactly one entry 1 in each row and each column and Os
elsewhere. "
output
X = 1
1 = 0
loop while X = 1 AND I < SIZE
J = 0
SUMC = 0
SUMR = 0
loop while X = 1 AND J < SIZE
SUMR = SUMR + A [I][J]
SUMC = SUMC + A [J][I]
J = J+l
end loop
if (SUMR != 1) OR (SUMC != 1) then
X = 0
output " x", X
end if

283
 I = 1+1
end loop
if X == 1 then
output "It is a Permutation matrix"
else
output "It is not a Permutation matrix"
end if
end method

//use of from to loop

method Symmetric()
output
output "In linear algebra, a symmetric matrix is a "
output "square matrix that is equal to its transpose."
output
X = 0
loop I from 0 to SIZE-1
loop J from 0 to SIZE-1
if A[I][J] == A[J][I] then
X = X+ l
end if
end loop
end loop
if X==(SIZE*SIZE ) then
output "It is a Symmetric matrix"
else
output "It is not a Symmetric matrix"
end if
end method

Programming Example 62: Java useful 2D array operations

The following program in Java uses methods. It performs various calculations on a two
dimensional array. The 2 D array contains lake measurements.

//Solution to Lake Statistics Problem

//Use of a 2D array to store temperatures
//1 sample every 6 hours (00:00 , 6:00 , 12:00 , 18:00)
//4 samples per day
//A total of 28 samples

public class Lake_ problem

{

public static void main(String[] args)

{
int[][] LakeJTemp ={{23,22, 24 , 24},
{22 , 23, 25, 25},
{23, 22 , 24 , 23},
{20 , 23,25,25},
{ 23, 22, 24,24 },
{24 , 23, 25, 25 },
{19,21, 22, 22}};

printTwo_D_Array(Lake_ Temp) ;
System.out. println ( " "> ;
SumDate(Lake_Temp);
System. out .println(" " );
SumTime (Lake_Temp);

284
 System.out.println ("
MaxDate ( Lake_ Temp );
System.out.println("
MaxTime ( Lake Temp ) ;
System.out . println("
MinDate (Lake_ _Temp);
System.out . println("
MinTime(Lake_Temp );
System.out . println ( "
AvDate( Lake_Temp);
System.out.println("
AvTime ( Lake_Temp);
System. out.println ( "
AvAll( Lake Temp);
}

public static void printTwo_ _D_Array(int[][ ] TDarray)

{
int date, time;

for (date = 0; date < TDarray .length; date=date+ l )

{
for (time = 0; time < TDarray [date].length ;
time=time+l )
System.out. printf(" % 7dM , TDarray [date][time]);

System. out .println ();

}
}

public static void SumDate (int [ ] [] TDarray)

{
int date, time;
int sum ;

// sum of each individual date

for (date = 0; date < TDarray .length ; date =date+ l )
{
sum = 0;
for (time = 0; time < TDarray [date]. length; time=time+l )
sum = sum + TDarray[date][time];

System. out .println ("The sum of the temperatures of date

" + (date + 1) + " = " + sum);
}
}

public static void AvDate(int[][] TDarray)

{
int date, time;
int sum = 0;
int average = 0;

/ /sum of each individual date

for ( date = 0; date < TDarray.length; date=date+ l )
{
for (time = 0; time < TDarray [date].length; time= time+l )
sum = sum + TDarray [date][time];
average = sum/TDarray [time].length ;
sum = 0;

285
 System. out .println("The average temperature for date " +
(date + 1) + " = " + average ) ;
}

public static void SumTime(int[][] TDarray)

{
int date, time ;
int sum;

/ / sum of each individual time

for (time = 0; time < TDarray[0]. length; time=time+l)
{
sum = 0;
for (date = 0; date < TDarray.length; date=date+ l)
sum = sum + TDarray[date][time];
System.out.println("The sum of the temperatures of time
" + (time + 1) + " = " + sum);
}
}

public static void AvTime(int[][] TDarray)

{
int date, time;
int sum = 0;
int average = 0;

//sum of each individual date

for (time = 0; time < TDarray [0].length; time=time+ l)
{
sum = 0;
for (date = 0 ; date < TDarray .length ; date=date + l )
sum = sum + TDarray[date][time];
average = sum/TDarray .length;
sum 0;
System.out. println ("The average temperature for time " +
(time + 1) + " = " + average ) ;
}
}

public static void MaxDate(int[][] TDarray)

{
int date, time;
int maximum;

//The maximum temperature for each date

for (date = 0; date < TDarray.length; date=date+ l)
{
maximum = TDarray [date][0];
for ( time = 1; time < TDarray[date]. length; time=time+l )
if (maximum < TDarray[date][time])
maximum = TDarray[date][time];

System.out.println ( "The maximum temperature of date " +

( date + 1) + " = " + maximum);
}
}

286
 public static void MaxTime(int[][] TDarray)
{
int date, time;
int maximum;

//The maximum temperature for each time

for (time = 0; time < TDarray [0] . length; time=time+ l )
{
maximum = TDarray[0 ] [ time];
for ( date = 1; date < TDarray.length; date=date+ l)
if (maximum < TDarray [date][time])
maximum = TDarray [date][time];
System . out .println("The maximum temperature of time " +
(time + 1 ) + " = " + maximum );
}
}

public static void MinDate (int[ ] [ ] TDarray )

{
int date, time ;
int minimum;

/ /The minimum temperature for each date

for (date = 0; date < TDarray .length; date=date+ l )
{
minimum = TDarray [date][0] ;
for ( time = 1; time < TDarray[date]. length; time=time+l )
if (minimum > TDarray[date][time] )
minimum = TDarray [date][time];

System. out.println ( "The minimum temperature of date " +

(date + 1 ) + " = " + minimum );
}
}

public static void MinTime (int[] [ ] TDarray )

{
int date, time;
int minimum ;

/ /Minimum temperature for each time

for (time = 0; time < TDarray[0]. length; time= time + l )
{
minimum = TDarray [0][ time] ;
for (date = 1; date < TDarray .length; date=date + l )
if (minimum > TDarray[date][ time] )
minimum = TDarray[date][ time];
System . out. println ( "The minimum temperature of time " +
(time + 1) + " = " + minimum);
}
}

public static void AvAll(int[ ][] TDarray)

{
int date, time;
int sum = 0;
int average = 0;
int i = 0;

for (date = 0; date < TDarray .length ; date=date+l)

{

287
 for (time = 0; time < TDarray[ date].length; time=time+ l)
{
sum = sum + TDarray[date][time];
i = i + 1;
}
}
average = sum/i;
System. out.println("The overall average temperature is " +
= " + average);
}
}

Output:

The maximum temperature of date 2 - 2 5

The maximum temperature of date 3 = 24
The maximum temperature of date 4 = 25
The maximum temperature of date 5 = 24
The maximum temperature of date 6 = 25
The maximum temperature of date 1 - 2 2

The maximum temperature of time 1= 24

The maximum temperature of time 2 = 23
The maximum temperature of time 3 = 25
The maximum temperature of time 4 = 25

The minimum temperature of date 1= 22

The minimum temperature of date 2 = 22
The minimum temperature of date 3 = 22
The minimum temperature of date 4 = 20
The minimum temperature of date 5 = 22
The minimum temperature of date 6 = 23
The minimum temperature of date 7 = 19

The minimum temperature of time 1= 19

The minimum temperature of time 2 = 21
The minimum temperature of time 3 = 22
The minimum temperature of time 4 = 22

The average temperature for date 1 = 23

The average temperature for date 2 = 23
The average temperature for date 3 = 23
The average temperature for date 4 = 23
The average temperature for date 5 = 23
The average temperature for date 6 = 24
The average temperature for date 7 = 21

The average temperature for time 1 = 22

The average temperature for time 2 = 22
The average temperature for time 3 = 24
The average temperature for time 4 = 24

288
The overall average temperature is = 23

Programming Example 63: Java use of a method for another problem ( average )

Use of Avail method for another problem :

//Solution to Lake Statistics Problem

//Use of a 2D array to store temperatures

public class Lake_jproblem2

{

public static void main(String [] args )

{
int[][] Lake_Temp = {{11 , 12,14,14},
{12 ,13,15, 15},
{13,12,14,13}};

System.out .println(" ");

AvAll ( Lake_Temp);
}

public static void AvAll(int[][] TDarray)

{
int date, time;
int sum = 0;
int average = 0;
int i = 0;

for ( date = 0; date < TDarray.length; date=date+l )

{
for (time = 0; time < TDarray[date].length; time=time+ l)
{
sum = sum + TDarray [date][time] ;
i = i + 1;
}
}
average = sum/i;
System. out.println("The overall average temperature is " +
= " + average );
}
}

289
 Chapter References
1. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Computer Science Guide.
2. Problem definition, meaning - what is problem in the British English Dictionary & Thesaurus -
Cambridge Dictionaries Online, ( n.d.). Retrieved May 30, 2015, from
http://dictionary.cambridge. org/ dictionary /british/problem
3. Herbert A . Simon. ( 2015, June 9 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:07, June
19, 2015, from
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5. Simon, H. A . (1960 ). THE NEW SCIENCE OF MANAGEMENT DECISION. New York, NY: Harper
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6. Mintzberg, H., D . Raisinghani and A. Té or èt. (1976 ) . The structure of unstructured decision
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7. .
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666880519

9. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2004). IBDP Computer Science Guide.

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10. Knuth, Donald E. (1968 ) The Art of Computer Programming Second Edition, Volume 1,
Fundamental Algorithms ( First ed.) . Addison - Wesley Publishing Company.
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characterizations
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https: / / en.wikipedia.org / vj / index. php ?title=Programming _ language& oldid=666292926
13. ( n.d.). Retrieved May 30, 2015, from
https://cs.brown.edu /courses/ cs015 / labs/ Lab6Pseudocode.pdf
14. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ) . IBDP Approved notations for developing
pseudocode.
15. Online Etymology Dictionary. ( n. d. ) . Retrieved May 30, 2015, from
http :// www.etymonline,com / index.php ?term=program
16. Concurrency Problems. (n. d. ). Retrieved May 30, 2015, from
https://technet.microsoft.com / en -us / library/aa 213029 ( v=sql.80 ) . aspx
17. Cormen, Thomas H.; Leiserson, Charles E., Rivest, Ronald L. (1990 ). Introduction to
Algorithms (1st ed.). MIT Press and McGraw - Hill. ISBN 0- 262 - 03141- 8.
18. Binary search algorithm. ( 2015, June 11) . In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved
06:33, July 1, 2015, from
https:// en.Wikipedia. org/ w/ index.php ?title= Binary _ search _ algorithm & oldid = 666547193
19. Bubble sort. ( 2015, June 15 ). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 17:26, June 19,
2015, from https:// en. wikipedia .Org/ w /index.php ?title=Bubble _ sort & oldid=667050446
20. Selection sort. ( 2015, June 11). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia . Retrieved 17:28, June 19,
2015, from https:// en.Wikipedia.org / w / index.php ?title=Selection_ sort& oldid=666542512
21. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ). IBDP Pseudocode in examinations.
22. Ambler, Scott (1 January 1998 ). " A Realistic Look at Object-Oriented Reuse ". Retrieved July 2,
2014, from www. drdobbs.com.
23. About BMI for Adults. ( 2015, April 17) . Retrieved May 30, 2015, from
http :// www.cdc.gov/ healthyweight / assessing/ bmi/ adult _ bmi / index.html

290
 Chapter 5

OPTION D - OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

r
k.
© IBO
2012 Topic 5 Object oriented programming 1

D. l Objects as a programming concept

The paradigm of object -oriented programming should be introduced through discussion and
examples.

D.1.1 The general nature of an object

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:
Define the terms: object, objects' data and objects' actions.
Describe the conceptual framework of objects in programming.
Explain the use of objects as an abstract entity.

We begin this chapter by having a short

Person
conceptual discussion of the idea on an
DATA
Name "object" before going into object -
Height oriented programming (OOP ). To
Weight
understand objects, we can bring an
Gender
Age example from real life to help us along:
Eye Colour people. Each person in the world might
Hair Colour
ACTIONS be different but they also have some
Sleep traits which define them as humans. For
Wake up example, a person looks a certain way;
Walk
he / she has a height, weight, gender, age,
Run
Climb stairs eye /hair colour, etc. All these are general
Figure D.l: Person's Object Data and Actions
properties ( data ) that a person has.
Furthermore, he/ she also has the ability to perform certain actions, mainly, do things. For
example, a person can sleep, wake up, walk, run, climb stairs, etc . Certainly, there might be
some actions that some people can do that others cannot, like playing the piano, but there
are some actions which common for all people. According to these data and actions, we
construct Figure D.lthat depicts these components clearly.

An object is thus an abstract entity that describes the data that this entity has ( a .k.a.
properties or attributes) and the actions that this entity can perform ( a .k. a. methods).

International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ). IBDP Computer Science Guide.

1

291
 N
\
/

Example D.l: What are the components ( data and actions) of an abstract Vehicle
object ?
Answer: Think about the abstract concept of a vehicle for a moment. This concept
should describe any type of vehicle that is available. An example of such a concept
could include the following components:

Vehicle
DATA
Number of wheels
Power source
Brand name
Model name
Model year
ACTIONS Hi
Go forward
Go backward
Stop moving
Turn
Sound horn
Change gear

\ /

Objects can correspond to real world entities ( e.g. a computer game can have one or more
Person objects as different characters of the game ), have helped in the evolution of good
design practices and are a core aspect of OOP.

D . l . 2 Distinguishing between object and instantiation

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:
Define the terms: class, template and instantiation.
Distinguish between an object and instantiation.
Discuss memory use and code definitions that relate to object and instantiation.

In the Vehicle example of the previous section, we presented an abstract Vehicle object
that described the data ( a.k.a. properties or attributes) that this entity has and the actions
that this entity can perform. All vehicles have, at the very least, the data and actions
presented in the abstract Vehicle object. However, all the vehicles created in the world are
not identical, since they can differ in any of their data or how they perform their actions. For
example, a small hybrid city car will have different data from a large truck, as shown in
Figure D.2. The actions that these two Vehicle objects can perform may appear the same to
the user ( ex. the driver presses down the accelerator pedal to go forward) but the
mechanics may be different. The large truck, with its eight wheels, will have a different
acceleration system from the city car. The inner workings of these systems are "hidden"

292
from the driver, which allows people to drive a vehicle easily even if they do not have any
knowledge of how engines work.

Vehicle City car Large truck

DATA DATA DATA
Number of wheels 4 8
Power source Petrol & Electric Diesel
Brand name X A
Model name Y B
Model year 2010 2008
ACTIONS ACTIONS ACTIONS
Go forward Go forward Go forward
Go backward Go backward Go backward
Stop moving Stop moving Stop moving
Turn Turn Turn
Sound horn Sound horn Sound horn
Change gear Change gear Change gear

Figure D.2: Two different Vehicle objects

An abstract Vehicle entity can be considered as a general blueprint. It cannot be driven, as

it physically does not exist, but it can be used as a guide to build any type of specific vehicle,
such as a city car or a large truck, which can be driven, as they will be physical entities.

In OOP an abstract entity, such as the abstract Vehicle entity, is called a doss . Just as we
cannot drive a general blueprint, we cannot "drive" a class. As someone has to build a
specific vehicle entity from the blueprints in order to be driven, in OOP one has to build a
specific object of a class before the object can be used. As such, classes are abstract object
entities. Figure D.3 presents the Vehicle class and two specific objects, City Car and
Large Truck, which have been created using the class. Specific objects are known as
"instantiations" of classes. As such, the
City Car and the Large Truck
Vehicle class (or objects are instantiations of the
abstract object ) Vehicle class.

A class houses data ( a.k.a . properties

or attributes) as well as actions ( a.k.a.
methods ) .
City car object Large truck object
When a driver drives a specific
instantiation of a Vehicle blueprint
Figure D.3: Two instantiations of the Vehicle class ( ex. a City Car) he/she "sends"
messages to the car to perform some
actions ( ex. pressing the acceleration pedal "sends" the message to go faster ). Likewise, in
OOP messages are sent to an object in order to perform actions, which are also known as
calling methods.

Every specific object cannot only perform actions but also has some specific data ( a.k.a.
properties or attributes). These data are associated with a specific car and the car maintains
its attributes. For example, a car has a petrol indicator and as such can calculate the amount
of petrol that it has inside its petrol tank, but it cannot calculate the amount of petrol in

293
other cars. Similarly, every specific object ( such as the city car ) has data that are specific to
the object and accompany it throughout the execution of a program.

Up to now, we have used the vehicle analogy to introduce classes ( abstract object entities ),
objects, data and actions. Furthermore, we have shown how multiple objects can be
instantiated from a single class ( both the City Car and Large Truck were instantiated
from the Vehicle class). We now look at the issue of memory use for these elements.
Classes, from which specific objects can be instantiated, do not occupy any memory in a
program. They are similar to blueprints, which do not occupy any space. When the object in
the blueprint gets built however, it occupies space. Similarly, even though classes do not
occupy memory space in a program, a specific object that is instantiated from the class ( ex.
the City Car that is instantiated from the Vehicle class ) occupies enough memory to
accommodate the object' s data and actions. As such, classes ( abstract object entities) do not
occupy any space in memory, whereas specific instantiated objects occupy the necessary
memory to store their data and actions.

D.1.3 & D.1.4 UML diagrams

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:
Define UML diagrams.
Use UML diagrams to facilitate object design.
Construct and interpret UML diagrams.

2
The unified modeling language (UML ) provides a way to visualize the design of any software
system and has evolved into the standard for modeling object - oriented programs. UML
defines a number of different types of diagrams, but only the class diagram is within the
scope of this book. UML diagrams should not be confused with flow charts presented in
section 4.2. UML activity diagrams can be considered as a modern extension of flow charts
and as such, UML can be thought of as a superset of flowcharts.

UML class diagrams

The goal of the UML class diagram is to depict the classes within an object-oriented
program, as well as their collaborations. As we presented in the previews sections, a class
has data ( a .k . a. properties or attributes) and actions ( a.k.a. methods). The UML class
diagram illustrates classes as three tier compartments, rectangles divided into three
compartments, as shown in Figure D.4.

Class name
Data
Actions
Figure D.4: UML description class template

2
Unified Modeling Language ( UML ® ) Resource Page. Retrieved January 30, 2015, from http://
http://www.uml.org

294
 Vehicle The top compartment signifies the name of the class. The
int: wheels
middle compartment contains a list of all the data that an
Engine: powerSource
String: brand object of this class will hold. The last compartment contains a
String: model list of all the actions that an object of this class will be able to
int: year
perform.
goForward(int d)
goBackward(int d)
boolean: Figure D.5 depicts a UML description of the Vehicle class
stopMoving() presented in the previous sections. The Vehicle class has
turn(int r)
data and actions associated with it. Its data are presented in
boolean:
soundHorn() the dataType:dataName form, where dataName is the
changeGear(int g) name of the data that belong to the class, and dataType is
Figure D.5: Vehicle class
the type of the dataName variable. This may be a primitive or
non-primitive data type. The data associated with the Vehicle class are described below:

int: wheels. The number of wheels a Vehicle object will have. Typical values of
this variable could be 2, 3, 4, etc.
Engine: powerSource. The type of power source ( engine) a Vehicle object will
use. Typical values of this variable could be Gas Engine, Electric Engine, etc.
String: brand. The type of brand a Vehicle object will be. Typical values of this
variable could be "Ford", "Ferrari","BMW", etc.
String: model. The type of model a Vehicle object will be. Typical values of this
variable could be "Fiesta", "Spider", "316i", etc.
int: year. The year of make of the Vehicle represented as an integer. Typical
values of this variable could be 2010, 1983, etc.

Apart from the data, the Vehicle class also has actions. These actions are presented in the
returnType: actionName(inputType) form. inputType is the type of data that is
required by the specific action, whereas returnType is the type of data that is returned by
the specific action after it has completed its execution. If the returnType is missing that
depicts an action that does not return any data ( a.k.a. it returns void). The actions
associated with the Vehicle class are described below:
• goForward(int d). The action that when called will move the Vehicle a number
of meters equal to the inputted integer number d. An example of this action being
called could be goForward ( 50 ) , signifying that the Vehicle class will move 50
meters forward.
• goBackward(int d). This action is similar to the goForward(int) action, but
will move the Vehicle class backward instead of forward.
• boolean: stopMoving ( ) . The action that when called will stop the Vehicle
from moving. This action has a boolean return type that will return a true or
false value depending on whether the Vehicle class performed the action
stopMoving ( ) appropriately and stopped or something went wrong respectively.

295
 • turn ( int r ). The action that when called will turn the Vehicle a number of
degrees equal to the inputted integer number r. An example of this action being
called could be turn (90), signifying that the Vehicle class will turn 90 degrees.
• boolean: soundHorn ( ). The action that when called will sound the horn of the
Vehicle. This action has a boolean return type that will return a true or false
value depending on whether the Vehicle class performed the action
soundHorn ( ) appropriately or something went wrong respectively.
• changeGear (int g ). The action that when called will change the gear of the
Vehicle to the inputted integer number g. An example of this action being called
could be changeGear(3), signifying that the Vehicle class will be on gear 3.

UML class diagrams depict classes but also display how those classes collaborate. Classes
within an object - oriented program are connected in various ways with each other and UML
class diagrams represent those connections. They describe the static structure of the
system. Figure D.6 presents a UML diagram that includes the Vehicle class described
previously, as well as its connection to the Engine class.

uses an
Vehicle 1 1 Engine
int : wheels String: type
Engine: powerSource int: power
String: brand boolean:
String: model start ()
int: year boolean: stop()
goForward(int d )
goBackward (int d)
boolean:
stopMoving ()
turn(int r)
boolean:
soundHorn()
Gas Engine Electric
changeGear ( int g)
Engine

Figure D.6: UML class diagram

The UML class diagram can be read as follows: There exists a Vehicle class that uses an
Engine class. The Engine class can be one of two types, either a Gas Engine or an
Electric Engine. Both the Gas and the Electric Engines are like the Engine class
( signified by the hollow arrows ) and so we say that the Gas and Electric Engines have
an is a or is like relationship with the Engine class. Since both the Gas and the Electric
Engines have an is o relationship with the Engine class, they also share data and actions
with the Engine class. We say that the Gas and the Electric Engine classes inherit the
data and actions from the Engine class. As such, by inheritance, Gas and Electric
Engines have type and power as data, as well as start ( ) and stop ( ) actions as actions.
These data and actions do not appear in the Gas or Electric Engine class diagram

296
because they are inherited from the Engine class diagram. Any data or actions appearing in
the Gas or Electric class diagram would be specific to that class .

role A
Class A Class B
multiplicity A multiplicity B

role B
Figure D.7: Generic UML class diagram

Classes, as shown in Figure D.6, may be associated with, or related to, other classes. A
Vehicle class uses one engine. In the same manner, an Engine class is part of only one
Vehicle. A line connecting the two classes presents this association . Since UML class
diagrams can become quite complex, as programs increase in size and incorporate more
classes, information can be attached to these associations so as to make things easier. This
information is displayed in a generic UML class diagram in Figure D.7 .
Each association has two roles and each role has a direction. In Figure D.6, the Vehicle
class has an association with the Engine class and the role has a label of has a meaning, in
that the Vehicle class has an Engine class associated with it. On the other hand, there is
no role label signifying the relationship of the Engine class to the Vehicle class. Thus, a
role does not have to be explicitly named. It is given a name only if that makes things
clearer. In this example, one could have added an is part 0/ explicit role from the Engine
class to the Vehicle class, signifying that the Engine class is part of the Vehicle class.

Associations between classes also have multiplicities, as shown in Figure D .7. These are
placed at each end of an association line and indicate the number of objects of one class
linked to one object of the other class. In our example in Figure D.6, one Vehicle class uses
only one Engine class associated with it. Similarly, one Engine class has only one Vehicle
class associated with it, since an engine can only be part of one vehicle at a time. Another
example is displayed in Figure D.8. Here, an association between a Company class and a
Person class is displayed. From the multiplicities we understand that a Company may have
1 or more Person classes but a Person may only have one Company. Note that the
example is simple enough that no role labels are needed.

Company Person
1 ^ • • *

Figure D. 8: UML class diagram

In Figure D.9 the most commonly used multiplicities are shown. Note that these are not the
only multiplicities that can be used. Single numbers ( ex. 11 to denote players in a soccer
team) or ranges of any kind ( ex. 7..9) can be used.

297
 Classes may have similarities. In Figure D.6 there are
Common Multiplicities two Engine classes, the Gas Engine and the
Electric Engine class. These classes have similar
1 Exactly one
data and actions. In an object -oriented program it
0..1 Zero or one would be confusing and difficult to maintain
repeated code in various classes and as such, writing
Many
similar code for both the Gas Engine and the
0..* Zero or many Electric Engine class would resolve in unwanted
repetition. The mechanism that takes advantage of
1 * One or many
these similarities is known as inheritance ( a.k.a.
Figure D.9: Common Multiplicitiesgeneralization ). Inheritance can be thought of as an
is a or is like relationship. In UML class diagrams
inheritance is displayed with hollow arrows, as those that appear in Figure D.6, which
connect the Gas Engine and the Electric Engine class to the Engine class. Since both
the Gas Engine and the Electric Engine would have the same data (type and power),
as well as the same actions (start and stop), it makes sense to create a more general
class: the Engine class that would include these data and actions and from which the Gas
Engine and the Electric Engine class would inherit. The Engine class is written in
italics to denote that it is an abstract class. Objects cannot be instantiated from these
classes. There cannot exist a generic Engine, it has to either be a Gas or an Electric
Engine in our example.

UML class diagrams can also be created using just the name of the classes that participate in
the diagram. For example, the UML diagram depicted in Figure D.6 could also be presented
as shown in Figure D.10. UML class diagrams that are created in this manner focus on the
associations, roles, multiplicities and inheritances that take part between the classes and not
in the actual data or actions that each of these classes may contain.

uses an
1 1
Vehicle Engine

Electric
Gas Engine
Engine

Figure D.10: UML class diagram

298
 s
/ \

Example D.2: Describe the following UML class diagram paying attention to the
associations, roles, multiplicities and inheritance.

makes has an
1 1. .* 1 1. . * Order
Customer Order
Item
has an is part of

International National
Order Order

Answer: There are three classes in the UML class diagram, which can be read in one
of the two ways:

• There is a Customer that makes one or more Orders. Each Order has one
or more Order Items.
• There is an Order Item that is part of an Order. Each Order has one
Customer.

The Order class is an abstract class. An order is either an International or

National Order. Thus, International and National Order classes inherit
from the Order class.

Example D. 3: Construct a UML class diagram from the following scenario ( class
names begin with a capital letter ) : A Person has one or more home Addresses, as
well as zero or more Pets. A home Address has zero or more Person owners. A
Pet can only have at most one owner and can either be a Cat or a Dog.

Answer: The UML class diagram that derives from the above scenario is the
following:

has an
Pet
0. . * >0 . .1 Person
0 . .* 1.. *
Address

owns
A A
Cat Dog
/
\ /
s
N

299
D .1.5 Process of decomposition
Exit skills. Students should be able to: 1
Describe the decomposition process of an object to several related objects.
Explain how the decomposition process facilitates abstraction.
Use the objects' decomposition process in real life situations.
I
In the previous section a number of objects were described as well as their relationships. For
example, a hypothetical Vehicle class that uses an Engine class, which could be of two
different types, was described. In this section, the process of decomposing a problem into
several related objects is examined further using examples.

When presented with a problem, decomposing it into smaller pieces and understanding the
connections between those pieces is vital in its efficient solution. As discussed in the
previous sections, objects allow us to describe these smaller pieces, as well as their
connections, which we depict as UML diagrams. Decomposing a problem into several related
objects and then decomposing those objects again into even simpler related objects allows
for the reduction of the complexity of a problem and as such makes it easier to deal with.
This can be seen in Figure D.ll, where the Main Problem has been decomposed into four
objects and the first object has been decomposed into two more. This decomposition can

Main
Problem

Object 1 Object 3 Object 4

Object 1.1 Object 1.2

Figure D.ll: The decomposition of a problem into related objects

continue until the objects are stripped down to small- and- easy to understand pieces. When
Object 1.1 and 1.2 can be described efficiently, then Object 1 will be described efficiently.
When Objects 1 through 4 can be described efficiently, then the whole Main Problem will be
solved. Decomposition of a problem into smaller related objects makes the problem easier
to solve.

As an example, assume there was a need to create a list of all the companies of a region. To
solve this problem, a Company object would have to be created. For that, it would have to
be decomposed into several related objects. Figure D.12 presents this decomposition. A
Company object could be decomposed into several smaller objects that, all of them
together, describe the company. This, of course, is a simplified example, which nevertheless
presents the process of decomposing a problem into several related objects effectively.

300
 Company

1 1 1

1 • • •
Employer Employee
Budget
* • • •
« »
*
Figure D.12: The decomposition of a problem into related objects

The Company object depicted in Figure D.12 has one or more Employer objects as well as
one or more Employee objects connected to it. Both the Employer and Employee
objects inherit their data and actions from the Person object, since any Employer or
Employee in our example will be a person . Employers and Employees will most
probably have a number of data in addition to those inherited from the Person object,
such as job title or salary. The Company object also adheres to a Budget object that
describes the budget of the company. A real life Company object would probably have to
be decomposed into a large number of related objects in order to be described fully, but
even through this short example, the basic principle of thinking abstractly and selecting
objects that can be used to describe a larger object can be understood.

Another example that adequately describes the process of decomposition into several
related objects could be that of a traffic simulation model. Engineers use traffic simulation
models in order to understand how current or future road networks will work. Models such
as this become extremely complicated and are sometimes hard to describe. However, we
will look into a simplified traffic simulation model to understand how it could be
decomposed into several related objects. As shown in Figure D.13, three objects could
describe a simplified traffic simulation model: Vehicle, Traffic Light and Road. These
objects would have their own data and actions and they could in turn be decomposed into
other objects. For example, the Vehicle object could be decomposed into City Car and
Large Truck ( as well as other vehicle types ) and the Road could be decomposed into
Highway , City Road and Country Road ( as well as other road types ) . Understanding
and efficiently modeling these decomposed simpler objects would tackle the problem of
creating a traffic simulation model.

Traffic Simulation
Model
1
1. . 1 ..

Traffic
Vehicle Road
Light

Figure D.13 : The decomposition of a problem into related objects

301
 Example D.4: Describe how a Calendar object could be decomposed into several
related objects.

Answer: The decomposition of a Calendar object into several related objects is

presented below in a UML diagram. The Calendar object is decomposed into a
Year object, a Month object, a Day object and an Hour object.

Calendar

Year Month Day Hour

D.1.6 Relationships between objects

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the dependency ( "uses" ), aggregation ("has a" ) and inheritance ("is a " )
relationship between objects in a given situation.
Explain how the dependency ( "uses"), aggregation ( "has a" ) and inheritance ("is a" )
relationship facilitate abstraction.

In sections D.1.3 and D.1.4 the UML class diagram was described. It was used to depict how
various objects associated with each other, as well as how some classes could inherit data
and actions from other classes that were termed generalizations. For example, a Vehicle
class was presented to have used an Engine class. The Engine class was an abstract class
that could be instantiated as either a Gas or Electric Engine class. Thus, the Gas and
Electric Engine classes inherited their data and actions from the Engine class.

In this section, a closer look into the relationships between objects takes place. These
relationships are described as UML class diagram examples and are the following four:
association, dependency, aggregation and inheritance.

Association

The association relationship is the simplest relationship that can be present between two or
more objects and has been discussed in sections D.1.3 and D.1.4. It is represented with a
solid line as can be seen in Figure D.14. One or two role labels may be present to signify the
type of association that takes place between the two objects. In Figure D.14, the role label
employs signifies that a Company object employs one or more Person objects.

302
 employs
1 1. .* Person
Company

Figure D.14: Association relationship

Dependency - "uses" relationship

The dependency relationship signifies that one object is dependent on one or more objects
in order to function. In other words, the implementation of an object depends on one or
more other objects. This occurs when one class links to one or more other classes. The
dependency relationship is represented with a dashed arrow. The arrow leaves the object
that depends on the object that the arrow points to. An example of a dependency
relationship can be seen in the UML class diagram in Figure D.15 . This dependency can be
described as "a client uses a supplier" (i.e. a client is dependent on the supplier ). A
dependency is said to be a uses relationship. In this example, if the supplier changes or
seizes to exist and as a result is not able to supply what the client needs anymore, the client
will not be able to use those products. Thus, the client is dependent on the supplier .

uses a
1 1
Client > Supplier

Figure D.15: Dependency relationship

In sections D.1.3 and D.1.4 a uses relationship was introduced in the Vehicle UML class
diagram in Figure D.6. That relationship was depicted as a simple association between the
Vehicle and the Engine classes, but in fact is a dependency. Figure D.16 presents the
updated Vehicle UML class diagram that includes that dependency. The Vehicle class uses
an Engine class and as such is dependent on it . If the Engine class ceases to exist, the
Vehicle class will not be able to operate.
uses an
1 1
Vehicle > Engine

Electric
Gas Engine
Engine

Figure D.16: Updated UML class diagram

303
Aggregation - "has a" relationship

The aggregation relationship signifies that one object belongs to another object and none
other. That is, there exists a special kind of association between two objects, the parent and
the child object, and the child object cannot belong to another parent object . The lifecycles
of the parent and the child object are independent. An example of an aggregation
relationship can be seen in the UML class diagram in Figure D.17. This aggregation can be
described as "a department has a teacher" (i.e. a department has a teacher and the teacher
cannot be part of another department ) . An aggregation is said to be a has a relationship. In
this example, the department has a teacher ( i.e. the teacher is an employee of the
department ) . The teacher cannot be employed by anyone else, but if the department or the
teacher ceases to exist, the other side, the teacher or the department respectively, will not
cease to exist as well, since they have their own lifecycles. Their lifecycles do not depend on
each other. A hollow diamond followed by a line represents the aggregation relationship.

has a
1 *
Department Teacher

Figure D.17: Aggregation relationship

Inheritance - "is a" relationship

The inheritance relationship ( a.k.a. generalization ) signifies that one object ( a.k.a . child or
subclass ) is a specialized form of another object ( a.k.a. parent or superclass). An example of
an inheritance relationship, between a parent class and two child classes can be seen in the
UML class diagram in Figure D.18. This inheritance can be described as "a student is a person
and a professor is a person." A hollow triangle followed by a line represents the inheritance

Person

String: name
int : age
walk (int d )

Student Professor
int: overallGrade int: numberOfStudents

Figure D.18: Inheritance relationship

relationship. Both the Student and the Professor class inherit the data and actions of the '

Person class. From this, simplified version, of the Person class, both the student and the

304
professor inherit and can use the data string: name and int: age, as well as the action
walk(int d). Both the Student and the Professor class can have additional data and
actions associated with their classes that are not inherited from the Person class. For
example, the Student class also has an overall grade as data (int : overallGrade),
whereas the Professor class also has a number of students as data (int:
numberOfStudents).

In sections D .1.3 and D.1.4 two is a relationships were introduced in the Vehicle UML class
diagram in Figure D. 6. Those relationships were depicted between the Engine and the Gas
Engine class, as well as the Engine and the Electric Engine class. Figure D.19 presents
the Engine UML class diagram that included those relationships. Both the Gas and the
Electric Engine are subclasses, children of the superclass, parent, Engine.

Engine

Electric
Gas Engine
Engine

Figure D.19: Inheritance relationship

D. 1.7 Need to reduce dependencies between objects

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the negative effects that unnecessary dependencies between objects cause.
Discuss the increase of maintenance overheads because of increased dependencies

Dependencies between objects are what the name suggests: when one object uses another
object, the first object depends on the second, since it cannot function without it. Whenever
the first object needs to be used, the second object will be used as well. Dependencies are
directional, in that an object can depend on another object, but the second object does not
necessarily need to depend on the first object as well . For example, if object A depends on
object B, it does not necessarily mean that B also depends on A.

As most problems are complex, finding a solution using object-oriented programming

involves dealing with a number of interdependent objects. As such, dependencies always
appear in such programs. However, dependencies decrease the ability of code reuse, as well
as increase maintenance overheads. Code reuse means the use of existing code to build new
software. Chunks of code that are regularly used do not need to be rewritten again and
again in a project or other new projects. Code reuse takes place so that there is no need to
reinvent the wheel in every project. For example, a developer that has created a login
screen, with two text fields where the user enters his /her credentials ( username and

305
password ), will not have to redevelop another login screen from scratch if it appears
anywhere else in the same project or another project that needs similar functionality. Code
reuse allows the developer to use the same code again if the same functionality is needed.

The following example demonstrates how dependencies between objects in a problem

increase the complexity and maintenance overheads, as well as how the reduction of these
generate a clearer solution that can be more easily modified, reused and maintained. An
address book program is needed that will be able to handle the storage and display of a
number of contacts for a user. The program should be able to read a contact card ( a list of
elements that describe a contact, such as name, date of birth, telephone number and email)
from a file stored locally on a computer, a database or from a network connection. The
objects that would be responsible for the solution to this problem, as well as their
dependencies, are shown in Figure D. 20.

Address
Book

Local File Database Network

Reader Reader Reader

Figure D. 20: Dependencies between objects

The Address Book object would handle the displaying and storage of the data, as well as
the interaction with the user. However, in order to receive the data, the Address Book
object would have to read the data from a local file, a database or a network. The Address
Book object thus depends on all three objects (Local File Reader, Database Reader
and Network Reader) in order to function properly. If any of these three objects changes
how it interacts with other objects then the Address Book object will need to be updated
to account for those changes as well . That would mean extra maintenance work for the
developer that will need to make sure that the program works correctly when an update
takes place.

Address
Book

Input
Stream
Reader

Figure D.21: Dependencies between objects

306
On the other hand, if the developer could depend on a single object, as shown in Figure
D.21, which was responsible and flexible enough to incorporate all three objects ( Local
File Reader , Database Reader
and Network Raster ) then the Address Book
object would only depend on one other object (Input Stream Reader ) and that would
reduce the maintenance overheads for the developer. Incorporating similar objects, with
similar functionalities and coding, into a single object, so as to reduce duplication of code as
much as possible, creates easy -to-use, easy -to-maintain, and easy -to-update code.

D .1.8 Constructing related objects

Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Develop objects for a given scenario.

Develop various object definitions.
Explain the relationships of objects to each other and to any additional classes
defined by a given scenario.

This section is presented through an example. A large store that sells all kinds of different
vehicles needs to develop a computer program to keep track of all its vehicles. Since
different types of vehicles have common as well as unique characteristics, it was decided
that the computer program would classify the vehicles as a tree structure depicted in Figure
D. 22. A vehicle could be any one of three different types that share similar characteristics:
car, truck or motorcycle. That is, the VehicleType object inherits from the Vehicle class.
A separate object, Automobile , is used to represent each individual vehicle in the store.
The Automobile class is associated with the VehicleType object through a member
variable.

Vehicle

VehicleType VehicleType VehicleType

1 2 3

Automobile 1 Automobile 3 Automobile 5

Automobile 2 Automobile 4

Figure D. 22: Dependencies between objects

The example presented could be described in a unified modeling language ( UML) diagram as
depicted in Figure D.23. The VehicleType objects extend the Vehicle object and the

307
 Automobile objects are associated with a VehicleType through variable
a
(VehicleType: type). The data and actions provided for these objects in Figure D.23 are,
of course, simplified versions of real world examples and are used to describe the
relationships between the objects.

String: brand
String: model

goForward (int d )

VehicleTypel VehicleType 2 VehicleType 3

int: wheels int : wheels int: wheels

setTypeName( String s) setTypeName(String s) setTypeName(String s)

x
Automobile3
Automobile5
Automobilel VehicleType: type
VehicleType: type
VehicleType: type int : year
int: year
int: year
Automobile4

Automobile2 VehicleType: type

VehicleType: type int: year

int: year

Figure D. 23: UML diagram

' Example D.5: State the relationship between theVehicle and the VehicleType
\

.
objects Answer: The VehicleType object inherits from the Vehicle object. The
VehicleType extends Vehicle.

Question 5.6: State the relationship between the VehicleType and Automobile
objects. Answer: The Automobile object has a member variable that is a
VehicleType object.

308
D.1.9 Data types
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the need of integer, real, string and Boolean data types.
Explain how real world items are represented, store and manipulated by different
data types.

All computer programs store and manipulate data in one way or another. Data types allow
programs to classify these data into different types, which is crucial as to the meaning of the
data, as well as to how they can be stored and manipulated. This section describes some
common data types that are available in most programming languages .
The data types presented in this section are the following:

• integer numbers: represent a finite subset of the mathematical integers. They may
or may not include negative values. Depending on the hardware and programming
language used, every integer is represented by a specific number of bits. For
example, in the Java programming language, 32-bits are used to represent integer
numbers (int) and as such integer values can range from -2,147,483,648 to
2,147,483,647. For larger or smaller values than those provided by int, another
data type is used, named long, that can represent even wider values.
• real numbers: ( a.k.a. floating point numbers ) represent numbers that contain
fractional values. Computers actually represent approximations of real numbers
with a trade-off between range and precision. There are mainly two primitive data
types that can represent floating point numbers: float and double. The double
data type has more precision and can represent larger numbers than the float.
• booleans: represent only two possible values, true/false.
• strings: represent a series of characters and are mainly used to display information.
For example, in the Java programming language, the command String s =
"this is a string"; would build a new String object that could be used to
display the information between the quotes to the user.

The need for different data types to represent various data items is clearly evident from the
fact that, as discussed above, different data types can represent different data. For example,
in a program that stores student information in a school, an integer number (int data type)
could be used to hold the age or the telephone number of each student. On the other hand,
a floating-point data type ( such as float or double) would be needed to hold the height or
weight of each student. The names would be represented using a String data type and a
simple boolean could be used to store gender information. As such, different data types
can represent different types of information in a more efficient manner.

309
 D . 1.10 Data items passed as parameters
Exit skills. Students should be able to: 1

Define the term parameter .

Explain the use of parameters.
Explain the pass- by- value process.
: Explain how data items are passed to and from actions ( methods in Java ) as
: parameters.

As discussed in previous sections, objects have both data and actions. Figure D.24 depicts a
UML diagram of a number of objects that are related to each other. The Vehicle class is
dependent on the Engine class, while the Gas and Electric Engine classes are of type
Engine. When a Vehicle object is instructed to move some distance, its action (method )
goForward(int d ) is called. In order that the Vehicle class will know how much
distance it will need to travel an argument of type int ( as such, an integer value) is provided
along with the action. The Vehicle class calls the start ( ) action from the Engine so that
the goForward(int d) action will take place. The start ( ) action does not have any
parameters and as such does not need to have any additional information in order to
perform its action. When the start ( ) action completes it returns a value, of Boolean type,
back to the Vehicle class to notify whether the action completed successfully or not.

For example, if the Vehicle class was instructed to move 5 meters forward, its
goForward(5) action would be called with an argument of 5 representing 5 meters. The
start ( ) action, from the Engine class, would then be called and return a true value if
everything went according to plan. The Vehicle class would then move 5 meters forward
and the goForward(5) action would complete successfully.

Data items can be passed to and from actions (methods) as parameters. This was previously
discussed in Chapter 4. Different computer programming languages use the terms
procedure, sub-procedure, function, routine, method, subroutine, module, subprogram etc.
to refer to actions. An object action, when implemented, is a unit that contains a sequence
of computer instructions that perform a specific and predefined task. This unit can then be
used in various computer programs wherever that specific and predefined task should be
implemented. It is important to mention that in most cases a function returns a value and a
procedure just executes commands. Java uses methods to represent subprograms. A Java
method may return a value and the main program may pass one or more variables to a
method.

A parameter is the name of the information that is used in a method, function or procedure
while an argument is the value that is passed into a method, function or procedure.

310
 uses an
1 1 Engine
Vehicle
int: wheels
» String: type
Engine: powerSource int: power
String: brand boolean: start( )
String: model boolean: stop()
int: year
goForward(int d)
goBackward (int d)
boolean : stopMoving() Gas Electric
turn (int r) Engine
boolean: soundHorn()
changeGear(int g)

Figure D.24: UML class diagram

Any action may be designed so as to take as many parameters as necessary for it to

complete its given task but may return only one value at most. Values passed as arguments
to an action may be used as parameters within the action. Any changes performed to those
parameters will not affect the arguments that were
passed to the action.
Calculator
int: x
For example, the Calculator object presented in Figure
int: y
int : add (int a, int b) D. 25 has integers x and y as data and actions add and
int: increment(int a) increment. The add action takes two integer
Figure D.25: Calculator object parameters (a and b), adds them together and returns
the result of the addition. The increment action takes
one integer parameter (a), increases it by one and returns the result.

The add action illustrates the fact that any number of parameters may be passed to an
action, but only one value may be returned.

Take the following pseudocode program into consideration:

NUMBER 1 3
NUMBER2 4
CAL = new Calculator ()
NUMBER3 = CAL.increment(NUMBER2)
output MNUM1: ", NUMBER1 , "NUM2: " , NUMBER2, "NUM 3: " , NUMBER3
RESULTl = CAL.add (NUMBERl , NUMBER2)
RESULT2 = CAL.add (NUMBERl , NUMBER3)
output "RESULTl: ", RESULTl , "RESULT2: ", RESULT2

Output:

NUMl: 3 NUM2: 4 NUM3: 5

RESULTl: 7 RESULT2: 8

311
Two numbers, NUMBER 1 and NUMBER 2, are initialized to values 3 and 4 respectively. A new
Calculator object is instantiated and the action increment is called with an argument of
NUMBER2. The value of NUMBER2 is incremented, returned, and stored as NUMBER3.
Although NUMBER2 is provided as an argument to the increment action, which increases the
value of its parameter by one and returns it, NUMBER2 is not affected as a variable. When
the increment action is called with the NUMBER2 argument, the NUMBER2 value is passed to
the action and not the actual variable . As such, changing the value passed to the increment
action does not affect the value of NUMBER2. When variables are used as arguments to
actions and only their values are passed, this is known as pass-by-value.

D. 2 Features of OOP
Students should be able to explain the major features of Object Oriented Programming that
differentiate it from other programming approaches.

D . 2.1 Encapsulation
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Define the term encapsulation.

Explain how encapsulation restricts access to some of the object' s data and actions.

3
Encapsulation refers to the inclusion of both data and actions into a single component .
Classes contain data and actions that are built -in such a way so that their structure is hidden
and can only be accessed outside the class via specific methods.

Figure D. 26 demonstrates the term encapsulation with a

Employee
double: salary simple example. An employee can access the Employee
double: getSalary() objects within a company and can check the salary through
Figure D.26: Employee object
the getSalary ( ) action, but he/ she should not be able to
manipulate the value. As such, by using encapsulation, users
only have access to specific data and actions.

D . 2.2 Inheritance
1
Exit skills . Students should be able to:

Define the term inheritance.

Explain the parent child relation of data and actions between parent child objects.

3
Encapsulation ( object -oriented programming). ( 2015, March 26 ). In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20:26, March 25, 2015, from
http:// en.Wikipedia. org/wiki /Encapsulation_ ( object -oriented_programming)

312
The term inheritance was discussed in sections 1.3, 1.4 and 1.6 through UML diagrams. The
inheritance relationship ( a.k.a. generalization ) signifies that one object ( a.k. a. child or
subclass ) is a specialized form of another object ( a.k.a. parent or superclass ). An example of
an inheritance relationship, between a parent class and two children classes can be seen in
the UML class diagram in Figure D. 27. This inheritance can be described as "a student is a
person and a professor is a person."

Inheritance has been widely used in OOP and allows new classes to be derived from an
existing class. The derived classes inherit the data and actions of the existing class. That is,
the child or subclass inherits the data and actions of the parent or superclass. In Figure D.27,
both the Student and Professor classes inherit the data name and age, as well as the
action walk (int d) from the Person class, which is the parent class.

Person

String: name
int: age

walk (int d)

Student Professor
int : overallGrade int: numberOfStudents

Figure D. 27: Inheritance relationship

D . 2.3 Polymorphism
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Define the term polymorphism.

Explain how methods have the same name but different signatures.

The term polymorphism comes from the Greek

Calculator
int : x word "rco Àû c;", meaning "many", and "pop 4) r) ",
int : y meaning "form". The word polymorphism thus
int: z literally means "the ability to have many
int: add(int a, int b )
int: add(int a, int b, int c) forms".
float: add(float a, float b)
int: increment(int a ) To understand how this applies to OOP, an

Figure D.28: Static polymorphism

extended Calculator object is presented in
Figure D. 28. The extended Calculator object
has integers x, y and z as data and add and increment as actions. However, there are
three add actions included, each one having different parameters. These three add actions
process data in the following manners:

313
 int: add ( int a, int b): Takes in two integer parameters, a and b, adds them
together and returns the result as an integer
int: add(int a, int b, int c) : Takes in three integers, a, b and c, adds
them together and returns the result as an integer
float: add( float a, float b): Takes in two float numbers, a and b, adds
them together and returns the result as a float

The compiler is able to understand the method signatures and decide the method that
needs to be invoked for a particular method call depending on the number and types of
parameters passed. This kind of polymorphism is known as static polymorphism .

Dynamic polymorphism also exists, where a subclass

Animal
overrides actions of the superclass. Figure D. 29
String: name demonstrates the use of dynamic polymorphism. A
int: age Cat class extends the Animal class. The Animal
makeSound() class provides data name and age, as well as action
makeSound ( ) , which can be used by the Cat class,
since the Cat class inherits all data and actions from
the parent class. The sound each animal creates
Cat however is not the same. A cat goes "meow"
whereas a dog "woof". As such, each class that
inherits the Animal class needs to have a
makeSound()
specialized makeSound ( ) action that will be
Figure D. 29: Dynamic polymorphism
specific to its needs. Thus, the Cat class contains a
makeSound ( ) action that will be used each time
the makeSound ( ) action is called for a Cat object. Dynamic polymorphism allows for
subclasses to alter any parent class actions and make them specific to their needs.

Another example could be derived from Figure D. 27. The Person class has a walk(int d )
action that is inherited by both the Student and the Professor classes. However, since
students are generally younger than professors they would tend to walk faster . As such,
student's walk (int d) action would need to be altered for students and professors in
order to account for this difference in pace. These walk(int d) actions, which would be
specific to the Student and the Professor classes, would override the walk(int d )
action of the superclass.

D.2.4 Advantages of encapsulation

Exit skills. Students should be able to: 1

Explain the use and advantages of encapsulation.

I I
Explain how encapsulation could be used to minimize side- effects and dependencies.

Before continuing, read section D. 2.1 where the term 'encapsulation' is defined.
Encapsulation plays the role of a protective wall that prevents data and actions from being

314
accessed from outside a class, resulting in unwanted behavior. Data and actions are only
accessible in specific predefined ways. This fact allows for the following advantages:

• Data in a class can be made read or write only

• A class restricts the ways that its data and actions can be altered or called
• A class can hide the way that data is stored
• Easier to maintain, as changes to data and actions in a class can take place without
being apparent on the outside, as long as data and actions can still be accessed
through the same way
• Increase in usability

Encapsulation creates a "black box" for an object, separating its behavior and
implementation by restricting access to data and actions as necessary. Outside the object,
only the behavior of the object is apparent, hiding and protecting its internal workings.

D. 2.5 Advantages of inheritance

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the use and advantages of inheritance.

Explain how inheritance could be used to minimize maintenance overheads and to
increase code reuse .

Before continuing, read section D.2.2 where the term inheritance is defined. Inheritance has
a number of benefits associated with it:

• Extensibility: as discussed in section D. 2.2, all child classes inherit the actions and
data of a parent class. Furthermore, child classes may add new functionality,
extending the parent's actions and data, or even redefining them.
• Reusability: child classes that inherit the actions and data of a parent class will not
need to be altered in the event that an inherited action or data needs to be
upgraded. When parent class actions are upgraded, all child classes that inherit from
the parent class will automatically use the new upgraded version of these actions.
This fact reduces maintenance overheads as an action needs only to be changed
once and all the dependent child classes will use it.
• Information hiding: the parent class determines what actions and data are available
to the child classes.
• Overriding of actions: child classes may override parent actions in order to
implement meaningful actions for their needs. As such, for a child class, inheriting
from a parent class means that it can use whichever data and actions needed, as
well as implement or improve on any parent actions.

315
D . 2.6 Advantages of polymorphism
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the use and advantages of polymorphism.

Explain how encapsulation could be used to override actions.
Explain how encapsulation could be used to hide implementation details.

Before continuing, read section D.2.3 where the term polymorphism is defined.
Polymorphism has a number of benefits associated with it:

• Object actions can have the same name but different parameter lists and
processes
• Subclasses can have their own unique actions, as well as being able to override or
improve on parent actions
• Subclasses inherit all parent data and actions, without rewriting code, and can
alter the actions that they deem necessary. This allows for code reusability
• Polymorphism provides a high degree of decoupling since, to an external program,
the implementation behind actions is hidden. That is, a common interface exists for
a family of objects that abstracts and hides the details of the implementation. In the
examples of section D.2.3 an external program would use the makeSound() or the
walk (int d) actions without being interested as to which object implements the
specific action.

D . 2.7 Advantages of libraries

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain how code reusability in the form of libraries of objects facilitate programming.

Libraries of objects are collections of classes that have already been written in code and can
be used by a programmer while developing a program. The availability of libraries, as well as
their use, simplifies the work that has to be put into a project, since standard, tested,
working code is available for various functions. These libraries are used as “black boxes" .

The usage of libraries of objects allows for the reuse of code. Many different applications
have, in part, the same essential functionalities. The way an application may connect to a
database or the login functions of a website are examples where a library of objects would
be useful. Another example is the need to sort and search various collections of objects.
Instead of writing code from scratch, developers may use libraries of objects to perform
some standard functionalities and spend more time on the parts of their applications that
have to be unique.

316
D.2.8 Disadvantages of OOP
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the disadvantages of OPP when addressing small projects.

Object oriented programming ( OOP) presents all its advantages when working on large- scale
projects that can be broken down into multiple modules and developed by multiple
developers at the same time. However, for small projects, with few developers and modules,
OOP may increase complexity, development time and maintenance costs. Programming in
OOP requires care in order not to make projects too abstract, which would lead to
unnecessarily large and complex programs.

D.2.9 Use of programming teams

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the importance of programming teams.

Explain how programming teams speed up the completion of a project.
Discuss various issues that relate to cooperative programming work.

Working as a solo developer allows for one person to be in charge of the whole
development cycle from design to implementation, testing and maintenance. This approach
is reasonable for small - scale projects and in fact does have some advantages, since the
developer is aware of every aspect of the project. This allows the developer to have an
overall view of the whole project and be able to make changes quickly and without the need
to communicate with anyone else. Thus, decisions are generally quicker for a single
individual than for a team that has to coordinate. Furthermore, the solo developer does not
need to develop a common "language" with his / her peers, since he / she is working alone,
and will not face any of the coordination or collaboration problems that may arise in a team.
However, groups of developers need to be formed for larger projects, since in many of those
projects a single developer would need much more time than he / she would have available
in order to finish the project within a deadline.

The use of programming teams provides the following advantages:

• Larger projects can be taken, since more developers can work on them.
• Compared to a solo developer, members of a team may bring various ideas to the
table that would not have come about without member collaboration.
• The strengths of some team members may offset the weaknesses of other
members.
• Team members do not need to know the workings of the whole project, and can
thus concentrate their time and energy in developing part of a project to a higher
standard.

317
The use of programming teams comes with the following disadvantages:

• Since there is more than one developer working on a project, there needs to be
honest, well-mannered communication between team members. A common
"language" to enable collaboration when resolving problems needs to be
established.
• If not managed properly, the weaknesses of some team members may end up
undermining the group as a whole.
• Since team members will not be aware of the project as a whole and because
members will be working on different aspects, decisions and project planning takes
longer compared to a single developer project.

D . 2.10 Advantages of modularity in program development

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the importance of modularity in program design and development.

Explain how modularity facilitates debugging, testing and decreases completion time.

Modularity in program development is related to the process of dividing a computer

program into separate smaller sub- programs that can be implemented and tested on their
own before combining them all together to build the final program. When a program
increases in size and complexity, designing, implementing and testing it becomes
cumbersome. Modularity in program development is meant to solve this drawback by
separating the program into smaller pieces. The division of a program into smaller sub -
programs is more effective when there are logic boundaries between the sub-programs and
there are very few dependencies with each other.

The use of modularity in program development provides the following advantages:

• A sub-program developed for one application may be reused in other applications

that need to have the same functionality. Libraries of objects ( see D. 2.7) may be
created using this approach.
• Less new code needs to be written for a program.
• Team support . By dividing a program into several sub- programs that have few
dependencies between them, different teams can work on these sub-programs
separately.
• The code of a program is comprised of short, simple and easy to understand smaller
sub - programs that are easier to maintain and debug.
• The structure of a program is easier to understand.
• Sub - programs work as "black boxes" that can be changed or updated, without other
team members needing to be involved.
• Speedier completion of the sub-programs, and as a result the whole program itself,
compared to taking on the program as one large problem.

318
D . 3 Program development
D . 3.1 Class, identifier and variables
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Define the terms class, identifier, primitive, instance variable, parameter variable and
local variable.

Person
The Person UML class diagram,
String:name
double:height described in Figure D.30, will be
double : weight used to define the following terms:
String : gender
class, identifier, primitive, instance
int:age
sleep(int hours ) variable, parameter variable and
boolean: wakeupO local variable .
walk(double distance )
run(double distance, double speed) • Class: In OOP a class defines a
Figure D.30: Person UML class diagram with data and actions
template through which objects may
be created. Classes provide specific data and actions. For example, the Person class
described in Figure D.30 defines a template through which Person objects may be
created. When an object is created, it is known as an instance of the class. For
example, a Person object could be created to represent an imaginary person
known as Mike. That instance of the Person class will have its own name, "Mike",
with a height of "1.8m", weight of "80kgs", gender "male", and age "18". These
data are specific to the Mike object, which is an instance of the Person class, and
are thus called instance variables.
• Identifier: In programming an identifier is exactly what the name suggests: a name
that identifies an entity. For example, Person is the identity of the class presented
by the UML class diagram in Figure D. 30. Identifiers also denote data and actions
(name, height, weight, sleep, wakeUp, etc are all identifiers). In general,
identifiers are generated by alphanumeric sequences, as well as underscore, and
should not begin with a digit.
• Primitive: In section D.1.9 various common data types that are available in most
programming languages were described, as well as the need for different data types
to represent data items. The term primitive in programming denotes a predefined
identifier ( keyword ) that is provided by a programming language as a basic building
block. Common primitive types include:
o Characters (char): Primitive type that represents a character
o Integers (int, short, long, byte): Four primitive types that identify
integers depending on the range of integers that need to be represented
o Floating-point numbers (float, double): Two or more primitive types that
identify floating- point numbers depending on the range and precision that is
required
o Boolean (bool): Primitive type that may take only one of two values, true
or false

319
 • Instance variable: As discussed in the Class definition before, Figure D. 30 describes
a template through which Person objects may be created. Every person in the
world is unique and will have his /her own data that describes him/her. Thus, every
instance of the Person class, every object created from the Person class, will have
a name, height, weight, gender and age but their values will be different,
specific to each instance. This is shown in Figure D.31. Each instantiated object has
separate instance variables that are properties that the object knows about itself.
Every instance of an object has its own instance variables, even if the value of some
of those variables is identical between some objects. Every instance can alter its
own instance variables without affecting other instances. For example, in Figure
D.31 two instances of the Person class are presented with their instance variables.
Mike has his own instance variables and Sara has her own instance variables. Even
though their age is the same, their instance variables can be changed independently.
For example, if Sara was born earlier in the year than Mike, at some point, right
after her birthday, her age instance variable would be 19, whereas Mike' s would be
18.

Person name height weight gender age

Mike Mike 1.8m 80kgs male 18
Sara Sara 1.65m 52kgs female 18
Figure D.31: Two object instances from the Person class

• Parameter variable: In section D.1.10 data items and how they can be passed to and
from actions as parameters were presented. Data items passed to and from actions
are called parameter variables. For example, the Person class described in Figure
D. 30 includes a sleep(int hours) action that takes one integer parameter
named hours. When the sleep(int hours) action is called, a value is passed and
assigned to the hours parameter variable. For example, if a Person object instance
needed to go to sleep for 8 hours the sleep(8) action would be called and the
hours parameter would take the integer value 8. Parameter variables are only
accessible inside the actions ( methods ) that declare them.
• Local variable: Local variables are variables that are declared inside blocks of code,
such as in actions ( methods ) that are used within the specific blocks of code, and are
then destroyed and cease to exist. They are only visible within the declared block of
code.

D. 3.2 Method, accessor, mutator, constructor, signature and return value

Exit skills. Students should be able to: 1

Define the terms method, accessor, mutator, constructor, signature and return value.

The Person UML class diagram, described in Figure D.30, will be used to define the following
terms: method, accessor, mutator, constructor, signature and return value.

320
 • Method : Objects in OOP have data and actions. Methods are the actions that are
associated with an object. They provide the interface an object depicts to the
outside world in that through those methods other classes can access and modify its
data properties. For example, actions sleep, wakeup, walk and run of the Person
class are all methods.
• Accessor : A special kind of method that is called in order to read a specific data
value of an object . For example, in order to access the age of a Person object, the
accessor method getAge ( ) may be used to get the value of the age property.
• Mutator : A special kind of method that is called in order to modify a specific data
value of an object. For example, in order to modify the age of a Person object the
mutator method setAge (int age) may be used to set the value of the age
property to be equal to the provided age integer .
• Constructor : A special kind of method that is called when an object is instantiated so
that it initializes its data with specific values. Constructors are run only once, when
an object is created. They use the name of the class and have no return type. For
example, a constructor for the Person class could have the following signature:
Person (String name, double height, double weight , String
gender, int age)
• Signature : Every method in a class has its own unique method signature that
identifies the method. A signature includes the name of the method, as well as its
parameters, their number and types. Return types are not considered part of the
signature. For example, all the actions of Figure D.30, without their return types,
describe method signatures.
• Return value : Value that is passed back, returned, to the code that called the
specific method which returns the value. This value is returned after the execution
of the method has taken place. For example, the wakeUp ( ) action of Figure D.30
returns a boolean value after it has been executed, signifying whether or not the
Person object woke up or not.

D.3.3 Private, protected , public, extends and static

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Define the terms private, protected, public, extends and static.

• Private, protected, public : These three terms are strongly related to each other in
that they are access modifiers that allow for the implementation of encapsulation.
Sections D . 2.1 and D.2.4 define encapsulation ( a .k.a. information hiding) and explain
its benefits. Access modifiers provide the compiler with information as to which
other classes can have access to class data ( properties) and actions ( methods ) .
o Private : If some data or action is classified as private, then it can be
accessed only by the class that defines it.
o Protected : If some data or action is classified as protected,' then only the
class that defines it and its subclasses can access it.

321
 o Public: If some data or action is classified as public, then any class can access
it.
• Extends: Sections D.1.6, D.1.8, D.2.2 and D.2.3 have looked into the subject of
inheritance, as well as how one class can extend from another class. For example, in
Figure D.27, the classes Student and Professor extend from the Person class. As
such, both the Student and the Professor classes inherit the data and actions of
the Person class and can also define their own, unique data and actions.
• Static : Every class has both data and actions. When a class object is instantiated,
values are provided for the class data that can change later on without affecting
other instances of the class. Flowever, if some data or action is termed static it then
belongs to the class instead of a specific instance. This means that all instance
objects of the class share the same value and if that value is altered, it is altered for
all the instance objects. For example, imagine that car company, "BestCar", creates a
computer program to hold all of the information it needs for every new car
manufactured. It thus creates a Car class and instantiates a Car class object for every
new car. Every instance will have its own unique ID, as well as other instance
properties ( data ), such as colour and mileage. However, the manufacturing company
of each of these cars is the same and every instance of the Car class will have the
same value. As such, the manufacturer data should be termed static so that each
instantiated object has the same value and if that value changes, it will change for all
the instances of the Car class.

D . 3.4 Uses of the primitive data types and the string class
1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Explain the use of primitive data types ( int, long, double, char and Boolean ) and class
string which is not a primitive data type.

Before reading this section a revision of section D.1.9, where the need for different data
types to represent data items was explained, is advised. There are mainly eight primitive
data types, which are the following:

• Byte:
o Minimum value: -128
o Maximum value: 127
o It occupies 8 bits of memory
o Typically used for saving memory in large arrays of small numbers
• Short:
o Minimum value : -32,768
o Maximum value: 32,767
o It occupies 16 bits of memory
o Typically used for the same reasons as a byte, but for a wider range of
numbers
 Int
o Minimum value: - 231
o Maximum value: 231-1
o It occupies 32 bits of memory
o Most commonly used primitive data type to represent integer numbers
• Long
o Minimum value: - 263
o Maximum value: 263-l
o It occupies 64 bits of memory
o Primitive data type used to represent integer numbers when the range of
the int data type is not sufficient
• Float
o The minimum and maximum values are beyond the scope of this book.
However, in the Java programming language the float primitive data type
ranges from 1.4 45 to 3.438
‘

o It occupies 32 bits of memory

o Typically used for saving memory in large arrays of floating point numbers.
Should not be used as a data type for numbers that need precision
Double
o The minimum and maximum values are beyond the scope of this book .
However, in the Java programming language the double primitive data type
ranges from 4.9 324 to 1.7308
'

o It occupies 64 bits of memory

o Most commonly used data type for the representation of decimal values.
Should not be used as a data type for precise values such as currency
• Char
o Minimum value : '\ u 000' - o
o Maximum value: '\uffff - 65,535
o It occupies 16 bits of memory
o Represents a Unicode character
• Boolean
o Can take only one of two values: true or false
o Typically used for conditions that may have one of two outcomes
• String
o It is not a primitive data type but rather a reference class
o Typically used to represent series of characters ( ex. a word or a sentence)
o Once it is created its value cannot change and it is thus immutable

Code construction

In sections D .3.5 through D.3.8 the use of working code constructs are presented using the
4 4
IBO Java Examination Tool Subset (JETS ) . The JETS platform allows students to learn and
develop algorithms using a small controlled subset of the Java programming language.

4
International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Java Examination Tool Subset

323
Examination questions will only include the commands, symbols and constructs specified in
JETS .
4

4
For sections D.3.5 through D.3.8 a simple but functional program, written in JETS , that
simulates a Bookstore library is to be used . The program uses text input and output and
allows the user to :

• List all the books in the bookstore

• Add a book to the bookstore
• Sort books by price ( either in descending or ascending order )
• Find a book with a specific title
• Exit the program

Because Java does not provide input /output commands as part of its core functionality,
while JETS takes as granted that some standard input /output commands are available, a
4

5
class with simplified input and output methods has been provided by the IBO . The name
InputOutput is given to this class and can be studied in detail in Appendix A.

/ \
Useful Information : The Bookstore library project is presented here in some detail.
However, a full working version of the project can be found in Appendix B, as well
as on the book website at :

http:// www.expresspublishing.co.uk/ibcorecomputerscience.

All readers are advised to download this functional version of the project, try it out
and study it thoroughly. In order to compile and run Java code a Java Development
Environment (JDE ) is necessary. A free JDE designed for beginners is BlueJ, which
can be found at : http:// www.bluej.org.

A simplified UML diagram describing the Bookstore program is presented in Figure D.32. It
consists of eight classes, one of which is the InputOutput class from Appendix A that is
responsible for the input /output commands necessary to implement the Bookstore
program. The simplified UML diagram in Figure D.32 does not include association roles or
multiplicities. Data and actions of classes are also hidden and only class names appear. Even
though the UML diagram is simplified it still becomes quite complex. Exam programs and
UML diagrams will certainly be simpler. However, programs constructed for the program
dossier will require this kind of complexity and as such, sections D.3.5 through D.3.8 will use
code examples of the Bookstore program.

The functionality of the eight classes used to implement the Bookstore program are
described below :

International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2004). IBDP Computer Science Guide.

5

324
 InputOutput K:

BookFile < r > InputTermina1

A A <-
Bookstore

v
BubbleSort

Figure D.32: Bookstore simplified UML diagram

• InputOutput: Provides input / output functionality through specific actions

( methods). The code provided in this class should be used as a "black box", meaning
that understanding is not required regarding the exact implementation.
• ReadingMaterial: Every Bookstore has some reading material, such as books and
magazines. All reading material will include the following instance variables: id,
title, pages, price. The ReadingClass includes these instance variables, as
well as mutator and accessor methods to allow for their alteration. A constructor is
also present and allows for the initialization of a ReadingMaterial object. The
ReadingMaterial class is an abstract class, in that it should not be instantiated.
There cannot be a general ReadingMaterial object, it has to be a book, a
magazine or something else. The ReadingMaterial class needs to be extended
and initialized by another, more specific class. This is done by the Book class.
• Book: Every Bookstore has books and as such a Book class is necessary to describe
the basic information of a book. It includes instance variables chapters and
author and inherits variables id, title, pages, and price from the
ReadingMaterial class, which it extends. Mutator and accessor methods are also
available to allow for the alteration of these instance variables. Furthermore, a
constructor is called every time a Book object is instantiated, where all the instance
variables are initialized.
• BubbleSort: Provides sorting functionality to allow for an array of Book objects to
be sorted in ascending or descending order according to their price.
• SequentialSearch: Provides searching functionality to allow for an array of Book
objects to be searched according to a specific Book title.

325
 • InputTerminal: Provides user input functionality to allow for the input of
information of a new Book and the instantiation of a new Book object with the
inputted information.
• BookFile : Provides reading/ writing functionality to and from a file in the file system.
In order that a Bookstore will have persistent data, which means that data should
not be lost every time the program quits, all the data needs to be stored in an
external text file, which is used as a simple database.
• Bookstore: This class is the main class in that it is the first class which is run when
the Bookstore program is run. It displays the main menu of the application in the
terminal and receives user input as to what actions the user wants to perform. It
then calls the necessary classes needed to perform the requested actions.

D . 3.5 Code examples for D . 3.1 - D . 3.4

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Construct code examples, trace code fragments and explain code fragments using
class, identifiers, primitives, instance variables, parameter variables, local variables,
methods, accessors, mutators, constructors, signatures, return values, private,
protected, public, extends, static, int, long, double, char, Boolean and string.

In order to understand how the terms defined in assessment statements D.3.1 through D.3.4
4
may be implemented in actual working JETS code the ReadingMaterial and Book classes
are presented. The ReadingMaterial class below is initially discussed:

public class ReadingMaterial //1

f
protected static String bookstoreName;
private int id; //2
private String title; //2
private int pages; //2
private int price; //2

//3
ReadingMaterial(int id, String title, int pages, int price)
{
bookstoreName "K&M Bookstore";

this. id = id;
this.title = title;
this.pages = pages;
this.price = price;
}

public String getBookstoreName()

{ return bookstoreName; }

public void setBookstoreName(String bookstoreName)

{ this.bookstoreName = bookstoreName; }

public int getld()

{ return id; }

326

J
 public void setld(int id)
{ this.id = id; }

public String getTitle ()

{ return title; }

public void setTitle(String title)

{ this.title = title; }

public int getPages()

{ return pages; }

public void setPages(int pages)

{ this.pages = pages; }

public int getPrice()

{ return price; }

public void setPrice (int price)

{ this.price = price; }

public void changePriceBy(int increase)

{
int newPrice = price + increase; //4

if (newPrice >= 0) {
this.price = newPrice;
}
}
>

Terms defined in assessment statement D.3.1 and implemented in the ReadingMaterial

class above:

• Class: A class is implemented using the statement in / /1.

• Identifier: All the names that are included in the class as well as the actual class
name are identifiers. For example, identifiers in this class include the following:
ReadingMaterial, bookstoreName, id, title, pages, price, as well as all the
names of the mutator and accessor methods.
• Primitive: Primitive data types are used throughout the class, to define the types of
instance variables, parameter variables, as well as return types.
• Instance variable: Instance variables are implemented using the statements in / / 2
• Parameter variable: Parameter variables are included in the constructor of the class
in / / 3 as well as all the mutator methods.
• Local variable: A local variable of type int and identifier newPrice is presented in
//4. The instance variable price is added to the parameter variable increase and
their result is stored into the local variable newPrice. The value of newPrice, if
greater or equal to zero, is stored in the price instance variable and the local
variable seizes to exist when the changePriceBy (int increase) method
finishes.

327
Terms defined in assessment statement D.3.2 and implemented in the
ReadingMaterial class above:

• Method: The ReadingMaterial class includes a number of methods, most of

which are accessor and mutator methods. Examples of such methods are
getBookstoreName, setBookstoreName(String bookstoreName),
changePriceBy( int increase).
• Accessor: Accessor methods can generally be distinguished by the prefix get in the
method name. getBookstoreName, getld, getTitle are all examples of
accessor methods
• Mutator: Mutator methods can generally be distinguished by the prefix set in the
method name. setBookstoreName(String bookstoreName), setld(int
id), setTitle(String title ) are all examples of mutator methods
• Constructor: ReadingMaterial (int id , String title, int pages, int
price ) is the signature of the constructor of the ReadingMaterial class. The
constructor is run only once, when a new ReadingMaterial object is instantiated,
and initializes the object' s data. For example, a new ReadingMaterial object
could be instantiated as follows:

ReadingMaterial (1025, "A Title", 99 , 15)

The above code would create a ReadingMaterial object with an id of 1025, title
"A Title", 99 pages and a price of 15 .
• Signature: All methods in a class have their own unique method signature. Return
types are not considered part of the signature. As such, a method signature includes
the name, as well as the parameters, their number and types. For example, the
following are all method signatures from the ReadingMaterial class:

ReadingMaterial(int id , String title, int pages, int price )

getBookstoreName ( )
setBookstoreName (String bookstoreName )
changePriceBy (int increase )

• Return value: The value that is returned after the execution of the method has
taken place. For example, the following method returns a String that depicts the
bookstore name:

public String getBookstoreName()

{ return bookstoreName ; }

Another example is the following method that does not return anything and as such
includes the keyword void as a return type:

public void setPrice (int price )

{ this.price = price; }

328

J
Terms defined in assessment statement D . 3.3 and implemented in the ReadingMaterial
class above:

Private: The object data in / / 2 (id, title, pages, price) are all termed
private. Accessor and mutator methods are in place in order that other classes will
have access.
• Protected: The bookstoreName object data is termed protected so that it can
also be accessed and manipulated directly by subclasses of the
any
ReadingMaterial class. All other classes need to use the accessor and mutator
methods that are in place in order to access the bookstoreName object data.
• Public: Apart from the constructor, all the other methods are termed public so
that any class can access them and use their functionalities. These public methods
constitute the interface of the class to the "outside world", in that these are the only
methods that other classes can use in order to interact with the ReadingMaterial
class.
• Static: Apart from protected the bookstoreName object data is also termed
static. All instantiations of the class therefore share the same value of the
bookstoreName and if that value is altered, it is altered for all the instance objects.
Since the current example simulates one specific Bookstore library, all
ReadingMaterial objects will have a single bookstoreName that will be identical
to all objects.

In order to understand how the term extends ( defined in assessment statement D.3.3 ) may
4
be implemented in actual working JETS code the Book class is presented below:

public class Book extends ReadingMaterial / / 1

{
private int chapters;
private String author;

public Book (int id, String title, int pages, int price, int
chapters, String author) {
/ /Calls the ReadingMaterial constructor.
super(id , title, pages, price);

this.chapters = chapters ;
this.author = author;
}

public int getChapters()

{ return chapters; }

public void setChapters( int chapters)

{ this.chapters = chapters; }

public String getAuthor ()

{ return author ; }

public void setAuthor (String author)

{ this.author = author; }
}

329
 • Extends: A bookstore may contain several types of reading material, such as books
and magazines. The ReadingMaterial class is used to specify general reading
material. However, specific types of reading materials should be defined in order to
be stored in a bookstore. As such, the Book class exists to describe the basic
information about a book. Since the Book class is reading material and needs all the
data and actions of the ReadingMaterial class, it extends the class with the
keyword depicted in / /1. The Book class specifies its own data and actions but also
inherits all the data and actions of the parent ReadingMaterial class.

In assessment statement D.3.4, the uses of the primitive data types and the reference class
String were described. In the ReadingMaterial class above, primitive types are defined in
/ / 2 and used throughout the class to store data. The use of primitive data types can also be
seen in the Book class.

D.3.6 Code example for selection statements

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Construct code examples, trace code fragments and explain code fragments using
simple and compound if ... else constructs.

In programming, code is executed sequentially, in that each line of code is executed one
after the other. However, sometimes code needs to be executed only if certain conditions
are met and omitted otherwise. For example, an ATM ( Automated Teller Machine ) cash
dispenser should only allow access to a bank account if the correct card and PIN number are
inserted, otherwise an error message should be displayed. Controlling the flow of a program
is possible through the use of conditional logic, such as the if statement.

The structure of the if statement is the following:

if(logic statement) {

//do something
}

If the logic statement is true then the section of code inside the curly brackets is run. For
example:

if (cardlsValid == true && pinlsValid == true) {

//allow access to the account

}

The code inside the curly brackets of the if statement is run if the card inserted into the
ATM is valid and the PIN given is valid for the card . If the card, the PIN or both are invalid
then the code between the curly brackets will be skipped.

In a logic statement:

330

J
 • && symbols signify an AND. For example, A && B means that both A and B need to
be true in order that the logic statement can be true
• | | symbols signify an OR. For example, A | | B means that if either A or B is true
then the logic statement is true

An if statement is present in the changePriceBy (int increase) method of the

ReadingMaterial class. The newPrice calculated is checked so that, if it is equal to or
greater than zero, the price variable is given the value of the newPrice. The newPrice
would not make any sense if it were less than zero.

The method is presented below:

public void changePriceBy(int increase) {

int newPrice = price + increase; //4

if(newPrice >= 0) {
this. price = newPrice;
}
}

Example D.7: Create a new project in JETS4 and include the InputOutput class from
Appendix A. Create an Example 6 class and insert the following code:

public class Example6 (

public static void main (String[] args) {

int user = 17;

if(user <= 18) {

InputOutput . output("The age of the user is less than

or equal to 18");

What happens when the project is run ?

Answer: The statement "The age of the user is less than or

equal to 18" is displayed. /

331
Compound if...else statements may also be created. The ATM example described before is
used, where an ATM should only allow access to a bank account if the correct card and PIN
number are inserted, otherwise an error message should be displayed. The code is improved
so that an error message is displayed if the card is not valid, or the PIN is not correct, or
something else went wrong.

if( cardlsValid == true && pinlsValid == true) {

//allow access to the account

} else if (cardlsValid == false || pinlsValid == false) {

/ /card or PIN is not valid

System.out.println("Card or PIN is not valid, please try
again.");

} else {

/ /Something else went wrong (ex. connection to the bank

/ /network is unavailable )
System.out. println ("ATM currently unavailable, please try again
later.");

>
The structure of the compound if...else statement is the following:

if (logic statement 1) {

/ /do something 1
} else(logic statement 2 ) {

/ / do something 2
} else {

/ /do something 3
}
The if...else compound statement may have as many else clauses as necessary. It always
begins with an if clause and a logic statement. It continues with zero or more else
statements and logic statements, which may be followed by an else clause without a logic
statement.

' \
4
Example D.8: Create a new project in JETS and include the InputOutput class from
Appendix A . Create an Example 7 class and insert the following code:

public class Example7 {

public static void main (String[] args) {

int grade = 78;

if(grade > 8 0 ) {

InputOutput.output("A+");

) else if(grade > 70) {

InputOutput.output("A");

} else if(grade > 60) {

InputOutput . output("B");

} else if( grade > 50) {

InputOutput.output("C");

) else {

InputOutput. output("F");

What happens when the project is run ?

Answer: The statement "A" is displayed.

D . 3.7 Code examples for repetition statements

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Construct code examples, trace code fragments and explain code fragments using for,
while or do ... while loops.

Three basic looping mechanisms are available in most programming languages. The for
loop, the while loop and the do...while loop. All three mechanisms are described below :

333
 • The for loop: The specific number of times the for loop is to be run should be
known beforehand.

for (initialization; boolean expression; update) {

// do something
}

The for loop is run by declaring and initializing any loop control variables in the
initialization step. The Boolean expression is evaluated in the beginning of every
loop. If it is true, the for loop is executed, otherwise the flow of control jumps to
the statement that comes after the for loop. If the Boolean expression is true,
after the loop is run, the control flow returns to the update statement. Variables
are updated as required and the Boolean expression is re-evaluated. If it is true the
for loop is executed, and so on. At some point the Boolean expression needs to
evaluate to false so that the for loop terminates and the execution of the
program continues. Otherwise, if the Boolean expression is always true, the for
loop will result in an infinite loop that will cause the program to crash. This is a
common bug that may arise during code development.
An example is displayed below of a working for loop that prints numbers from 0 to
10 ( exclusive):

for(int i = 0; i < 10; i = i+1) {

System . out . println(i ) ;
}

In the initialization phase, the integer variable i is initialized to 0. The Boolean

expression to be evaluated in every loop of this for loop is i < 10, while the
update that takes place is i = i + 1 ( which can also be written as i++). The trace
table for this for loop is displayed in Figure D.33.

i i < 10 i=i+1 output

0 true 1 0
1 true 2 1
2 true 3 2
3 true 4 3
4 true 5 4
5 true 6 5
6 true 7 6
7 true 8 7
8 true 9 8
9 true 10 9
10 false
Figure D. 33: Trace table for simple for loop

334
' Example D.9: Create a new project in JETS and include the InputOutput class from
\

Appendix A. Create an Example8 class and insert the following code:

public class Example8 {

public static void main (String[] args) {

for(int i = 10; i > 0; i = i - 1) {

System. out.print(i + " ");

>
}

What happens when the project is run?

Answer: The following results appear:

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

4
Example D.10: Create a new project in JETS and include the InputOutput class from
Appendix A. Create an Example 9 class and insert the following code:

public class Example9 {

public static void main (String[] args) {

for {int i = 0; i < 2 0; i = i + 2 ) {

System.out.print( i + " ");

What happens when the project is run ?

Answer: The following results appear:

x 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

• The while loop:

while (Boolean expression) {

//do something
}

335
 The while loop is run if the Boolean expression evaluates to true. While the Boolean
expression evaluates to true the while statement will continue to loop . The code
within the while loop should at some point force the Boolean expression to become
false so that the while loop is not stuck in an infinite loop.

An example of a working while loop that prints numbers from 0 to 10 ( exclusive ) is

displayed below:

int i = 0;

while (i < 10) {

System. out . printin (i);
i = i + 1;
}

There is a number of similarities with a for loop. The initialization phase happens
before the while loop, while the update phase takes place inside the while loop.
Otherwise, both for loop and while loop examples that print numbers from 0 to 10
( exclusive ) are identical. They both print the same results and their trace table is the
same ( Figure D .33 ).

The InputTerminal class of the Bookstore program, which can be found in Appendix
B, uses while loops in order to check if the input that is received by the user is logical
and within the accepted limits. For example, when entering a new Book to the
Bookstore the user is asked to enter the number of pages the new Book has using the
following code segment:

int pages = InputOutput .inputlnt("pages: "); //1

while (pages < 0 || pages == 0) { // 2

InputOutput.output("Error: The number of pages you entered

was not a positive number"); / / 3

pages = InputOutput.inputlnt ("pages: " ) ; / / 4

The pages of the new book are inputted by the user in / /1. While the pages entered are
either zero or less than zero / / 2 the program outputs an error / / 3. The program finally
asks the user to try again and input another number for the pages / / 4 . The while loop
will stop only if the pages entered by the user are greater than zero.

336
/ 4
l Example D.ll: Create a new project in JETS and include the InputOutput class from
Appendix A. Create an ExamplelO class and insert the following code:

public class ExamplelO {

public static void main(String [] args) {

int i = 10;

while(i > 0) {

System.out.print(i + " ");

i i - l;

>
}

What happens when the project is run ?

Answer: The following results appear:

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

4
Example D.12: Create a new project in JETS and include the InputOutput class from
Appendix A. Create an Examplell class and insert the following code:

public class Examplell {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 0;

while (i < 20) {

System. out.print(i + " ");

i = i + 2;

What happens when the project is run ?

Answer: The following results appear :

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 /
\

337
 • The do while loop: Similar to the while loop, apart from the fact that it will
certainly execute at least one time, since the boolean expression is at the end of the
loop.

do {
//do something
} while(boolean expression)

The do...while loop is run once and then the boolean expression is evaluated. If it
evaluates to true the do...while statement will continue to loop. The code within the
do...while loop should at some point force the boolean expression to become false
so that the do ...while loop is not stuck in an infinite loop.

An example of a working do...while loop that prints numbers from 0 to 10 ( exclusive )

is displayed below:

int i = 0;

do {
System.out.printIn(i);
l i + 1;
} while(i < 10)

The do . while and while loops examples that print numbers from 0 to 10 ( exclusive)
are very similar . They both print the same results and their trace table is the same
( Figure D.33 ).

The InputTerminal class of the Bookstore program, which can be found in Appendix
B, could have used do...while loops, instead of while loops, in order to check if the
input that is received by the user is logical and within the accepted limits. For example,
when entering a new book to the Bookstore the user could have been asked to enter the
number of pages the new book has, using the following code segment:

do {

pages = InputOutput. inputlnt("pages: ") ; //1

if(pages < 0 || pages == 0) { //2

InputOutput.output("Error: The pages you entered was not a

positive number"); //3

} while (pages < 0 || pages == 0) //4

The pages of the new book are inputted by the user in 111 . If the pages entered are
either zero or less than zero / / 2 the program outputs an error / / 3. While the pages
entered are either zero or less than zero the program asks the user to try again and

338
 input another number for the pages //4. The do ...while loop will stop only if the
pages entered by the user are greater than zero.

D . 3.8 Code examples of arrays

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Construct code examples, trace code fragments and explain code fragments using
static arrays.

Static arrays hold a fixed number of elements of the same type. Since the array has a fixed
number of elements, the length of the array is established during the array initialization
phase. The array is created with a fixed length. Figure D.34 displays an array of length 10,
which contains 10 integer numbers. Note that every cell has an index that can be used to
reference it and that the first cell has an index of 0. Thus, an array of length 10 has indexes 0
to 9.

Index 8
Array 97 2
Figure D.34: An array with 10 integers

Arrays are very helpful in storing a number of same type variables under one name, instead
of declaring many individual variables. For example, ten individual variables (numberO,
numberl ... number9) would be needed to hold the information of the array displayed in
Figure D.34 .
An array is declared in the following manner:

dataType[] arrayName;

dataType signifies the type of data that the array will hold, while arrayName is the
name that will be used to reference the array. A working example for the array of Figure
D.34, could have been the following:

int[] numbers;

An array of integers called numbers is declared. The size of the array needs to be provided
when the array is created, which happens after the declaration of the array in the following
way:

arrayName = new dataType[arraySize];

An array of type dataType with size arraySize is created and assigned to the variable
arrayName. A working example for the array of Figure D.34, could have been the
following:

numbers = new int[10];

339
The declaration and creation of the array, as well as its assignment to a variable name, can
be combined in one statement as follows:

dataType[] arrayName = new dataType[arraySize];

If the values of the array elements are known, as is the case of the example in Figure D. 34,
the array can be also created in the following way:

dataType[] arrayName = {valueO , valuel , ..., valueN};

For example, the array of Figure D.34 could be created in the following way :

int[] numbers {15, 10, 99, 125, 3, 1, 322, 1024, 97, 2};

Another way of creating the array of Figure D.34 is the following:

int[] numbers = new int[10];

numbers[0] 15;

numbers[1 ] 10;

numbers[2] 99;

numbers[3] 125;

numbers[4 ] 3;

numbers[5] 1;

numbers [ 6] 322;

numbers[7] 1024;

numbers[8] 97;

numbers[9] 2;

To initialize, access or mutate elements in arrays, a for loop is commonly used since the
number of elements in the arrays are known. The following code presents how for loops
could be used to display the elements of an array, sum all the elements or find the minimum
element in an array of numbers. The array of Figure D.34 is used as an example.

public class Figure34 {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] numbers {15, 10, 99, 125, 3, 1, 322, 1024,

97, 2};

'
/ /Display array elements

for(int i 0; i < 10; i++) {

340
 System.out.print(numbers[i] + " ");

//Sum array elements

int sum 0;

for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

sum = sum + numbers[i];

System.out.println("Sum is: " + sum);

//Minimum

int minimum = numbers[0];

for(int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {

if(numbers[i] < minimum) {

minimum = numbers[i];

System.out.println ("Min is: " + minimum);

The output of the program above would be the following:

15 10 99 125 3 1 322 1024 97 2

Sum is: 1698

Min is: 1

341
 Example D.13: Since arrays hold elements there come times that an array needs to
be searched so as to determine whether it holds an element or not. Create a new
project in JETS and include the inputOutput class from Appendix A. Create an
4

Examplel3 class and insert the following code:

public class Examplel3 {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[] numbers = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25);

boolean found = false;

forfint i = 0; i < 10; i++) {

if(numbers[i] == 20) {

found = true;

if(found) {

System.out.printin("Number found");

} else {

System.out.println("Number not found");

What happens when the project is run?

Answer: The following results appear:

Number found

The program looks through all the elements of the numbers array and checks
whether they are equal to 20. If at least one element is equal to twenty, then when
the for loop stops, the message "Number found" is displayed. Otherwise, the
message "Number not found" is displayed.

342
Question cont.:

5) You should include the inputOutput class from Appendix A in your

project, so as to use the following code for every team member during
input:

String member = InputOutput.input();

The member String will hold the team member details, for example:

George:Georgiou:m:18/04/1954
Every element of the team member details is separated by a V character. That
allows us to search through the String using the .charAt(int index) method
and compare every letter to the V character using the .equals(String s)
method. After we find at which index each exists, we can retrieve each element
of the team member using the . substring(int from, int to) method. As
such, we can separate into different variables the name, surname, gender, date,
month and year of birth of each member.

Do not forget that we can find the length of a String using the length ( ) method.

6) A class named Member should be created that will hold the details for each
team member, defined by the following UML class diagram:

Member
-name:String
-surname:String
-sex :char
-date:int
-month:int
-year:int
+Member(String name, String surname, char sex, int
date, int month, int year)
+getName():String
tgetSurname() :String
tgetSex():char
+getDate ():int
+getMonth():int
+getYear():int

Create a Member object for each team member and put every object into an array
that will hold all the members. The array initialization will be the following:

Member[] teamMembers = new Member[i];

Whereiis the number of members ( which the user has input in the beginning).

343
 Question cont.:

7) After you have created the Member objects and array you should output
the following menu to the user:

Team Builder Menu:

1) List the team members

2) Find the oldest member

3) Find the youngest member

• If the user picks 1), the team members will be displayed as output one
under the other.
• If the user picks 2), the age of each team member will be calculated and the
oldest member will be displayed as output.
• If the user picks 3 ), the age of each team member will be calculated and the
youngest member will be displayed as output.
• If more than one member have the same age and are the oldest ( or
youngest ), only one will be displayed as output .

Trial run example:

Welcome to the Team Builder System

How many members are there in the team? 3

Input the team members (Name:Surname:Sex : DD/MM/YYYY):

George:Georgiou:m:18/04/1954

Alexia:Georgiou:f:19/05/1957

Notis:Katsanis:m:04/01/1982

Team Builder Menu:

1 ) List the team members

x 2) Find the oldest member

344

J
/

Question cont.:
\

3) Find the youngest member

If the user chooses:

George Georgiou, male, born 18/04/1954

Alexia Georgiou, female, born 19/05/1957

Notis Katsanis, male, born 04/01/1982

If the user chooses:

Oldest member is: George Georgiou, age 57.

If the user chooses:

Youngest member is: Notis Katsanis, age 29.

Finally, after the result has been shown, the program ends.

Answer: The solution to this example is in Appendix C, as well as in

http://www.expresspublishing.co.uk/ibcorecomputerscience in digital form. /

.
N

D . 3.9 Features of programming languages that enable internationalization

1
Exit skills. Students should be able to:

Discuss characteristics of modern high level programming languages as Java that

support internationalization

Modern programming languages enable internationalization in a variety of ways, which

include:

• Support for the display of international fonts and text

345
 • Support for language and local specific needs, such as date and time formatting
• Support for different keyboard layouts, as well as complex characters and symbols
• Support for a variety of written languages with the use of Unicode, allowing the
representation and handling of text in most languages
• Support for user language auto detection and tailoring of the user experience
according to it
• Support for global deployment of software that includes localized content

D . 3.10 Ethical and moral obligations of programmers

Exit skills. Students should be able to: 1

Discuss the ethical and moral obligations of programmers.

Explain the obligation of every programmer to adequately test the program before its
release.
Discuss the obligation of every programmer to properly cite and acknowledge the
work of other programmers.
Explain the main aims of the Open Source Initiative.

Alongside the design, implementation and testing of software, programmers have ethical
and moral obligations . For example, programmers should thoroughly test their products
before providing them to the public. This ensure that they are working as expected and that
any possibility of commercial or other damage has been minimized. As such, programmers
have an obligation to act professionally and perform all the tasks that they have agreed to,
without trying to deceive any of the parties involved. Programmers are also obliged to give
credit to the intellectual property of others when they include such work in their projects. If
they are not authorized to do so, they should not include it at all. Furthermore,
programmers have an obligation to honour the principles of confidentiality and security,
since data may be personally or commercially sensitive.

A growing number of programmers and other individuals support the Open Source
movement. That creates open source software that is available for anyone to use or modify.
The source code of these open source projects is free for anyone to use or alter. One of the
main goals of the Open Source movement is to promote learning and understanding Users .
have rights to both the functionality and methodology of an open source program, in
contrast to proprietary software programs where users only have functionality rights .
6
Examples of open source programs include OpenOffice ( as an alternative to Microsoft
Office7) and Mozilla Firefox8 ( as an alternative to Internet Explorer 9). Programmers involved
in the Open Source movement write, exchange and share their programming code openly
and voluntarily.

6
Apache OpenOffice. ( n.d.). Retrieved June 3, 2015, from https:// www.openoffice.org
7
Welcome to Office, (n.d.). Retrieved June 3, 2015, from https://products. office.com/
We' re building a better Internet, ( n.d.). Retrieved June 3, 2015, from https:// www.mozilla.org/
8

Touch the web - Internet Explorer, ( n.d.). Retrieved June 3, 2015, from
9

http://windows.microsoft.com/ en-us/internet-explorer

346

J
 Chapter references
1. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ). IBDP Computer Science Guide.
2. Unified Modeling Language ( UML ® ) Resource Page. Retrieved January 30, 2015, from
http:// http:// www.uml.org
3. Encapsulation ( object - oriented programming). ( 2015, March 26). In Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20:26, March 25, 2015, from
http://en.Wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Encapsulation_ ( object- oriented_programming)
4. International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012). IBDP Java Examination Tool Subset
5. Apache OpenOffice. ( n.d.). Retrieved June 3, 2015, from https:// www.openoffice.org
6. Welcome to Office , ( n.d.) . Retrieved June 3, 2015, from https:// products.office.com /
7. We 're building a better Internet, ( n.d.). Retrieved June 3, 2015, from
https:/ / www.mozilla.org/
8. Touch the web Internet Explorer, ( n.d.). Retrieved June 3, 2015, from
http:// windows.microsoft.com/en-us/internet -explorer

347
 Appendix A - Input / Output class >
All appendix A was copied by the document: International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2004). IBDP Computer Science Guide.1 ns
ns
!* m
* class InputOutput
z
*
* Input/ output methods o
* © author
X
* © version >
*/ i
public abstract class InputOutput
{
//Output methods
z
ns
static void output(String info)
{ System.out.println(info); } C
U3 H
4^ static void output(char info)
00
{ System.out.println(info); } o
c
static void output(byte info) H
{ System.out.println(info); } ns
static void output(int info)
C
{ System.out . println(info); } H
n
static void output(long info)
{ System.out.println(info ); } >
>
static void output(double info) ns
{ System.out.println(info); } ns
3
1
International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2012 ). IBDP Java Examination Tool Subset |
a
Ml»

X
>
 static void output(boolean info)
{ System .out.println(info); }

//Input methods
static String input(String prompt)
{ String inputLine = »? ?!.
System.out.print(prompt);
try
{inputLine = (new java.io.BufferedReader (
new java.io .InputstreamReader(System . in))).readLine();}
catch (Exception e)
{ String err = e . toString();
System.out.println(err);
inputLine = H H .
}
return inputLine;
}

w static String inputstring(String prompt)

{ return input ( prompt ); }
vD

static String input()

{ return input(" 11 ); }

static int inputlnt()

{ return inputlnt(""); }

static double inputDouble()

{ return inputDouble(""); }

static char inputChar ( String prompt)

{ char result=(char)0;
try { result=input(prompt).charAt( O );}
catch (Exception e) { result = (char) O ;)
return result;
}
 static byte inputByte(String prompt)
{ byte result=0;
try{result=Byte . valueOf(input(prompt).trim()).byteValue();}
catch (Exception e){result = 0;}
return result;
}

static int inputlnt(String prompt)

{ int result=0;
try{result=Integer.valueOf(
input(prompt).trim()).intValue();}
catch (Exception e){result = 0;}
return result;
}

static long inputLong(String prompt)

{ long result=0;
w try{result=Long.valueOf(input(prompt).trim()).longValue();}
Ul catch (Exception e){result = 0;}
o
return result;
}

static double inputDouble(String prompt)

{ double result=0;
try{result=Double.valueOf(
input(prompt).trim()).doubleValue();}
catch (Exception e){result = 0;}
return result;
}

static boolean inputBoolean(String prompt)

{ boolean result=false;
try{result=Boolean.valueOf(
input(prompt).trim()).booleanValue();}
catch (Exception e){result = false;}
 return result;
}
}

Appendix A references
International Baccalaureate Organization. ( 2004). IBDP Computer Science Guide..

W
U1
 >
Appendix B - Bookstore Program *a
ns
ReadingMaterial class m
Z
/ * o
* Abstract class ReadingMaterial
* This class describes the basic information of a reading material in the X
* bookstore. It is an abstract method that can be extended to describe a
* more concrete type of reading material such as a book or a magazine .
* @author
* ( version 1.0
*/^ o
public class ReadingMaterial
{
o
protected static String bookstoreName; C/5
// Instance variables
H
ÜJ
U1 private int id;
O
NJ
private String title;
pa
private int pages; m
private int price; ns
j
O
* Constructor
o
* @param id
* gparam title
* @param pages
the id of the ReadingMaterial
the title of the ReadingMaterial
the number of pages of the ReadingMaterial
5 >
T3
* @ param price the price of the ReadingMaterial
*/
T3)
ft
ReadingMaterial(int id, String title, int pages, int price) S3
{ a
bookstoreName "K&M Bookstore";
x
CO
 this.id = id;
this.title = title;
this.pages = pages;
this.price = price;
}

*
* Accessor method

* @return the name of the Bookstore

*/
public String getBookstoreName()
{ return bookstoreName; }

/**
* Mutator method

* @param name the name of the Bookstore

oo */
01 public void setBookstoreName ( String bookstoreName)
00
{ this.bookstoreName = bookstoreName; }

* Accessor method
*
@return the id of the ReadingMaterial
*/
public int getld ()
{ return id; }

* Mutator method
*
* @param id the id of the ReadingMaterial
*/
public void setld(int id)
{ this.id = id; }
 * Accessor method
*
* @return the title of the ReadingMaterial
*/
public String getTitle()
{ return title; }
-.
/
* Mutator method
*
* Qparam title the title of the ReadingMaterial
*/
public void setTitle(String title)
{ this.title = title; }

w * Accessor method
Ul *
4*
* @return the number of pages of the ReadingMaterial
*/
public int getPages()
{ return pages; }

j
* Mutator method

* @param pages the number of pages of the ReadingMaterial

*/
public void setPages(int pages)
{ this.pages = pages; }

/**
* Accessor method
 * @return the price of the Reading material
*/
public int getPrice()
{ return price; }

!
* Mutator method

* @param price the price of the ReadingMaterial

*/
public void setPrice(int price)
{ this .price = price; }

/ *
* Mutator method
k
•

* @param increase increase the price of the ReadingMaterial by a number

w */
Ul public void changePriceBy(int increase)
ui
{
int newPrice = price + increase;

if(newPrice >= 0) {
this.price = newPrice;
}
}
}
 Book class

/
* class Book
* This class describes the basic information of a book in the
* bookstore. It extends the ReadingMaterial class.
* @author
* (Aversion 1.0
*/

public class Book extends ReadingMaterial

{
// instance variables
private int chapters ;
private String author ;
w
ui
/*
* Constructor
* @param id the id of the book
* Qparam title the title of the book
* @param pages the number of pages of the book
* @param price the price of the book
* @param chapters the number of chapters in the book
* @param author author of the book
*/

public Book(int id , String title, int pages, int price, int chapters, String author)
{
//Calls the ReadingMaterial constructor ,
super(id , title, pages, price);
 this.chapters = chapters;
this.author = author;
}

/ *
* Accessor method

* @return the number of chapters in the Book

*/
public int getChapters()
{ return chapters; }

/*
* Mutator method
*
* @ param chapters the number of chapters in the Book
*/
public void setChapters(int chapters)
w { this.chapters = chapters; }
<1
/ *
* Accessor method

* @return list of the author of the book

*/
public String getAuthor()
{ return author; }

!*
* Mutator method

* @param authors list of the author of the book

*/
public void setAuthor(String author)
{ this.author = author; }
}
 BubbleSort class
/ **
* BubbleSort class contains methods to sort various data structures in specific orders using the
* bubble sort algorithm .

* @ author
*/
public class BubbleSort
{
/ **
* bubbleSortA - sorts the books in the bookstore by price.

* Qparam books an array containing the books to be sorted

*/
books[current+1] = temp;
public static Book[] bubbleSortA(Book[] books , boolean ascending)
{
w int size = books . length;
C/1
00 int last, current;
Book temp;
for(last = size- 1; last > 0; last = last - 1)
{ for(current = 0; current < last; current = current + 1)
{
if(ascending) {
if (books[current] . getPrice() > books[current + 1].getPrice())
{
temp = books[current];
books[current] = books[current+1];
}
} else {
if (books[current].getPrice () < books[current + 1].getPrice())
{
temp = books[current];
books[current] = books[current+1];
books[current+1] = temp;
 }
}
}
}

return books;
}
}

SequentialSearch class

/ **
* SequentialSearch holds the methods needed for sequential search for this program.

* @author
w */
Ü1
sO public class SequentialSearch
{
!
* sequentialSearchTitle - searches an array of Book records for a specific title.
*
*gparam target the title to be found
* @param nums the array of Book records to be searched
* return - 1 if element not found , else the index where our element resides in the Book[] array .
*/ ^
public static int sequentialSearchTitle(String target, Book[] nums)
{
int size = nums.length;
boolean found = false;
int place = 0;
while (place < size && !found)
{
String toFind = nums[place].getTitle();
 String toFindTrim = toFind.trim();
if (target . equals(toFindTrim))
{ found = true; }
else
{ place = place + 1; }
}
if (found)
{ return place; }
else
{ return -1; }
}

/
* sequentialSearchAuthor - searches an array of Book records for a specific author.

* Qparam target the author to be found

* @param nums the array of Book records to be searched
* @return -1 if element not found , else the index where our element resides in the Book[] array.
oo */
ON public static int sequentialSearchAuthor(String target, Book[] nums)
o
{
int size = nums.lengthi-
boolean found = false;
int place = 0;
while (place < size && !found)
{
String toFind = nums[place].getAuthor() ;

String toFindTrim = toFind.trim ();

if (target.equals(toFindTrim))
{ found = true; }
else
{ place = place + 1; }
}
if (found)
 { return place; }
else
{ return -1; }
}
}

InputTerminal class

j
* class InputTerminal
* Allows the user to add a book or a magazine to the Bookstore through the terminal.
*
* @author
* (Aversion 1.0
*/
co
ON public class InputTerminal
{
// instance variables
private String title, author;
private int id , pages, price, chapters;
private String[] authorList;
!
* bookEntry method

* Responsible for getting user input for a new book entry in the bookstore.
*/
public Book bookEntry()
{
InputOutput.output(” ");
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("=== " );
InputOutput.output(" New bookstore entry ” );
 InputOutput.output("=============== ");
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output(" ff );
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("Book details");
InputOutput.output(" ");
InputOutput.output("");

id = InputOutput.inputlnt("id: ");
while(id < 0 || id == 0) {
InputOutput .output ( "Error: The id you entered was not a proper id number");
id = InputOutput.inputlnt( " id: ");
}

title = InputOutput.inputstring("title: ");

while(title.trim().length() == 0 || title.trim().length () > 25) {
InputOutput.output("Error: The title you entered was empty or has more than 25 characters");
title = InputOutput .inputstring("title: ");
w }
ON
N)
pages = InputOutput.inputlnt("pages: ");
while(pages < 0 || pages == 0) {
InputOutput.output("Error: The pages you entered was not a positive number");
pages = InputOutput.inputlnt(" pages: ") ;
}

price = InputOutput.inputlnt("price ( $): ");

while(price < 0 || price == 0) {
InputOutput.output(" Error: The price you entered was not a positive number");
price = InputOutput.inputlnt( " price: ($)" ) ;
}

chapters = InputOutput.inputlnt("chapters: ") ;

while(chapters < 0 || chapters == 0) {
InputOutput.output("Error: The chapters you entered was not a positive number");
chapters = InputOutput.inputlnt("chapters: ");
 }

author = InputOutput. inputstring("author: 11

);

while(author.trim().length() == 0 || title.trim().length() > 25) {

InputOutput.output("Error: The author name you entered was empty or has more than 25
characters'1 );
author = InputOutput.inputstring("author : ");
}

Book b = new Book ( id, title , pages, price, chapters, author);

return b;
}
}

w BookFile class
O
'
w

/ *
* class BookFile
* This class is responsible for reading the file where all the books are stored.
* Furthermore , this class can also write a book entry to the file.

* @ author
* (Aversion vl .0
*/

import java.io.PrintWriter;
import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.FileReader;
 public class BookFile
{
static final String FILENAME = "bookFile";
/**
* readBookFile reads all the book entries from the bookstore

* @return DynamicQueue with all the contents of the bookFile ( i.e. all the books in our bookstore)
*/
public Book[] readBookFile()
{
Book[] arrayOfBooks = new Book[999];
int length = 0;

try {
FileReader theBookFile = new FileReader(FILENAME);
BufferedReader input = new BufferedReader(theBookFile);
w
ON String line;
4*
while((line = input.readLine ()) != null) {
length = length + 1;

int token = line.indexOf(": 11 );

int nextToken = line.indexOf(":", token+1);

int id = Integer.parselnt(line.substring(0, token));

String title = line.substring(token+1, nextToken);

token = nextToken;
nextToken = line.indexOf(":", token+1);

int pages = Integer . parselnt(line.substring(token+1 , nextToken));

token = nextToken;

i
 nextToken = line.indexOf(":", token+1);

int price = Integer . parselnt(line . substring(token+1, nextToken)) ;

token = nextToken;
nextToken = line.indexOf(":", token+1);

int chapters = Integer.parselnt(line.substring(token+1, nextToken));

token = nextToken;
nextToken = line.indexOf( M :" , token+1) ;

String author = line.substring (token+1 , nextToken);

Book entry = new Book(id , title, pages, price, chapters, author);

arrayOfBooks[length-1] = entry ;
}
w
& } catch (Exception e) {
Ü1
//bookFile does not exist or cannot be created .
String err = e.toString();
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("The file does not exist or cannot be created.") ;
InputOutput.output( "");
}

Book[] properArrayOfBooks = new Book[length];

for(int i=0; i<length; i++) {

properArrayOfBooks[i] = arrayOfBooks[i];
}

return properArrayOfBooks ;
 }

!
* writeToBookFile - writes a new book entry to the book file.

* @param b a new book entry

*/
public void writeToBookFile (Book b)
{
Book[] books = readBookFile();
Book[] booksWithAddedBook;

if(books != null) {

booksWithAddedBook = new Book[books.length+1];

for(int i=0; i < books.length; i++) {

w booksWithAddedBook[i] = books[i];
ON >
booksWithAddedBook[booksWithAddedBook . length-1] = b;
} else {
booksWithAddedBook = new Book[ l];
booksWithAddedBook[0] = b;
}

writeBooksToBookFile(booksWithAddedBook ) ;
}

!
* writeBooksToBookFile - writes an array of books to the book file.
*
* @param books an array of books
*/
public void writeBooksToBookFile(Book[] books )

l
 {
PrintWriter output = null ;

try {
output = new PrintWriter(FILENAME);
} catch ( Exception e) {
/ /bookFile does not exist or cannot be created .
String err = e.toString();
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("The file cannot be created.");
InputOutput.output("");
}

if(books != null && books.length != 0) {

for(int i=0; i < books.length; i ++) {

Book temp = books[i];

w
-
ON
4
int id = temp . getldO ;
String title = temp.getTitle();
int pages = temp . getPages() ;
int price = temp.getPrice();
int chapters = temp.getChapters();
String author = temp.getAuthor();

//append them to the bookFile file.

output.print(id + ":");
output.print(title + ":");
output.print(pages + ":");
output . print( price + ":");
output.print(chapters + ":");
output.println(author + ":");
}

} else {
 output.print("");
}

output.close ();
}

!
* outputAUBooksToTerminal - outputs all the books in the bookstore to the terminal without sorting
*/
public void outputAUBooksToTerminal()
{
Book[] books = null;

books = readBookFile();

if(books != null) {

UJ if(books.length == 0) {
ON InputOutput.output(" 11 );
CO
InputOutput.output("The bookstore is empty.");
InputOutput.output("");
}

for(int i=0; i < books.length; i ++) {

Book temp = books[i];

int id = temp . getld();

String title = temp.getTitle ();
int pages = temp . getPages();
int price = temp . getPrice();
int chapters = temp.getChapters();
String author = temp . getAuthor();

InputOutput.output("");
 InputOutput.output("======================= "> ;
InputOutput.output("ID:" + id);
InputOutput.output( " TITLE:" + title);
InputOutput .output("PAGES:" + pages);
InputOutput.output("PRICE ($):" + price);
InputOutput.output("CHAPTERS:" + chapters);
InputOutput.output("AUTHOR(S):" + author);

InputOutput.output("=== w );
InputOutput.output("");
}

} else {
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("There are no books in the bookstore.");
InputOutput.output("");
}
U) }
O' }
vO

Bookstore class

!*
* Bookstore class is the main class for the Bookstore example .

* Qauthor
* © version 1.0
*/
public class Bookstore
{
// instance variables
BookFile bf;
 /
* Main method
*/
public static void main(String[] args)
{
new Bookstore ();
}

!
* Constructor for objects of class Bookstore
*/
public Bookstore()
{
//sequentially
bf = new BookFile();

showMenu();
w }
o /*
* showMenu method - displays the start menu in the Terminal.

*/
public void showMenu()
{
InputOutput .output ( " :==" );

InputOutput .output ( "Welcome to the Bookstore");

InputOutput.output("=== "> ;
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("Select one of the following actions:" ) ;
InputOutput.output("a) List all the books in the bookstore");
InputOutput.output(" b) Add a book to the boostore");
InputOutput.output("c) Sort books by price (descending)");
InputOutput.output("d) Sort books by price (ascending)");
InputOutput.output("e) Find book with title");
InputOutput.output("f) Exit");
 InputOutput.output("” );
InputOutput.output("");

char selection = InputOutput.inputChar("Which action do you want to perform? ");

switch (selection) {
case ’ a * : listAUBooks();
break;
case * bf : addBook() ;
break;
case 'c' : sortByPrice(false);
break;
case fd' : sortByPrice(true);
break;
case 'e' : findBookTitle();
break;
case 'f ! : System.exit(0);
break;
w default :
break;
}
}
!
* listAUBooks method lists all the books of the bookstore in the terminal .
*/
public void listAUBooks()
{
//sequentially
bf.outputAUBooksToTerminal( ) ;
InputOutput . output("");
InputOutput .input("Press ANY BUTTON to continue.");
InputOutput.output("");
showMenu();
}

!
 * addBook method - allows the user to add a book through the terminal
*/
public void addBook()
{
InputTerminal addBook = new InputTerminal();
Book b = addBook.bookEntry ();

bf.writeToBookFile(b);

InputOutput.output(" 11 );
InputOutput.input("Press ANY BUTTON to continue.");
InputOutput.output("");
showMenu();
}

!
* sortByPrice method
*
w * @param ascending whether the Bookstore list is sorted in an ascending or descending way.
NJ
*/
public void sortByPrice(boolean ascending)
{

Book[] books = null;

//sequentially
books = bf . readBookFile();

if(books == null || books . length == 0)

InputOutput.output("There are no books in the bookstore to sort.");
else {
if(ascending) {
books = BubbleSort.bubbleSortA(books , true);
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output ("Sorted books by price (ascending):");
InputOutput .output ( "");

L
 } else {
books = BubbleSort . bubbleSortA(books, false);
InputOutput.output( ” ");
InputOutput.output( ’’Sorted books by price (descending): ” );
InputOutput.output(” ’’);
}

for(int i=books.length-1; i >=0; i--) {

int id = books[i].getld();
String title = books[i].getTitle();
int pages = books[i].getPages();
int price = books[i].getPrice();
int chapters = books[i].getChapters();
String author = books[i].getAuthor();

InputOutput.output( ””);
InputOutput.output("======================= ");
InputOutput.output( ” ID: ” + id);
w InputOutput.output( ’’TITLE:" + title);
00
InputOutput.output( ’’PAGES: ” + pages);
InputOutput .output( ’’PRICE ($): ” + price);
InputOutput .output( ’’CHAPTERS: ” + chapters);
InputOutput.output("AUTHOR(S):” + author);

InputOutput.output("=== ");
InputOutput.output("” );
}
}

InputOutput.output(” ");
InputOutput . input("Press ANY BUTTON to continue.");
InputOutput.output( ’"’);
showMenu();
}

/ •kit
 * findBookTitle method

* @return find a Book with a given book title.

*/
public void findBookTitle()
{
InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("Search for a book. 11 );
String searchParameter = InputOutput.input("Title to search: ");
InputOutput.output(" 11 );

Book[] books = null;

//sequentially
books = bf.readBookFile();

int toShow = SequentialSearch . sequentialSearchTitie(searchParameter, books);

w do {

if(toShow == -1)
InputOutput.output("There is no book in the bookstore with such a title.");
else {
int id = books[toShow].getld();
String title = books[toShow].getTitie();
int pages = books[toShow].getPages();
int price = books[toShow].getPrice();
int chapters = books[toShow] . getChapters();
String author = books[toShow].getAuthor();

InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("===================== ");
InputOutput.output("ID:" + id);
InputOutput.output("TITLE:" + title);
InputOutput.output("PAGES:" + pages);
InputOutput.output("PRICE ($):" + price);
 InputOutput.output("CHAPTERS:" + chapters);
InputOutput.output("AUTHOR(S):" + author);
InputOutput.output("======================= "> ;
InputOutput.output("");

int ltemp = books . length - toShow 1;

Book[] temp = new Book[ltemp];

for(int i=0; i <temp.length; i++)

temp[i] = books[toShow+i +1];

books = temp;

toShow = SequentialSearch . sequentialSearchTitle(searchParameter , books);

}
} while(toShow != - 1);

InputOutput.output("");
Ü1
InputOutput.input(" Press ANY BUTTON to continue.");
InputOutput.output( "");
showMenu();
}
}

Appendix B references
Chua Hock-Chuan. (n.d.). Programming notes. Retrieved June 23, 2015, from http:// www.ntu.edu.sg/home/ ehchua/ programming/index.html
 >
*0
Appendix C - Team Builder System
m
z
Team Builder class
o
X
/
n
* TeamBuilder.java i
H
*/ m
public class TeamBuilder
{
>
public static void main(String[] s){
w InputOutput .output("Welcome to the Team Builder System"); C
ON InputOutput . output( ” ");
O
int i = InputOutput . inputlnt("How many members are in the team? ");
m
Member[] teamMembers = new Member[i] ;
po
C/5
InputOutput.output("Input the team members (Name:Surname:Sex:DD/MM /YYYY) : ");
C/5
for(int j = 0; j < i; j++) { H
m 13
>
String member = InputOutput.input();
InputOutput .output(""); 13
fD
int indexSeperator = member .indexOf(":"); 3
String name = member.substring(0 , indexSeperator);
member = member . substring(indexSeperator+1, member . length());
n
 indexSeperator = member.indexOf(":");
String surname = member.substring(0, indexSeperator );
member = member .substring(indexSeperator+1, member.length());

indexSeperator = member.indexOf(":");
char sex = member.charAt(0);
member = member.substring(indexSeperator+1, member .length ());

indexSeperator = member .indexOf("/");

String datestring = member.substring(0, indexSeperator);
member = member.substring(indexSeperator+1 , member.length());

indexSeperator = member.indexOf("/ ");

String monthstring = member.substring(0, indexSeperator);
member = member.substring(indexSeperator+1, member . length());

String yearstring = member.substring(0 , member.length ());

w Integer datelnteger = new Integer(datestring );

^4 Integer monthlnteger = new Integer(monthstring);
Integer yearlnteger = new Integer(yearstring);

int date = datelnteger.intValue();

int month = monthlnteger .intValue();
int year = yearlnteger .intValue();

teamMembers[j] = new Member(name , surname , sex, date, month, year);

}

int selection = 0;

while (selection != 1 && selection != 2 && selection !=3){

InputOutput.output("");
InputOutput.output("Team Builder Menu: ");
InputOutput.output(" 11 );
 InputOutput.output("=== ” );
InputOutput.output( 11 ");
InputOutput.output(" 1) List the team members") ;
InputOutput.output("2) Find the oldest member");
InputOutput.output("3) Find the youngest member");

selection = InputOutput .inputlnt("");

}

switch(selection) {
case 1: InputOutput .output("") ;
outputTeamMembers(teamMembers);
break;
case 2: InputOutput .output ( "The oldest member is: " + oldest(teamMembers));
break;
case 3: InputOutput .output("The youngest member is: " + youngest(teamMembers)) ;
default: break;
}
w }
vj
00
public static void outputTeamMembers (Member[] teamMembers) (

for(int i = 0; i < teamMembers.length; i++) {

String name = teamMembers[i].getName();
String surname = teamMembers[i].getSurname();
char sex = teamMembers[i].getSex();
int date = teamMembers[i].getDate();
int month = teamMembers[i].getMonth();
int year = teamMembers[i].getYear() ;

String sLong;

if(sex == " m') {

sLong = "male";
} else {
sLong = "female";
 }

InputOutput.output(name + " " + surname + " , " + sLong + ", " + "born " + date + " /" + month +
"/" + year);
}
}

public static String oldest (Member[] teamMembers){

//initialization .
int max = 0;
int oldest = 0;

for(int i = 0; i < teamMembers.length ; i++) {

int age = (2011 - teamMembers[i].getYear());

if(age > max) {

W max age;
<i oldest = i;
vO
}

int age = (2011 - teamMembers[oldest].getYear());

String toReturn = teamMembers[oldest].getName() + " " + teamMembers[oldest].getSurname() + ", age " +
age;

return toReturn;
}

public static String youngest (Member[] teamMembers) {

//initialization.
int min = 999;
 int youngest = 0;

for(int i = 0; i < teamMembers.length; i++) {

int age = (2011 - teamMembers[i].getYear());

if(age < min) {
min age;
youngest = i;
}

int age = (2011 - teamMembers[youngest].getYear());

String toReturn = teamMembers[youngest] . getName() + " " + teamMembers[youngest].getSurname() + ", age
" + age;
return toReturn;
}
os }
o
Member class

!
* Member class
*
*/
public class Member
{
private String name;
private String surname;
private char sex ;
private int date;
private int month;
private int year;
 public Member(String name, String surname, char sex, int date, int month, int year) {
this.name = name ;
this.surname surname;
this.sex = sex;
this.date = date;
this.month = month;
this.year = year;
}

public String getName()

{ return name; }

public String getSurname()

{ return surname; }

public char getSex()

{ return sex; }
w
00 public int getDate()
{ return date; }

public int getMonth()

{ return month; }

public int getYear()

{ return year; }
}

Appendix C references
Chua Hock -Chuan. ( n.d.). Programming notes. Retrieved June 23, 2015, from http:// www.ntu. edu.sg/ home/ ehchua /programming/index.htm!
Index of Terms
Concurrent Processing, 195
A
Conditional Statement, 188
Abstract Thinking, 196 Constant, 245
Accessibility, 43 Constructor, 321, 328
Accessor, 321, 328 Control Unit ( CU ), 62
Aggregation, 304 Copper Cable, 153
Algorithm, 177
Argument, 310 D
Arithmetic Logic Unit ( Alu), 63
Arrays Of Objects, 205 Data Compression, 152

Artificial Intelligence, 53 Data Flow Diagrams, 37

Assembly Languages, 243 Data Integrity, 125

Association, 302 Data Loss, 18

Data Migration, 10
Data Packet, 125, 154
B
Data Representation, 96
Backup, 19 Data Types, 309
Bandwidth, 151 Database Management Systems ( DBMS), 79
Batch Processing, 34 Decimal Number System, 86
Big O Notation, 232 Decision Making Process, 175
Binary Number System, 88 Decomposing A Problem, 300
Binary Search, 211 Dependency, 303, 305
Bit, 86 Dialogue Box, 85
Boolean Operators, 102 Direct Observation, 32
Bottleneck, 151 Disability, 47
Bubble Sort, 213 Div, 246
Bus Topology, 124 Domain Name System Server, 24
Business Merger, 5 Dumb Terminal, 24
Byte, 86 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol ( DHCP), 160

C E
Cable, 124 Efficiency, 232
Cache Memory, 66 Email, 80
Central Processing Unit ( CPU), 62 Email Server, 24
Change Management, 5 Email Support, 15
Check Digit, 125 Embedded Assistance, 15
Check Sum, 125 Encapsulation, 312
Class, 319 Encryption, 165
Client, 24, 126 End Users, 41
Client ( The Person), 41 Ergonomics, 44
Client - Server, 25 Ethical And Moral Obligations, 346
Code Reuse, 258 Examining Current Systems, 32
Collection, 218, 256 Extends, 322
Command Line Interfaces, 83 External Documentation, 14
Competing Products, 33 Extranet, 137
Compiler, 244
Computer Aided Design ( Cad), 81 F
Computer Hardware, 23
Computer Network, 23 Failover System, 20
Computer System, 3 Feasibility Report, 4
Computer Systems, 61 Fiber Optic Cable, 153
Firewall, 24

382
Flag, 236 Logic Gates, 119
Flowchart, 179 Logical Rules, 190
Formal Classes, 17 Lte, 162
Frequently Asked Questions, 15
Function, 263 M
Fundamental Operations, 241
Machine Instruction Cycle, 68
Machine Language, 243
G
Manuals, 15
Gantt Chart, 191 Memory Address Register ( MAR ), 65
Gateway, 125 Memory Data Register ( MDR ), 65
Goodput, 151 Menu, 84
Grammar, 243 Method, 263, 321
Graphic Processing Software, 82 Microwave Transmission, 125
Graphical User Interface ( GUI), 83 Mod, 246
Modem, 125, 158
H Modular Language, 39
Modular Programming, 39
Handshaking, 125 Modularity, 318
Hexadecimal Number System, 93 Module, 39, 263
High-Level Programming Language, 243 Mutator, 321, 328
Hub, 125, 127
Human Resources, 23
N

i Name/SSID, 160
Natural Language, 178
Identifier, 319 Network, 125
Impairment, 47 Network Security, 166
Implementation Method, 8 Networking, 125
Inheritance, 298, 304, 313 New System, 3
Instance Variable, 320
Instantiation, 293
o
Internal Documentation, 14
Internationalization, 345 Object, 245
Internet, 136 Object Manipulation, 198
Internet Of Things ( loT), 136 Object-Oriented Programming, 197, 291
Interpreter, 244 One Dimensional Arrays Or Linear Arrays, 201
Interviews, 31 Online Portals Or Web Portals, 15
Intranet, 135 Online Processing, 34
ISDN ( Integrated Services Digital Network ), 125 Operating System, 74
Iteration, 40, 187 Operator, 245
Organizational Capabilities, 33
j OSI, 142

Java Virtual Machine, 244 p

L Packet Switching, 125, 154

Parallel Arrays, 203
Layers, 142 Parameter, 310
Legacy System, 5 Parameter Variable, 320
Libraries Of Objects, 316 Parity Bit, 125
Literature Search, 33 Patches, 21
Live Chat Sessions, 15 Peer -To- Peer ( P 2 P ), 139
Local Area Network ( LAN), 125, 129 Peripheral Device, 23
Local Variable, 320 Personal Area Network ( PAN), 139

383
Planning A New System, 3 Static, 322, 329
Polymorphism, 313 Static Arrays, 339
Post -Condition, 193 Storage Area Network ( SAN ), 134
Pre - Condition, 193 Structure Charts, 37
Prefetching, 191 Sub - Procedures, 263
Pre-Planning, 191 Sub - Program, 258
Primary Memory, 63 Subroutines, 263
Primitive, 319 Survey Methodology, 31
Private, 321 Switch, 127
Problem, 174 Switchover, 20
Procedure, 263 Syntax, 242
Programming, 182 System Flowcharts, 35
Protected, 321 System Life Cycle, 1
Protocol, 125, 150
Prototype, 39 T
Pseudocode, 38, 180
Public, 322 Tcp / ip, 125, 144
Testing, 11
Thin Client, 24
Q
Throughput, 151
Questionnaires, 31 Toolbar, 84
Top-Down Design, 38

R Translation Process, 244

Truth Tables, 109
Random Access Memory ( RAM ), 64 Two Dimensional Arrays, 205
Read Only Memory ( ROM ), 64
Real-Time Processing, 34
u
Releases, 21
Remote Desktop Connections, 16 Uml Diagrams, 294
Remote /Distance Learning/Online Training, 17 Updates, 21
Return Value, 321 Upgrades, 21
Robotics, 53 Usability, 43
Router, 24, 127 User Documentation, 14
Routine, 263 User Training, 16

s v
SaaS ( Software-As-A-Service), 7 Validation, 13
Secondary Memory, 70 Variable, 245
Secondary Memory (Storage ) Devices, 72 Variables, 201
Selection Sort, 215 Venn Diagrams, 119
Self -Instruction Or Self -Study, 16 Verification, 13
Semantics, 242 Virtual Local Area Network ( VLAN), 131
Sensor Networks, 164 Virtual Memory, 72
Sequential Search, 210 Virtual Private Network, 145
Server, 24, 126 Virtual Private Network ( VPN ), 137
Signature, 321, 328
Social And Ethical Significance, 25 w
Software, 23
Software Application, 77 Web Browsers, 80
Software Incompatibility, 6 Wep Wireless Security, 167
Software Libraries, 258 Wide Area Network ( WAN ), 125, 134
Spreadsheets, 78 WiMax, 163
Stakeholders, 30 Wireless Access Point ( WAP), 158
Standards, 140 Wireless Application Protocol ( WAP), 160

384
Wireless Communication, 153 Wireless Protected Setup (WPS), 167
Wireless Local Area Network ( WLAN ), 130 Word Processors, 77
Wireless Networks, 161 WPA, WPA 2 Wireless Security, 167

385
CORE COMPUTER SCIENCE
For the IB Diploma Program (International Baccalaureate)

Core Computer Science: For the IB Diploma Program is a new educational resource for
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