UNIT 3 DEFECTS IN STEEL

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Definitions
3.2.1 Carbon Steel
3.22 Effects of Carbon
3.2.3 General Properties of Steel
3.2.4 Mild Steel
3.3 Types of Steel Reinforcement
3.4 Manufacturing Defects in Steel
3.4.1 Geometry Deformation
3.4.2 NOD-uniform Cross-sectional Area
3.4.3 Chemical Composition
3.4.4 Mechanical properties
3.4.5 Defective Weight per Metre
3.4.6 Defective Twisting
3.4.7 Defective Manufacture
3.5 Defects in Steel Reinforcement during Construction
3.6 Corrosion of Steel
3.7 Effects of the Concrete Environment on Corrosion
3.8 Procedures for Identifying Corrosive Environments and Active Corrosion in
Concrete
3.9 Steel Manufacturing Process
3.10 Simple Field Tests for Structural Steel
3.11 Chromium in Stee1 (Chrome Steel)
3.12 Summary

3.1 INTRODUCTION

You have a good knowledge about iron i.e. the three categories of cast iron, wrought
iron and steel, their manufacturing methods and general properties. Steel is widely used
for construction purposes. Steel as reinforcement is used in combination with concrete
for reinforced concrete structures.
In this unit we will study various topics related to the defects in steel. As far as steel is
concerned, the defects come under two types.
a) manufacturing defects, and
b) corrosion defects.
For understanding the manufacturing defects a detailed study of various types/classes
of steel and their relevant engineering properties is required. For corrosion, the actual
chemical actions involved are required to be understood.
Objectives
 After studying this module, you should be able to:
 know the types of steel used in construction with their application,
 explain various defects due to manufacturing inadequacy, and
  discuss the various factors including environmental/ atmospheric responsible
for causing corrosion.

3.2 DEFINATION

The term steel is employed in general sense to those alloys of iron and carbon whose
total carbon content does not exceed 2% and steels are graded according to the
presence of carbon present. The smaller the amount of carbon steel contains, the
nearer will its properties resemble those of wrought iron and greater the quantity of
carbon it possesses, it tends to make its characteristics similar to cast iron. In ordinary
steel, the mechanical properties, are chiefly affected by modification of the carbon
percentage. Steels always contain, in minute quantities, some or all of the other
elements like manganese, silicon, sulphur, phosphorous etc; which have beneficial
effects on the performance of steels.
3.2.1 Carbon Steel
Steel consisting of iron and carbon only is called "carbon steel" which is ordinary
steel. Where small quantities of other elements such as nickel, chromium, vanadium
are also present, in addition to carbon, it is known as alloy steel. Carbon steels are
roughly divided into two categories viz; soft steels with less than 0.45% of carbon and
hard steel with over 0.5% carbon. The lesser the carbon the softer the steel. The
proportion of carbon is varied in the steels depending on the purpose for which they
are required.
3.2.2 Effects of Carbon
Carbon which is the most important constituent of steel gives its strength and
hardness, but increase of carbon percentage correspondingly decreases ductility,
malleability and toughness. The tensile strength, hardness yield point and elastic limit
of carbon steel increase with the carbon content upto about 1% of carbon. The higher
the percentage of carbon the lower the melting point.
3.2.3 General Properties of Steel
Steels are highly elastic, ductile, malleable, forgeable and weldable. They can be
hardened and tempered and are fused at lower temperature than wrought iron and can
retain magnetic properties. Steels have much higher tensile and compressive strength
than wrought iron and can withstand wear and tear much better. Steel plates sustain
greater injury when punched than wrought iron, therefore holes should be drilled in
steel plates as far as possible.
3.2.4 Mild Steel
Mild steel is a soft carbon steel and may contain 0.2 to 0.5% of carbon. Ordinary mild
steels possess excellent ductility. It is an elastic material and can be easily cut,
machined, punched or dolled, welded, forged and rolled. This steel cannot be
hardened or tempered and cannot be used for making any cutting tools. Its high
ductility enables the material to be bent when cold. Mild steels will recover from
deflection when relieved of stresses if they have not exceeded the yield point and
where the yield point has been exceeded it will elongate upto about 25 to 30% of its
length before it breaks. Mild steel is used for all kinds of structural steel works such
as joists, channels, angles, bolts, rivets, sheets, etc.
Before we proceed further on the above lines, let us recapitulate the basic codal
requirements of the steel reinforcement for usage in the concrete construction.

3.3 TYPES OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcing bars/wires or fabrics used for concrete shall be any of the following
conforming to accepted standards:
i) Mild steel and Medium tensile steel bars (As per IS:432- 1982)
ii) High Strength deformed steel bars/wires (As per IS:1786- 1985)
iii) Hard drawn steel wire fabric (As per IS:1566-1982)
In addition to me above, the rolled steel sections made from steel conforming to
IS:226-1975 we also used in the composite construction with concrete or for purely
the steel fabrication works.
3.3.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties
The Codal requirements with regard to physical and mechanical properties of mild
steel and medium tensile steel bars are enumerated in table 3.1 for ready reference.
The tolerance with respect to rolling and cutting shall be as per the Codes indicated
above. The High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) Steel Bars for use as
reinforcement in concrete shall be in the grades of Fe 415, Fe500 and Fe550. Unlike
mild steel, these high yield strength steel do not exhibit well defined yield point as can
be seen from stress-strain diagram as shown in Figure 3.1. In such cases, 0.2% proof
stress is taken as yield stress -

Figure 3.1 : Mild Steel Bar

which corresponds to the point of intersection of the curve and a straight line drawn
from a strain of 0.002 parallel to the tangent to the stress strain curve at the origin
(Figures 3.1 & 3.2). The figures following the symbol for Iron i.e. Fe indicates the
specified minimum 0.2% proof stress or yield stress in N/mm 2 i.e. MPa). The density
of steel shall be taken as 0.785 kg/sq.cm of the cross sectional area per metre length.
 Figure 3.2: Cold Worked Deformed Bars

3.4 MANUFACTURING DEFECTS IN STEEL

As we have seen in previous paras, the structural reinforcement should conform to
IS:1786-1985. Tor steel is produced in India in two grades namely Tor40 (Fe 415
grade) and Tor-50 (Fe 500 grade) by controlled cold twisting of tested quality hot
rolled deformed bars. The following are the general manufactural defects observed in
the steel marketed as CTD/HYSD bars.
3.4.1 Geometry Deformation
The geometry of bars may vary indefinite and bond strength may not be realistic and
may further be reduced under dynamic loading.
3.4.2 Non-uniform Cross-sectional Area
There is possibility that CS areas are significantly different along lengths. For use as
reinforcing steel in R.C. construction, the least CS area only is taken as effective and
not the theoretical average. Thus while procuring and using CTD bars, the average
weight per metre will be the basis for the sale but while in using the same the least
area of C.S. only will be effective, resulting in corresponding reduction of the safety
margin.
3.4.3 Chemical Composition
Chemical composition of bars may not be as per the standards specified in code
IS: 1786 - 1985
3.4.4 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties like 0.2% proof strength, tensile strength and percentage of
elongation etc., may not be as per the specifications indicated in the IS:1786-1985.
3.4.5 Defective Weight per Metre
The weight per metre may vary from standard weights specified in the code, beyond
the permitted tolerances.
3.4.6 Defective Twisting
Over twisted/under twisted. In case of over twisting, the material is rendered brittle
and minute cracks are formed. The margin between 0.2% proof strength and tensile
strength gets reduced and will not satisfy the required design specifications. On the
other hand, under twisted bars do not attain full 0.2% proof strength as expected.
3.4.7 Defective Manufacture
In hot rolled ribbed bars produced without proper temperature control during hot
rolling, longitudinal Cracks may develop for want of proper fusion of material during
passage of time in different roll passes. Sometimes, the bars are hot twisted instead of
cold twisting. Unfortunately, such manufactural defects are not identifiable by visual
inspection.

3.5 DEFECTS IN STEEL REINFORCEMENT DURING

CONSTRUCTION
Improper concreting can make a way for all possible corrodents to attack the
reinforcement. Hence it is imperative to carryout relevant IS Code tests on as
mentioned below on various constituents of concrete, namely, Cement, Steel,
Aggregate, Water and Concrete before going ahead with construction.
Cement
Various IS Code specified tests like Fineness Test : Initial and final settling time tests,
soundness test, consistency test, compressive strength test, etc., have to be carried out
for ensuring the quality of the material in conformity with IS code specifications.
Steel
Various IS code specified tests like bend test, tensile strength test, compression test,
shearing test, beep test, fatigue test, impart or shock test, torsion test, hardness test etc.,
have to be carried out on steel before adopting the same for construction.
Aggregates
Crushing value sieve analysis, abrasion test, attrition test, impact resistance test,
bulkage test, silt content test, moisture content test etc., are to be carried before
adopting the material for RCC construction.
Water
pH test and other IS code standards conforming to potable water requirements have to
be satisfied before adopting the same for concrete mixing.
Concrete
Compressive strength test, flexure test etc., are required to be carried out to satisfy the
concrete being used for the construction is as per design specifications. All necessary
precautions in placing and tying of reinforcement, providing laps, kinks, anchorage,
splicing, covers, spacers, binding wires etc., as mentioned in IS standards have to be
scrupulously adopted.

3.6 CONROSION OF STEEL

Concrete normally provides reinforcing steel with an excellent protection against
corrosion due to the environmental forces. It is all pervasive in the atmosphere, more
so, where there is moisture. Corrosion eats into concrete, steel and the very foundation
of man's attempt to build. It can destroy not just the homes but bridges, dab industrial
plants and any other construction where structural steel or reinforced concrete with
steel are used. The effects are slow, but the results are catastrophic. Thus, there exists
a compelling need for a Civil Engineer to know adequately about the corrosion to
safeguard his structural designs and constructions. You will see, in the following
paras, a detailed account of the corrosion phenomenon.
The high alkaline environment in concrete results in the formation of a film which
passivates the steel and protects it from deterioration caused by corrosion, etc. In
addition, concrete can be proportioned to have a low permeability which minimizes
the penetration/ingress of harmful constituents. Low permeability also increases the
electrical resistivity of concrete which impedes the flow of electrochemical corrosion
currents.
Because of these inherent protective attributes, corrosion of steel does not occur in
good quality concrete elements or structures. Corrosion of steel, however, can occur if
the concrete is not of adequate quality, the structure was not properly designed for the
service environment, or the environment is saline like in coastal areas or with
alternate splashing sea water or brackish ground water and gaseous emissions in
industrial regions.
3.6.1 Principles of Corrosion
Corrosion is an electrochemical process. The corrosion process is similar to the action
which takes place in a flashlight battery. An anode, where electrochemical oxidation
takes place, a cathode, where electrochemical reduction occurs, an electrical
conductor, and an aqueous medium must be present. Any metal surface on which
corrosion is taking place is a composite of anodes and cathodes electrically connected
through the body of the metal itself. Reactions at the anodes and cathodes are broadly
referred to as ''half-cell reactions."
At the anode, which is the negative pole, iron is oxidized to ferrous tons.
Fe = Fe++ + 2e-
The Fe++ is subsequently changed to oxides and hydroxides of iron by a number of
complex reactions. The volume of the reaction products is several times the volume of
the iron, (almost seven times) which gives rise to increasing/bulging tensile stresses in
concrete, resulting in cracking, spalling of concrete cover and rust straining, etc. Thus
corrosion is a continuous, irreversible process caused by various factors as discussed
below:
3.6.2 Availability of Oxygen in Concrete
The availability of oxygen is one of the main contributory factors for corrosion of
steel. A number of investigations indicate that if the steel passivity is destroyed,
conditions will be conducive to the corrosion of steel reinforcement in those parts of a
concrete structure that are exposed to periods of intermittent wetting and drying. In
wet concrete, dissolved oxygen will primarily be diffusing in solution, while in a
partly dry concrete, the diffusion of gaseous oxygen is much faster.
3.6.3 The Importance of Chloride Ions
The intrusion of chloride ions in reinforced concrete can cause steel corrosion, if
oxygen and moisture are also available to sustain the reaction. Chloride inns may be
introduced into concrete in a variety of ways. Some are intentional inclusion as an
accelerating admixture or accidental inclusion as contaminants on aggregates; or
penetration by deicing salts, industrial brines; marine spray fog, or mist, etc.
3.6.4 Electrochemical Role of Free Chloride Ions
There are three modem theories to explain the effects of chloride ions on steel
corrosion:
a) The Oxide Film Theory: It is believed that an oxide film on a metal surface is
responsible for passivity and thus protection against corrosion. This theory
postulates that chloride ions penetrate the oxide film on steel through pores or
defects in the film easier than do other ions (e.g. S04). Alternatively, the chloride
ions may colloidally disperse the oxide film, thereby making it vulnerable to
penetration of corrodents.
b) The Adsorption Theory: Chloride ions are adsorbed on the metal surface in
competition with dissolved oxygen or hydroxyl ions. The chloride ion promotes the
hydration of the metal ions and thus facilitates the dissolution of the metal ions.
c) The Transitory Complex Theory: According to this theory, chloride ions
compete with hydroxyl ions for the ferrous ions produced by corrosion. A soluble
complex of iron chloride forms. This complex can diffuse away from the anode
destroying the protective layer of Fe(OH)2, permitting corrosion to continue. Since
corrosion is not stifled, more iron ions continue to migrate into the concrete away
from the corrosion site and to react with oxygen to form higher oxides which result
in a fourfold volume increase. It is the expansion of iron oxides as they are
transformed to higher oxidation states that produce internal stress, which eventually
cracks the concrete.
3.6.5 Corrosion Rate and pH
The corrosion rate of iron is reduced as the pH increases. Since concrete has a pH
higher than 12.5, it is usually an excellent medium for protecting steel from corrosion.
Only under conditions where salts are present or the concrete cover has carbonated,
does the steel become vulnerable to corrosion. In the process of carbonation, the
atmospheric carbon-di-oxide reacts with the alkaline .materials in the concrete and
converts them into carbonates. Thus, alkalinity of concrete is reduced in tern of pH
values. When pH value falls below 9, the process of corrosion commences.
3.6.6 Passivity and Transpassivity
Passivity of a metal is generally characterized by a thin and tightly adherent oxide
film on the metal surface, which tends to protect the metal against further corrosion.
The exact composition of the thin and normally invisible film has been difficult to
determine.
However, investigations reveal that it is made up of chemical combinations of oxygen
and hence called oxygen film.
When a potential is applied to an iron electrode, the rate of current flow depends on
the state of passivity. Concrete is generally passive, such that little current flows when
a potential is applied; however, if the potentials is progressively increased, eventually
the current will flow. This is because, at this point, oxygen is evolved and the
electrode reaction involves the electrolysis of water.
2H2 O = 4H+ + O2 + 4e-
This phenomenon is called "transpassivity". Neither steel nor concrete is durable in a
low pH (acidic) environment.
3.6.7 Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stress corrosion is defined as the process in which the damage caused by stress and
corrosion acting together greatly exceeds that produced when they act separately. In
stressed steel, a small imperfection caused by corrosion can lead to a serious loss in
tensile strength as the corrosion continues at the initial anode area.
3.6.8 Effects of Temperature on Steel
It is found that there will not be any appreciable reduction in strength in steel
reinforcement upto a temp. of 300°C . However, the experiments indicate that at this
temperature, the bond between steel and concrete gets disturbed and concrete starts
spalling exposing the reinforcement to outside environment which may ultimately
lead to corrosion of reinforcement.
The mechanical properties of Cold Twisted Deformed bars such as Tor steel are
unaffected upto 300°C. Beyond this, there will be continuous reduction in proof and
tensile strength of the material. At about 600 °C, the reduction will be almost 50%
rendering the same structurally unsound. The graphs showing the reduction in proof
strength of steel at elevated temperature is shown in Figures 3.3 and 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Proof Strength of Steel at Room Temperature after Heating to an Elevated
Temperature
3.7 EFFECTS OF THE CONCRETE ENVIIRON,MENT ON
CORROSLON

3.7.1 Portland Cement

When portland cement hydrates, the silicates react with water to produce calcium
silicate hydrate and calcium hydroxide. The following simplified equations give the
main reactions of portland cement with water:
2(3CaO SiO2) + 6H2O → 2CaO 2SiO2 3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2
2(2CaO SiO2) + 4H2O → 3CaO 2SiO2 3H2O + Ca(OH)2
As you how already, the high alkalinity of the chemical environment normally present
in concrete protects the embedded steel because of the formation of a protective oxide
film on the steel. The integrity and prospective quality of this film depends on the
alkalinity (pH) of the environment.
A well-hydrated portland cement may contain from 15 to 30 percent calcium
hydroxide by weight of the original cement. This is usually sufficient to maintain s~
solution at a pH about 13 in the concrete, independent of moisture content.
Even for cements with such highest reserve basically, the alkalinity may be reduced in
a number of ways. Reduction of alkalinity by leaching of soluble alkaline salts with
water is an obvious process. Partial neutralisation by reaction with carbon dioxide i.e.
carbonation as present either in air or dissolved in water, is another common process.
Calcium chloride acts as an accelerator in the hydration of tricalcium silicate as well
as to promotes the corrosion of steel.
Also the other compounds present in portland cement like tricalcium alum inate C3A
and an aluminoferrite i.e. C4AF augment the process of corrosion. The C3A reacts
rapidly in the cement system to cause flash set unless it is retarded. Calcium sulphate
is used as the retarder, calcium sulphate forms a coating of ettringite (C3A.3CaSO4.
32H2O) around the aluminate grains thereby retarding their reactivity.
3.7.2 Aggregate
The most serious problems arise when the aggregates contain chloride salts. ?his can+
happen when sand is dredged from the sea or taken from seaside c)r arid locations.
Care should be exercised when using admixtures containing chloride in combination
with lightweight aggregates. Light weight aggregate containing sulphides can also be
damaging to high strength steel under stress.
3.7.3 Water
An important effect of the moisture content of concrete is its effect on the electrical
resistivity of the concrete. Progressive drying of initially water-satiurated concrete
results in the electrical resistivity increasing from about 7x 103 ohm/cm to about 6000
x 103 ohm/ cm. Field observations indicate that when the resistivity exceeds a level of
50 to 70 x 103 ohm/cm, steel corrosion would be negligible.
3.7.4 Concrete Quality
Concrete will offer more protection against corrosion of embedded steel if it is of a
high quality. A low water cement ratio will slow the diffusion of chlorides, carbon
dioxide, and oxygen and also the increase in strength of the concrete may extend the
time before corrosion induced stresses cause cracking of the concrete. The pore
volume and permeability can be reduced by lowering the water cement ratio.
3.7.5 Thickness of Concrete Cover Over Steel
The depth of concrete cover over the steel should be as large as possible, consistent
with good structural design, the severity of the service environment, and cost.
3.7.6 Carbonation
Carbonation occurs when the concrete reacts with carbon dioxide from the air or
water and reduces the pH to about 8.5 At this low pH the steel is no longer passive
and corrosion may occur, For high quality concrete, in situations where the rate of
carbonation is extremely slow, carbonation is normally not a problem in very dry
concrete or in water saturated concrete. Maximum carbonation rates are observed at
about 50 percent water saturation.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
SAQ 1
i) Enumerate the types of steels and their properties.
ii) What are the likely manufactural defects in the reinforcing steels?
iii) What is corrosion? What are the environmental factors responsible for it?
iv) Explain the role of chloride in corrosion process.
v) What is carbonation ? How it is responsible for the corrosion of steels?

3.8 PROCEURES FOR IDENTIFYING CORROSIVE

ENVIRONMENTS AND ACTIVE CORROSION IN
CONCRETE

Methods of Evaluation
Certain tools are used for identifying and quantifying corrosive environments, extent
of corrosion, and concrete deterioration. Following is a brief description of these tools,
together with their purpose and limitations.
3.8.1 Cover Meter
This tool is used to locate reinforcing steel embedded in concrete, and to determine
the amount of cover over the steel. It is battery-operated and contains a transistorized
oscillator which establishes an electromagnetic field in a search coil. In the presence
of a steel reinforcing bar, the magnetic field is distorted. By calibration, the distance
from the bar may be read from the metre dial.
The knowledge of cover depth is essential if it is desired to obtain samples of the
concrete at the level of the reinforcing steel for chloride ion analysis. It is also useful
in determining the potential for corrosion and subsequent concrete deterioration since
it has been well established that structures in corrosive environments with inadequate
concrete cover are subject to early deterioration.
3.8.2 Delamination Detectors
There an my tools which may be used to dedected delaminations or subsurface
fracture planes parallel to the concrete surface. These devices range from simple chain
drags or light weight hammers to more sophisticated devices such as the Delamtect.
Almost any sounding device can be used to locate hollow areas or delaminations
caused by corrosion of the reinforcing steel. The automated Delamtect is useful for
surveying large numbers of bridge decks or other horizontal surfaces such as parking
garage floors if a record of the area of delamination is desired. However, the simple
chain drag is adequate for locating delaminated areas during repair operation.
3.8.3 Electrical Potential Measuring Equipment
This equipment, consists of a copper-copper sulphate half-cell(CSE), a high
impedance voltmeter, and lead wire to connect the half-cell and the reinforcing steel
to the voltmeter. The equipment is used to determine corrosion of qualitatively
reinforcement steel.
3.8.4 Chloride Analysis
Measurements of chloride ion concentration in the cover concrete are made to
determine if any environment exists which is conducive to corrosion of the steel. Two
wet chemical analysis techniques are used to isolate chloride from the concrete, one to
determine acid soluble chloride, and the other to determine water soluble chloride.
In any interpretation of chloride data, sound engineering judgement must be used to
assess the actual potential for corrosion. As stated earlier, free moisture and oxygen as
well as chloride must be available to induce corrosion. If it can he concluded that
either moisture or oxygen is not available, there would be no corrosion threshold.
Such conditions may prevail, for example, in concrete which is continuously
submerged or in internal members in buildings where air conditioning units maintain
constantly low humidity.
3.8.5 Rate of Corrosion Probes
Two basic types of probes are available for embedment into concrete to provide an
indication of rate of corrosion. One type involves the use of two or three electrically
isolated short sections of steel wire or reinforcing steel and the use of linear
polarization techniques to estimate instantaneous corrosion rates. The second, more
widely used device is the electrical resistance rate-of-corrosion probe which provides
cumulative rate of corrosion data from periodic measurements of the electrical
resistance of a steel wire or hollow cylinder embedded in the concrete.
These have uncertainties and have generally limited the use of resistance probes to
research and field evaluation efforts in which special installation procedures are
required, and electrical potential and current measurements can be made to define the
characteristics of the probe- reinforcing barmarocell.
3.8.6 Electrical Resistance Equipment
The primary use of these measurements is to determine the resistance of water proof
membranes that are made from dielectric materials. This equipment consists of a
copper contact plate, sponges, ohmmeter and lead wire. One terminal of the ohmmeter
is connected to the copper plate.
A study is underway to develop nondestructive procedures for direct measurement of
the rate of corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Three electrode linear
polarization measurements are encouraging. Because the measurements are made
directly on the in-situ reinforcing steel, many of the problems discussed under the
section on corrosion probes should not be present.
3.9 STEEL MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Steel is manufactured by several processes the most important being Bessemer
Process and Open-hearth Process. The steel thus made is converted into steel objects
and sections by the process of casting, rolling, forging or pressing.
3.9.1 Mechanical Properties of Different Types of High Tensile Structural
Steel
Specifications prescribe ultimate tensile stress of 60 to 70 kg/mm 2; yield stress of 30
to 36kg/ mm2 according to thickness. For rivet bars ultimate tensile stress prescribed
is 48kg/ mm2 This steel is rather difficult to weld and fusion welding method has to be
adopted.
3.9.2 Cast Steel
It is a high carbon steel; it is a term to denote any article of steel formed by casting. It
is the strongest and most uniform steel that is made. It is unweldable and cannot be
forged, and should never be heated beyond red heat. It is much denser and harder than
ordinary steel and also heavier than cast iron. These steels are less ductile and less
tough than ordinary steel. Cast steels are used for the manufacture of high grade
surgical instruments, cutlery and intricate parts. Hard cast steel is used for making
cutting tools. A smaller allowance for shrinkage is required for steel castings than for
cast iron.
3.9.3 Wrought Steel
Any article of steel formed by forging or hot rolling or hot working in any way, is
made out of wrought steel.
It is fusible and gives a much higher resistance to compression than cast steel. It
cannot be welded or forged easily. Hard steel is used for several purposes such as
bullet-proof she ting .
3.9.5 Spring Steel
May be either medium or high carbon plain steel or alloyed with other elements in
small proportions. Suitable for the manufacture of springs. Steel is heated to
760-780°C quenched in oil, water or brine and tempered to required harness.
3.9.6 Weight of Steel
Weight of plates may be taken at 78.43 kg/m2 per cm of thickness, and the weight of
sections and bars at 0.7843kg/cm2 of sectional area per metre run.

3.10 SIMPLE FIELD TESTS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

3.10.1 Cold Bend Field Tests for Bars
The test pieces should be cut lengthwise and crosswise from plates and lengthwise
from sections and bars (including flat bars). For cold bend tests, the test pieces should
not be subjected to any heat treatment. Tests should be made for each thickness or
diameter of bar in a lot. The test piece shall withstand, without fracture, being doubled
over either by pressure or by slow and steady blows from a hammer until the two
sides of the test piece are parallel and, in the case of bars above 25mm in diameter or
thickness, the internal radius is not greater than 1.5 times the diameter of thickness of
the bar, and, in the case of bars of 25 rnm and under in diameter or thickness, the
internal radius of the bend is not greater than the diameter or thickness of the bar.
The bend test determines whether the metal is adequately ductile.
As you know, the ductility of reinforcement is an important criteria for the safe
performance of a reinforced concrete member. The elongation at rupture over a
standard gauge length is accepted to be an index for ductility. About 8 to lo% of
elongation over a gauge length of 5 times diameter is considered to be adequate for
the ductility criteria.
3.10.2 Tests for Rivet Bars
The rivet shank shall be capable of being bent cold back on itself and hammered until
the two parts of the shank touch without fracture on the outside of the bend. The rivet
head shall be capable of being flattened at red heat to a uniform thickness and without
cracking at the edges until its diameter is 2.5 times the diameter of the shank.
The same tests as given above for ordinary bars have now been prescribed for rivet
bars also. In addition, short lengths of rivet bars equal to twice their diameter, when
cold, shall withstand, without fracture, being compressed to half their length.
3.10.3 Tensile Test
Tensile test is the most important and the commonest mechanical test applied to
metals. A specially prepared test-piece is stretched by a gradually increasing load
applied in opposite directions at its ends until the test-piece breaks. The tougher the
steel the more force will be needed to break it. There is an elastic limit and yield point
for steel under tension or compression.
The ultimate tensile strength is atleast 12 to 15% more than the proof strength. The
test piece breaks at the ultimate strength. But for the purpose of &sign, the yield stress
or proof stress is only the criteria. Thus potential increase in tensile strength has made
this material more useful for a structural engineer.
3.10.4 compression test
Compression test is made in a machine which exerts pressure of a compressive nature
until the steel "gives" and will not recover. This is similar to tensile test.
3.10.5 Shearing Test
This test indicates the ability to resist a shearing action as with rivets.
3.10.6 Creep Test
Creep test indicates how long a metal will withstand a maintained load or stress at a
Specified temperature without deformation within certain limits.
3.10.7 Fatigue Test
Fatigue test is repeated reversed stresses test. Pulling and pushing stresses are
repeated alternatively in quick successions for a time till the test-piece gives way.
(Quickly repeated stresses are more likely to set up fa e and eventual failure
much lower than the yield point than a continuous stress applied in one direction). The
maximum repetitive stress that can be sustained by the material without failure for
two million load cycles is commonly accepted as measure of fatigue strength.
3.10.8 Impact or Shock Test
This test indicates the toughness of the material and is a measure of the energy
required to break a test-piece, under the shock of the impact when subjected to a
sudden blow.
3.10.9 Torsion Test
Torsion test is made to find out the ability of the steel to withstand twisting stresses as
found in crankshaft of engines, etc. Torsion test gives more reliable data than direct
shear test. Tests made within elastic hit determine the modulus of rigidity and test
continued upto destruction determines the maximum shear stress. Modulus of rigidity
provides data for arriving at the elastic properties of steel.
3.10.10 Hardness Test
A small ball of very hard steel or other material is pressed into the test-piece under
dead load and hardness is measured by the indentation made by the ball.
3.10.11 Cold Bend Test for Hard-drawn Steel Wires
The test-piece shall withstand, without showing signs of fracture, in the following
treatment. One end of the test piece shall be family gripped in a device and the other
free end shall be bent round a radius equal to the diameter of alloying element. Nickel
improves tensile strength and elasticity and reduces the brittleness of steel, and also
imparts hardness, ductility and ability to resist shocks and fatigue, improves
endurance and wear, and gives corrosion resisting properties to a certain extent. The
best properties are developed by a heat treatment of quenching and tempering, it is
more readily forged than carbon steel. The percentage of nickel usually added range
from about 1.5 to 5 per cent with carbon 0.1 to 0.4 per cent for structural steels and
from 25 to 35 percent. with less than 0.4 percent carbon, in high nickel steels. High
nickel steel is practically non-expanding as it has only 1/10th the liner expansion of
ordinary steel a6d possesses great resistance to shock. Such steels are not used for
engineering purposes. The addition of 1.5 per cent of chromium further increases the
tensile strength, hardness, and ductility of steel. Nickel steel containing 3 to 4.5 per
cent nickel is used frequently for long span bridge construction, bearings, castings and
shafts, etc.

3.11 CHROMIUM IN STEEL (CHROME STEEL)

Chromium is the key element in the wide range of stainless and heat resisting steels.
Addition of chromium to steel makes it very hard and tough, increase elastic limit and
strength of steel and also the ability to withstand wear and abrasion. Even a small
percentage of chromium gives improved resistance to corrosion. Both nickel and
chromium, or in conjunction with vanadium, added to steel give superior physical
properties than when either element is added alone. Chrome steel is used for making
chisels, drills razors, saw, blades, files, dies, ball bearings and rollers, safes, cutlery,
etc.
3.11.1 Chrome-Nickel Steel
Chrome-Nickel Steel has high strength, elastic limit and hardness combined with
good durability, and is very tough. It is used for shafts, gears, axles, armour plating,
etc. Chromium imparts greater strength and hardness than nickel. Chromium steels
need careful heat treatments.
3.11.2 Stainless Steels
There are many varieties of stainless steels with wide range of mechanical properties.
Stainless steels have varying proportions of chromium, nickel, carbon and other
elements. Chromium is an essential constituent of all such steels and a stainless steel
must have a minimum of 13 to 14 percent of chromium to give it freedom from
corrosion. Stainless steels usually have 18 percent chromium and 8 per cent of nickel.
The addition of nickel makes it more resistant to corrosion and gives it greater
ductility and better working qualities. When only chromium is added its percentage is
increased to 25 to 30 percent. Stainless steel is very strong and tough, acid and
corrosion resistant and withstands ordinary atmospheric conditions. These steels are
of malleable character and can be readily cold rolled into sheets, deeply pressed,
machined and drawn into wires and tubes. Most of such steels cap be welded by either
the electric process or by the oxy-acetylene method but will not weld by the usual
method of heating in a smith's fire. These steels are not good in respect of thermal
conductivity and are also poor conductors of electricity. The finished surface of
stainless steel should be free from all scales, pits and cracks, otherwise it will rust.
Stainless steel is almost silver-white appearance.
Tests for distinguishing stainless steels from ordinary steels: A drop of nitric acid on
common steel will dissolve the steel but on a stainless steel the acid will merely etch
the surface producing a gray appearance. Magnets have reduced attraction with
stainless steels.
Copper improves the properties of cast and malleable iron and steel, increases the
strength and hardness of low and medium carbon steels and decreases the atmospheric
corrosion of steel. In locations where structural steel is exposed to excessive
atmospheric corrosion, copper bearing steel may be used. Copper present in such
steels is 0.20 to 0.35 percent. For rivet barb copper may be allowed upto 0.60 percent.
For bridge work the copper content of rivets should be in excess of the copper content
of the steel members with which they come in contact.
3.11.3 Tool Steels
Tool steels are mainly of two classes (i) Plain carbon steels having small amounts of
alloying elements such as chromium and tungsten which are generally used for hard
machine tools, and (ii) High speed steels which contain a high percentage of alloying
elements, mainly tungsten, and vary widely in composition. Such steels may run at a
ed head without losing their hardness and are used for cutting hard materials or for
cutting at high speeds, and also used in parts which must withstand high heat and
wear such as exhaust valves of gas engines.

SAQ 2
i) What are the methods of evolution of corrosive environment?
ii) Explain the field tests for structural steel.

3.12 SUMMARY
As you have seen above, the defects in steel are likely to creep in even at the
manufact4ing stage itself. Hence, a cautious discrimination is required before
adopting the same for construction. During the service period, the reinforcement steel
is likely to be damaged by various atmospheric/environmental factors, the deadliest
being "corrosion" described as a silent killer in Civil Engineering jargon.