Computer Fundamentals Assignment - 1

Q.1. Define Flash Memory.
List the guidelines for troubleshooting flash

memory drive?
Ans: Flash memory drive is a non-volatile memory chip (non-permanent)
which is used for storage and for transfer of data between computer (PC).
digital devices. It can easily be erased and reprogrammed electronically. It
is mostly used in USB flash drives, MP3 players, digital cameras.
A USB flash drive also known as a USB stick; USB drive is a plug-n-play
portable storage device. It is less in weight and more durable enough to
attach to a keychain. We ac use USB flash drive instead of a compact disc.
A USB flash drive can be use to store important files, data backups, and as
a bootable USB to troubleshoot computer system.
When you plugged in the USB drive in USB of a computer check for the
light in flash drives. USB drive not detecting on computer system is the
most common problem reported by many users, it could be broken or other
reason caused the drive error.
1. Port Issues: First we have to make sure that if this is a port problem, we
should check it with every USB port that we have with different flash
drives. The problem might be either with hardware or software or both.
To correct this problem, you would need a professional to help.
2. USB Formatting Issue: When we bought a new flash drive and if we are
unable to write anything on it, we have to find out what is the correct
format for our computer OS. FAT is the ideal format of new USB drive
should be in, as it works on operating system like Windows, Mac, and
Linux. If the USB drive is not in the right format, then we have to change
its format. We can do this by double clicking on the ‘My Computer’ icon,
and then right-clicking on the USB drive icon and the window which
opens, from the list select and click on ‘Format’. We have to choose the
correct file format and click on ‘Start’. This is the most common reason
you will of not detecting flash drive. If we did not format flash drive
properly before the first use it could cause problems later on.
3. Driver Issue: Mostly the USB drive are plug-n-play it easily gets detected
and run smoothly with compatible drivers provided by the operating
system like Windows, Mac etc. If the USB drive fail to detect
automatically and gave an error that’s mean there is a drivers
incompatibility issue, in that case we have to download drives from the
manufacturer website of USB drive and install it resolve this kind of
problem.
4. Hard Drive Related Issues: There would be problem with your machine's
hard drive and this will not allow anything on it to work in a good and
perfect way. This computer hardware issue should be handled by a
professional technician because it will affect your computer's ability to
detect a flash drive.
5. Operating System Related Issues: Many times, our computer operating

system we are using are not updated with the necessary updates
provided, this would also cause the system to not recognize the flash
drive. This could be rectified by updating the necessary updates.
Q.2. Define operating system. Give the Overview of application software?

Ans: An Operating System can be defined as an interface between the
computer hardware and the end-user. Operating system processes of data,
runs applications, file management and it also handles the memory is all
managed by the computer OS. Windows, Mac, Android etc. are e.g. of
Operating systems which mostly used at present.
Todays all modern equipment including Computer, Laptops, Tablet, Mobile
phones, etc. uses an Operating System which helps them effortless
working of the device.
There are following types of Operating System
1. Batch Operating System
2. Real-Time Operating System
3. Time-Sharing Operating System
4. Distributed Operating System
5. Embedded Operating System
6. Network Operating System
7. Mobile Operating System
Application Software:
First thing to know about the term “application software” is that it is
extremely broad.
Program or number of program that is designed for end user are called
Application software. It means that any end user software or program are
called an application.
Application software is also a computer software which is designed to help
the end user to perform a one or multiple related tasks. E.g. MS Word, MS
Excel or spreadsheets, media players and database applications.
Application software is a division or subclass of computer software that
increases the capabilities of a computer directly and thoroughly to a
task that the user wants to perform.
This should be set off with system software which is involved in combining
a computer's various capabilities, but usually it is not directly apply them
in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. In this situation the term
application uses to both the application software and its implementation.
Best e.g. of software applications are MS Word, MS Excel and media
players. Multiple applications combine together as a package and are an
application suite. Some suite might contain other discrete application with
MS Word and MS Excel. The binding of separate applications with a suite
usually have a user interface that has some common features which make
it user friendly for the user to learn and use each application may have
some capability to interact with each other to benefit the user in many
ways.
E.g. In MS Word document it is embedded with MS Excel tools for
calculations, hyperlinks etc. even though it had been created in the
separate MS Word application.
User-written software customizes systems to provide the user's specific
needs. User-written software such as MS Excel templates, MS Word
macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts.
Q.3.Explain TCP/IP Protocol layers. Elaborate Internet Backbones with
suitable diagrams?
Ans: The Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol also called TCP/IP
model is a part of the Internet Protocol Suite. This model helps in
communication for computer networks and connects hosts on the internet it
acts as a communication protocol. It is a concise/compact version of the
OSI Model and having four layers in its structure.
Layers of the TCP/IP Model
Unlikely the OSI model which is having seven layers, the TCP/IP model is
structured with four layers. These four layers are:
1. Network Access Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Host to Host Layer
4. Application Layer
1. Network Access Layer

• This is the last or you can say the bottom-most layer of the TCP/IP
model architecture
• This layer is a combination of the Data Link and Physical Layer of the
OSI model
• Physical Data transmission takes place at this layer
• In this layer encapsulating the IP datagram is done on the transmitted
frames.
• IP address mapping into physical address is done here.
• In this layer transmission of data between two devices connected in a
network takes place.
2. Internet Layer
• In terms of the structure it is the second layer of the TCP/IP model
and parallel to the Network Layer of the OSI Model.
• The main function of the Internet layer is sending the data packets to
their destination network.
• At this level logical transmission of data takes place.
• Three different protocols are used in this layer. These are
• IP: It is the most important protocols as it detects the IP address of a
device which is later used for internetwork connections.
• ARP: Address Resolution Protocol.
• ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol used for notification
regarding datagram problems can be sent back to the user using this
protocol.
3. Host-To-Host Layer
• This layer of TCP/IP model is parallel to the transport layer of the
OSI Model
• The main function of this layer is to deliver error free data.
• This layer consists two main protocols, they are TCP and UDP
• TCP: It is the integral part of the Transmission Control Protocol. It
manages the flow of data, i.e. sequencing and segmentation of the
data
• UDP: Connection-free protocol which makes it cost-effective but not
reliable.
4. Application Layer
• The combination of three layers of the OSI Model i.e., Application,
Presentation and Sessions, perform similar functions of TCP/IP
model Application layer.
• Node-to-Node communication occurs here based on the user-
interface.
• Application layer contains multiple protocols; a few common ones are
listed below:
• HTTP, NTP, TELNET, FTP, NFS, SSH, SMTP, TFTP etc.
INTERNET BACKBONE DIAGRAM
How in the other network, the web has access links that move traffic of
high-bandwidth routers which move traffic from its source to the simplest
available path to its destination. To create the Internet backbone these
individual high-speed fiber optic networks are peered with each other.
These individual main networks are owned by Private Tier 1 internet

service providers (ISP), These giant carriers whose networks are tied
together, include companies like AT&T, CenturyLink, Cogent
Communications, Deutsche Telekom, NTT Communications, Tata
Communications, Carrier, and Verizon etc.
By combining these long-haul networks together, Tier 1 ISPs develop one
worldwide network that allows all of them to access to the whole internet
routing table so that they can easily and efficiently deliver internet traffic to
its desired destination through a grading of local ISPs.
Moreover, as they're physically connected, these backbone providers are
combined together by a shared network protocol called TCP/IP. TCP/IP are
literally two protocols, transport control protocol and internet protocol that
found out connections between devices, insuring reliable connection and
formatting messages into packets.
The backbone of internet is tied alongside Internet exchange points (IXP)
Backbone ISPs network are connecting at peering point which is commonly
owned locations with high-speed switches and routers which allows to
move traffic among the peers.

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Q.1. Define Flash Memory.

List the guidelines for troubleshooting flash

5. Operating System Related Issues: Many times, our computer operating

Q.2. Define operating system. Give the Overview of application software?

1. Network Access Layer

INTERNET BACKBONE DIAGRAM

These individual main networks are owned by Private Tier 1 internet

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