Cognosy Khandelwal

TEGHNIQUESAND EXPERIMENTS
Basedon Syllabusof D. Pharm.(E.R.lggi), B. Pharm.and M. pharm.

Courseof variousUniversities.
o Useful as a referencebook for Ayurvedicians,
medico-botanist
and
pharmacyprofessionals.
Dr.Khandelwal
K.R.
M. Pharm.,Ph.D.
Departmentof Pharmacognosy,
BharatiVidyapeethDeemedUniversity,
PoonaCollegeof Pharmacy,
Erandwane, Pune- 38 (Maharashtra)
N1242
PHARMACOGNOSYtsBNNO.978-81-85790-30-5
PRACTICAL
NineteenthEdition March2008
Reprint October2008
@ KHANDELWAL K. R.
PriceRs. 150.00
anykind,
lti
thereftom,
inanymanner,
ll;:h3r1?3
:Hlfl l?,fJr
il1rsi3:fl
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wr/lru
This book 'Practica!Fharmacsgnosy' is a uniqueattempt,whichtriesto meet
almostall the reqt:trements of thCIstueientsneededduring practicalcoursesin
pharmacognosy. Thisbc'okhasfulfilledtlterequirementsof Education
Regulations, -1991
of the PharmacyCouncilof Inc{ia.Tliis h"rook is thereforeusefulto the diploma,
undergraduate and post graduatestr,rdentsin pharmacy.The book can be
recommended as a very useful referencebook for the studentsand pharmacy
professionals.
Otherspecialfeatures of thisbookare,simplewayof presentation, lucid
language,conciseandpoint-wise irrfornnation,
welllabelled
diagrams,artisticformatting
andcoverageof all important
aspectsof crudedrugs.
This book is differentbecauseof its own speciarrty and due to the inclusion of
contentslikemicrotome, permanent stainingtechniques, etc.Thisbookis
stereograms,
theoutcome of needsandnecessities of thestudentsof pharmacognosy.
I congratulatethe authorfor hissincereeffortsandhardworkput in for the benefitof
tnestudents.Thisbookis a greatassetto thestudents andpharmacy professionals.
I wishallthesuccess
forthisnovelattempt.
PUNE
'-----.--.-
Dr. S. S. KADAM
. Principal,
PoonaCollegeof Pharmacy.
. Secretary,BharatiVidyapeeth.
. ViceChancellor,BharatiVidyapeeth
DeemedUniversity.
a Dean,Facultyof Pharmaceutical
Sciences,PoonaUniversity, PUNE.
restin thefieldof herbalmedicines,cosmetics,
Ayurvedic dosageforms
and researchin the fieldof herbalformulations, it has becomenecessary and pertinentto probe
rntothe area of systematicknowledgeaboutherbaldrugs.Application of this knowledgein
authenticationradetailedstudyandpractical utttisation
of crudedrugshasto be carriedout.
This bookis a very sincereattemptto arousethe interestof the studentsin this fast
developing branchof pharmaceutical educationandit givesconciseand pointwise information
required duringprac'tical
@ursesunderoneroofandeliminates theneedto refertoomanytexts
dui ng practicaloourses.It is an attemptto covermaximumpractical aspectsof pharmacognosy
uftichraouldimpartknou/edge of thissubjectduringthe practicalooursesin a simple,illustr:ative
rd preciseway. lt providesin-depthinformation on hand,regardingmorphology, microscopy
induding-alongwith
schemdicdiagrams histological details with urell lebelledand illustrative
dia!rams stainingtechniques used, surface preparalion, characteristics of
poadereddrugandquantitative microscopy.Simpleandeasypharmacognostic laboratory tests
in the text give practicalinformationaboutthe chemicalconstituents of the drugs.Marketed
samplesare generallyadulteratedby differenttypesof adulterantsresemblingthe standard
drugs,or subStitutedby inferiorcrudedrugs.Hence, conciseinformation aboutthe adulterants,
dlieddrugsandsubstitutes arealsopresented.
This booktries to imparttechnicalknordedgefor histological

studiesin mostsimpleand
interestingdiagrammatic form. An attempthas been madeto makethe practicalaspectsof
pharmacognosy easierin simpleandlucidlanguage to makethesubjectmoreinteresting
for the
studentsof B.Pharm., M. Pharm.,
andMedico-botany.
Yourco-operation in the form of suggestions and comments are mostwelcome,

to makethe futureeditionsof this bookmorevaluablefor studentsof Pharmacyand Botany.
Kindlydirectyoursuggestionsandcriticismto Prof. K. R. Khandelwal.
AUTHOR
I feel beholden to Hon.Shivajirao
Kadam,Principal,
PoonaCollegeof Pharmacy,
Secretary,BharatiVidyapeeth,
ViceChancellor,
BharatiVidyapeeth
DeemedUniversity,
Dean,Facultyof Pharmaceutical PUNE,for writingthe
Sciences,PoonaUniversity,
=OREWORD to thisbook.
I sincerely
thankPrincipal
Dr. K.G.Bothara,Dr. S.R.Dhaneshwar, Dr.T.N.More.
t.lr MukeshGhiya(Khandelwal),Prof.A. P. PawarandProf.B. B. Jain,Pune.fortheir
:onstantassistance, andguidance
inspiration fromtimeto time.
Mysincerethanksaredueto Prof.S . C .P a l(Nasik),

Prin.V.R.Patil(Faizpur),.
Prof.
t'l J. Patil(Pimpri),Dr. SR. Parakh(Pune),Dr. S.S. Khadbadi. Prin.S.D. Sawant
Saswad), Prin.SaberHussenF. Attar(Aurangabad), Dr.K.N.Gujar.Dr. M.S.Gadge
\ew Mumbai), Prin.H.N.More(Kolhapur), Dr.D.K.Jain(lndore),Prof.Hattapaki,Prof.
Da t i (Belgaum) and all my colleagues
engagedin Pharmacognostical work,for their
,'aru ablesuggestions for makingthiseditionmoreusefulto the students of Pharmacy
z.'.' Botany course.
arsoverymuchappreciatetheco-operation
andinteresttakenby Mr. Dinesnbhai
- J n a andMr.Jignesh
Furia,NiraliPrakashan,
Pune.
SEEI)S
73
l(,. ISAPGOLSEED
11. LINSEED 76
III. NUX-VOI\TTCA
SEED 19
FRAITS
19. CARDAMOM FRUIT' 82
-2O. FENNELFRUIT 85
2I. DILL F'RUIT 88
22. CARAWAY FRUIT 91
23. CORIANDERFRUIT 94
FI,OWER
BAI)
CLOVE 97
'-7t.
B,4RI(S
25. CASSIABARK r00
6. CINNAMONBARK 103
27. CINCHONABARK 107

28. KURCHI BARK rr0
t4/001)
29. WOOD
QUASSTA l13
ROOT,S
ANDRHIZOME:S
30. GENTIAN rt7
31. IPECACUANHA 120
32. LTQUORTCE
ROOT t23
33. RAUWOLFIA ROOT 127
3{. GINGERRHIZOME 130
STEM
35. EPHEDRASTEM 134
36. STARCH t37

Macroscopical
characteristics.
Microscopical Deterrnination
characteristics. of starchgrains,
of diameter
Gelatinisation
of starch.Chemical
tests.
CALCIUNIOXALA'tECRYS'I'ALS 139
Sign rt rcancc,
Fol l t ut l i <tn
o l c ly s t als .M o u r r t ingln t l lc s t r c a g c n t sC
. l y s tn l s v s tc n r .Ijolrn5 ol calcluln
gxalatcct'YstalsC11'stal shcath Q[sslvationof calciumoxalatecrvstalsbv Pizzolotomethod.
z Practi cal Pharmacognosy
(Itr) Magnificatiotrsystem:
This includesa setof lensesalignedin sucha mannerso that a magnifiedreal imagecan be viewed.The
objectiveis a setof lensesplacedneartheobject.It partiallymagnifiestheobject,whichcanbe observedthrough
theEYEPIECE in a moremagnifiedform.
Eyepiece: To observethe mamified

Coarseadjustmentknob:To realimage.
bringthe objectinto focus. 5x,6x,lOx,l5x, available.
Drow tube : To fit the eve

pieceinside.
Body tube : Holdsthenose

pieceat the bottomandeye
Flne edjustmentknob : pieoeat the top.
For fine andclearfocusof Revolvingnosepiece: Holds
specimento revealfmer 2,3,4 obj*tives mhichcanbe
characteristics
in detail. revolvedto alip the required
objective,
To hold the microscope Objecttve : Producesfirst
while handling. masdficationshowingreal,
invededimage.6x, l0x, 4Ox,
45x, l00x oil immnersion.
Stage: To hold the objecton
slide.
Mechanicalstage:
Fol planarforwardbackward/ Condenser: Condenses the light and
Ieft-rightmovementofthe object allowsparallelbeamsof lightto pass
with helpof knobs. throughthe stageapertue.
Knob : For verticalmovementof
Base condenser.
Foundationof the microscope Mlrror (Llght source): Rellectslight
througfrthe substagecondeasor and
InclinationJoint stageapertureontothe cbject.
This helpsto incline the
microscopeto avoidstrainon the
neckandback.
Ftg.1.2: Compound
Microscope
102 Pracli cal Pharmacognosy
STAINING / DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO-CHF]MICAI,'I'ES'I'S

Sr. No. Reagent Observation Characteristics
(l ) + conc.HCI
Phloroglucinol Pink Lignifiedcells: Pericyclicfibres,stonecells,
(1:l) corkcells
(2) Iodine Blue Starch
(3) Rutheniumred Pink Mucilagecells
(4) Aceticacid Insoluble
Dil. hvdrochloric
Calcium oxalate crystals
acid Soluble
MICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICS OF POWDERED DRUG :
30to
lo 40
<)
Phloem Stonecells:
fibres: Lignifie4 pitted'U' shaped
Lignified, thickening, narrowlumen.
tapering
300to ends,narrow
700p lumen.Total
lengthof
fibresis 27 to Cork cells:
4 0 to 5 5 m Abundantcorkcellswith reddislrbrown
per gramof matter.
air-drybark.
Oil cells: In ^/ n (ialciumoxalate:.

C:) v C--s
phloem in
Acicularraphides
G) ll)
parenchym4 big ^ ^o( medullaryraysand
isolated-
entireor l*J )* *) r// phloemparenchyma
fragments Starch: l0 to 20 u
in diameter
Not veryabundant
CTIEMICALTESTS:
Sr. No. Tests Observation Inference
(l ) Volatileoil + 5 ml alcohol+ onedrop Browncolour Cinnamicaldehyde.
offerric chloride
(2) Chloroformextractor volatileoil on Rodshapedcrystals Cinnamicaldehyde
slide+ dropof 10 7oaqueous phenyl
ly4qzrn hydrochloride solution.
(3) Aq. extract+ FeCl3(5%)solution Darkcolour Tannins
(4) Aq. extr4ct+ Leadacetatereagent Whiteppt. Tannins
CIIEMICAL CONSTITUENTS : Volatile oil (l to 2 Y'), cinnanic aldehyde(75 to 90olo).
Terpene aldehyde andester.Tannins,Starch,Mucilagc.
Uses: Carminative,
flavouringagent,mild astringent,
powerfulgermicide(oil),aromatic
andstirnulanl.
XXX
Practi cal Pharmacqnosy 3
,Ar PlainMirror TO CONDENSER

-ry Plain Mirror whena fixed sourceof light is used.
!l ConcaveMirror TOCONDENSER
'nben skylight is
used,ConcaveMirror helpsto converge
fu beamontothecondenser.
FROM STJNLIGHT
.1.3B
rCf Substage LampInterchangeable with nirror SUBSTAGELAMP
F'berethereis no electricityor battery,mirror canbe ASSEMBLE
ELECTRICOR BATTERT
,ced
Fls. 1.3C
D) Built-in substage
lamp(Tungsten-Filament
or
HelogenLamp)with intensityadjustnent BUILT IN LAMP
INTENSITY
ADJ.KNOB
Fls. 1.3D
I
rI) Thelight rayson theobjectcanbealteredin 2 waysby meansof CONDENSER
:
(A) Condenser canbemovedupuardswith theknobsoasto maketheobjectmorebrighter.
(B) Condenser canbe moveddownraards to maketheobjectslessbrighter.
Up/down
knob Condenser
Iris diaphragmknob
Filter
Fig. 1.4
-rtf
PracticaI Pharmac'ognosy
(Il) Light illuminatingthe objectmaybeadjusted with IRISDIAPHRAGM.The dipphragmmaybeopenedor

hencemaki[tgthe objectmoreor less
closedto increaseor diminishthe light falling on the condenser
bright.
IRISDIAPHRAGM(lookingupfromunderneath)
Knobfor openingandclosing
the iris diaphragm
ti!j') :11
'it
:1 {"'D
Nearlyshut,little light is gettingthrough Nearlyopen,muchlight is gettingthrough
this holeintothecondenser thisbie holeintothecondenser
Fig. 1.5
(A) MagnifyingPower(M.P.) :
M.P. - Magnificationof objectivex Magnificationof eyepiece.e.g.if you areobservingan objecton a slide

usinga l0x objectiveand5x eyepiecethenMP: l0 x 5 - 50
Thus,theobjectviewedis magnihed50 times.
(B) ResolvingPowerof objective(R.P.):
Resolvingpowerof an objectiveis definedastheabilityto separate
distinctlytwo smallelementsofan object
whicharesituateda shortdistanceapart.R.P.canbe measured by NurnericalAperture objective
GreatertheN.A., greateris theresolvingpower.
(C) Working distance:
The distancebetweenthe objectandthe objectiveis knownasworking distance
with increasing
The working distancedecreases This
magnification.
meanshigherthe powerof objective,lesseris theworkingdistance.
Working
distance
(D) Focusing:
Fotusingan objectwhile viewingthroughan eyepiecemeans,adjustment This iSdone,
of workingdistance.
with the helpof coarseadjustmenr andfine adjustment knob.Coarseadjustment knobis rotatd to bringthe
*r"&iect in field of viewandthefineadjustment
knob is rotated
to geta image.
sharp
(E) Fieldof view :
Theareaof the objecrwhichonecanviewthroughtheeyepieceis thefield of view.The field of vieu,naronls
asmagnifcaion increases.
8 Practi cal Pharmacognosy
ln this techniquer light passesthrough the annular diphragmof microscope.The rays passingthroq
diaphragm areof two typesi.e.deviatedandundeviated. Aniplitude(heightof wavelength)of deviatedrays1
reducedby the condenser W l/4., wtrile the undeviatedraysdo not get afrected.In the secondstagewhent
deviatedrayspassfurther throughdi:ftactionplate(phaseplate)of microscope,againll4 decrease in amplitu
takesplaceand becomesactuallyhalf of the original amplitude.Brightnessdependsupon amplitude.Thus
contrastis seenbetweenthe deviatedandFdeviatedrayswhichultimatelyresultsin loweringthebrightness. T
changeis dueto diftaction, whichis thecauseof difrerentdensitiesof the materialandturot'rpesof raysprodu
by annulardiapfuagmanddifraction plate.
Phase-contrastmicroscopy techniqueis largelyutilisedfor studyingliving objects(
specificallythe rytological detailsof the organelles.This techniquehasbeendiscoveredQ
prizewinnerin 1953.Magnificationupto2000is possible.
Fluorescence
microscope:
Somechemicalsubstances absorblight wavesof onewavelengthandemit visibfewavesof greaterwavelen
So materialunderobservationappearsof one colourby ordinarylight and of an entirely diffFerentcolour
ultraviolet
light.
Thematerials areknownasfluorescent andthephenomenon is knownasfluorescence.
By this method,cancercanbe detectedin early stages,while bacteriaof varioustypes and evenantig
aqtibodycomplexes be studiedrapidlyandalsowith accuracy.
Thetechniqueis usedfor cinchona,gambieretc.
Ultra-violetmicroscope:
When ultla-violet light havingshortwavelengthof t80-40F mp is usodassourceof radiation, instea
visiblelight of 400-700o mp tnore magnificationcan beobtainedsinceit hasgeaterresolution. @esolutio
the ability of the microscopeto differentiatebetu,eenadjacentobjectsas separateentities which decidesI
magnifing eryity of microscope.)
The absorptionof ultravioletradiationby certainsubstances enablethem to locateor r,rnrdle underI
microscope. In ultra-violet microscopytheimageis madevisibleby usingphotographic
emulsion.
Electronmicroscope
:
For the maximummagnification to the tuneof 2,00,00H,00,000times,eleclron microscopy is used,no
days.In electronmicroscoplr, beamof electronsis usedinsteadof light u,iaves
to producethe magnifid imageI
caseof light microscopy, the souroeof illuminarionis light bulb or naturaltighf But in electror micr@
tungstenfilamentwith high voltageof 80kV is used. Insteadof glasslensesthe electromagneticlensesarerr
in electronmicroscope and focusingis doneby varyingthe current.In caseof electronmicroscope imageis r
observed by eye,it is projected
onto a photographicplateor screen.
Electron microscopeis installed in dust-free, vibration-fre, ara without magnetic-fieldsand
air-conditioned
room.
The materialshouldbe perfectdry for observation.
Living organisms
cannotbe observed.
However,it is rq
usefulfor understanding
the ultra-structure
of virusesanddifferenttypesof animalandplant cells.It is tri
usedsince1940.
XX I
Dfferenl sectionscar be obtainedftom a Stem,root or stolon,dependingon the
sroon rwealingdeails from a difierentangle.
Transversesection is obtainedby cutting along the radial plane of a rylindrical portion of'the
wnlrsot/sb;onandperpendicular
1orhelongaxis.
Longaxis
Thin transverse
section
Radialplane
of sectioncutting
Prrrcess
This sectionwhenprcparcd
andobscrved
undcra microscope
reveals
therad.ial
arrangement
of tissues
andshows
layenandvascular
cmcentric bundles.
Epidermis
Cortex
Cambium
Pirh
Vascular
bundle
T.S.of Stem/Stolon
In orderto revealthe tissuearrangementlongltudinallyviz. alongthe planesparallelto the long axisboth

radiallyandtangentially,wehaveto cutthelongitudinalsections.
t
Practi cal Pharmacognosy 1)
Put the sampleselectedin a test

remainssubmerged. Boil the samplein waterovera bunsenflamefor a few minutes.This will softenthe harddrug
sampleandwill help in obtainingfine sections.In caseof a lea{thisstepmay ne@ssarv.
Fora;tem/root/stolondrug,cut a rylindricalportionwhichis almoststraightandcut off bothedgessoasto
maketheedgesurhcesmooth.This sampleis readyfor sectioncutting.
Hpld the samplevertical betweenthe first, secondfinger and the thumband movethe bladeback and forth
fromoie endto the other,obtainingfine slices.TakesufFrcient numberof sections,
asall sectionswill not bevery
fine and,uniform.
Transferthesectionsto a watchglassconainingwaterwith thehelpof a brush.'Reject thickandobliqueone.
:i' t '--."'
Similarly,cut sectionsof theleafin theblockof pith whichshallgivesectionsof the leafwhenseparated

from
rhepith.Transferthe sections to a watchglass with a brush.
Note: Beforetakingthesection, ensurethatthebladeis havingenoughamountofwateron its edge,if adry
bladeis used,it shallentrapair bubblesin thesection,whicharedifficult to remove.
t4 Practical Pharmacognosy
Bart : An oblique/uneven
TS of a barh
Thick Thin Thick Thin section

Fromanoblique/uneven ofabark,thinpartofthesection,
section showingall the
cellularstructures
in sequence
canbe se atedand observed
asshownabove.
In caseofa leafdrug cutapart ofthe leafpassing throughmidrib

as shownin diagram.This cut off portionmay or may not be boiled.
(boil it only if it is dry and requiresboiling with uater for softening).
Sincethelaminaof a leafis verythin,sccrioncuuingis difticult. The
surface areaof thesurface to becuthasto bcincreased. Thisis done by
Anbedding thesamplein a blockof pith.Thispithis obrained from red
pqpkin @hopla)orrawpapaya or pohro.A cubicalporrionof rhepith
is cutoff andusedasshownin thefigure.
Cubeof pith. with the help cf a blade Slightly pull one side of Then insert the led
glve vertical cut upto the cubeapart to makea samplepreparedinto the
u3d height. wedge opening. Do not wedge and ; press two
separarc
two parts. sidesof pith.
Now,cutofrtheportionsof The vertical side of pith Take sectionstoy moving Sectionsreadyfor staining
leaf protruding of the maY be tapered ofr thebladebackandforth.
surhcesof the pith. The upwardsfor convenience
block is readvfor section in sectioncutting.
cuttrns..
XXX
Stainingis a processin whichchemicaldyesareusedto impa.rtcolourto varioustissuesin a sectionof drug
mple, whichenables to distinguish
thearrangement of varioustissuesin thesample.A STAINis a chemicaldye
,colorant)which combineschemicallyor physicallywith a cell contentto impart colourto it. e.g. safranin
snbines with the lignin presentin cell wall andvesselsandimpartsa redcolourto the lignifiedtissues.Iodine
solutioncombines with starchgrainsto givea bluecolour.SudanRedIII dissolves in thefixedoil presentin the
olseedsto impartredcolour.
Fordetail,referreactionsof cell wallsandreactionsof cell contenlsin thetopicPLANT CELL.
, r ) Takea cleanwatchglassandaddthestainingsolutionto it. -:--.: -: ---

--:
)::1
-j
----:
--: ---
Starn
,2) With the help of a brus[ tranderthe sectiontakenfrom waterto

stainsolutionandkeepfor 2-3minutes.
Stain
(3) Pickup thesectionafter2-3minutesandtransferit to watchglass

containing plainwater,so that excess
stainis washeda!\ay. This
sectionis readyfor mountingona slide.
Water
'5
l6 I)racticai Pharmacognosy
(l) Takea cleanglassmicroslide.
(2) Onthisslidetransferthesectionto bemounted.

with the
--_--7
helpof a brush.
(3) Add one or two drops of water on the sectionwith a

dropper.
in thewater.
Seethatthesectionis submerged
(4) Takea cleancoverslip with the help of a forcepand

needle.
Placethecoverslipon thesectiongently.
(5) Ifany air bubbles

zueseen,slightlylift thecoverslip and
adda &op of waterand replacethe coverslip till the air
bubbleis removed.
(6) With the helpof a blottingpaper,wipeoff excesswater

presentoutsidethe cover slip. The slide is readyfor
observation.
This procedure
describedaboveis theroutinelaboratorytechniqueandthe slidepreparedwill not last long.To
avoidevaporationof wateranddryingof section,glycerinewatercanbeusedinsteadofwater.In orderto prepare
a permanent mount,a specialprocess
is adopted
,
Practi cal Pharmacogno.ry 17
3J DOUBLESTAININGTECHNIQTIE
-ll permanentpreparation
is usefulfor preservation
of goodsectionsfor studyandfor preparation
of standards,
d whichthesamples canbecompared. Thisprocess generallyinvolvesstainingwith Lworeagents,
henceis called
riie stainingtechnique. Oneof thestainsimpartscolourto thelignifiedtissueandtheotherto thecellulosepart.
areinvolvedin thepreparation
Trio differenttechniques of a permanentslide.
h this methodsafraninandhaematoxylin
areused.
TAIRANIN SOLUTION : PrepareaO.5-lo/o
solutionof safraninin uater or l7o solutionin 5}ohalcohol.
LIGNIN + SAFRANIN _---.----+ DEEPRED
H.AtrTELD'S HAEMATOXYLIN :
CELLULOSE+ HAEMATOXYLIN _--------+ PURPLISHVIOLET
Takea cleanwatchglass.Add safraninsolutionto it, and

ransfera thin uniformsectionto this solution
Treatfor l0 minutes
Safranin
Takeonewatchglasscontaining50%alcohol.
Tansferthe sectionfrom safraninto 50 ohalcohol.keepfor
5 minutes.
50%Alcohol
Transferthe sectionin watchglasscontainingrvater;keep

tor 5 minutes.This washingshall rcmovcthc stainfrom
.-llulosepart.
Water
{ Transferthis safraninstainedsectionto a watch glass

urtainingdilutehaematoxylintreatfor2 minurcs.
Haenratoxvlin
3
Transferto a watchglasscontaining
waterfor washing.
tE E&n it &Stc rtrincdnd mw nqrdc eftydrzdmcherwice,over

a penodof timeit maydevelop
a
qltr.'aF} md theobserraimeshallnotbcchar,
I8 Practi cal Pharmacognosy
For dehydrationdoublestainedand washedsectionis treatedwith increasingstrengthsof alcoholfor I

minutein eachstrength,
startingwith 307oalcohol,followedby 5O7o,75Vo,9OVo andlOOVo. Thisremoves all
moisture
fromthesection.
Thisdchydratcd is nowreadyfora pcrmanent
scctibn mount.
-=j
30 Voa[c. 50 %oalc. 75 %6alc. 90 %oalc. 100% aic.

Dehvdrationof secfi
Formounting,select a I to 1.2mmthickglassslideanda thin cover Cloveoil (5 minutes)

slip. Placethe sectionin the centreof the slide and add few dropsof
cloveoil. This makes the sectionclear, as it removesunwanted
debris.After5 minutes,dry thesectionwith a blottingpaper.
Cloveoil wipedotr
To thissection,now
addfewdropsof Canadabalsamdissolved
in xylol.
Canadabalsamin xvlol Placecoverslip
Slightlywarmtheslideor keeptbr dryingln sun in a dust-freeplace.Naturaldryingis a time consuming

process
andrakes2-3 dayslor complction.
Thcsolventevaporates andthebalsamfixesthesection.Labeltheslide.
accordingly.
In this method,the
stainsusedaresafraninand Fastgreen solution.
SAFRANIN+ LIGNIN -------------->DEEP RED

FASTGREEN+ CELLULOSE
+ BRIGI{T GREEN
Practi cal Pharmacognosy l9
irrst stainthe sectionwith safraninand treatwith 50 % alcoholas in

re:HOD I (stepsI and2).Later,dehydratc asin METHODI.
thcscction
Thesecondstainis addedafterdehydration.Fastgreen is dissolvedin
urs'.:oil andtreatedwith thcsection[or2 - 3 minutcs.
FastGreenin CloveOil
Thesectionis thqn transferedto a cleanslide,treatedwith plain clove

ri :cr 5 minutes Rcmovcexcess
for clcaringthcsection. of clove oil andfix
lr iectionin canadabalsamas in Method I. Dry andstorein a slidebox
m.i required
for observation.
CloveOil
andcellulosewallsgetstained
nucleiandcutinisedwallsgetstainedred;cytoplasm
Lignifiedtissues,
:t
-I .
Thisis a gooddoublestainandhasthemeritthatthefastgreensolutionkeepswell,wherasDelafield's
badlyandrequiresfrequentfiltering.
deposits
luu:ratoxylin
Canada balsam rcsinous

is a semi-solid, substancc,
andranslucent in nature.
Takesmallquantityof Canadabalsamin a tcsttube,warmona water-bath toremove volatilematter.
Warmuntila
rnuC
massis leftbehind,coolanddissolve
byconstant sdningin xylolor benzene.
A cleartransparentviscousfluidrS
roned whichmaybefilteredto removeparticlematter.Thisfluid is usedfor fixing thesection.
Thus.sectionsarereadyfor observationundera microscope; no matterwhichtechnique is usedfor preparation
dr slide.
routinelaboratory
Usually,the techniquediscussed sectionhasto bepreseved
in 3.1and3.2 areusedunles$the
'fu cbservation
or evaluationin thefuture.
XXX
4.1 S€lecta placein the laboratorywheresufficientlight is available.Seethat directsunlightdoesnot frll onr
plrceof work.Alwayshavefte windowpanes closedsothatthedirectsunlightdoesnotfallontothemicrcsco
the microscqehasa built in or externallight source"any placewouldbe suitable.
4.2 Removethe microscope from the boxandplacr on the tablebeforeyou,with the C-Arm towardsyou and
objectives
andmirror facingthe light.
Windowwith glass
Panels
Light
Microscope
Obserrrer
43 Taftea pieceof cottonctothandwipethemicroscope to removeanydust.With xylol, wipeall the lensesr

thatgreascor dustcouldbe removedwith the helpof a tissuepaper.This shallmakeall lensesclearandI
undesired foreignmatterwouldbeobserved.
4.4 Oncethe microscope is thorougNycleane4it is readyfor use.Observing throughtheeyepiece, align theI
pouerobjective(5x) or 4x scanner.Openthediaphragmcompletelyandwith the helpof the zubstage mc
adjustthe positionsothat the field of view is sufficientlyilluminated.While doingthisrseethat the u,o@
distanceis about3/4"to 1".
IRIS DIAPHRAGM
(lookingup from underneath)
Close Open
Adjustmcntof substeee
mirror Adiustmentof substae dio hrr
Thcmhor aoddiaphragan
aresoadjuste4asto gettherequired illumination.
20
Practi cal Phormacognosy 21
{5 Placethe slidepreparedon thestageof themicroscope

at thecentre,with thesectionplacedexactlyin line
with the stagewindowlying abovethecondenser.
Stagewindow
Mechanicalstage
Slideholdingclips Slideplacedsuchthat the sectionliesabovethe
e window.
the clips.Now the slidecanbe movedforward,backuardor sidewaysabovethe stage

Fix the slidebeturcen
with thehelpof two screwsprovidedon themechanical stage.
Slide
Left hand
Right hand
Adjustable
side
arm
4.6 With the help of coarseadjustment screw(while

observingthroughthe eyepicce), bring the objectinto
focus-Tryto get asclearan imageaspossibleby moving
this screw.If the light in the field is too much,cut off Coarse
adjustment
thebeamby slightlyclosingthe diaphragm.If lesslight Fineadjustment
is available, illuminate by further opening the
diaphragm.
Now, leave the coarse adjustment and with the
fine adjustment knob,try to obtaina sharpimage.
4.7 Note the observationunder low pou,er, if further

elaboration thenosepieceandalignthe
is requiredrrotate
highpourcrobjective (40xor 45x).Do not movethe slide
or coarseadjustments. The working'distancein this
caseis low andgreaterilluminationis required.Thus,
by observing throughthe eyepiece,adjustthe diaphragm
to obtainsufficientillumination.Now with the help of
fine . adjustmentknob,' obtain a sharpfocusand
image. This is a magnified image and revealsmore
detailswith higher magnificationas comparedto low Revolvingnosepiece
pOvrer.
Makethe necessary
observations suge.
of the wholesection,movingtheslidewith thehelpof the mechanical
?
4.8 Thelow powerobservation asminutedetailsof cellsarenot visibleor not

diagram,
helpsto drawa schematic
clear.
l. Alwayscleanthe microscopebeforeandafterusing.
2. Do not touchthe lenseswith hand.This makesthemgreasyandblurtheimage.
3. While loweringthe objec'tiveto bring the objectin focus,natchfromthe side to avoidthedjective touchi4'
theslide.
4. Do not usehigh powerobjectiveunlessthe objectis coveredwith a coverglass so that the lensdoesna
touchthespecimen.
5. Whilekeepingthemicroscope back,in theboxalwaysput an eyepiecein thebodytubeso thatthedustdoes
notenterthebodytube.
on thestage.Thismayleadto corrosion.
6. Do not spill uater or chemicals
7. Alwaysstorethemicroscope coveredin a plasticcoveror in a nrooden
box.
f
CELL MEMBRANE CELLWALL Providesrigid frame work, shape,
Encloses
thecyoplasm prdection mechanicalsupportand
checkstr'anspiration
CYToPLASMThe fluid presentinsidethecetlnrall

enclosedby the cell membrane,in
wtrich dl cell componentsare
suspended.
NUcLzuSSite of chromosomes.
takespart in
GOLGIBODY cell division and protein
Associated
with secretory
activity biosynthesis.
NUCLEOLUS
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
The transport channel between
nucleus
andcellwall.
zuBOSOMES i-li'j
.r.j;
'.;j'jll!.,
Responsible
for proteinbiosynthesis TONOPLAST: Membrane
enclosing
thevacuole.
VACUOLE
Contains
cellsap
STARCHGRAIN
Thisdissolves
LYSOSOMES
theprotoplasmandcell
PLASTID:Contains
of photosynthesis
chlorophyllsite ru
membrane duringcelldivision
MITOCHONDRIA
Poucrhouseofthe cell, produces ATp,
sourceof energy.This takespart in
transmissionof hereditarycharacters
CELLMEMBRANE a
' (Extra-nuclear)
MIDDLE LAMELLA
CELLWALL
rFl
23
ND.-
Practi caI Pharmacognosy
MACERATING AGENTS/ DISINTEGRATINGAGENTS
--sedto break-upthetissues
into isolatedelements.
I--sedto concenhate the moreresistantelements
suchas stonecells,xylemvesselsandfibersby removing
:ontentsandcellulosecell walls.
Maceration
Tissue Isolatedelements
Theseidentifyingmicroscopical characteristicscanbe thanusedfbr microscopical drawing,microscopical
n@L<urement, quantitative microscopyand to studytheir othermicroscopical details.I{ence,this tecliniqueis
useful
',lrs-. in microscopical evaluationof a crudedrug.
Cut thematerialinto smallpieces(2mm" 5mm) or into smallslices(aboutInrm thick)anduseanyoneof
fM:ollowingmacerating fluidsor disintegrating agentsdepending on thenatureof thecell wall.
Usemacerating fluid (i) or (ii) for tissueswith morelignifiedcell wall andusefluid (iii) for fissueswhere
lignifiedcellsarepresent.
ti) Schult'zmaceration fluid

rii) Chromicrcid- niric acidsolution
riii) Sodiumor potassium hydroxidesolution
lt0 Schult'zmaceration fluid .

1i) To nitric acidsolution(50%v/v),addsuffrcientpotassium chlorateto maintaina steadybut,gentle
effervescenceon heatingon a waterbath.
(ii) Placefragmentof thetissuein theabovemacerating fluid.
(iiD Add potassium chloratefrom timeto timeuntil tissuesaresuffrcientlysoftened
arrddisintegrated.
(iv) Teaseoutwith mountedneedle,a pieceof treatedtissueasaboveon a slidc.rAs andwhenscparation of cell
takeplace,stopheating.
constituents
(v) Washthematerialwith waterandmakeit freefrom acid.
r Thedisintegrated / macerated materialgivesa negativereactionfor lignin.
+ffi)Chromicand nitric Acid solution:
It is solutionof l0%oby wt. of chromicanhydridein nitric acid(l0o/ov/v). It attacksfirst celluloselatcr,lignin
and finally aftera long time, suberin.
At roomtemp : Slowmaceration,
lessdistortion
PROCESS
By heating: Fastmaceration,
moredistortron,requiresfumingcupboard.
,ffi) Sodiumor potassiumhydroxidesolution(5%) :
Cleanandconvenient for use.

Disintegratecertaincellulosetissueshenceusedto removeparenchyma andcollenchyma.
Processis carriedout on waterbath.Takesabout30 minutesfor l/4 inchcubesofaverage
Not recommended for the separation
of leafepidermisastheyshowmarkedswellinganddistortiono f the
cellwalls.
Thedisintegrated
/ macerated
materialgivesa negativereactionfor ligntn.
XXX
'tr
6.1 Grorpsof cellswith sameformandfunctionsarecalledasTISSUES.
6.2 PLANT TISSIJES
MERISTEMATiC PERMANENT TISSUES

e.g Epidermis
SIMPLE COMPLEX SECRETORY

Parenchvma Xylem Laticiferous
Collenchyma Phloem Glandular
Sclerenchvma
itr: :rlj::::il::: ti:i itill:i.ir.tfi,ill+-+tt*li[tf,i$F.ii!:#ltt*i:rti

i{]+il'.ri*
f,i
L Comprisesof young cells which havethe pou/erto l. Thesecellsareliving or havingattainedtheir
redivideand multiply. formandsize.
deFrnite
2. Thesecellsarepresentat growingpointsi.e.tipsof a Usuallypresentrn the groundtissueand

roots,shootsandepidermis. fun entaltiszuesystem.
3. Thesecellsare closelypackedwilhout intracellular 3. Intracellulars
spaces.
existamongsttheplants depending
Threebasictissuesystems on the site,shapeandfunction.
l. EPIDERMALTISSUE SYSTEM [Epidermis,periderm]
) parenchyma]
GROUND OR FUNDAMENTAL TISSUESYSTEMlCollenchyma
3. VASCULARTISSUE SYSTEM fXylem,Phloeml
30
I
h acti cal Phalmacognosy 3I
ffi,ffi:F.ffi
Tb epidermis is the outermostprotectivelayerof cells
Ca stem,..r@tor led of a young plant. Usually In thestemandroot of matureplangthelayers
immediately below theepidermis(phel
msisting of a'siqglelayerof cells.
redivide.On theoutersidetheyform ct
on theirurersidetheyformphellodern.
Phellem+ Phellogen+ Phelloderm: Periderm
'-......-l
Epidermis
Cork
Phellqgen
Phelloderm
EPIDERMALCELL CIJTICLE
Epidermalcells are closely packedand show wide Thecorkcellsarerectangularbrick shaped or polygonal;
in shapeand size.No intercellular are
spaoes phelloder,m cellsare mostlyparenchymatous in nature.
',zriation
arailableexceptfor STOMATAAND TRICHOMESin Lenticelsaf,epresentin the periderm,especiallyin the
leaves. bark of old plants ufrich are similar in function to
stomati.rTheseare openporeswith absenceof guard
cells. The cork cells are impregnatedwith a layer of
suberin.
Thestrubtrreof epidermalcellsmayvary. Cork cellsareof varioustypes:
Straightwalled
polygonal -+ Thick walled
e.g Sennaleaf
Thin walledand
Warrywalled flattenedouter
e.g Digitalispurpura,
surface.
belladonna led
Thin walled
polygonal
e.g.cascarabark
Beadedwalled Stratifiedcorftasin
e. g Digitalislanaa. Rauuolfiaroot
C0lunner epltholl
e.g Iryhegulaseed
34 Practical Pharmacognosy
Thesearecomplextissuesresponsible
for conductionof fmd andwater.
l. Xylemis a deadtissue,conductswaterfrom rootsto l. Phloemis living tissueand conductsfood from

leaves. leavesto thepartsofplantbody.
Xylemcomprises of : risesof :
a) Tracheids: Theseareelongated, lignified thick rentsarcJtevetubesandievelcells,
walled,pointedat both ends,andfrequentlycut andcarryfoodmaterial.
across with obliquewalls and perforations.
These conduct water and give mechanical
strength.
b) Tracheaeor vessels: Theseare similar to b) Companioncells : Associated with sievetubeq
tracheidsbut,without any oblique perforated bothfunctionallvandstructurallv.
walls.
c) Xylem.parenchyma: also known as wood c) Phloem parenchyma : Parenchymaln
parenchyma consistsof pa.renchymatous cells assaiationwith sievetubesfor conductionand
Thesearethin walledlivingcellsandconduct storageof food.
water"
d) Xylem sclerenchymaor wood fibres : d) Bast or Phloemfibres : Sclerenchyma fibres
fibresgivemechanical
Sclerenchyma supporr. to plant.
whichgive mechanicalstrength
Micro chemicaltestsfor lignified cells : !1, Sieveplate

(D With Phloroglucinol andHydrochloric acidit
showsredcolor. Sievetube
(iD With Safranin andHydrochloricacidir slrows
redcolor.
Protoxylem: It is thexylemtissueformedfirst. Companiancell
Metaxylem: It is thexylemtiSsueformedlatter. Phloemparenchyma
cellscut open
cross-wall
Sclerenchvma
Companioncell
cross-
wall Sievetube
appearslet
contrnuous
Fibre Vessel
Diagramto showhowvefticalcolumnsof cellsgive

riseto vessels
Practicai Pharmacognosy 35
Xylemvessels
showingvarioustypesof thickenings.
Fii-T
?
@
G
4
-.:?.-
&q 1-
t^
a_.
v €o
e
.@3
Spiral Annular Scalariform
Reticulate
Bordered Pftred
pitted
Examples:
Spiralandannularthickeningvessels : Gentian,
Clove,Squill,Senna"
Belladonna,Hyoscyamuqleaf
Spiral and scleriformthickening: Lobeliastem.
Reticulatethickening: Gentian,Ginger,Rhubarb.
Borderedpits : Quassiarlrood,Sandalurcod,
Betladonna,Aconite.
6.t.1
Thexylemand phloemareobserved patches

in separate
placedon thealternate
radiion thea.ris.
Phloem
Xylen is Exarch : Meaningthat the protorylemis
Xylem pointingtowards
theperiphery
a?._D....
Example: Podophyllum
root.
Schematic
diagram(I. S.)
PracI i caI l rharmacogno.rr. 37
Significance:
Monocotstemanddicotstemcanbedistinguished by lookingat thearrangement
ofthe bundles.
In dicot
stemsthevascular
bundles
arearranged
in theformof a ring whilein monocotthevascular
bundlesare
s€attered.
Vascularbundlesareseenin the midribof transverse
view of leaves.Therenumberandnaturein midrrb
helpin identificationof species.
e.g.DigitalispurpureaandDigitalislanata
CAMBIUM: It's a meristematictissuepresentbetweenthe phloemand xylem in dicot stems.In young
rootsthecambiumis notpresent. Duringgrowtha stripof cambiumappears betweentheradialyplacedpirloem
andxylemwhichultimatelyformsa ring givingout secondary phloemon theoutersideandsecondary xylem
on theinnerside.Due to theappearance of thesesecondarystructures
thedelicateprimarystructures
areeither
crushed anddisintegrated or poorlyrepresentedin matureplantparts.Thecomponents of secondary
xylemand
secondary phloemarequitesimilarto primarystructures.
When parenchymatous cells run diagonallyor radiallyand extendfrom the pith to the cortexthrough
the
secondaryxylemandsecondary phloem,itis termedasa medullaryrayor pithrays.
Widthof medullaryraymayvaryfrom uniserate to multiserate.SurinumQuassiaandJamaicaQuassiacanbe
It is presentin all barksandwoods.
identifiedbythischaracteristlc.
Medullaryraysperformth6 functionof conductionof foodandwaterin the lateraldirection.
e.g.Quassiawoo4 Sandalwood.
Medullarvravs
T Medullarvravs
Medullaryrays
R.L.S.
S.
Sections
of Quassiawood
XXX
_.il
The microtome is usedin cuttingsectionsof uniformthickness.Embedded tissuesare cut loyeithera rctary
Rockingmicrotomeor Slidingmicrotome.
microtome, Paraffinembedding is requiredfq both rotaryand rocking
microtomes.Whilecelloidinembedded sectionsarecutby theslidingnricrotome.
All microtomeshavethreemajorparts:
o Theblockholderin whichthetissueis heldin position.
o Theknife carrierandtheknife.
r Theadjustment screwsandrachetdevicethatline up thetissuein properrelationto the knife andfeedthe
properthicknessof tiszuefor zuccessive sections.The microtomefeedingmechanismis gra&tatedin
microns.(p)
Blocking is the methodof placing the infiltrated-impregnated tissuein warm liquid praffin Olocking
medium)that solidifiesinto a firm block,when it cmls down to room temperature.This is alsoknownas
embedding or casting.Theprocess of blockingenablesthetissrrcto becuton a micrctome.
ParafEnwaxwith a highermeltingpoint(60"C) is usedfor blocking.Themoltenparfin is filteredinsidethe
wen througha coarsefilter paper.This will protecttheknife edge.TheLeuckhardmould(embedding Ls) consists
of two Lshapedpiecesof metal(brass),with onelimb of the "L" longerthanthe other.The tuo "Ls' arejoinedto
formthesidesof a rectangularboxtlat actsasthecastto makethewaxmould.
Stepsin blocking:
(D Plate Arrangethe "Ls" on a sheetofglass.Placethe specimen
in thebottomof thecavitymadeout of thetn'o "Ls".
Embeddingbox
L-mould
Lmould or embeddineboxe
Four the meltedparfin over the tiszue.Using warm
Tissue forcesorientthe tissueuntil it is layingflat in the desired
Paraffin plane.Make surethat thereis no air bubblearoundthe
tissue
(trD Paraffin When the trav is filled with moulds, transfer to a

Tissue refrigeratoror to an ice tray to completehardeningd the
paraffin.Thistakesabout15to 30 minutes.
(rv) Parafrn Whenmouldsare har4 the encased blocksare removed

Tissue from the baseplateandtaped on the benchin orderto
separatethemfromthewall.
Trim theparaffinblockwitha handrazerandfinallywith

Tissuein parafrn microtome knife.Theslidesfor theblck mu6tbeparallel
block andthe tissueshouldbe I to 3 mm ftom thc edgpon all
sides.
[Papertray is sometimes
usedfor blockpreparationl
38
7
Practi cal Pharmacognosy 39
IT' Warcmting Spreada uniform I mm thick layer of wax on the groved

plarc.
With the help of a hot spatul4makea rectangular/squarish

centralareacontainingmoltenuax.
Immediately placetheblak ino this centralareaof molten

uax with ftont ciftheblockuppermostandpressgentlywith
the indexfinger.The blockmustbeexactlyperpendicular tn
thesurhceofthe blockholder.
When the baseis set, the block holderalong with block

shouldbe immersedin coldwaterin a beakerfor about2G30
minutessothat the settingis complete.
The blockholdercan
nowbemountedon a microtome,for sectioncuning.
(D Checkall the partsof microtomeandmounttheblock holderon the microtome.

OD Adjustthe angleofknife (20').Bring the razornearerto the blockandseethat the lourcrsideofthe latter
is exactlyparallel to the edgeof the former. Setthe microtomeat whateverthicknessthe sectionsare to
becut.
GrD Sfft rotafingthe drive wheel.As soonas the paraffn block makescontactwith the razor,sectionsof
paraffinbecuLAs eachsectionis cut,theimpactof theknifeedgeon theblockslightlymeetsthesameand
ttrezu@ucfrt sectionadhereto theearlierone.
(ID As soonas the ribbonis aboutan inch in length,inserta brushbelowthe samewith left handand hold
theribbonnfiile moresectionsarebeingcut.
(v) When the ri$on is about 5" long" storprotating the wheel and cut the ritbon againstthe middle part of
theknift with a goodscalpel,leavingabout9" longribbonattached
to theknife.
(w) t a cleanurfritepryer. Continuecuttingthe sectionstill abouthalf of the block is cut.
nctions,thewholeof thetissuemustbecutcompletely.
(14r)In thc preparaionfor staining pardn has to be removed.For this, slides needto be uiarmedq,hich
caneitherbe donein the par"ffin ovenor on the slidewarmer.
.)
Blockholder
!earamn
I
I block Screwfor tightening
I
I theblockholder
II
I
I
t
I
I
I
I
I
Knife
Screwsfor tightening I{andle

theblockholder
Blockholder
Razorangleadjusters Micronadjuster
Razor Drive wheel
Slidingrazorholder
rtrtt Screwfor tigjteung raznr

holder
Spencertype rotary microtome
Advantagesof usinga microtome:

r) areof uniformthickness,
Sections whichcan'tberegulated
in free-hand Thereit maybethickor
sections.
thinandalsooblique.
ii) Thesections canbeobtained at anydesired (10r15,20
thickness or 25 p etc.)
iii) Sectionsobtained arenotoblique.(If processedsystematically)
of entiretissuecanbeobtained,
l v ) Sections necessary
whichis sometimes for studyingthedevelopment
of a
plantorgan.
XXX
T
DRAWING:
}ITCROSCOPICAL
I ) Theyareusefulto rccordthecharacteristics
of the'crude
drugsandhelpto examincapprovccl
dlugs
calefullvwith minutcdetails.
2) Theyshouldhaveverymuchsirnilarity,
astheshape,
siz.e
andarrangenrent
of thecells/ tissues.
in thc
preparation
underconsideration,
3) As far aspossible
shading
shouldbeavoided
r) It's theplanof thegeneral

distrihution
ofthetissue",
whichshouldbe fullyandncatlylabelled.
2) Thereshouldnotbeobsculing
celldetail.
?\ It shouldcontainonlvtheoutlinesof thetissueareasat theiractualposition.
r) It shouldbe theexactreproduction
of thecellsunderexamination.
2) Sizeandshapeof thecells,thickness
of thecellwallsandcelllumenshouldbedrawnin proporrion.
3) It is goodto drawa t'ewcellsexactlywith accuracy
ratherthana number.
4 ) Presentation
of lignifiedstructures
shouldhaveclif'fbrent
appearance
thanother.Thiscanhc clonehy
outliningsuchregions/cellswitha solterpencil.
5) Cellwallsshowingthickness banbedrawnasa doublelinedfor accurate
representation
of thcir-appearancc
in thepreparation
(Fig.A & B).
6) Studentshouldpracticeto useoneeyetbr themicroscope
andotherfor freehand
drawings.
I-caf epidermisdrawn with sinslelines Leaf epidemis dranmto indicatethe thicknessof the cell walls
I
\
I
Pr acti cal Pharmacognosy 43
Eyepiecemicrometer Stagemicrometer
slide
lo l4 60 ?t 60 ci rbo
ll
Thecameralucidaor drawingocularis usefirlfor tracinga magnifiedimageof the objectundermicroscopical

study.With properadjustments of cameralucidaandilluminationritis possibleto seesimultaneously the drawing
paper,the pencil point and the objectundermicroscope and it is then easyto tracethe requiredoutlines.Thisis
muchquickerandmoreabcuratethanthe mostskilledfreehanddrawing,butit requiresthe subsequent
arrditionof
detailsby freehand.
Swift Ives ciamera lucidaandAbbe modelare the commonlyusedinstruments.The Swift Ivescameralucida
consistsof a prismfitted overthe microscope eyepiece. Whenusinga cameralucida,themicroscope shouldbe in a
verticalpositionand microscope lamp shouldbe carefullyadjustedsothat the illuminationon the drawingpaper
placedat the sideof themicroscope, is equalto thaton the mountedpreparation.
t
.E
44 Practi caI Pharmacognosy
The drawingpapershouldbe zupportedby a drawingboardand if necessary, tilt it at correctangleto avoid

distortion.Testthe eqnalmagnificationon all the partsof boardloyplacinga stagemicrometeron the stageof the
micrcsoqeandtracingits divisionon paper.If the distancebetnrcen tnrodivisionsarenot equal,the angleof tilt of
theberd is a{iusteduntil equalityis Stained. Nowtracethe imageof the scaleon paperandmeasurethe distance
betu'Een tclo lines.
For exanple,0.4 mm of the stagemicrometer= 13.2cm on the drawingboard
I mmof thestagemicrometer scale= 330mmonthedrawingboard.
For the measurement of object,replacethe stagemicrometerby the mountof the objectwithoutdisturbing
otheradjusmonts. Tracetheoutlineof objectandmeasure thedimensions of object.
If lengthof imageof theobjectonthepaper: 5.1cm(51mm)
5l
.'. Actuallengthof object: mm = 0.154mm
330
: l54F
Alterndively,thedrawingmaybe super-imposed
on the tracedoutlineof the stagemicrometerandthe length
readofrdirectly.
A: SwiftIvesmodelcaneralucida
C : Diagrammatic sketchto showthe path of light

B : Cameralucida mountcddirectly on a special rays throughthe cameralucida and thruugh the
eyeprGoe microscopeto conver3ein the eye. Otr actual
practicethe eyeis tearer the cameralucidathat is
sbownin thefigure.
47
Drawing board
l. Drawineboard
setuDatanansle. 2. Drawineboard
in ition of rest.
XXX
Practi caI Phqrmacognosy 49
groundtissuebefircentuo epidermis.
Parenchymatous
MESOPHYLL
Singlelayer
Palisade(Thinwalled. SpongyParenchyma
Multi layer elongatedcells) Irregularcellswith large
intercellular
spaces
CellContents : CalciumOxalate
Bothsides0n isobilateral) Oneside(In dorsiventral) Crvstals.
Vol.Oil etc.
Upperpalisade Louer palisade

Palisade
layerif continuous
overthcveins-----Leaves
arecalled"EMBEDDED'..
e.g.Senna
Palisade
layenifnotcontinuous
overtheveins-----Leavesarecallecl"TRANSCURRENT".
e.g.Vasaka,Datura
Cuticle
Epidermis
Palisadecell
Chloroplast
Cell rvall
rl Cytoplasm
,
Vacuole
l*
t:r
Nucleus
il
x Spongycells
hl
fq#s Air space
Guardcell
Sectionthroughleafto showcell structure
i
tt
50 Pra.cti caI Phamacognosy
ARRANGEMENTS
OF CELLS
Centric lsobilateral Dorsiventral
Mcsophyll
I
showsa radialsymmctr.y. Palisadc layerat boththe Palisadelayelonlyat oncsidc
Singleaxiallyplacedveinin rhe sidese.g.Senna. c.g.Digitalis.Vasaka,
Daturacrc
ccntrcsun'oundcdby mesophvll, (Isri= equal,bi = two
similarin conslr'uction
on all sides (Dol'surn= hack
c.s.Pinus. later= sides ) Venter= fiont)
a,Upper epidermis
+Palisade cells
Sponryparenchyma
+Palisadecells
:-+Louer epidermis
Isobilateralnature
epidermis
-+Upper
--+ Falisadeparenchyma
(onlybelowupperepidermis)
-+Spongr parenchyma
-+Lower epidermis
Dorsiventralnrtrre
In a transverse
scctionol'themidrih,tlremeristele.
usuallyin theform of an arc containsxylerntowalrlsdorsir
sideandphloemtowardsventralsidc.Bctwcenxylemandcorticalparenchyma. medullary raystlansversc thc xylcnr
andpholemin radiatinglines.Sometimcspericycle,developsbelweenphloemandcorticalparenchyma e.g.Digiruli.t
(Collenchyrnatous
purpureu. pericycle), (pericyclic
Scnna l'ibres).
Cell contents:
Chloroplasts, oxalate,
Calciurn Diosinin. (Calciurn
cystoliths Volatile
carbonatc), trrr,rotsctc.
SYNONYM Daturaherb
BIOLOGICAL SOI]RCE Daturaconsistsof dried leavesand flowering topsof Datura metel andD metel
Yar..fastuosaSafford belongrngto family Solanaceae.It containsnot lessthan
0.20Vo of totalalkaloids ashvoscvamine.
calculated
MACROSCOPY
F- 8-13cm
Apex : Acute
2-4 lobes
Margin : teethdividingthe sinuses,
Veins : 4 to 6 veinson eachsideof midrib, laterralveins,

run intomarginalteeth.
Base:Asvmmetrical
Petiole
Shape: Ovate I
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS : Colour : Paie green. Odour : disagreeablecharacterstic-
faste : Unpleasant,
bitter.
EXTRA FEATURES darkcrthanlowcr-
Texture: Thin andminutelyhairy.Uppcrcpidermis:
Midrib prominenton lowersurface.
MICT,OSCOPY: LAII{INA:
MIDRIB Glandulartrichome @pidermis+ Mesophyll)
Dorsalsurface
Collenchyma -Upper epidermis
-Pdisade pa.renchyma
t--Spherophide.s
#
Spong parenchyma
LonBrepidermis
Vascular
bundle
a Coveringtrichome
Cortex
Collenchvma
Ventral-surface
Diagram (T.S.)
Schematic
52
54 Prqcti cal Pharmacognosy
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO CHEMICAL TESTS
Sr. No. Reagents Observations Characteristics

(l) Phloroglucinol and Pink colour Xylem1V.B.)
conc.HCI(1:1)
(2) Dil. aceticacid Insoluble Calciumoxalatecrystals
(3) Sulphuricacid Soluble,on standing Calciumoxalatecrystals
60Yowlw formsneedles of calciumsulphate
SURI'ACE PREPARATION: (Forprocedure

seethetopicLEAVES)
Coveringtrichome : Uniseriate,multiccllular,warty,blunt
ll5 to 220p long.
at apexapproximately
Gfandulartrichome: Unicellularstalk,2to 4cellcdhead,23

to 35 p in diameter
and50p in length.
Epidermalcells : Wavywall,rectangularly
arranged.
Cruciferous stomata : Stoma surroundedby three
cells,whereone is smallerthan othertwo i.e. Aniscrcytic
stomata(unequalcelledstomata).
MICROSCOPICAL CHARACNERISTICS OF POWDERED DRUG :
(i) STOMATAANDEPIDERMALCEI,LS
stomata(anisocytic)
Cruciferrous : Scczrbovc.
Epidermal cells : Slightly straightin upperepidermis,wavy walled in
lowerepidermis.
(ii) TRrcHoMEs:
Coveringtricome:
Uniseriate,
multicellular, with blunt apex.
wavycoveringtrichomes
Length: approxirnatelr'
l l5 to 2(X)pr.
Glandulartrichome:
Onecelledstalk and 2-4 celledhcad.
2.1to 35p in diarnclcr
and50prin lcngth.
(iii) LAMINA / MESOPHYLL :
parenchyma
Palisade : elongated,
compactlyarranged.
Cal.oxalate (spherophides),
crystals vascular
element,
Spongyparenchyma .
(tD CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS:
Spherophidccryshls
:Occurin parcnchymrtcus
spongy
in thcgrwdcr.
ccllsandscattercd
__-J
MICAL TESTS:
l) Vitrli-Morin reection: Thetropaneallotoidis treatedwith fumingnitric aci4 folloqndby evaporation
to dryness.
Additionof methanotic
potassium
hydroxidesolutionto anacetonesolutionof nitratedresidue-
violetcoloris developed.
2) orr additionof silvernitratesotutionto sotutionof hyoscinehydrobromide,yellowishwhiteprecipitate
is
forme4wtrichis insolublein nilric aci4 butsolublein dil. ammoniasolution.
3) Generalchemical testsforalkaloids(seethetopic: PRELIMINARY pHyTocHEMIcALSCREENING)
MICAL CONSTITIIENTS :
Upto0.5qoof totalalkaloids.
Scopolamine(hyoscine)is themainalkaloid.Hyoscyamine andatropinearepresent
in minorquantities.
: Parasympatholytic
with anticholinergicand CNSdepressanreffect.
Also usedas mydriatic,antispasmodic
andcerebralseddive.Hyoscinehydrdromideis usedin motionsickness, gastricor duodenal
ulcers.
paration: (a) DAuraliquidextractI. P. O) TincturedaturaI.p.
IED DRUGS :
Ddura innaxis :
(t) Leavesareovalwith entiremargin(fewte€thmaybepresent).
(il) Numerousglandulartrichomesoccw, c om pos edof a2n4celleduniseriate. stalkandanunicellular
head
spherical
(iii) Thebasalcell of thecoveringtrichomesmeasures lessthan50pm in diameter.
Ddura tdula z
D Leavesaresmaller.
iD Coveringtrichomesaregenerallylonger.
iii) Petiolegivesa pink colorwith hydrochloricacid.
XXX
I
SYNONYMS Digitalisleaves.Foxgloveleaves.
BIOLOGICAL SOTJRCE Digitalis consists of dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea, family
Scrophulariaceae, below60"C,immediatelyaftercollecting
driedat a temperature
theleaves.Theleavesshouldnotcontainmorethan5 %owlw moisture.
MACROSCOPY
4 -10cm Generalappearance: Usuallybrokencrumpled,papery.
Apex: Subacute.
dentate,crenate.
Margin : Serrateor ocassionally
Venation: Pinnate,anastomosing nearthemargin.
10-40cm
on lowersurface.
Veinlets: Prominent
Base: Decurrent.
vcnatron
Petiole: 4 to l0 cm.long,wrnged,with dccurrcnt
Shape: Ovate-lanceolate.
green, Odour: slight.Taste:distinctlybitter

ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERISTICS Colour: Darkggeyish
EXTRA FEATURES Uppersurface: Pubescentandsomewhat,rugose
Lowersurface pubescent.
: Usuallydensely (harfy)
MICROSCOPY :
DorsalSurface LAMINA:
MIDRIB:
covering
trichome Upperepidermis
Mi Palisade
Collenchvma
spongyparencyma
Lowerepidermis
Glandulartrichome
Pericycle
Endodermis
Collenchyma
Ventral-surface
Diagram(T.S.)
Schematic
56
STAINING / DIAGNOSISi MICRO CHEMICAL TESTS :

(l) Phloroglucinol+ conc.HCI(l:l) Red Lignifiedrylemof V. B.
(2) Dil. iodinesolution Blue Starchin endodermis
(3) BaljetTest: A thick section+ Yellowor orangecolour glycosides.
Cellscontaining
Sodiumpicratereagent
(4) SudanRedIII Red Cuticle
SIJRX'ACE PREPARATION: (Forprocedure
seethetopicLEA\ES)
30 to 60p Wavywalled.
Epidermalcells: Polygonal,
Glandulartrichomes: Unicellular/
stalkand
head.
unicellular/bicellular
Coveringtrichome: Usuallythreeto five celledlong,uniseriate,

current,
warty,andsometime with collapsed
cells.
stomata(Irregularcelledstomata)
Ranunculaceous
IVIICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICS OF POWDERED DRUG;

Epidermalcellsandstomata:
Epidermal cells with ranunculaceous stornata.Stoma is surroundedby

subsidiarycells (resemblingother epidermalcells).Numberof subsidiary
cellsis notconstant.(Irregularcelledstomata)
Epidennal cellsarepolygonal.30to 60p1.Wallis wavy.
CoveringTrichomes:
Threeto five celledwith blunt tips andfinely warty.

Collapsed cellsaresometimes present.
Glandulartrichomes:
Lessin numberwith bothunicellularstalkanda
unicellularor bicellularhead
LaminaPortion:
Palisadecells, spongrparenchymawith epidermal
cells.
i 'P"' Xylem vessels

: Lignified oo o ol-
Starchgrains
simple
Calciumoxalatecrvstalsare absent.
r
PracticalPharmacognosy 59
CHEMICALTESTS:
Killer Killiani testfor digitoxose:
Boil aboutlg of finelypowderert andfilter the
digitaliswith_10ml of 70Voalcoholfor two to threeminutes,
.xtract.To filtrate, add 15 ml of uater and strongsolutionof lead acethte.Shakewell and separatethe hlrate .
Treatthe filtratewith equalvolurneof chlorofbnnandfilter.Evapolateto dryness. in glac:ial
Dissolvetl.rercsiclue
,;eticacidandatiercoolingacld2 clropsof ferricchloridesolution.
Ttanst'er
to tubecontaining
2ml of conc.Sulphulic
rid. A reddishbrownring developsbetweentwo layers.Upperlayershowsgreencolour. (This testis for deory
zugar-digitoxose)
Legal'stest :
Extract+ pyridine+ sodiumnirroprusside (Ihis
solutionandmakeit alkaline.Pinkor redcolouris produced.
lactonering presentin cardenoloids).
testis for 5 membered
Baljettest.SeeMICROCHEMICALTESTS.
CIIEMICAL CONSTITIJENTS:
Primary glycosides: PurpureaglyccidesA andB, glucogitaloxin
Secondaryglycosides: Digitoxin,gitoxin,gitaloxrn.
Other minor glycosides H,verodoxin
: Odoroside andglucoverodoxin.
Use: Cardiotonic.
DigitalisI. P.; DigitalistinctureI. P.
Preparations: Prepared
ALLIED DRUGS:
(D Digitalis lanala ('Woolyfoxglove): (Seeahead)
(tr) Digitalislutea (Straw foxglove) :
i) aboutl5 cm in lengthand2.5cm. in widthwith anacuminate
Leavesaresessile, apex.
ii) Surfaceis lesshairythanthatofD.purpurea.
iii) Morethanonewaterporemaybepresenton eachtooth.
iv) Veinisletnumberis lowerthanthatof D. purpurea.
(III) Digitalisthapsi (Spanishfoxglove) :
i) Leavesareelonga.tedwith decurrentlamina
ii) Periryclicfibresandsmallprismsof calciumoxalatearepresent.
iii) Absenceof non-glandulartrichomeandthick cuticle.
iv) Vein-isletnumbdris higherthanthatof D. purpurea.
ADIILTERANTS : (Fordiagrams seethetopic: LEAVES).
of trichomes,
@ Comfreyleaves:(Symphytum olficinale.Family. Boraginaceae)
i) Leavesarelanceolate or ovatein shape.
ii) Trichornesarethick-walledtapering,with sharpapices,manyare hmked nearthe tip. (hookat thetop)
(If) Primaroseleavesz(Primulavulgaris.Family. Primulaceae)
D Leavesarene:trly,spatulatewith straightlateralveinsdividingnearthe margin.
ii) Trichomesare abundantat the lower surfaceand are of two types,coveringtrichomesuniseriateand 6
to 12 cellsin lengthand smallglandulartrichomeswith multicellularstalksand unicellular,spherical
heads.
(IID Mulletin teavesz(Verbascum thapsusFamily. Scrophulariaceae)
i) Leavesareoblongin shape,8 to 30cm.long.
ii) Margin is somewhat toothedandapexis acute
iii) Surfaceis denselycoveredwith large woolybranchedCandelabratrichomes.
XXX
t
SVNONYM : Wmly fox-gloveleaf,AustrianFoxglove,AustrianDigitalis.
BIOLOGICAL SOIJRCE : Thesearedriedleavesof DrgitalislanataGhihart.Family : Scrophulariaceae.
MACT,OSCOPY
+ 4cm+
Aper: Acuminata.
Margin : Entire
Veins: Leavethemidribat a veryacuteangle,woolytrichomes.
30 cm
Sessile
leaf
Shape: Elongatedlanceolate
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS Colour: Green.Odour: Faint.Taste: Bitter .
MICROSCOPY:
LAI}IINA:
MIDRTB:
Upperepidermis
Palisadeparenchyma
DorsalSurface Sponryparenchyma
Lourcrepidermis
Midrib Glandutar
Collenchvma trichome
Endodermis
Vasculzir
bundle
Collenchyma
Ventral Sur{ace
diagram (T.S.)
Schematic
60
62 PracIi caI Pharmacognosy
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS
/ MICRGCHEMICAL TESTS:
Sr. No. |(eagen$ Obsenations Characteristics

(l) Phlorqglucinal
andconc.HCI Pink Lignifiedcellsof vascular
bundles
(2) Iodinesblution Blue Starchin endodermis
(3) SudanTFdIII Red Cuticle I
SIIRFACE PREPARATTONS: (Forprocedure

seethetopicLEAVES)
Epidermalcells: Beade4wary thin cuticlecovering
Glandulartrichome: Unicellularstalk, bi-cellularhead
Ranunculaceous
stomata(Anomocytic)
: subsidiary
cellsresembling
otherepidermalcells
MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERISTICSOF POWDERED DRUGS:

Stomata: Ranunculaceous (irregularcelledstomata)
Guardcellsaresurrounded by irregularnumberof
subsidiarv
cells.
Epidermalc ells : Irregularlybeadcd

, wavy,thich curiculizcd
with
ranunculaceous/anomocytic
stornata.
Head:Twocelled
Stalk: Onecell
Trichomes: Veryrare.
Glandulartrichome
Coveringtrichome:
2 - 10celled,uniseriate
CHEMICAL CONSTITIIENTS: Containsfive primaryglycosidesand in total about70 cardiacglycosidc*

PrimaryglycosidesareidentifiedaslanatosidesAr B, c, D,E.
Use: Cardiotonic.
CITEMICAL TESTS: Referchemicaltestsfor DEi talispurpurea.
XXT{
\
ITONYMS Senaiki patti,Sonamukhi,
Indiansenna,
Tinnevellev
senna.
LOGICAL SOURCE It consistsof dried leaflets of Cassia angustifuliaVahl, belonging
to
family Leguminosaeand contains not less than 2.0 % of glycosides
calculated
assennosidc B.
ilACROSCOPY
l Apex : Acutewith sharpspine.

Margin : Entire
Veins: Reticulate,
anastomosing
towardsmargin.
2to 5 cm
I
Lamina : Entire,flat,cracks.
Base:Asymmetrical
Shape: Lanceolate
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS
: Colour : yel'lowishgleen. Odour slighr, Taste : mucilagcnous,
slightlybitter.
EXTRA FEATURES Surface :i s o b i l a tc r a l , thin. pubescent (hairy) with trichonles on
bothsurfaces.
TIICROSCOPY:
TIIIDRIB: <- Dorsalsurface_> I , AM I NA:

Coveringtrichome
tlppcr-cpidcrrn
is
Palisadc
Pericylicfibres Spongyparenohyma
Sphcrophidcs
l Xylem
V. B.i Phloem l-ower-ep idermis
Pericyclic
fibres l,o'*,er-palisade
Crystalsheath Cuticlc
Collenchyma
{'- ventral surface___>
Schernaticdiagram (T.S.)
63
56 Practi caI Pharm.acognosy
STD€Itt
<- UPPERSLIRFACE+
MIDRIR
STEREOGRAM
OF SENNALEAF
CHEMICAL TEST:
BorntragerTestfor Anthraquinone: Boil theleaveswith dil. sulphuric acid(hydrolysis).
Filterandcool
thefiltrate.Add immiscibleorganicsolvent(bcnzene it. Shakethetesttubeandseparate
or carbontetrachloride)to
upperorganicsolventlayerin anothertesttubc.Addstrong,ammonia shakeslightlyandkeepthetesttube
solution,
aside-lower ammonicallayershowspinldrcdcolour.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUTENTS: Mainly anthraquinone glycosides

: sennosides
A, B, C andD
Uses: Irritant purgative.
Preparation: Ingredientof CompoundliquoricepowderI. P.
ALLIED DRUGS AND SUBSTITUTES:
@ Arabian, Bombayand MeccaSenna (Wild Cassiaangurtifolia)z

i) Leafletsmoreelongated anddaricerin colour.
ii) Vein-isletnumberis different.
(II) DogSenna(Cassiaobovda) z
i) Leavesarebroadlyobovatewith abruptlytaperingapex;thevenationis pinnate.
iD Lowerepidermisshounpapillosecells.
(III) Argel leaves(.Solenoslemma
argel)Iam. Asclepiadaceae:
i) Textureis thick andrigid.
ii)Surfaceis finelv wrinkled.
iii)
Baseis equal.
/
iv)Leavesarecurledor twisted.
v) TWoor threecelledhairs.
XXT
I
T{YMS : AdhatodaAcush4Adulsa
ICAL SOURCE It consists leavesof AdhdtodavasicaNees-
of dried,aswellas,fresh
family: Acanthaceae.
oscoPY
3 -lOcm
Apex: Acuminate
Margin : Slightlycrenate
to entire.
i0 crn
Venation: Pinnate,8 to l0 pairsof lateralveinsleavinga few hairs.
Base: Tapering.
Petiole: Intipulate
Shape: Lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate
GANOLEPTICCHARACTERS: Colour: driedleavesdull-brownto light-brown,

Odour: characteristic,Taste: biuer
ITRA FEATURES : Surface: glabrous,
Texture: thin andleathery,
Cunualappearance: fresh leavesare entire.Dried: crumpledand tn
dorsiventralbrokenfragments.
CROSCOPY:
MIDRIB: Dorsalsurface LAMINA :
Glandular
trichome MESOPHYLL:
Collenchyma Palisadeparenchyma
Spongyparenchyma
Cal.oxalatecrystal
Vascularbundle Epidermis(lower)
Collenchyma
Coveringtrichome Ventral-surface
diagram (T.S.)
Schematic
SYNONYMS Sadaphuli,
Catharanthus, Barmasi.
Periwrnkle,
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE roseus,G. Don.
It is a driedwholeplantof Catharanthus
Family: Apocyanaceae.
MACROSCOPY
Apex: acute
Midrib
Lateralvein
Reticulate
venation
Computemargin
Base
Petiole
Shape: Ovateoroblong
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS Colour: Green,Odour: faint, Taste: bitter

EXTRA FEATURES Simpleleafwith glossyappearance.
MICROSCOPY:
MIDRIB: LAMINA:
Dorsalsurface @pidermis+ Mesophyll,
Collenchvma Upperepidermis
parenchyma
Palisade
Spong parenchyma
Vascular
bundle
Lowerepidermis
Coveringtrichorne
Xylem
Phloem
Collenchvma
Ventralsurface
Diagram(T.S.)
Schemetic
70
\
MIDRIB LAITIINA:
Dorsiventralnature.
LTPPEREPIDERMIS : Singlelayered,
rectangularcells,theouterwall of which
is cuticularized.
Coveringtrichomes and
anisocvticstomata.
Stripsof collenchyma
:
Appear below upper
epidermis, and above MESOPHYLL:
lou,erepidermis. Palisade: Singlelayered
cells,elonga.ted
andcompact"
Corticalparenchyma.
Vascularbundle: Spongyparenchyma: Five to eight
Xylem:Lignified. layered" loosely arrangLd with
Phloem:NonJigpifed interctrllular' spaces.Vascular strands
areseen,butcalciunroxalatecrystalsare
absent.
Lower epidermis : Similar to upper

epidermis but number of stomataare
more.
CollenchYma:
Thickwalled
cellulosic
cells. Covering trichome : From epidermal
layer,whichareunicellular,long dagger
shaped,wartywith bulbousbase. -f
o
\:
sa
D
oE
s
.d
=
T. S. of Vinca Leaf
\
72 Prochcal Pharmacognosy
STAINING / DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO-CHEMICAL TESTS :

Sr. No. Reagents 0bserryations Characteristics
(1 ) + HCIconc.(1:1)
Phloroglucinol Red Xylem(vascular
bundle)
(2) SudanredIII Red Cuticle
SURFACE PREPARATION : (Forprocedure
seethetopicLEAVES)
Epidermalcell : Rectangular walled.
cells.Thinandstraight
Coveringtrichome: Unicellularwith bulbousbase.Warty,
Stomata : Anisocytic(unequalcelledstomata).
Stomata : Anisocyticor unequalcelledstomata.

Three subsidiarvcells. one is smallerthan
othertwo.
Trichomes : Covering unicellular,daggershaped warty

with bulbousbase.
Epidermalcells in shapewiththin
Cellsareslightrectangular
and stlaishtwall.
Mesophyll : Palisade and sponry parenchyma with

epidermis.
Vessels : Lignifiedvessels(fromveins),
CITENIICALCONSTITUENTS:
A largenumberof indolealkaloidsarepresentin vinca.Out of them,about20 dimeric indole-dihydroindole
and vincristineare mostsignificant.Vinblastine
alkaloidspossesoncolyticactivityand amongthemrvinblastine
containsindolepartcalledcatharanthineanddihydroindolemoietyvindoline.TheotheratKatoros arealmalrclne.
lochnerine,
serpentine, andtetrahydroalstonine.
CHEMICAL TESTS: Generai chemicaltestsfor alkaloids(Seethetopic: PRELIMINARYPHYIOCHEMICAL
SCREENING).
agent.Itis givenin thetreatmeht
is an antineoplatic
Uses: Vincristinesulphate in children'
of acuteleukemia ln
of Hodgkin's
adults,usedin treatment etc.
lymphosarcoma,
disease, XXX
: Isapgol
Ispgghula Indian
(Hindi),Isabgul' psyllium
SYNONYMS
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE Dried seedsof PlantagoovataForsk'Family: Plantagtnaceae'
MACROSCOPY
l to 1.75mm
.€
Hilum
I to 3.5 with a thin
Reddishbrown Covered
Ovalspoton testa white membrane
VentralSurface
DorsalSurface
:Pinkish-grey to Odour
brown, : Taste
None' : mucilagenous'
ORGANOLEPTIC :
CHARACTERISTICS Cotour
: Testa is andsmooth'
hard,translucent
EXTRA FEATT]RES
Weightof 100seeds: 0.15to 0'19gm'
Swellingfactor- 10'25to 13'50
MICROSCOPY :
Dorsalsurface
Testa:
Epidermis(husk)
EndosPerm PigmentlaYer
V. B.
Embryo/CotYledon
Ventral surface
diagram (T'S')
Schematic
/J
\
+.
\r
ri
e\
o
S
c\
{
:t
dE
TESTA:
Epidermis (Husk) Single layered colourless,
radiallyelongatedthin walledcells,fult of mucilage.
'Pigmentlayer : SinglelayeLed,
yellowislrin colour'.
ENDOSPERM:
Hardcells,thickwalledcontainingnumerous pits and
grannularcontents(aleurone grainsandoil globules).
L'. ,. Theouterlayerconsistsof palisade
like cells.
EMBRYO:
Contains two polyhedral cotyledons.Cells contain
aleuronegrarnsand oil globules.Three to five
vascularbundlesin eachcotvledon.
T.S.of Isapgolseed
Prac ti caI Pharmacognoslt 75
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO-CHEMICAL TEST :
Sr.No. Reagents Observations Characteristics

l) +conc.HCI(1:1)
Phloroglucinol Pink Vascularbundles.
RutheniumRed Red Mucilagepresentin epiderrnis.
r i\ Alcoholicpicricacid Yellow Aleuronegrainspresentin thecellsofendospernr
andembrvo.
(4) SudanRedIII Red Oil globules
presentin thecellsofendospernr
and
embrvo.
MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERISTICSOF POWDERED DRUGS:
Epidermis: Thick walledtransparent.polyhedralto tangentiallyelongated
cells,containing
mucilage.
Thcvcryoccasionalstarchgranulcs,whicharcprcscntin somc
of the epidermalcclls and may bc foundcmbccldcd in thc
mucilagc.Thcyareverysmallandsimplcor compound.
Endosperm
: Thick walledcellswith numerous pits. Oil globulesslrowred
colorwith sudanRedIIL
Alctrronc grainsshourcllorrcolour trithirlcoholic
picricacid
t-':/
solution.
PigmentL ayer : YellowPigmentlayer
CHEMICAL TEST :
Observation Inferance
on slide+ water
Seeds I Zoneof mucilageis formedaroundeich seed Mucilas.eresent
+ $ater
Porvder j :cttr likc urasson keeping Mucil:rgc
prcscnl
cHIfMIcAL coNsrrruENTS : Mucilage
(10%o),
carbohydrates,
fixedoil, proteins.
Uses : Demulcent,laxative
in chronicconstipation.illucilirgcis trscrlasit collinSrrratcrial.
bincling
a-qcnt,
ctc.
ADULTERANT:
(I) Plantagolanceolata:
(i) Seeds areoblongandellipticalin shape.
(ii) Yellowish-brown in color.
iii) Swellingfactoris about5.
ALLIED DRUGS:
(i) Plantagopsyllium : 90 mg- 100mg
Swellingfactor- 12.5.Weightof 100seeds
(ii) Plantagopurshii Goodmucilagecontent.
(iiD Plantagoaristata Goodmucilage content.
(iv) Plantagorhodosperma 17.5%of mucilage.
(v) Plantagoargentiana 23 %oof mucllage.
XXX
SYNONYMS FlaxseedLinumseed'Alasi(Hindi)
Linn, not
containing less
BIOLOGICAL SOI]RCE Consistsof driedriPeseedsof Linum usitatissimum
than25o/oof fixed oil' familY : Linaceae.
MACROSCOPY
Sliquely Pointedend
hilum
4-6 m Raphe
Roundedend
Chalaza
#
2 -2.5mm
Shape: Elongated - ovoid,flattened
Thickness: l-2 mm.
brown,Odour:odourless,Taste: OlY.
mucilaginous,
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS: Colour:
: Testa is hard and
smooth glossyin appeamnce.
EXTRAFEATLIRES
MICROSCOPY:
Testa
Endosperm
Cotyledon
Radicle
hilum
(L. S.)Parallelto flat surfaceSchematicdiagram

TESTA:
Epidermis
laYer
Sclerenchymatous
Endosperm
PigmentlaYer.
Cotyledons
diagram(I. S.)
Scbematic
76
TESTA:
(A) OUTER COAT : (Outerintegument)

(i) Epidermis : Single layer, polygonaltabular cells with thin
anticlinalwallsfilled wrthmucilage.
r:---1r--.- r--l
I t r_) L--==
(iD Sub-epidermis
: Oneor two layersof cylindricalcollenchyma
(B) INNER COAT (Innerintegument)
(D Sclerenchymatouslayer : Longitudinallyclongated,
120- 190p longandl4 - 17tt widc,thick
lignifiedscleridcs,
walled,pittcd,verysmalllumen.
(ii) Parenchymatous layer : Oneor two layers,thin-tangentially
elongated, collapsedparenchymatouscells.
(iii) Pigmentlayer : Singlelayerof flattenedpolygonalpigment
cellswith reddishbrowncontents.
EII{DOSPER]VI:
a h oil glo bulc sr t n t alc
Poly h c dr acl.c llulo s icpar c r r c h y nrwit gr . a ir r s :
l r t r o nc
grains: upto20 p in diamctcrwith glolnid crystals
Aleurone
COTYLEDON: -r-
o
aresimilarto endosperm.
Cellsandcellcontents .\
\:
s
T.S.of Linseed
\
\
78 Practical pharmqcognosy
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS
/MICRO-CHEMICAL TESTS
Sr. No. Reagents Observations acteristics
(l ) Phloroglucinot
- + corlcHCmJ6 Pink
(2) Ruthenium
Red- solution Red sentin epidermis.
(3) Alco.picricAcid- solution Yellow resentin the cellsof
(4) fvledon.
SudanRedIII R€d oil globulespresentin thecellsof
endosperm andcotvledon.
MICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICS OF POWDERED
DRUG:
Sclerenchyma : yellow coloredfibres,
Pittedwalls
Narrowlumen.
longitudinallyelongated,lignified l2}-lg} p long,14-17
[r width.
Epidermis:
Hypodermis: Rounded collenchymatous cells.
Epidermis : Folygonal epidermal cells,filledwithmucilage,
r|ft
Itlr
,.aa Pigmentlayei :
aaa
fa Fragments
of pigmentlayer,squarecellswith orangebroummass.
Endosperm: Polygonalcells
Alueronegrainsandfattyoil globules.
, Calciumoxalate
crystals
andslarchgrainsareabsent
CHEIVIICALTESTS:
Guignard'stcst for cyanogenetic glycoside(Linamarine): Porvder
the drug,moistenit with waterandput
into-aconicalflask' Traplhe sodiumpicratepaperon the neckofflask with cork Because
ofvolatile hydrocynic
acid,thepaperbecomes brick red or maroon-coloured.
CIIEMICAL CONSTITIJENTS:
(1) FtxedOil : (30 - 40%)
(2) Mucilage : (6%\
(3) Proteins : (2.5%)
(4) Glycoside : Cyanogenetic (Linamann_ 1.5Vo\
glycoside
Uses: Protective,
laxative,in scabies
andin skin diseases,
as_oil in po_lishes,
paints,vamishesr and
/mers.
seedmeal: aspoultiCe
ADIJLTERANTS:
Wholedrugis notusuallyadulterated.
Foudereddrugrnaybeadulterated with anyof thefcgowing:
(a) Erhaustedcake: Fixedoil contentis lessthan30percent
(b) Mineral matter: Ashvaluesaresignificantly high.
(c) Starchor unripeseed: Defatted pouder show manybluefragmenswhen treated with i
examinedmicrccopically.
(d) Cnrciferousseeds: On mixing with warmtryiater,
pungentodouris produced.
(e) Stelelinseed: On mixing with warmuaterrgivesa rancidodour.
XXX
SYNONYMS : Semen (Guj.)
strychini,KuchlaGlindi),Zerkachuro
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE : Consistsof the dried ripe seedsof Strychnosnur vomica,Linn containingnot less
that l.2%ostrychnine,family : Logmiaceae.
MACROSCOPY
10-30
Margin: roundedor somewhat

acute.
:"-."^t)lffiZ Hilum: raised.
Micropyle
Ridgeon testa
Hairy surface
Shape: Disc-shaped,
nearlyflat, umbonate, inegularlybent.
somewhat
CHARACTERS: Colour : Grey or greenishgrey, Odour ; odourless,Taste : extremely
ORGANOLEPTIC
bitter.
EXTRAFEATURES : Surface: Sillcy, radially ananged,densclycoveredclosely appressed
unicelluarlignifiedcoveringtrichomes.
Seedsareextremelyhard.
Wt. of 100seeds: 120- 208g
MICROSCOPY:
Testa
Endosperm
Cavity
Hilum
diagram (T.S.)
Schematic
79
t
oo
.i
TESTA: o
o
Lignifiedtrichomes:
Thickwalled,bentandnvistedlignifiedtrichomes, from
immerged \:
\t
epidermis,parallelin onedirection.
Length: 600-1000 p, Diameterabout25p o
s
Epidermalcell :
Singlelayer,forms lignified trichomes,large thick walledwith oblique
linearpits (Baseof trichomes)
Collapsed parench5ma :
2 layers,flattenedparenchyma.
ENDOSPERM:
Thick walledcellulosicparenchymatous cells.Cell showshemicellulose

in thecell wall andfollowingcharacteristics
:
Plasmodesma:
Fineprotoplasmic strandsbetween cells.
the wallsof endospermic
Aleuronegrains :
About30 p in diameter.Onlygloboidsarepresent.
Oil globules: Fixedoil assmalloil droplets

in thecells.
T. S. of Nux-vomica-seed
PracticalPharmacognosy 8l
STNNING / DHGNOSIS / MICRO CHEIVtrCALTESTS:

(1 ) + conc.HCI (l:l Mixture)
Phloroglucinol Pink Lignifiedcells- epidermaltrichomes.
(2) Dil.iodine+ conc.sulphuricacid Blue Hemicellulose walls
-Endospermic
(plasmodesma).
(3) Alcoholicpicric acrd Yellow Aleuronegrainspresentin the cellsof
endosperm.
(4) SudanRedIII Red Oil globulespresentin thecellsof
endosperm.
IUICROSCOPICALCHARACIERISTICS OF' POWDEREDDRUG :

Trichones: Entireor fragmentsof trichomes,
lignified
Baseis pittedandbroad.Apesis rounded.
Ridgesarepresenton the surface
Length: 60 - 1000p. Diameter:aboul25 p.
Endosperm
: Polygonal cells,withoil globules
cellulosic grains
andaleurone
SPECII'ICMICROCIIEMICALTESTS:
Sr.No. Tests Observation Inferances

(l) Defattedthicksection+ Ammonium Violetcolorto thecellsin central Strychninepresent.
Vanadate+ conc.H2SOa regionofendosperm
(2) Defatted + conc.H-D'O" Orangeyellowcolorto the cellsof
thicksection Brucinepresent.
peripheralregionof endosperm
CHEMICALTESTS: General Testsfor alkaloids.
CIIEIIIICAL CONSTITIIENTS: Alkaloids(2.5 - 1Eo): strychnine, strychnicine,
brucineetc.
Glycoside: Loganin. FixedOil (2-4%) andProteins.
Uses: Bitterstomachic, spinalcordstimulant,Nervetonic.
Preparations: (l) Nux vomicaliquidextract,(2) Prepared Nux-vomic4(3) TinctureNux-vomica.
ADIJLTERANTS:
(f) Strychnos potalorum seeds: i) Smallerandthickerthan Strychnosnuxvomica.
ii) Freefrom alkaloidsanddo nothavea bittertaste.
iii) Strychnine is absent,hencea sectiondoesnot showpurplecolourwhentreatedwith ammonium
vanadate andconc.sulphuricacid.
(D Snychnusnux-blanda: i) Appears iike strychnosnuxvomica,.butmoreyellowishin color.
ii) andiii) Sameasabove. iv) Palein colourwith a distinctridgeontheedgeof theseed.
ALLMDDRUGS:
(D IgnatiusBeat (StrychnosignatiBerg.): i) Largerthantheseedsof Strychnosnuxvomica.
iD Irregularlyovatein shapeanddarkgreenin colour.
iii) Seedcoatcanbeeasilyremoved. iv) Trichomesareunlignified.
(II) StrychnoswalIi chiana
XXX
SYNOI{YM : Chhoti- Ilaychi(Hindi)
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE : It consistsof driod, nearly ripe fruit of Elettaria cardamomumYar. minuscula.
Family : Zings&rrceae.Seedscontainnot lesthan 4 % of volatile oil.
MACROSCOPY
.H
3mm
Shortlybeakedat apex.
2 rtm Threeside4 smoothor longitudinallystriatedsurface.'
Shape: &oid or oblong
ORGANOLEPTIC to pale butr, Seeds: Pale to reddishbrown.

CHARACTERS: Colour :PericarprGreen
Taste: stronglyaromatic.
Odour : Stronglyaromaticand characteristic,
EXTRAFEATURES are arrangedin threelayers,eachconaining six to ten

In capsule,seeds
seedsin two rows. Fruits containthreechambers,eachconsistsof tqD
rowsof seeds.Seedsareenclosed in membranous arillus.
MICROSCOPY
Seed Rogueltranwersewrinkles)
pericarp
Hardtesta
?:i
Transversesectonof fruit A seed
Testa Epidermis
Raphe
Perisperm Oil cell layer
Sclerenchyma
Endosperm Perisperm
Endosperm
Embryo
Embryo
Seed(L. S.) Schematicdiagram Seed(I. S.)
82
sYNONYMS Bari sauf(Hindi)'Fructusfoeniculi'
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE Consistsofdriedripefruitsofcultivatedspecies,Foeniculomvulgare,Miller

not t\'n
less of
1.47o oil'
volatile :
Family Umbeilifbrae'
It-contains
UACROSCOPY
;-> Stylopod
Apex
(remains
PrimaryridgeI
strawcoloured
5 straightProminent,
upto l0 mm
Furrow(dePression)
Dorsalsurface
,t
Base
-----_>
CremocarP MericarP
ShaPe: Oblong--elongarcd
brown, Oclour : Sweet and
aromllr-c
--
Colour : Greenish or yellowish

ORGANOLEP|IC CHARACTERS aglccirhlcaromatic and
Taste : Sweet,mucilaginous'
characteristic,
characteristic. as
portions-called
exhibitsCREMOCARP'It consists of two equal
Fennel
EXTRAFEATURES connectedby stalk
central called asCARPOPHORE'
MERICARPS,
.MICROSCOPY
:
DorsalSurface
PrimarYridge
PericarP
Vascularbundle (fruit covenng)
Reticulate
ParenchYma
vitta
Seed
Raphae
CarpoPhore
VentralSurface
diagram (T.S.)of a mericarP
Schematic
.85
Pracfi cal Pharmacognosy 87
STAINING / DIAGNOSIS/ I\IICRO-CHEMICALTESTS:
Sr. No. Reagents Observation Characteristics

(l ) + conc.HCI(l:l)
Phloroglucinol Pink Lignifiedreticulateparenchyma of
mesocarp andvascularbundles
(2) Alcoholicpicricacid Yellow Aleurone grains
(3) Sudanred III Red oil globulesin thecellsof endosperm
and
cuticle.
MICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICS OF' POWDERF]DDRUG :
Mesocarp:
Lrgnifred,reticulateparenchyma
composedof oroid or elongated,sub-
rectangularcells,usuallyoccurin groups.
Endocarp:
Parquetry
arrangement (groupofparallelcells
in diferentdirections)
arranged ofthe cells.
Endosperm:
Polygonalthick walledcellswith oil globules
andaleurone grains.Microrosctte calcium
oxalatecrystalsare alsoprese.nt.
Vittae:
ntscomposed
YellowishbrownI'ragme of
thinwalledcells.
Fibro vasculartissue:
Composedof Iignrtied small fibres,
vesscls andtracheidsandoccasionallarge
vessels withreticulate
thickening.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Volatile Oil (4 to 6 %) : Anethole(50 to 6O Yoof vol. oil), d-fenchone

(lO % of vol.oil), Fixedoil (12to LSYo), (14to 22Yo).
Proteins
.
Respiratory
Uses: Carminative, stimulant.
liquoricepowder.
Preparation: Compound
ADI]LTERANT:
Exhausted fruits :
i) Lessvotatileoil.
ii) Darkerin colour-
iii) Sink at oncein water.
XXX
t
l
SYNONYMS : FructusAnethi,Europeandill, Anethum.

BIOLOGICAL SOI]RCE Linn. containingnot less
: Consistsof driedripefruits of Anethumgraveolens
than2.5o/oof vol. oil. Family : Umbelliferae.
MACROSCOPY
.H 2to3mm
Stylo@ at the apex
Wing (lateral- ridge)

Primaryyellowcolouredridges :
(3 inconspicuous, like wing in
2 extended
3to4
onemencarp,)
Furrow(depression)
Base
Pedicel
Shape:Oval
Mericarp
ORGAI\CLEPTICCHARACTERS Colour: Chocolatebrown,Odour: Aromatic;sptcyandcharacteristic,
Taste: Spiry,aromaticandcharacteristics
EXTRA FEATUP€S Normallyseparatedmericarps, Orthospermous.
dorsallycompressed.
MICROSCOPY:
Dorsalsurface
Epicarp
Pericarp
Primaryridge Mesocarp (fruit covering)
Vascularbundle Endocarp
Vitta Testa Seed
Endosperm
Lateral ridge
(wing like)
Ventralsurface
or
surface
commissural
SchematicDiagram(T.S.)
88
STAIN'INGi DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO.CHEMICALTESTS:

(l) + conc.HCI (1:l)
Phloroglucinol Pink Lignified reticulatepa.renchyma
of mesocarp
andvascularbundles.
(:2) Alcoholicpicric acid Yellow Aleuronegrains.
(3) Sundanred III Red Oil globulesin thecellsof endospermand
cuticle.
MICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICSOF POWDEREDDRUG :
Mesocarp: Lignified parenchymatouscells of mesocarp showing reticulat
thickenings.
with the fibro-
Groupsof thesecellsare usuallyfoundassocrated
vasculartissue.
Endocarp: Parquetry is seenin surface

arrangement view.
Vittae: fragmentwith fine cracks,lookslike brokenglass.

Yellorryish
Composed
of thin walledcells.
: Thick walledpolygonalcells,with oil glohules,aleuronegrainsand

Endosperm
microrosettecrvstalsof calciumoxalate.
Sclerides: pittedwalls.
Stonecellswith rectangular,
CHEMICAL CONSTITIJENTS: Volatiie Oil (3 to 4 %),50 to 60 %;o

caruone. 5 % dihydrocarvonc,
D-limonene andphellandrene etc.,Fixedoil, Protcins.
Uses: Aromatic,stimulant,Carminative,
antiseptic.
SIIBSTITUTES:
(1) Indian ilill (AnethumsowaRoxb., Family : Umbelliferae);
i) Mericarpsarefrequentlyunitedandattachedto a pedicel.
ii) Narrower,lesscompressed
iii) Dorsalridgesarepalerandmoreconspicuous.
(2)Cumminfruits(Cuminum cynLjtgrm Linn.,Family: Umbelliferae),
.Iira (Hindi)
i) Both separared mericarpsandentirecremocarps.
ii) 4 to 6 mmlongand2 minwideandslightlycompressed laterally.
iii) 5 primaryridgeswith shorttrichomesand4 secondar5r
ridgesin onemericarp.
XXX
'SYNOIYYMS FructusCarvi,Carum.Shahjira(Hindi)
BIOLOGICAL SOTJRCE Driedripe fruitsof Carumcani t-inn.7lcontainsnot lessthan2.SVovolatile
oil.
Familv:Umbelliferae.
MACROSCOPY
3mm
<l--+
Stylo@ at apex
Ridge
Dorsalsurfaceof a
mencarp
Pedicel
CREMOCARP Shape: Arcuate
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS: Colour: Brown.Odour:Aromatic.andcharacterisiic
Taste: Hot,aromatic,spiryandcharacteristic.
EXTR.A FEATURES or mericarps,Fiveprim:rryridgcsin eachmericarp,

: Cremocarps
Curvedsmoothshape,Orthospermous seeds.
MICROSCOPY :
Dorsalsurface
Primaryridge Epicarp
Pericarp
Vascularbundle Mesocarp (fruit covering)
Endocarp
Secretorycell
Sclerides Testa
Endosperm
vitta
Raphae
Carpophore
Ventralsurface
diagram(T. S.)of a mericarp
Schematic
91
Practi caI Pharmacognosy %)
S TAINING / DI AG N O SI S M IC R O- C H I'M IC A L T E S T S :
Sr. No. ReagentsObservations Characteristics

(l ) Phloroglucinol* conc.HCI (l:l).
Pink Lignified scleride,vascularbundles
(2) Alcoholic picric acid Yellow Aleuronegrains
(3) SudanRedIII Red Oil globulesin the cellsof endosperm,
cuticle.
MICROSCOVTCALCHARACTERISTICS OF POWDERED DRUG :
Mesocarp: Lignifiedpittedsclerides,
occurin largegroups,usuallyin a singlelayer
andoftenassociated with thin walled,unlignifiedparenchymatous cells.
arerectangular
Individualsclerides to subrectangular
in outlinewith well
markedpis.
Reticulate
ParenchYma isabsent.
Vittae : Yellowfragments,
thin walledcells;dueto fine cracks,looklike brokenglass
Endosperm: Polygonalcells with oil globulesyaleurone

grains and crystalsof calcium
oxalate.
Parquetrycellsare absent.
CHEMICALCONSTITUENTS : Volatileoil : Car.vorre

. dihydrocarvone.
carv e ol,
lim o nene.
et c . .Fir e c oil.
l
Proteins.
Uses: Carminative,
stirnulant,aromatic,and flavourrngagent.
ADULTERANTS:
(t) Exhausted
fruits : i) Pooraroma. ii) Shrivelled appearance.
iii) Darkcolour. iv) Lesswater-soluble
exhactive value.
GD caraway stalks : Presence of sclerenchyma over20 p in diameter.
andvessels,
(III) Cumminfruits (Cuminumcyminum)i
i) Separatemericarps or entirecremocarps"
ii) Sizp,:4 to 6mm x Zmm.
iii) Fiveprimaryridgesandfour secontJary
ridges.
iv) Trichomes (hairs)arepresent.
v) Tasteis spiry,aromaticandunpleasant.
vi) (lontains
cunr.inic
aldehyde.
(f V) Kala.iira/ blaclicatrirvay(Curttmlttrlbrru.s tttntrm
)
i) Contains curninaldehyde
i i ) D a l kbr ow ni n col or ' .
i i i) S e p ar ate
r ner i car ps.
XXX
SYNONYMS : Dhania(Hindi),Coriander
fruit.
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE Dried ripe fruitsof CoriandrumsativumLinn. andshouldcontainnot lessthan

0.&if1o
of thevolatileoil. Familv: Umbelliferae.
MACROSCOPY
CREMOCARP
Stylopodat apex to mm
(5 smallcalyxteeth;+-
Secondary Ridges Primaryridge

(B in number,prominent& straight)
ridge
Secondary
Primary ridge
(10 in number,lviavy,inconspicuous)
Pedicel
SIDE VIEW TOP VIEW
Shape:sub-globular
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS: Colour: Brownishyelloq Odour: Aromatic
Taste: Spicyandcharacteristic
EXTRAFEATLIRES Cremocarp, fruit.
mericarpsrarely,caelospermous
MICROSCOPY:
Epicarp
Ridge Pericarp
Mesocarp
(fruit covering)
vitta Endocarp
Carpophore
Sclerenchyma
Rapne Testa
Seed
Lacuna Endosperrn
SchematicDiagranr(T.S.),ofCremocarp
94
STAINING / DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO-CHEMICAL TF]STS:

(1) Phloroglucinol+ conc.HCI(l:1) Pink Lignifiedsclerenchym4vascularbundles
\z) Alcoholicpicricacid Yellow Aleuronegrainspresentin the cells
of endosperm
(3) SudanRedIII Red Oil globules,
Cuticle.
MICROSCOPICAL CHARACNERISTICS OF POWDERED DRUG:
layer : Groups of fusiform fibres running

Sclerenchymatous
wavy;crossingeachother,lignified.
Endocarp: Parquetaryarrangement of thin walledlignified cells

with polygonalcellsof mesocarp.
Endosperm: Polygonalparenchyma with aleuronegrain and oil

globules.
Microrosette
crystalsof calciumoxalatein thecells.
Vittae : Fewyellowishbrownfragmentsof vittae.

Thin walled,smallltarenchymatous
cellsin gloup.
Trichomes andlignifiedreticulateparenchyma are absent.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: VolatileOil (0.2to I oA): Coriandrol@-Linalool-60 to 7Oo/o),
Terpenes - (20%), Fixedoil (13to 20 %),Proteins(17%)
Uses: Carminative,
aromatic,stimulant, spice,fl avouringagent.
STIBSTITUTE:
Bombavcoriander:
i) Lessvolatileoil.
ii) Biggerin size.
iii) Ellipsoidal,inshape.
XXX
sYNOriryMS : Lavang(Hindi)
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE : It consistsofidriedflowerbudsof Eugenia caryophyllusSprange
Fam.Myrtaceae.
The clovecontainsnot lessthan 15percentv/w ofclove oil.
I
MACROSCOPY
5 to 5.5mm
------+ Corolla:Domeshaped
Petal: 4.membranous Stamens: Incurved

Stvle : Errectabout
Sepal: 4, thick 3 mm long
diversent
Ovary : Two celled,

l 0 -1 7 . 5 inferiorovarywtth
Hypanthium numerous ovules
10to 13mm attachedto axile
placenta-
Columella
Oil glands
Shape: Subrylindricalslightlyflattened. L.S.of Bud

Entireclovebud
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS
: Colour: Darkbrownor crimsonred.Odour: Aromatic,Taste: Spicy
pungcntfollowedbv numbness.
MICROSCOPY:
Epidermis ,0 0 ,1
0 0 0 0t ;
Cortex
Oil glands l!, ..rl 'D
Vascularbundles -'..
---i i' oto)

Aerenchyma o-
_Z
a
Ovary Do
Columella rai
?tb
aa -J
t-f i! 0 t D
a
0 ,
T.S.of Clove(hypanthium) throughovary

passing passingthrough columella
T.S.of Clove(hYPanthium)
Schematicdiagrams(T.S.)
97
t-
SYNONYMS Dalchini(Hindi), Chinesecinnamon,CassiaLignea.
BIOLOGICAL souRcE Dried stem bark of cinnamomum t rr.r'.r'lrr Blume. Familv : Lauraceae'It
containsnot lessthan I Vov/w of volatileoil.
MACROSCOPY
:
Shapes
1to2cm
€
lnnersurface:
Singlequill
Smoothwith fine striationsr
1 to 3 mm thick
5to40c mlength
piece
Channelled
Outersurface
Cork : Rough
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS Colour : Difi brown on both surfaces,Odour : Characteristic, sweel

Taste: Slightlysweet,aromaticandmucilagenous.
EXTRA FEATURES Theadheringcorkis foundin smallpatches whichis greyish
Fracture: Short,granularin outerpartandslightlyfibrousin innerpart.
MICROSCOPY:
Cork jPeriderm
Phellogen
Sclereid
Starch Cortex
Periryclicfibies
Stonecellslavers
Medullaryrays
Phloemfibres Sec.phloem
Mucilagecell
Oil cell
Schematicdiagram (1'.S.)
100
SYNONYMS Bark;Kalmi-Dalchini(Ilindi), CeylonCinnamon.
! ,Cinnamon
BIOLOGICAL SOIJRCE : Dried inner bark of the shootsof coppicedtreesof Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Nees.,Fam"Lauraceae. It containsnotlessthan1.0%vlw of volatileoil.
MACROSCOPY
udo 1cm
Pericyclicfibres : Palewavy
s in glequill doubl equi l l
longitudinal lines on outer
surhce.
I metreor more
Scarleft by branch. Co nr p ound

quill
Inner sur{ace: striatedwith

quill
Shape: compound longitudinalelongated reticulation.
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERISTICS: Outersurface, dull yellowish-brown : inncrsurfacedarkerin

colour.Odour: Fragrant,Taste: warnr,sweetandaromatic.
EXTRAFEATURES Bark is free of corkrsingleor double,closelypackedcompound
quills^Fracture: Splintery"
MICROSCOPY:
Shrivelledoutertissues
Pericyclicfibres
Periryclicsclerenihyma Pericvcle
Calciumoxalatecrystals
Medullaryrays
Phloemfibres Secondaryphloem
Oil cells
Mucilagecells
S c h e m a ti cd i a g r a m( T .S .) I
r03
STAINING / DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO-CHEMICAL 'I'ESTS:
Sr.No. Reagent Obsenation Characteristics

(l ) Phlorqglucinol+ conc.HCI Pink Lignifiedcells: Pericyclicfibres,stonecells,
(l:1) corkcells.
(2) Iodine' Blue '
Starch.c..
(3) Rutheniumrcd Pink Mucilagecells.
(4) Aceticacid Insoluble
Calciumoxalatecrystals
Dil. hydrochloricacid Soluble
t (5) I o/osolutionof osmicacid Brownor pale Voltaileoil
(6) Dil. tinctureof Redo:rstanding Voltaileoil
for 30min. I
MI(N.OSCOPICAL CHARACTERISTICSOX' POWDEREDDRUG:
Phloemfibres:
Not morethan30u in diameter and200to 600u in lensth.
stratifiedthick lignified rryalland narrow lumen.The total
lengthoffibres in cinnamonbark is 230to 265to 290 m
per gram ofair-dry bark.
Stonecells:
U-shaped.
lignifiedstructures
with onesidethin.
,;:1 ;.
Starchgrarns:
Diameterbelowl0 p; presentin the parenchymatous
cells
ofphloemandmedullaryrays.
Calciumoxalate
crystals: Small acicular raphides from the parenchymaand
medullaryrays.
Oil cells:
Big andisolate,{entire
or fragments.
r
* Corh absent.
CHEIV1ICAL
TESTS:

(l ) Volatileoil + 5 ml alcohol+ onedrop Greencolour Cinnamic aldehyde+ Eugenol
offerric chloride presentin volatileoil
(2) Chloroformextractor volatile oil on Rodshapedcrystals Cinnamicaldehvde
slide+ drop of l0 % aqueousphenyl
hydrazlnhydrochloride solution.
(3) Aq. extract+ FeClt(5%)solution Darkcolour Tannins
(4) Aq. extract+ Leadacetatereagent Whiteppt. Tannins
(5) Aq. extract+ potassium pcnnanganate Decolourisation Tannins
solution
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Volatileoil (.5to I %), cinnamicaldehyde

(55 to 65%),e0genol(4 to I0 %)
terpenes, mucilage,starch,calciumoxalate,tannins.
uses: carminative,flavouringagent,mild astringent,powerfulgermicide(oil) aromatic.

Preparations: Cinnamonis an ingredientof Compound
cardamom
tinctureIP.
ALLIED DRUGS:
(D Cassiabark or Chinese
Cinnamom(Secthetopic- CASSIABARK).
([) Wild or JungleCinnarnou
(i) Darkerandlargerthancultivatedcinnamon.
(ii) Lessaromatic.
(IIf) Java Cinnamon(C" burmanni\;
(i) Lessaromatic
(ii) Cellsof medullaryrayscontainsmalltabularcrystalsof calciumoxalate.
(IV) SaigonCinnamon.(C. loureirii);
(i) Occursin quills.
(ii) Outersurfaceis greyishto greyish-brown
wartyandridged.
(iii) Sweeterthanceylonclnnamon.
(V) Oliver bark (C. oliveri) :
(i) Flatstrips
(ii) Outersurfaceis brownish,wartyandbearspatchesof whitishcork.
(iii) Fractureis shortandfibrous.
xx[
Practi cal PhormacogttosY r09
STNNING / DHGNOSIS / MICROCIMMICAL TESTS:

Sr. No. Reagent Observation Characteristics
(1 ) Phloroglucinol + conc.HCI (1:1) Pink Lignified phloemfibres
(2) Dil. Iodinesolution Blue Starch
(3) Dil. aceticacid Insoluble
(4) Dil. hvdrochloricacid Soluble Calciumoxalatecrvstals
(s) Sulphuricacid(6%) Calciumsulphatecrystalsformation
MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERISTICSOF POWDEREDDRUG :

Co rk:
Thin walled, flat, polygonal cells with reddish brown
matter.
Phloemfibres :
Numerous large, fusiform, lignified phloem
fibres,striatedwallshavingsimpleporesor branched
pores.
30to 60 p in widthand500to 800p in length.
Calciumoxalatec4lstals:
J*
Micro-prismsof calciumoxalatecrystals,about2 to 6 F long,
-:,3.i' in darkcolouredparenchyma.
Starchgrains:
Minute,simpleandcompound (2 to 5) individualgrain,about
2 to 5 1tin diameter.
Stonecellsandsphaerophides
areabsent.
(Seethetopic: PRELIMINARYPHYTOCHEMICAL
CHEIVIICAL TESTS ! Generalchemjcaltestsfbr alkaloids
SCREENING).
Sr. No. Tests Observation
(l) Heatthebark powderin a driedtesttube Evolutionof purplevapour
(2) underu.v.light
Treatwith dilutesulphuricacidandobserve Bluefluorescence
(3) Heatbark,powde,r, addbrominewaterandammonia Emeraldgreencolour
(Thaltoquintest)
CHEMICAL CONSTITIIENTS: Alkaloids: Quinine,Quinidine,Cinchonine,

Cinchonidine.
Uses: Antimalerialandantipyretic.
Preparations
: Cinchona
extract,Compound
cinchona
tincture.
ALLMD DRUG:
(i) Cupreabark : Coppery-reddense,very hard,with a granularand splinteryfracture.Sclereides are
presentandthefibresarepartlyassoicated in smallgroups.
(ii) Cotombianbark (Cinchonalancifolia) : Occursin flat piecesor singlequills.Reddish
brownin colour
and sponryin texture.Outersurfacebearspatchesof silvery
cork.Abundant sclereidsarepresent.
XXX
SYNOI\TYMS Holarrhena:
Kurchi (Hindi)
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE: Dried stem bark of llolarrheno antidltsentricawall. Farnily : Apocyanaceae-
collectedfrom plants,Sto l2 yearsold. freedfronr attachedwood and peeledinto
smallpreces.It containsnot lessthan2 goof totalalkaloidsof kurchi.
N/IACROSCOPY
Size : Varyingiu sizeandthickness.

Innersurface: Roughandscaly.
Outersurface: Longitudinallywrinkled.
Horizontallentrcels
Shape: Recurved
CRGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS: Colour: Outersurface:buff to brownish. luner surface: brownish,

Odour: farnt. Taste: acridandbrtter.
EXTRA FEATURES Fracture. Shortanderanular.
MICR.OSCOPY:
'.---> Cork
---_--------* -+ Phellogen Periderm
+ Phellodernt
Stonecells<-
Calciunroxalate <-- Cortex

crystal
Stonecell lavers <--
Medullarvrav Sec.Phloem
Starch (m
Phloem:"'-'
parenchyma
diagram(T. S.)
Schematic
1t0
I 1 2 Practi cal Pharmacognosy
S TA I NIN G / DIAGNOSIS/ M I CRO - CHEM I CAL TESTS:
Sr. No. Reagent 0bservation Characteristics

(1) * conc.HCI(l:1)
Phloroglucinol Pink Lignifiedstonecells
(2) Iodinesolution Blue Starch
(3) Conc.sulphuricacid Green Stonecells
(4) Aceticacid Insolublecrvstals Calciumoxalate
(5) Dil. hvdrochloric
acid Solublecrvstals Calciumoxalate
(6) Sulphuricacid60 o/ow/w Soluble,needleshapedcrystalsof
Calciumoxalate
sulphateon standing
MICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICS OF POWDERED DRUG :
Cork Cells:
and few are with yellowishbrown
Thin walled,few colourless
matter.
,z^-i::€3'i:7-:=-
Stonecells:
Rectangularto ovalin shape.wallsstriated,pittedandlignified.
Surrounded by sheathofparenchymatous cellscontainingcalcium
oxalateprisms.
Showgreencolourwith conc.sulphuricacid.
Medullaryrays :
Parenchyma
cell at right angle.
Starch:
rew, slmptegr:uns.
Calciumoxalatecrlstals
a Phloemfibresare absent"
CIIEMICAL TEST : General
chemical (Seethetopic: PRELIMINARYPHYTOCHEMICAL
testsfor alkaloids
SCREENING).
CHEIVtrCAL CONSTITIIENTS: Alkaloids : Steroidalalkaloids2 to 4 o/o: Conessine
3O%oof the totzr
alkaloids,Norconessine,
Isoconessine
andkurchicine.
Uses: Antiprotozoal,
in malariaanddysentery;
astringent,
tonic.
XXH
SYNONYMS Jamaicaquassia,
Lignumquassiae.
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE Dried wood of the stemof Aeschrionexcelso (Picroena exc'elsaof Picra"'ma
excelsa),Family. Simarubaceae.
MACROSCOPY
---> Falseannualrings,breakingeasilylongitudinally.
Shape: Raspings.
shavings
or chips.
Chipsareplanoconvexor concave-convex.
ORGANOLEPTICCHARAETERS Colour : Pale yellow to bright yelloq Odour . None.

Taste: Vervbitter
EXTRA FEATT}RES Wood is straightgrained,diffrrsedand porous.Sometimes
black
of ntould.Dark,gtclcot'krnal'bc lllcsct)t.
markingsdueto the presence
MICROSCOPY :
Vessel
Fibre
Medullarv
T. S. T. L. S"
Fibres
Vessel
R. L. S.
Schematicdiagrams
t13
SYNONYM: Yellowgenrian
root.
BIOLOGICALSOURCE: Driedunf'ermenred
rootsandrhizomes
of GentianaluteaLinn.family - Centianaceae.
MACROSCOPY:
Oneol lnoreconical
Buds
E
c{
Root- Transverse
wrinkles
I
Rhizome
(rhick)
I
l!'!r
+2-3 c lr l+ +-6 cm -+
Shapc: Rootsandrhizomes:
Cylindrical
ORGANOLEPTIC CHARACTERS
: Colour:Yellowishbrown,Odour: Characteristic,
very bitter. Taste: Firstsweeta ndthen
EXTRAFEATURES: FracrureShortanddrueis brittle.

MICROSCOPY:
Cork
- Secondary
phloenr
- Cantbiurn
\ Xylern
Medullary
Rays
T. S.of Root Pirh
T. S.of Rhizome
Cork
<-|-,Cortex
rl t fr-phloem
el
\:
o co l--,Xylem
Vessels
Medullayray
Schematic
Diagram(T. S.)
117
___\
Pruttit'ttl Plurtnocogtttt.t., 119
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO. CHEMICALTESTS:

Sr. No. Reagent Observations Characteristics
(i) + HCI (l : l)
Phloroglucinol Pinkto Red Lignifiedxylemvessels
( ll ) SudanRedIII Red Oil globulcs
( lll ) Iodine Blue Starch
OF POWDERED
CHARACTERISTICS
MICROSCOPICAL DRUG:
VESSELS
Fragmentsof lignifiedreticulate,
annuatano sDlrtl
vessels.
PHLOEMPARENCHYMA:
Largecellswithprominent
nucleianclintercellular
spaces.
CALCIUMOXALATEAND OIL GLOBULES:

Minuteneedleshaped prcsent
andoil droplets.
crystals
ascellcontentandscattered.
c
CORKCELLS:
Brownish, thinwalled,wavycellscontaining
oil
elobules.
Stone cellsand fibresare absent.
Starch grains are almostabsent.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Contains bitterglycoside (gentiopicroside).

- gentiopicrin amarogentin.
amaroswerin, gentioside,gentinin.
Flavonoidalkaloidcalledgentiamineor gentisin.
Uses: Bittertonicto stimulate andhenceimprovestheappetite.
thegastricsecretion
Preparation: ( l) Concentrated compound gentianinfusion.
(2) Compound
gentian
tincture
ALLIED DRUGSAND ADULTERANTSI
(r) Gentianapurpurea Root '.
i) Abouthalfthesizeof GentianaLutea.
ii) Crownedwith theremainsof aerialstemsandcoveredbelowby scalyleaves.
(II) Gentinnapunctata andGentianapannonica. Both aresmallerthantheofficial drug.
(IIr) RumesalpinusRhizomes, family: Polygonaceae
:
i) Rhizome is reddish
brownandgivesredcoloration withcaustic alkalies.
ii) Anthraquinonederivatives
arepresent.
(Iv) VeratyumalbumRhizome: Rhizomeis cornpletely coveredwith rootsor rootscars.
(v) Indiangentian(Picrorrhizakunoe).
XXX
li
,j
SYNONYM: lpecac.
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE: It consists of driedrhizomeandrootof Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot).or o[ Cephaelis
acuminata family- Rubiaceae.
Karsten, notlessthan2.0percentof totalalkaloidsof Ipecacuanha,
It contains ol'
which50 percent
shouldbeemetine.
MACROSCOPY:
3-5 mm
-'+
Rings(Annulation)
D = 3- 5 mm
Wood.yellowish-white
5-l5cmllength
Bark
Shape
; Cylindrical,
slightly
rorruous
ORGANOLEPTIC CHARACTERS : Colour:l) RioIpecac Bark: Brickredto brown,2) Cartagena

IpecacBark:
Gleyish-brown,
Odour: Slight,faste : Bitter, Shape: Cylindrical.
EXTRAFEATURES
: Fracture
: Bark: Shortandstarchy,Wood: Splintery.
MICROSCOPY:
Cork
Phclkrgen
Phcllodemt
Cortex
Phkrcm
Cambium
'Xylcnr
Medullaryray
SchemeticDiagram(T. S. root)
t20
122 PracticalPhurnruc
ognosl,
STAININGi DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO-CHEMICALTESTS:

Sr. No. Reagent Observations Characteristics
(i) + Conc.HCI (l : I mixture)
Phloroglucinol Pink rays
ntedullar,v
Lignifiedxylenrernd
(ii) Iodinesolution Blue Starch
(iii) Aceticacid lnsoluble CalcuiunrOxalate
(iv) Acid
Dil. Hvdrochloric Soluble s
cry.slitl
Calcium Oxerlate
OF POWDEREDDRUG:
MICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICS
CO RK :
cells withgranular
isodiametric
Polygonal, brownnlirttcr'
PARENCHYMA:
spaccilnd starchgr a r n s .
cellswith interaccllular
Thin walledpolyhedral
CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS:

of acicular
Idoblast of calciumoxalate
raphides irrb ttn c l lsco t
c r y s t a lsEithc'r
.
all oversingly.
scattered
X Y L E M:
with pittedwall.Mostlypointedandfretlucnt ly pcrlirlatcdlt thc
Tracheids
ends.
o STARCHGRAINS:
oo Individualgrain-diarncter
Singleandcompound. up to 4 to l 0 F. Fc u !r ' :.r i r tt
oo showprominent
pointedhilum.
VESSELS.SCLERENCHYMATOUSCELI.,SAND FIBRESARE
ABSENT.
CHEMICAL TEST : General chemical testsfor alkaloids(Secthctopic: PRELIMINARYPHYTOCHEMICAL
SCREENINC).
Observation lnference
,l sm.Powder+ 5 ml. dil. HCl. Heatfbr Colourof filtratechanses from Enretin-
few minutesandfilter ; yellowto red.
Filtrate+ l0*8 potassium chlorate
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Alkaloids- Isoquinoline alkaloids- Emetin(l.4 - l.l %,t.
Cephacline (0.5- L2o/c) Psych<tn ine (0.057.,),Psychotrine andcmctamrn
methylether
Uses: Expectorant, emetic,anti-amoebic.
Preparations: Ipecacuanha liquidextract.Ipecacuanha tincture.Prepared Ipecacuanha.
ADULTERANTS
(r) Carthagenalpecacuanha:
i) Largerin diameter (about4 to 9 cm.)
ii) Greenish-brown in colour.
iii) Rootis annulated,showing raisednarrow, distinctridgeswhichdo notextends entirclyarround
thcroot.
iv) Starchgrainsarelarger.
(r) Ipecacuanhastems:
i) Slender andlongirudinally stliated.
ii) Exhibitno annulations.
iii) The transverse sectionshowsa bark.a rineof w<lodanda distinct pith.
(m) EastIndian Root (Cryptocorynespiralis,fanr.Araceac): T. S. showsa monocotvledonousstructutc.
(IV) White Ipecacuanha (Ionidiumipecacuanha fam ; Violaceac)
i) Whiteor yellowish in colour.
ii) Woodis large,porous andyellowish.
iii ) Starchis absent.
XXE
SYNOIiTYMS : Glyryrrhizaeradix,Glycyrrhiza, (Gaj).
Mulethi(Hindi)Jethimadh.
rootsand stolonsof Glycynhizaglabra
BIOLOGICAL SOT]RCE : It consistsof dried.peeledor unpeeled,
Linn.,Family : Leguminosae a drug
and other Glycynhiza species,yielding
havinga sweettasteandalmostfreefrom bitterness.
MACROSCOPY ' Stolon Root
<-J sp->
Longitudinalwrinkles
Bud
Bark<--,
20-50 cm
Shape:Cylindrical
ORGANOLEPTIC CHARACTERS yellow, unpeeled-yellowish

Colour : Peeled-pale brown to dark brown
Taste: Sweet,freefrom bitterness,
Odour: Faintandcharacteristic,
EXTRA FEATURES PeeledDrug Fibrous surface,angular in shape,Fracture : Bark'
fibrous"wood-splintery
MICROSCOPY:
Cork -
Phloem-
Cambium
.-- xylem
- Medullarvravs
Pith-
T. of Root T. S. of Stolon
Cork
Fibre
Medullaryray
Secondary phloem
Cambium
Xylem
Vessel
diagram (T. S.)

Schematic
t23
CIIEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Saponinglycosides : Glycyrrhizin(3 to 9%),g)ycynhreinic
acid(aglycon),
Flavonoidglycosides: Isoliqueritin
andliqueritin,
Coumarin derivatives: Herniarin,umbelliferone.
y:::; UY asanexpectorant anddemulcent,antiulcer,
sweerening agenr,
fot maskingundesired
flavour.
Preparations: Liquoricecompoundpowder,Liquoriceliquid extract,Ammoniatedglycynhizin,
Liquorice
lozenges,
stickliquorce.
VARIETIES AND ALLTEI) DRUGS:
(I) Russianliquorice root (G11,c1,v1'l1izu
glabra var.glanclulifera)
RegalandHerder.
D !-argerthan G.glabra var.typica,piecesareoftenlongitudinallysplit.
ii) Texnrreis coarserandmorefibrous.
iii) occurs rnainly in the peeledstate,exhibiting a smoothyellow exteriorwith loosefibres. Unpeeled
resemblesspanishliquoricebut consistsmainlyof rootswith no stolons.It is purplishin colourandthe
cork maybe scaly.Tasteis sweetwith slightbitterness.
(II) Persianliquoriceroot (C. glabravar.violacca,Boiss): Usuallyunpeeled and occursin large,coarse
piecesresembling unpeeled Russian root.
(III) Manchurian Liquorice Root (Glycythiza uralensis\
i) Bearsa chocolate-brown exfoliatingcork.
ii) Medutlaryraysarecurvedor wa!T/andthewoodexhibitslacunae.
ADULTERNT:
Indianliquorice(Abruspracutorious)
i) Morphologicallysimilarbut withdiffer-ent
chemical
constituents.
XXX
SYNONYMS root,Chhotachand,
: Serpentina (Hindi), Indiansnakeroot
Sarpagandha
BIOLOGICAL SOTJRCE : It consistsof dried rootsand rhizomesof RauwolfiaserpentinaBenth.ex. kurz.
Family : Apocynaceae, with the intactbark, collectedin autumn,from threeto
four yearsold plants.It containsnot lessthan 0.15percentof reserpinegroupof
alkaloids,calculated asreserpine.
MACROSCOPY
l-3 cm
Longitudinalwrinkles
lG15cm
Shape: Subcylindrical,
stightlytapering,tortuous.
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS Colour: Rootbark: greyishyellowto brownish,Wood: Paleyellow.
Odour: Odourless,Taste: Bitter
EXTRA FEATURES Branchingrare,Fracture:Short,irregular.
MICROSCOPY:
Cork
Phelloderm
Cambium
Phloem
Secondary
Xylem
Secondary
MedullaryRays
Root
Pith Ring
Schematicdiagram(r.s.)
Rhizome
127
PracticalPharmacognosy t29
S TA I NIN G / DIAGNC)SIS/ M I CRO - CHEM I CAL ' TESTS:

Sr. No. Reagents 0bservations unaractenstrcs
(l) + ssnq.HCI (1:l)
I Phloroglucinol Pink Lignified.Cork,rylem region
andlowerpartof medullaryrays
(3) Aceticacid Insoluble Calciumoxalatecrvstals
(4) Hydrochloricacid Soluble Calciumoxalatecrystals
(5) Sulphuricacid 60%(w/w) Soluble,needlesofCa- Calciumoxalatecrystals
qqlphateon standing
MICROSCOPICAL CHARACTERISTICSOF POWDERED DRUG :
Cork Cells:
Stratifiedisodiametric
cells,sometimes
lignified.
Parenchyma:
Lignified,pitted,rylem parenchymatous cells.
Filledwith starchgrains.
Xylemlibresi Thick,heavilylignifiedwithpointedor bifurcatedends,
200- 250pin length.
Xylem Vessels
:
Fewwith obliqueendwalls,I
Upto350pin rengthand50p
Calciumoxalatecrystals:
Fewnumber.Prismatic.
Starchgrains:
Mostlysimple,spherical,
srar-shaped
hilum.
CHEMICAL TESTS : GenelalchemicaltestsIbr alkaloids(Seethetopic: PRELIMINARYPHYTOCHEMICAL

SCREENING).
(l) Freshlyfracturedsurfacesof the root+ Mixture Redcolourationalong
of 2 partsof nitric acid+ t part of water. theMedullaryrays. Reserpine
present.
(2) Solutionof vanillin in aceticacid. Violet-redcolour
(3) !i4ctu19of drugin U.V. light Bluefluorescence
CIIEMICAL CONSTITIIENTS : Alkaloids : Indole alkaloids (0.8-1.3%), Reserpine,Rescinnamine,
Ajmaline,Serpentine.
Uses: Antihypertensive
andtranquillinng agent.
Freparations: Rauwolfiadry extract,Rauwolfialiquid extract,Rauwolliatablets.
,:LLIED DRUGS/SIJBSTITUTES
:
(I) RauwolJiavomitorb (African rauwolfia):
i) Fivediscontinuedbands
ofschlerenchyma, ii) Largevessels.
(II) RauwolfiadensiJlora.'Containssclerenchyma.
QII) Raw*olfiatetraphylla:
i) Uniformcork, ii) Abundantsclerides andfibres, iii) Absence
of rescinnamine.
XXX
SYNONYMS : Sonth(Hindi),Zingiber,rhimmazingiberis,
JamicaGinger.
Family : Zingtrbraceae,
BIOLOGICAL SOIJRCE : It consistsof rhizomeof Zingiber olficinale Roscoe^
scrappedto removethedarkouterskin anddriedin the sun.
MACROSCOPY
Fibres
(longitudinal)
Striations
to Fingers
Shape: Laterallyflattened
+-_ 5 to 15crl _-_-_____>
ORGANOLEPTICCHARACTERS: Colour : Externally bufr coloure4 Odour : Agreeableand aromatic

pungentandcharacteristic
Taste: Agreeable,
EXTRA FEATURES Sympodialbranching,horizontalrhizome.Tranwerselycut surfaceshows
urcllmarkedendodermisandstele.Fracture: ShortandFibrous.
MICR,OSCOPY:
Outcr corh
Inner cork
Oleoresincell c
d o Cortex
o@"
Starch
FibroVascularbundle
Endodermis
'@o . o.
Vascularbundle
Groundtissue
'o
o;'
o
ro o
Schemeticdiagram'(T.SJ
r30
t32 Practical Pharmacognosy
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO{HEMICAL TESTS:

(1) Phloroglucinol+ conc.HCI (l:l) Red Vascular fi bres
bundles,sclerenchymatous
NilCROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICSOF POWDEREDDRUG:
Parenchyma
:
Parenchyma 8 to 20 p wideand
cellswith idioblasts,
upto130p long,containyellowbrownoleo-resinous
granules.
or starch
bodies
X'ibres:
Occurin groupsandbe associated with thevesseri.
Fairly large, walls are thin and markedwith
numerous septaoccurat
pits.Very thin transverse
intervals.Give faint reactionfor lignin. Length
upon600P andwidthupto30 P.
:
Vessels
Fairly largeand usuallyoccurin smallgrot'ps'
I.) associated tlickenedand
with thefibres,reticulately
:,ti
-
- -lr pittect.Unlignitiedor givefaintreactionfo; li1;nin
l=; thi 70 u diameter.
=-::- $,i
la
Starchgrains:
Flattenedrectangular ovategrainswith hilum
interminalprojections,markedby fine tranwers€
striations.
Length: : 7 r-
5 to 15to 30to 60 p, Width : 25 p, Thickness
Calciumoxalatecrystalsare absent.
CIIEMICAL TEST :
Boil thedrugwith 5%potassium
hydroxide or alkali- pungency
ofgrngeris destroyed.
CIIEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Vofatifeoil (0.6 to 3 o/o): Terpenes, Cineol,citral, borneol, Pungsn
principles: Gingerol,Shogaol,Zingerone,ResinousMatter (5 to t 'n
starchandmucilage.
Practi cal Phmmacognofy t33
Uses: Carminative,stimulant,flarrouringagent.
Preparations: Stronggingertincture.Powdered gingeris aningredientof Rubarbcompound
powder.
ADIJLTERANTS:
(I) Spentor erhaustedGinger:

by purity testsgivenin otrcial books:
Detected
i) Watersolubleextractives
- Not lessthanl0%.
ii) 90%alcoholsolubleextractives - Not lesstban4.5o/o.
iii) Totalash- Not morethan6Yo.
iv) Watersolubleash- Not lessthan1.7%.
WormyGinger:
Detectedin thepowderby thepresence
of insectremains.
Unscraped
Ginger:
Detectedin thepouderby presence
of corkcells.
Capsicumpowder 3
Sometimes,itis addedin poudereddrugto givepungenttaste.hrngencyof capsicum
remainsevenafter
boilingwith5%KOH.
ALLIED DRUGS:
CochinGinger:
D Occursinscrappedandunscrappedcondition.
ii) Usuallysmallerin sizeandandbranches areshorterandthicker.
iiD Tasteis similarto thatof olfficialdrug,butodouris lessaromatic.
(ID AfricanGinger:
D Darkerirr colourandsmallerthancochinginger.
ii) Coatedwith a brownwrinkledcork.
iii) Extremelypungentbuttheodouris por.
XX
r36 PracticalPhdnacognosy
STAINING / DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO-CHEMICAL TESTS:
Reagents Observations Characteristics

+ 6en".HCI acid(1:1) Lignifiedfibrgs,vascularbundles,
Phloroglucinol Pink pericyclicfibres.
IWICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICSOF POWDERED DRUG :
Epidermis:
Fragmentsof epidermis,quadrangular
cells,outerwalls
areridged.
Fibres:
Lignified and non-lignifed long slender and
cylindrical
Xylem:
Tracheidswith borderedpis
a
a
o ,'.
a ta
Brownishmatter:
from
Ahndant, darkbrownishmucilaginoussubstance
pith
CHEMICAL TEST : Generalchemical (Seethetopic: PRELIMINARY

testsfor alkaloids PHYTOCHEMICA-
SCREENING).
andadd0.1nu
Testfor ephedrine: Dissolvel0 mg in I ml. of water,add0.2ml. of dilutehydrochloric3cid
of coper sulphatesolutionfolloupdby lml. of sodiumhydroxidesolution.Theliquid becomesviolet.Add lml C
solventetherandshake,the ethericallayeris purpleandthe aqueouslayeris blue.
CHEMICAL CONSTITIIENTS: Alkaloids0.5to2%o, (30to 90%ofalkaloiG

Ephedrine
Alkaloidalamines,
Uses: Sympathomimetic;
in asthamatic
condition,causes
mydriasis
Substitntes
: Ephedrasinica,l
ALLIED SPECIES : Ephedroequisetina,Ephedrasinica, Ephedraintermedia,Ephedramajor, Ephedra A; J
X
PracticaI Pharmacognosl I4I
In crystalsheathor crystalfibre, parenchymatous cells surrounding the fibrescontaincalciumoxalate

Theseparenchymatous
crystals. cellscontaining crystalsformcrystalsheath. In eachcell,onecrystalis present
anda largenumberof suchcellsarearranged in row,e.g.Liquorice,Cascara, Senna, Arjunaetc.
Generally,prismsarepresentin parenchymatous cellsbut in arjunaandotherbarksof theplantsof family
Combretaceae clustercrystalsqlepresentin crystalsheatho[ crystalfibres.
Idioblastwith
Clustercrystal Rosettecrvstal Microsphenoidcrystals
Singleacicular Bundleof acicular
Procedure:
(i) Takeuniformlythin sectionsof drug.
(ii) Treatthemwith 2N aceticacidfor aboutl5 min.
(iii) Remove andtreatthemwith l7osolution of silvernitratein l57ohydrogen
peroxidefor about15min.
(at22"C).
(iv) Removethesections andwashthemwithdistilledwater.
(v) Counterstain wirh2Vosafraninfor I to 3 min.
thesections
(vi) Followingusualtechnique,mountthesections andobscrveundermicroscope.
Calciumoxalatecrystalappearblackagainstred background. This methodwasdesignedby Pizzoloto,P.
hencecalledasPizzolotomethodfor observationof calciumoxalatecrystals.
Dimensionsof calciumoxalatecrystalscan be measured by the techniquementionedin thet o prc-
MICROSCOPICAL DRAWINGSAND MEASUREMENT X X
f
filter aids,
like materidfor the preparationof surgicaldressings,
uays1ncommerce
Fibres
Artificid
thetic
Vegetable Animal ydrate rotci

Cotton iilose)
Jute Asbestos Rayon tuidil
Hemp
Flax Proryline
Woodcellulose Viscose
Acetaterayons
Alginateyarn
(D
Fibres
Natural& Regenerated
fibres Syntheticfibres
Carbohvdrate Protein Mineral

(Vegetable+ regenerated (Animal+ Regenerated
fibres)
Cellulose proteinfibers)
(ForBiologicalsource,commonn,unes,physicalcharacters, andusesofAbsorbent
chemicalconstituents
jute,wool& silk,seethetopic: Unorganised
cotton, DrugsandNaturalfibres)
r42
4 0, PRM.UMdINI
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
ORGANIC INORGANIC
o Carbohydrates, proteins,Aminoacids,Fats and o Calcium,Magnesium, Iron,
Sodiunr,Potassium,
Volatileoil, Glycosides,
oils,Steroids, Alkaloids, Sulphate,
Phosphate,
Chlori<le
ctc.
Tannins and Phenolic compounds,Oxyganic
acids,Enzymes etc.
o Chemicaltests are performedon the extracts Chemicaltestsareperformed
on theash
'
obtainedrusingnon-polarandpolarsolvents,e.g. lbr detection
of elcrnents
prcscnt.
pet. ether,ether, benzene,chloroform,acetone,
alcohol,wateretc.
:
CHEMICALTESTSFOR DETECTIONOF ORGANICCHEMICALCONSTITUENTS
Molish's test (Generaltest) : To 2-3 ml. aqueousextract,add few dropsof alpha-naphtholsolutionin

:,,;ohol,shakeand add conc.HzSO+fiom sidesof the testtuhe.Violet ring is formedat lhe junctionof,tw<r
ouids.
TESTSFOR REDUCINGSUGARS:
(a) Fehling'stest: Mix lml. Fehling'sA andlml. Fehling's B solutions,boil fbr oneminute.Add equal
',lumeof teslsolution.
Heatin boilingwaterbathfor 5-l0 min.Firsta yellow,thenbrickredpptis observed.
(b) Benedict'stest: Mix equalvolumeof Benedict's reagent
andtestsolutionin testtube.Heatin boiling
;rter bathfor 5 min. Solutionappearsgreen,yellowor reddepending on amountof reducingsugarpresentin
:st solution.
TESTFOR MONOSACCHARIDES:
Barfoed's/esf.' Mix equalvolumeof Barfoed'sreagent
ancltestsolution.Heatfor l-2 min.in boilingwater
rathandcool. Redppt is observed.
TESTFOR PENTOSESUGARS: Pentoses arecomponents of certaingums.

(a) Bial's Orcinol test : Ta boiling Bial's reagentadd few dropsof test solution.Greenor purple
j rloratronappears.
(b) Aniline acetate/esf .' Boil testsolutionin testtube.Hold filter papersoakedin anilineacetatein the
.ipour.Filterpaperturnspink.
(c) Mix equalamountof testsolutionandHCl. Heat.Add a crystalof pholoroglucinol.
Redcolorappears.
149
150 Practical Phartnacognosy
TESTSFOR HEXOSESUGARS:
(a) Selwinoff'stest(for ketohexose and I ml. testsolution
like fructose)"' Heat3 ml. Selwinoff'sregeant
t n bearins waterbathfor I -2 min.Redcoloris formed.
phloroglucino
(b) Tollen'sphloroglucinoltestfor galactose.. Mix 2.5 ml: conc.HCI and4 lnl. O.5Va
ndd tal-.j rnl.testsolution.
Heat.Yellowto redcolorappears.
Boil andcool.Add few drops
/esf.'Mix 3 rnl. testsolutionwith 2 ml. cobaltchloride.
(c) Cobalt-chlori.de
NaOHsolution.Solutionappears greenish blue(glucose)or purplish(fructose)or upperlayergreenish
blueand
lowerlayerpurplish(mixtureof glucoseandfiuctose).
TESTFOR NON.REDUCINGSUGARS:
(a) Testsolutiondoesnotgiverespnose tests.
andBenedict's
to Fehling's
testsarepositive.
(b) Hydrolyse testsolution.Fehling'sarrdBenedict's
(STARCH):
TESTFOR NON.REDUCINGPOLYSACCHARIDES
it
fu) Iodine /esf .' Mix 3 ml. test solutionand f'ewdropsof dilute'iodinesolution.IJluecolor appears,
on boilingandreappears
disappears on cooling.
(b) Tannicacid testfor sturch: With 20%tannicacid,testsolutiongiveppt.
TESTFOR GUNTS:
test.R edcoloris developed.
Fehlins'sor Benedict's
HvOrolvsetest solutlonusinediluteHCl.Perform
TESTFORMUCILAGE:
(a) Powdered red.
drusmaterialshowsredcolorwith ruthenium
(b) Powdered
drugswellsin rvateror aqueous
KOH.
(a) Biuret test (Generaltest): To 3 ml. T.S. add4VoNaOH and f'ewdropsof l7o CuSOtsolution.Violet
o r pinkcolol appears.
White ppt. Warmppt turns
(b) Million's test(for proteizs).' Mix 3 ml. T.S. with 5 ml. Million's reagent.
brickredor thepptdissolves led coloredsolution.
-eiving
(c) Xanthoproteintest(for protein containingtyrosineor tryptophan); Mix 3 ml. T.S. with I rnl. conc.
H:SO+. Whiteppt is formed.Boil. Precipitate tumsyellow.Add NH4OH,pptturnsorange.
(d) Testfor proteinsconr"iningsulphur.' Mix 5 mf. T.S. with 2 ml. 407oNaOH and 2 drops lOTolex
acct tc solution.
[Joil.Solution dueto PbSformation.
turnshlackor brownish
(e) Precipitationte.s/.' The testsolutiongiveswhitecolloidalppt with followingreagents: (a) absolur
alcohol.(b) 5%,HgCl2solution, (c) 5VoCuSOa (e)5Voammonium
(d) 5Voleadacetate,
solution, sulphate.
Practi cul Pharntut rtgnosv t5t
(a) Ninhydrin test (Generaltest): Heat3 ml. T.S. and drops5VoNinhydrinsolutionin boilingwater
bathl0 min.Purpleor bluishcolorappears.
(b) Testfor tyrosine.'Heat3 ml. T.S.and3 dropsMillion'sreagent.
Solutionshowsdarkredcolor.
(c) Testfor tryplophan.'To 3 ml. T.S.andfew dropsglyoxalicacidandconc.H2SOa. Reddishvioletring
appearsatjunctionof thetwo layers.
(d) Testfor cysteine.' To 5 ml. T.S. addfew dropsof 407oNaOH andl\V" leadacetatesolution.Boil.
Blackppt.of leadsulphateis formed.
(a) Placea thick sectionof drugon glassslide.Add a dropof SudanRedIII reagent.After2 min.,wash
with 507oalcohol.Mouritin glycerin.Observe undermicroscopo.
Oil globulesappearred.
(b) To thin sectionadda drop of I % osmicacid.At'teroneminute,observeundermicroscope. Oil drops
appearblack.
(c) Solubility/esl.'Oils aresolublein ether,'benzene
andchloroform,but insolubleingOVo
ethanolandin
water.(Exception --Castoroil, solublein alcohol).
(d) Filter papergetspermanently
stainedwith oils.
(e) Extractgivesredcolorwith2-3 dropsof tincturealkana.
Saponificationtest:Evaporate extractto get l0 ml. oil. To oil add25 mt. l}VoNaOH.Boil in boiling
waterbathfor 30 min. Cool. Add excessNa2SOa solution.Soapforrnsandriseto the top.Filter.To filtrateadd
H2SO4.Evaporate. Collectresidue,it containsglycerol.Dissolveresiduein ethanol.With ethanolicsolution,
performfollowingtests:
(i) To ethanolicsolution,addfew crystalsof KHSO+.Hcatvigoroulsy.Pungentodourof acrylicaldehyde
is produced.
{ii) To ethanolic
solution,addf'ewdropsof CuSOaandNaOHsolutions.
Clearbluesolutionis observed.
(a) Salkowskireaction: To 2 ml. of extract,add2 ml. chloroformand 2 ml. conc.H2SO+.Shakewell.

Chlorofbrmlayerappears
red andacidlayershowsgreenishyellowfluorescence.
(b) Liebermann- Burchardreaction.'Mix 2 ml. extractwith chloroform.Add l-2 mt. aceteicanhydride
and2 dropsconc.H2SOafrom the sideoftest tube.Firstred,thenblueandfinally greencolorappears.
(c) Liebermann'sreaction.' Mix 3 ml. extractwith 3 ml. aceticanhydride.
Heatandcool.Add few drops
conc.H2SO4.Bluecolorappears.
Hydrodistillate volatileoil fromdistillateandperformthefollowingtests

material.Separate
(o) Volatileoilshavecharacteristic
odour.
(b) Filterpaperis notpermanently withvolatileoil.
stained
t5 2 PructicuI PItur tnucognosy
(c) Solttbility.
tesl.' Volatileoils ale solublein90c/ralcohol
Determincliee sugarcontentol'theextract.
Hvdrolvse tlreexlractwithmineralacid(di. HCVdil.H2SO4).
Againdeterrninethetotalsug:ucontentof thehydrolisccl
cxtrac(.Increasein sugarcontentindicates
plesenccof
in theextlact.
clvcoside
Glvcoside-----+ HOH A glycontgen in t+ G ly c o n( s u gar )
( r )TESTSFORCARDIACGLYCOSIDES:
(a) Baljet'stest: A thicksectionshowsyellowto orangecolorwithsodiunrpiclate.
(b) Legal'stest(Testtor cardenoloids): To aqueous e xtract,addI ml. pyridineandI ml.
or alcoholic
sodiumnitroprusside.Pinkto redcolorappears.
(c) Testfor deoxysugars(Keller-Killiani test) : To 2 ml. extract,add glacialaceticacid,one drop 5olr'
FeCl.rand conc. H2SOa.Reddishbrown color appearsat junctionof the two liquid layersand upperlayer
appcarsbluishgreen.
seetestsfor steroids.
(d) Liabermann'stest(Testforbafadenoloids).'
(2) TESTSFOR ANTHRAQUINONEGLYCOSIDES :
(a) Borntrager'slestfor anthraquinoneglycosides.'
To 3 nrl.extract,adddil. H2SO4.Boil andfllter.To
coldfiltrate,addcqualvolurnebenzeneor chlorofbnn.Shakewell.Separate theorganicsolvent.Add ammonta.
layerturnspink ol red.
Anrmoniacal
(b) ModifiedBorntrager'stestfor C-glycosides
: To 5 nrl.extract,add5 ml. SVoFeCl3and5 ml. dil. HCl.
Heatlor -5rninin boilinewaterbath.Coolandaddbcnzene orany olganic solvent.Shakewell.Separateorganlc
layer.addequalvolumediluteanrrnonia. Arnmoniacallayclshowspinkishredcolor.
(3) TESTSFOR SAPONINGLYCOSIDES:

(a) Foam lest.'Shake
thedrugextractor dry powdervigolouslywith water.Persistent
lbarnobserved.
(b) Heamolytic te.s,.' Add drug extract or dry powder to one drop of blood placeclon glasss lidc
Heamolytic
z.one
appe.rrs.
(4) TESTSFORCYANOGENETIC GLYCOSIDES :

(a) Guignard reaction or sodium picrate tesl : Soaka filtel paperstrip first in loo/apicric acid,thenr
107r,sodiumcarbonate. dry. In a conicalflaskplacemoistened powdereddrug.Cork it, placethe abovefihe
paperstripin theslit in cork.Thefilter paperturnshrickredor Inaroon.
(b) To dry drugpowderor extract,add3o/t, aqueousInercurousnitratesolution.Metallicmercurytbrms.
(c) Dip a picceol'filterpaperin guaiacurn resinandmoistrt withdilutecoppersulphate solution.
Expose
to fi'eshlycut surlaceol'drug,bluestainis produced.
(s)TESTSFORCOUMARINGLYCOSIDES:
(a) Counrarin glycosides havearomaticodour.
(b) Alcoholicextractwhenmadealkaline,showsblueor gt'eenfluorescence.
hrctical PhsnrcoCnny
(c) Takemoistened dry powderin testtuhc.Covertest tuhewith filterpapersoakedin dilureNaOH.Kcep

In waterbath.Atler sometime
exposefilterpaperto u.v.light.It showsyellowish-green
t'luorescence.
(6) TESTFOR FLAVONOIDS:
(a) Shinoda test : To clry powderor extract,add -5 tnl. 95o/aethanol,t'ewdropsconc. HCI and 0.5 g
magnesiumturnings.
Pinkcolorobserved.
(b) To smallquantityof residue,
addlcad:rcetatesolution.Yellowcolored precipitate
is tbr.med.
(c) Additionof increasing amounrol' sodiumhydroxide to theresidueshowsyellowcolour.ation,which
decolourises
afteradditicnof acicl.
Evaporate the aqucnus. alcoholicanclc:hlnroforrn

extrilctsseparately.
To residue,add dilute HCI. Shake
wellandfilter.With filtrare.perlormtollowrngtests:
(a) Dragendodf's tcst .'To 2-3 nl. filtrate.add few dropsDragendorfT'sreagent.Orangebrownppt is
fbrmed.
(b) Mayer'stest: 2-3ml. filtratervithfewdropsMayer'sreagent
givesppt.
(c) Hager'stest:2-3ml.filtratewithHager's reagent
givc"syellowppt.
(d) Wagner'stest:2-3ml.filtratewithf'ewdropsWagner'sreagentgivesreddishbrownppt.
(e) Murexidetestfor purinealkaloids.' To 3-4ml. testsolution.add3-4dr.ops
of conc.HNO3.Evaporate
Coolandadd2 dropsof NH4OH.pur.ple
to dryness. color.is observed.
To 2-3ml.of aqueous
or alcoholic
extract,
addf'ewdropsof fbllowingreagents
(a) 5VoFeChsohtion ..deepblue-blackcolor.
(b) Leadacetatesolution..whiteppt.
(c) Gelatinsolution; whiteppt.
(d) Bronine water: decolorationof brominewater..
(e) Aceticacid solution..r-edcolor solution.
Potassiumdichronate.' red ppt.
(g) Diluteiodinesolution..transientredcolor.
(h) DiluteHNOj : reddishto yellowcolor.
(i) Dilate NHaoH andpotassiumferricyanidesorution: red cororsorution.
(i) Onedrop NH4OH,excessl07a AgNO.rsolution.Heatfor 20 min. in boilingwarer
bath,whire ppt
observed,
thendarksilvermirrordepositson wallof testtube.
(k) Dil. Potassium
permanganate solution..decoloration.
I(I) OXIDASE:
(q) To f'ewthicksections
of drug,addcatecholsolution.
Tlresections
become
yellowishhrown.Repeattest
withotherboiledsections.
Sections do notturnyellowish
blown.
154 PracticalPharmacognosy
(b) To drug material,add 5 ml. water and l%oalcoholicsolutionof guaicumresin(or l7o solutionof
benzidine
in alcohol)andHrOr.Bluecoloris observed.
(2) PEROXIDASE:
of drug,addcatecholsolution.After2 minutesremovecatecholsolution.Add HzOz.
To f'ewthicksections
Sectionappearpink.
Repeattestwith boiledsections.
Colorchangenotobserved.
(3) CATALASE:
To thicksectionsof drug,addH2O2,Oxygengasevolves.
(4) DEHYDROGENASE:
(a) To thick sectionsof drug add 5 ml. cold water.After 5 min. add few dropstriphenylfetrazolium
chloridesolution.Sectionsappearred.
Repeattestwith boiledsection,sections
do not appearred.
(D) Take thick sectionsof drug, add cold waterand few dlops of methvlene Methvlene
bluesolution. blue
colordisappears.
Repeattestwith boiledsections. bluecolordoesnotchange.
Methylene
Neutralise
aqueous thenperformtestsgivebelow.
drugextractwith diluteNH4OHsolution,
CALCIUM CHLORIDE TEST: To 2ml.testsolution,addfewdropsof 5VoCaCl2solution.Observe.
Observation Inference
(a) Whiteppt formedimmediately oxalicacid
(b) ppt observed on shaking or scratching test tube tartaricacid
with glassrod.
(c) ppt observedon boilingandthencooling. cttnc acid
(d) ppt forms.on addingabsolutealcohol. malicacid
(1) CONFIRMATORYTESTSFOR OXALIC ACID :

(a) To 2 ml. testsolution,addfew dropsSVoleadacetate.
White ppt forms.
(b) To 2 ml. test solution,add few drops l7o KMnO+and dil. HzSO+.Color of KMnOadisappean
immediatelv.
(c) To 2 ml. testsolution,addfewdropsDenige'sreagent.Heat.Whitepptforms.
(2\ CONFIMATOR.Y
TESTSFORTARTARICACID :
(a) To 3 rnl.testsolution,add3 dropseachof saturated
FeSO3solution,HzOz,andNaOHsolution.Violcl
coloredsolution.
Practical Pharmacognosy 155
(b) To 2-3 rnl. test solution.add one drop dil. NH4OH, excess57oAgNO3 solution.While ppt. forms
immediately.Keeptesttubein boiling waterbathfor l5 min. Shillingmirror observed.
(c) To 3 ml. testsolution,add2 drops27oresorcinolsolutionand3 rnl. conc.H2SOa.
Boil. First rosy-red
colorandthenviolet-redcolorobserved.
(d) To 2-3 rnl. testsolution,addfew dropsDemge's reagentandonedrop 5% KMnOasolution.Heat.
Permanganate colordisappears andclearsolutionobserved.
(3) CONFTRMATORYTESTSFOR CIT'RJCACID :
(a) To 2 ml. testsolution,addonedropdil. NH4OHandexcesscadminum chloridesolution.Boil for l5
min.in boilingwaterbath.Whitegelatinous ppt observed.
(b) To 2-3 ml. testsolution.addonedropdiluteNH4OHandexcess AgNO3solution.Boil for l5 min.
Blackishsilvermirror formed.
(c) To 2 ml. testsolution,addfew dropsDenige'sreagentandfew dropsdil. KMnOa.Heat. Permanganate
colordisappears andturbidlyappears.
(4) CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR MALIC ACID :
To 2-3ml. testsolution,add2-3 drops5% FeCl3solutionappears
yellowish.
TESTSFOR
(r) TESTSFORVTTAMTN A:
Dissolvea quantityequivalentto 10- 15unitsin I ml of chloroformandadd5 ml. of antimonytrichloride
solution,a transientbluecolouris producedimmediately.
(2) TESTSFORVTTAMTNC (ASCORBTC ACrD) :
i) Dilute I ml of 2Yow/v solutionwith 5 rnl of waterandadd I dropof freshlyprepared5o/o wlv
solutionof sodiumnitroprusside and2rrl of dilutesodiumhydroxide solution.
Add 0.6ml. of hydrochloric
acid
dropwiseandstir,theyellowcolourturnsblue.
it) Add 2 nil of a 29/ow/v solutionto a few ml of 2, 6-dichlorophenolindophenol
solution,thesolution
is decolorised.
wlv solutionadd2 rnl of water,0.I g of sodiumbicarbonate
iii) To 2 ml of a 2D/o andabout20 mg of
ferroussulphate,shakeandallowto stand;a deepviolet colouris produced.Add 5 rnl of I M sulphuricacid,the
colourdisappears.
(3) TESTFORVTTAMTND:
Dissolvea quantityequivalentto about1000unitsof vitaminD activityin chioloformandadd10ml of
antimony hichloridesolution,a pinkish-red
colourappearsat once.
CHEMICAL TESTSFORDETECTIONOF INORGAI\IC CONSTITUENTS:
TESTSFOR
v/v HNO3to ash.Keepfor t houror longer.Filter.
Prepareashof drugmaterial.Add 50%v/v HCI or 50o/o
With filtrateperformthefollowingtests.
(l) TESTFOR CALCTUM:
(a) To l0 ml. frltrate,add 1 dropdil. NH4OHandsaturated ammonium oxalatesolution.Whiteppt of
calciumoxalateforms.Ppt.is solublein HCI but insolublein aceticacid.
(b) Wirh solutionof ammoniumcarbonate giveswhiteppt. w'hichis insolublein ammoniurpchloride
solution.
156 PrctcticalPharmacognosl,
(2) TESTFORMAGNESTUM:
(a) Filter and separatewhile calciumoxalateppt obtainedabove.Heatand cool the filteratewhichwith
solutionof sodiumphosphate in diluteammoniasolutiongiveswhitecrystallineprecipitate.
(D/ Giveswhiteppt.with ammoniumcarbonate solutionbut not with ammonium chloridesolution.
(3) TEST FOR SODTUM:
(a) 'Tc 2 ml. test solution,add little uranyl magnesiumacetatereagent.Shakewell and keep for few
minutes.Yellow crystallineppt of sodiummagnesium uranylacetateobserved.
(b) Flametest: Preparethick pasteof ashof drug with conc.HCI. Take pasteon platinumwire loop,
introducein bunsenflame.Goldenyellowflameis observed.
(c) l0 ml. ashextract+ 2rnl.of potassium pyroanthllollate
giveswhiteprecipitate
(4) TEST FOR POTASSTUM :
(a) To 2-3 rnl.testsolution,addfew dropssodiumcobalt
nitritesolution.Yellowpptof potassiumcobalt
nitriteobserved.
(h) Flametest: Givesvioletcolorto theflame.
(5) TESTSF'ORrRON :
(a) Ta 5 ml. testsolutionaddfew drops2o/o
potassium Darkbluecolorationis observed.
ferrocyanide.
(h) 'lo 5 ml. test solution,add few drops 57o ammoniumthiocyanate(or 5o/' potassiumthiocyanate
solution).Solutionturnsbloodred.
(6) TESTFOR SULPHATE:
(a) To 5 rnl. filtate, addfewdrops5%BaCI2solution.Whitecrystalhne
BaSOrppt.appears.
krsolublein HCl..
(b) Withleadacetate reagentgiveswhiteppt.,solublein NaOH.
(7) '[EST FOR PHOSPHATE:
To 5 ml. testsolutionpreparedin HNO3,addfew dropsammonium molybdatesolution.Heatl0 min. Cool.
Yellorvcrystallineppt of ammoniumphosphomolybdate is observed.
(8) TESTSFOR CHLORTDE:
(a) To 3 ml. testsolutionpreparedin HNO3,add few dropsl0% AgNO3solution.Whiteppt of AgCI2is
observed.
Ppt.is solublein dil. ammonia solution.
(h) To about5 to 7 ml. filtrate,add3 to 5 ml leadacetatesolution.Whiteprecipitatesolublein hot wateris
observed
.
(c) Heatingwith MnO2andHzSOa, chlorineis liberatedwhichgivesbluecolorto starchsolution.
(9) TEST FOR CARBONATE:
(a) With diluteacidliberatecarbondioxide
(r) With mercuricchloridesolutionproducesa brownish-red ppt.
(c/ With solutionof magnesium whiteppt. is formed.
sulphate,
(10)TESTSFOR NTTRATES:
(a) Llberatesred fumeswhenwarmedwith sulphuricacidandcopper.
(b) With solutionof ferroussulphateyieldno browncolorbut if sulphuricacidis added(slowfrom the
sideof thetesttube,)a browncoloris producedat thejunctionof two liquids.
XXX
Practical PharnwcognosyI 59
Procedure:
(D Using stagemicrometer,calibratethe eyepiecemicrometer., Calculatethe factor (avengedistance
betnrcen two linesin microns)
(ii) Takea little quantityof powdered drug(Ceyloncinnamon,Cassiabark or Cinchonabark)in a testtube
andboil with clearingagent,chloralhydratesolution.
(iii) Transferclearedpovderin a watchglass.
(rD Stainthelignifiedfibreswith the stainingreagent(phloroglucinolandconcentrated hydrochloricacid).
(v) Mount this treatedpowderin glycerinewaterandobservethe slideunderlow po!\€r. (Poudershouldbe
thinly, uniformly scaffered,
withoutoverlap'pingof particles)
(vi) Focusa stainedfibre (intact fibre). By rotatingthe scaleof eyepiecemicrometer,notethe numbersof
divisionsof theeyepiecemicrometer covered by thelengthof thefibre
(vii) Again rotatethe eyepiecemicrometerwithout disturbingthe slide and find the numbersof divisionsof
the eyepiecemicrometercoveredby the width of the samefibre.
(viii) Similarly calculatethe length and width of about25 fibres, and nnite the readingsin two separate
columns.
(ix) Multiply eachvalueby the factorcalculated in the first stepto get the valuein microns.Thencalculate
the averagevalueandunite the rangefor the lengthandthe width of fibres.
Sametechniquecan be used for determinaiionof diameterof starchgrains,lengthof trichomes,size of
stonecellsetc.(For procedurerefer thetopic- MicroscopicalDrawingsandMeasurement)
Procedure:
(D Weighabout1.5g of thepowered drugintoa weighedflat andthin porcelaindish.
(ii) Dry in theovenar l00oC or 105'.
(iii) Coolin a desiccator
andwatch.Thelossin weightis usuallyrecorded asmoisture.
Note:
A very usefulform of dishfor the determinationof moistureand of ashis a thin flat porcelaindish.If a
platinumdishis availableit maybe used.
Theburningof thepowdershouldproceedslowlyandthe materialmustnot be allowedto catchfire or to give
offsmokeasdensefumes.
Themostcommonmethodfor thedetermination of moistureis to heatthe drugtill onegetsconstantweightat
100' , as is donefor digitalis.However,manysubstances looseothervolatileconstituents. or someof their
constituents undergochangewith consequentlossof weightat a temperature of 100o,othermethods areusedfor
materials of thesetypes.
Thetclrnswcllingtact<lr
sivesan ideaaboutthcmucilagc
content<lfthcseecl.
hcnceit is usetulin theevaluati1;n
.
ol'clucle
clrugs
contairring
rnucilage
Procedure:
(i) TakeI g of theseeds in a25 rnlstoppered cylinder.
(ii) Adduaterupto25ml marking.
(iii) Shakeoccasionally during23 hours.
(iv) Keepasidefor onehour.
(v) Measure thevolumeoccupied by theswollenseeds.
e.g.Suvellingfactorof the Isapgolseedis not lessthan l0 ml. li
Practicttl Pharnacognosy I 6l
Settingofthe apparatus:
Apparatus for thedetermination of volatileoil in drugsconsistof
(i) a round-bottomI litre boiling flask
(ii) a specialstill head.
Still headcontains:
(i) condenser (ii) receiver(iii) returntube.
A sidetubeis alsoattachedto introducewaterin thegraduated tubeandretumtube
Theofficialmethodfor theestimation of volatileoil in a crudedrugis hydrodistillationbasedon distillingthe
drugwith waterand distillateis collectedin the graduatedtube,from which the aqueousportion of the distillate
automatically returnsto distillationflask.
Betterresultsare obtainedwith somedrugsby using150ml. eachof glycerineand waterin placeof pure
waterin the boilingflask.This modificationshouldbe usedfor dill, coriander,cloves,fenneland driedorange
peel.
Whentheoil is heavierthanwater(e.g.cloveoil) a knownvolumeof xyleneis addedto thegraduated tubeby
a pipettewhich is passed throughtheside-tube of thestill head.Theincrease in volumeof xylenegivesvolumeof
oil distilled.
Procedure:
(D Takel0 to 20 g of powdered drugwith 250to 300ml of waterin distillationflask.Add a few piecesof
porcelainto it (to avoidbumpingduringdistillation)
(iD Setup the apparatus asrepresentedin thefigure.
(iiD Fill the tubes(receiverandreturntube)with waterby introducingit at sidetubeby meansof a pipette"
Closethesidetube.
(iv) For heatingtheflask= Bunsenburnerandasbestos filledwiregaugeor heatingmantlecanbeused.
(v) Lift the flaskat intervalsand shakethe contents, until the liquid is boiling steadily.Finally,adjustthe
flameso that the distillatein the graduated tuberemainscold. Continue heatingtill no more oil
collects.(fhis requirestwo hoursor more).
(vi) Turn out thegasandallowthe liquid in the condenser to drainfor five or ten minutesthen read the
volumeof oil.
Expressthe resultasa volumein weightpercentage.
Condenser
Sidetubeto introduce
xvlene
Receiver
Returntube
Tapto removedistillate
XXX
APPENDIX. IV: ff(PURITilETUTS
MUHS (MAHARASHTRAUNIVERSITOF HEALTH SCIENCES)
SYLLABUS
LYCOPODruM
SPORE:
The sporesof the speciesof club-moss, Lycopodium(Fam.Lycopodiaceae) haveuniformdimension(94
pm). By usingthis fact Wallis determinedthe numberof sporespresentin milligramby experiments.
The
numberwas found, in average,to be 94,000.This fact hasbecomethe foundationof universallyaccepted
quantitative
microscopy.
Foreign organic matter present in the powered drug can be determinedby taking advantageof
characteristics
particlesi.e., particleswhich areeasilyidentifiedand distinguished
frorn the remainderof the
powder.They mustalsobe fairly resistantto mechanicalforces.
Powdcreddrug can be evaluated by comparison with Lycopodiumsporesif it containswell defined
particleswhichcanbe counted(itarchgrains,pollengrainsetc.)or singlelayeredtissueswhich
characteristic
canbe tracedaftermagnification
for actualareacalculation (singlelayerof sclenchyma
etc.)or characteristics
havinguniformlengthand thickness etc.(trichomes etc.)In all thesecasesthe Characteristics
/ areaof drug
powderis comparedwith thesporesiri a fixedquantity_
Procedure:
(i) Dry the powdereddrugat 105"Canddetermine
its steadyweightat roomtemperature.
(i i ) Weigh accuratelypowderedmaterialand Lycopodiumsporesand mix them.Proportionof 2 : I
powdereddrug to Lycopodiumhasbeenfoundto be satisfactory.
Mix themon a glassplatewith
flexiblespetula.
(iii) Makea thin smoothpasteby addinga suspending medium(oil or glycerin: tragacanth
mucilage:
water,2 ; l : 2). Transferthe pasteinto a stoppered
tubeby washingwith a morequantityof
suspendingmedia.
(iv) Adjustthe final volumeby suspending
fluid sucha thataboutl0 to 20 sporesmaybe present
in a
fieldof 4 mm obiective.
(v) Oscillate
thetubegentlyto geta unifromsuspension.
(vi) Placea dropon slide,spreadwith a needle,put coverslip andcountthe characteristcs
particles
of
theorganicmatteraswell astheLycopodium sporesin thefield.
(vii) Makeonemoreslidein thesamewayandcounr2-5fields.
(viii) Prepare anothersuspensionasdescribed above,preparetwo moreslidesandcount25 heldseachfor
bothpreparationsasabove.
(ix) Determinethe averageof 4 sersof counts(4 x 25 = 100fieldsin all) and also the percentageof
moisturepresentfrom the first step.Calculatethe numberof characteristics
particlespresentin one
mg. of thepowderdriedat 105'C.
(x) Determine in a similarwaythenumberof characteristic
particles permg of thepureforeignmatter,
calculated with referenceto the materialdriedat 105' (If this numbercan be obtainedfrom the
literature
a specialexperiment is unnecessary).
190
I
PracticalPharmacognosyI9l
(xi) thepercentage
Calculate of foreignorganicmatterfromtheformula:
nxwx94,000xl00
of foreignorganicmatter:
Percentage
sxmxp
Where n = numberof characteristics

particles
in 25 fields.
s = numberof sporesin thesame25 fields.
w = weightin mgof Lycopodium taken.
m = weightin mg of thesarnple
(calculated
on thesample
driedat 105"C).
p = numberof characteristics
particlesper rng of thepureforeignmatter,(calculated
on
thematerial
driedat 105'C).
94.000 = numbersporespermg of Lycopodium.
Note : i) The specifiedfieldsare broughtinto view eitherby usinga mechanical sturge
or by usinga
'counting-field
finder'.A netruledscaleis placedin theeyepiece
to facilitate
counting.
ii) In somecases for thepurpose
tenfieldsaresufficient of makinga count.
iii) Forcertainworkoliveoil aloneor mixtureof I vol.glycerineand2 vols.of N/50iodine
(thiswill stainthestarchgranules)
tendsto makethecounting easier.
The following example(Practicalpharmacognosy

by TE Wallis; Churchill Ltd.,,1952,17E-179)
will
illustratethe method.
Gentianmixedwith gingerwas usedandafterexaminingthe specimen anda 50 per centmixtureit was
prepared
decidedto takean accurately 5 percentadmixture of gingerwith gentianas the standard.
Usingthis
standardmixture the number of starchgranulesper mg. of gingerwas determinedas follows : -
W ei ghtof l ycopodi urnO.O22l
g.,i.e.22.I mg.
W ei ghtof 5% m i xture0.5020g.,i.e.502mg.
After mixingwith the suspending
mediumandcountingthe particlcsin ten fields,the followingnumbers
wereobtained:-
spor es 9, 10,13,8,6,7,ll, 12,10,9= 95
Lycopodi um
gr anules
Gi ngerstar ch = 30 0
25,28,40,32,22,26,31,34,36,26
Now 22.I mg. of lycopodium= 22.1x 94,000sporesand since95 lycopodiumsporesoccurswith 300
gingerstarchgranules.
300x22.1x 94,000
.' . 22.1x 94,000lycopodium occurwith
spores
95
= 6,560,000
gingerstarchgranules.
.'. 502mg.of the5 percentmixturecontains
6. 560,000gingerstarchgranules.
I rng. of the5 percentmixturecontains + 502
6,560,000
= 13,070gingerstarchgranules.
and I mg.of thegingercontains13,070x20 = 261,400gingerstarchgranules.
192 Practi cal Phannacrtgrrtt st'
The percentage comp, ition wasthen determinedas follows : -
of gingerin the mixtureof unknowncomposl
Weightof lycopodium 0.0215gm.,i.e.,21.5m9
Weightof mixtureA 0.5383gm.,i.e.538.3mg.
After mixing with the suspendingmediumandcountingthe particlesin ten fields,the followingnumbers
wereobtained: -
Lyeopodiumspores 7, I 8 , 8 , 1 6 ,12,9,10,t4, 11,12= lt7
Gingerstarchgranules )5 4 l t< 3 t,2 0 ,Lt, 36,28,20- 305
Now 2 I .5 mg.of lycopodium- 2l .5 x 94,000spores
andsinceI l7 lycopodiumsporesoccurwith 205gingerstarchgranules.
305x 21.5x 94,0fi)

.'. 21.5 x 94,000lycopodium
sporesoccurwith
tl7
= 5,267,0O0gingerstarchgranules
= 5,267,O00+ 2 81,100
= 20.15mg.of ginger
20.15mg.of ginger
.'. 538.3mg.of themixtureA contains
- 3.75percent.
Thisresultmaybe obtainedby usingthefollowingformula:
n x c o x 9 4 .0 0 0 x l 0 0
Sxpxm
where n numberof starchgranules in thetenfields.
s numberof sporesin thesametenfields.
(r) weightin milligramsof thelycopodium taken.
m weightin milligrams of thesample.
p numberof starchgranules permg.of thepureglnger.
94,000 numberof sporespermg.of lycopodium.
-------o---o------------
o
4,4 Os 4 :4 |
I
)oo
| ? ll
Diagramshowingthe positionof
the25 fieldsselectedfor counting
the characteristicparticles and
|
I
--r -.
spores.The numbersindicatethe
distances in mm of the positions
of thefieldsfrom thecentreof the
O------------( cover-glass.
-4,-4 I
I
I
I
I
I
Countingsquare Cover-glass
I
Practical Plrurmaco
gnosy t93
AZEOTROPICVOLUMETRICMETHOD:
Deanestarkapporatus is usedfor the determinationof moisturecontentby azotropicvolumetiicmethod.
Organicsolventlike benzene,tolueneor xylene is used for distllation.Organic solvent forms a binary
azeotropic mixturewith water(presentin thecrudedrug).Whendrugis heatedwith oneof the organicsolvents,
the solventandwaterwill distil overas a mixture(compositiondependon the ratiosof their molecularweights
andvapourpressures). Waterbeingheavierthanorganicsolvent,collectsat the bottomof the graduated tubeof
DeaneStarkappearatus. When the level of the solventreacherthe side-armit flows back to the receiverand
thuscontinuosdistillationwith thesamevolumeof solventtakeplace.The volumeof watercanbe readdirectly
from the sraduatedtube.
Procedure :
(i) Take 10g ofpowdereddrugin theflask.
(ii) Add 100ml. of toluene.
(iii) Boil for aboutI hour.
(iv) Allow to cool andmeasurethevolumeof waterin thereceiver.
(v) Repeatuntil thereis no furtherincreasein this volumeand calculatethe moisturecontentof the
sample.
Condenser
Overflow
Solvent
Graduatedtube
Water
Drug+ 5s1vgn1
DeaneStark aPparatusfor the determinationof moisturecontentby the azeotropicmethod
Procedure: Take I-2 g of substance in a accuratelyweighedcrucible,ignite gentlyat first until the

substance is thoroughlychaned.Cool,moistentheresiduewith I ml of sulphuricacid,heatgentlyuntil white
fumesare no longerevolvedandigniteat800o* 25' untilblackparticleshavedisappeared. Allow thecrucible
to cool, add a few dropsof sulphuricacid and heat.Igniteas before,allowto cool and weigh.Repeatthe
operation untiltwo successive
weighingsdo notdifferby morethan0.5 mg.
WuoeHEt
SYNONYMS wild blackcherrybark,Virginianbark,Prunusserotlna.

BIOLOGICALSOURCE Dried barkof Prunusserotina,fam : Rosaceae,
collectedrn autumn.
MACROSCOPY
*,_€
F r=.--_-=-.si-
Cork : Thin, smooth, I Reticulated
furrow
up : r-=--.:---s glossy, exfoliating,
Striations
to reddishbrown.
t0 -'-'_:-
<J
cm Lenticel: Whitish
Patchof wood
' / .-.=- ?
5cm
Outer surface Inner surface
EXTRAFEATURES Shape:Curvedor channeled, : short,granular,

Fracture Color: Reddishbrown.
Odor: Like benzaldehyde
whenmoistened,Taste: Astringentand bitter.
MICROSCOPY
Groupsof sclerides dTrT rrrvTrr.@ Cork

@ ,:..@ @
Starch Cortex
Pericyclicfibres
Calciumoxalate Phloem
Medullaryray
Schematicdiagram(T, S.)
Cork : Narrowand irregularrn shape.
Boththin walledandthick walled
parenchymatouscellsin few rows with reddishorown coloringmatter.
(Fungalhyphaearefrequentlyfoundwith cork).
cortex : Few layersof celrulosicparenchymatous celrs,abundantgroups

of thick walled lignified pittedsclerides(astroscrerides)
are scartered
throughoutthe cortex.Starchgranules and calciumoxalatecrystalsare
presentin manycells.
Pericycle: Scattered
lignifiedelongated
fibresarepresent.
Phloem: Parenchymatous cells,groupsof scleridesand medulraryrays
are importantfeatures.
Medullaryraysaremurtiseriar - parenchymatous
cellscontainstarchgranulesandclustersand prismsof calciumoxalate
crystals.
Lignifiedsclerides
arerhickwalled,pittedandwith very narrow
lumen.
T. S. of Witd CherryBark o
o
196 rru( II( uI rnantut(ol!n().\'\'
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS/ I\{ICROCHEMICALTESTS:

Sr. No. Keagents Observation Characteristics
(l ) Phttr r sgl ucl n ol
+conc. HCI (l : | ) Red Sclerides.
fibres
(2) l ootnc Blue Starch
(3) r:|yorocnloncacld Solublecrystals Calciumoxalate
}IICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICS
OF POWDER ED
DRUG:
a.: Cork cells : Polygonalparenchymatous
cells with reddishbrown coloring
t-j
matrcr.(Fungalhyphaemaybc associated
with thecork).
., ..!
Sclerids : Thick rvallcd,pitted and l n groups(astrosclerids),

few are
clongated(fibrousscleridcs).
Fibre : Large,lignitiedwithnroderately
thickened
walls.
CalciumOxalate: Occursasprismsandasclustercrystals.
Starch : Largcgranules whicharespherical

witha smallanddistincthilium
Smallgranules are lnol'e abundant.
CHEMICAL TEST : Tesrslbr Cyanogcncric glycoside (Secthetopic- PRELTMINARY

anclTannins
PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING)
GuignardsTest : Yellowpaperturnsbrickreddueto Prunassin (cynogeneticglycoside;
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Cyanogenetrcglycoside : prunassin, prunase (an cnzyme
Benzoicacid,phlobarannin.
B-methylacesculetin, Resin.
[Jses Mild tonicandsedative,
usedin coughanclchestcomplaints.
SUBSTITUTES:
( I ) "Rossed"Bark (i) Nclcork andcortex.
(ii) Outcrsurface darkbrownin colorandhasrasped appearance.
(iii) Outer surface exhihitspale longitudinal bandsof sclerenchymaand dar,^.
nrcdu
llaryrays.
(ll) Barksof other species
of Prunus: ( i) Presence
of fibres. ( i i ) Astringenttaste.
EAPSICUMFRUIT
5T]{ONYMS FructusCapsici,
Cayenne
Pepper,
Chillies,Redpeppers.
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE : It consists

of fruitof Capsicum
minimum
Roxb.,familySolanaceae.
Bombaycapsium
arethefruitsof C. annumLinn.Familysolanaceae.
.\TACROSCOPY
Pericarp : Thick
Number : l0to 20
and leathery.Orange
S ize: 3- 4 mm.Long
red in color. Surface Shape : Disc. shaped,
is shrivelled. slightly pointed at one
Calyx : Inferior, end, flat with thickened
greenish.brown margins.
and5
toothed. Colour:Orange- yellow
Fruit Pedicel : Bent, long

Seed
andthin.
EXTRAFEATURES Type: Bilocularberry, Shape: oblongconical, Size: variable,insertion:

superior, Placentation: Axile. Odour : characteristic,Taste: Intensely
pungent.
MICROSCOPY SCHEMATICDIAGRAMS .. ^
Epicarp
O il g lo b u l e-0
s
6l lr Mesocarp
Calciumoxalate Endocarp
Islandof sclerides Dissepiment
T. S.
Testa
Embryowith
two cotyledons
Transversesection
(Cr& Cz)
Endosperin
Radicle(r)
Longitudinal sectionofseed parallel to the flat surface L ongitudinalsectionat right to flat surface
197
PERICARP: I
Epicarp : Tangentionallyelongated, slightly beaded thick walled N
o
parenchymatours by thick and stronglystriated
cellsin onelayer,surrounded
x
cuticle.Cellscontainpaleyellownlatter.
S
Mesocarp: Thin walledroundedcellulosicparenchymatous cellsin few rows. s
f
Many cellscontainred to orangeoily globutes. OccasionalidioblastsOccur
o
filled with microsphenoidal Smallvascular
crystalsof calciumoxalate. bundles Oo
maybepresent nearinnerside.
,4
Endocarp: Largecellulosicparenchymatous cellswith groupsof scleridsin

arethickwalled,pittedandlignifiedwith narrowlumen.
singlelayer.Sclerides
Islandsof sclerenchymain the innerepidermis(endocarp) is characteristic
of
thegenuscapsicum.
r.2mm.thickis composed
of thinwalledparenchyma.
T. S. of Capsicum(Pericarp) omeswith unicellular

stalkandmulticellular
headfilled
wrtn vellow DrowncontenBanoanlsocvucstomata.
SEED :
Testa : Largecells with wavy and anticlinalwalls and lignified thickening.

Cellshaveslightvellowish-greencolour.
Endosperm : Thick walled polyhedralparenchymatous cells with highly

oil elobulesand aleuronegrains.Cells
refractivecolourlesswalls,containing
oo i(:'9
:..i 9.o/o nearthetestaaresmallandthin walled.
-*_
Embryo : Stronglycurved embryo,embededin oily endrosperm. Two

cotyledonsare present.Cells are like cells cf endospermcontainingoil
globulesandaleurone
grains.
202 PracticalPltannacogttost,
STAINTNIG
/ DIAGNO,sIS
/ MICRO CHEMICAL TESTS
Sr. No. Reagents 0bservation Characteristics
(1) + conc.HCI (l : l)
Phloroglucinol Red LignifiedXylem
(2) SudanRedIII Red Cuticle
(3) Aceticacidor hvdrochloric
acid Dissolveswith effervescent pystoliths(Cal.carbonate)
OF POWDEREDDRUG:
Coveringtrichomes: Unicellularor bicellular.
Glandular trichomes: Unicelluarstalk and multicelluarhead

(discshaped)
Stomata: Straightwalledpolygonalepidermalcellswith diacytic

stomata.
itr
i't':;
Fibres: Acicular,pittedxylemfibres
Vessels
: Lignifiedwithpittedwall.
andseptatexylemfibres.
CHEMICAL TESTS:
i) Aq. extract+ FeC\ (5Vo) darkcoloration
ii) Dil. KMnOr + Aq. extract----> decolorisation
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS Diterpenelactones: 0.5 - O.9Voandrographolide, andrograpanin.
deoxyoxoandrographolide. Glycosides : neoandrogapholide, anc
andrographiside and flavonoids: oroxylin,wogonin,andrographidine
A ,B ,C ,D ,E ,& F .
Uses B ittertonic,febrifuge,hepatoprotective.
ADULTERANTS/ SUBSTITUTES :
(I) Chirata(Swertiachirayita):
(i) Stemgreenin color.
(ii) Numerous opposite
errect,slender, branches.
(iii) Devoidof andrographolide.
(ll) AndrographisechioidesNees:
(i) Andrographolide is notpresent. XXX
SYNONYMS Shatmuli.
Shatavar.
BIOLOGICALSOURCE Shatavariconsistsof dried rootsof Asparagusracemos

us w i td.,b elonging
to familyLiliaceae.
MACROSCOPY -l -2 cm-
Cork : Roughwith longitudinalwrinkles

andbuff whitecolor.
Shape: Shrinked.
cylindrical.
co
ORGANOLEPTIC
CHARACTERISITCS
: Colour: Externally
buff white,internally
palewhite.
Odour: Faint,Taste: Mucilagenous

andslightbitter.
EXTRAFEATURES Driedpiecesareshrinkedwhichswellwhenkeptin water.Fracture

is starchy
andirregular.
MICROSCOPY
Rootlet
Epidermis
Cortex
Endodermis
Pericycle
Phloem
Vessels
Pirh
Diagram(T. S.)
Schematic
203
PracticalPharmacognosy 205
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS/ MICROCHEMICAL TEST :
Sr. No. Reagents Observation Characterisitcs
(l) + conc.HCI(l : l)
Phloroglucinol Red Lignified cells of endodermis,
xylemandpith.
OF POWDEREDDRUG:
CHARACTERISTICS
MICR,OSCOPICAL
EPIDERMIS : Thin walledcellswith hairroot lets.
LIGNIFIED PARENCHYMA: Thinwalledlignifiedparenchymatous

cells.
XYLEM VESSELS: Fragments

of lignifiedxylemvessels.
Calciumoxalatecryltals,starchgrainsand fibresare absent.

CHEMICAL TESTS :
Tests .6bservation Inference

Shakevigorouslyaqueous
extract Stable,foam Saponins
5 rnl. dil. KMnOosolution+ few Decolorisation
of KMnOasolution Reducingsubstance,
flavonoids
dropsof aqueousextract
5 ntl. Of aqueousextact + few Yellowishppt. Phenoliccompounds,
flavonoids.
dropsoflead acetate
reagent
Shinodatest Pinkcolor Flavonoids
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS : Steroidalsaponins(0.2%) : Shatavarin

I, II, n andIV
Flavonoids : Quarcetiqrutin etc.
Others : Sterols,sugars,
cyanidinglycosides, alkaloidetc.
USES: Galactogogue,
tonic,diuretic,antioxytocic,
anti-rheumatic,
nervetonic.
XXX
SYNONYMS FoliaEucttlypr.NilgiritHinclil.
ol' Etrr'rrlt'2ttt.r ltncl

ulobtrltt.r othcr spccicsol' eucalYPtus.
I}IOLOGICALSOURCE FrcslrICilvcs
Fanrily M yltaccac.
:
MACROSCOPY
Apex Acutc
Margin Entirc
$to Midrib Not pt'omlnent
Ycllowishgt'ccncolorcd.
pinnatclatclalvcin
enation : Rcticulatc
ncalthc rnargin
anirstonlosc
Lamina Thick
Base A ssymctlical
Petiole Shortandtwisted.
EXTRAFEATURES Lcavcstrl'youngplant: Scssilc andcordatc,

anclsicklcslraPccl.
Lcavcstlf rnaturcpant: Pctiolatc
nrarkccl
Ii'cquently with rnany brown
rninute spots
Larnina: Thlck surlitct'.
(Gloupsol'cot'kcclls in ruptuledoiI
-ulands)
Color': Grccntlr ycllowishgreen.Odor': Stron-uandcamplroraceous.
Tastc: Aronratic pungcntandslightlybittcr'
MICROSCOPY
Dorsalsitlc
LAMINA
MIDRIB Upperepidermis
Collenchytna parenchyma
Palisade
fibres
Pericyclic Spongyparenchyma
bundles
Vasculat' Palisadeparenchyma
Pelicyclicfibres Lowelepidermis
Cuticle
Collenchyma
Oil gland
----- Cal. oxalatccrystal
VcntralSidc
Diagram(T. S.)
Schematic
206
SYNONYMS Nim,Nimba(Sans.),
Limba(Marathi)
BIOLOGICALSOURCE It consistsof dried feavesof Azadirachta
indictt A. Jss syn. Melia
azadirachtct
Linn :, farnily: Meliaceac.
MACROSCOPY
Apex: Acute
Margin : Ser.rate
enation: Rcticulate
c-.1
I Base: Oblique
Petiole : Small
il-3,cm-
ORGANOLEPTIC
CHARACTERISITCS
: CoIour: Yellowishgreen,Odour: Not distinct,Taste: Bitter.
EXTRAFEATURES ; Leaf-lets
arecompound, alternate,
rachisl5-25cm long.
Shape: Lanceolate
MICROSCOPY
MIDRIB
LAMINA
DorsalS urf'ace
overingtrichome
Collenchyma
pperepidermis
V.Bs.
.t Palisade
Xylem Spongyparenchyma
holem Lowerepidermis
Fibres Cuticle
Collenchyma Cal.oxalate
Ventralsurface
SchematicDiagram(T. S.)
209
E
r ra I c'4I r n4 n1l4c0gnosl 2il
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS/MICRO
CHEMICAL TESTS:
Sr.No. Reagents Observation Characterisitcs
(l) + conc.HCI(l : l)
P h l or ogl uci nol Red (V.B)
Lignitiedxylemvessels
(2 ) SudanRedIII Red Cuticle
(3 ) Hydrochloricacid getdissolved
Crystals CalciumOxalate
(4) Sufphuricacid(60%) Formatiohof needleshaped CalciumOxalate
crystals
oi calciumsulphate'
SURFACEPREPARATION: (Forprocedule
seerheropic: LEAVES)
EpidermalCells: Polygonal,
thinandsrraighr
walledparenchyma.
Trichome: Covering,
unicellular,
thickwalledwithnarrowIumen.
stornata : Ranunculaceous/ Anomocytic/ irregularcelledstomatawith irregular
numberof subsidiary
cellsaroundtheguardcells.
OF POWDEREDDRUG:
Epidermalcells : Thinandstraight
walledpolygonal
cellswithanomocyric
sromata.
AnomocyticStomata: Seethedescription
abovc
I rtcnomes: Unicellular,
thick walled,elongated
coveringirichomeswith acureapex
anonarrowlumen.
XylemVessels:
Lignifiedandthickwallcd.
Fibres: Elongated
andnon-lignil'iedflbresisolated
andin smallg roups.
Cdciumoxalate: Calciumoxalate
p rismsandclusters.
CHEMICATTESTS
Sr. No. Tests Observation Inferances
(l ) Aq. extract+ FeCl3(57o)solution. Darkcoloration l.nenollcconstltuents
()\
Dil. pot. permagnate
solution + Few dropsof Decolorisation Phenolic
cbnstituents
conc.aq.extract.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: Azadirachtin, meliantrol
salanin,
nimbosrerol
nimbin.nimbinene. ascorbic
acid.quarcetin
etc.
USES: Antiseptic,
Insectlepellant,
insecticide,
antifeedant,
nematicide
antimicrobial
antivir.al.
anti{ungal,
in
anosKlnotseases.
launolce
PODOPHYLLUM
SYNONYMS Podophylli
indiciRhizoma, indicum,IndianPodophyllum.
Podophyllum
BIOLOGICALSOURCE : It consistsof dried rhizomesand roots of Podophyllumemodi WalL

Syn. Podophyllum Royle(Indian),Podophy
hexandrurz llumpeltatumLinn.
(American),Family:Berberidaceae.
MACROSCOPY
-1 .2 c m - Uppersurface
Steamscars
$rl
:
Rootlet
2-7 cm
LowerSurface
ORGANOLEPTIC
CHARACTERS : Colour : Earthy brown, Odour Slight and characteristic,
Taste: Bitterandacrid.
EXTRA FEATURES Irregular,knotty, tortuouspieceswith cupshaped leaf scarson the

uppersurfaceandrootsandroot-scars on the lowersurface.Flattened
dorsiventrallv.
Fracture: Short.Broakensurface: Starchv
MICROSCOPY
Epidermis
Cortex
Pericyclicfibre
Phloem
Cambium
Xylem
Pith
T. S.of Indian Podophyllumrhizome

Schematicdiagram(T. s.)
212
I
STEM
TINOSPORA
SYNONYMS Guduchi,Amrita,Amritavallari(San.),Gilo Gurch(Hindi)
Gulvel(Mar.),Galo(Guj.)
IOLOGICAL SOURCE It consistsof driedstemof Tinosporacordifuliawild,

Fam: Menispermaceae
MACROSCOPY
Wood: Dull andlight.Porousandsoft.

papery.
Bark : Thin,easilyseparable,
Lenticel : Oblonghavingshortverticalslit. Adventitious
rootoriginatefromit.
Shape: Cylindrical
3-9cm
Stem
ORGANOLEPTIC : Color: Palegreento brownishgreen.
CHARACTERISTICS
Odor: Faint. Taste: Intenselybitter
EXTRAFEATURES Youngstemsshowssmoothsurface;
olderonehaswartysurface
Fracture: fibrous.
MICROSCOPY
Cork
Cortex
Starch
Pericycle
Cal.Oxalate Phloem
Xylem
Pith
Medullaryray
Schematicdiagram(T. S.)
215
PracticalPharmacognosy
| 2I 7
STAINING/ DIAGNOSIS/ MICROCIIEMICAL TESTS:
(l) Phloroglucinol+ Redi Pink Sclerenchvmatouscellsof
conc.HCI(l:l) pericycle,xylem
(2) Iodine Blue Starchgrains
(3) Hydrochloricacid Dissolutionof crystalswithouteffervescence Calciumoxalatecrvstals
(4) Sulphuricacid Convertion of crystalsintoneedleshaped Calciumoxalatecrvstals
(60%) crystalsof calciumsulphate
VIICROSCOPICALCHARACTERISTICSOF POWDERDDDRUG :
Cork cells: Polygonal

withcoloringmatterassociated
with collenchvmatous
cell
ofcortex.
Fibres : Lignified,thickwalled,longwith bluntends,
Xylem Vessels: Cylindrical,lignifredwith pittedwall.
cells: Lignifiedthickwalledcellsin groups.

Sclerenchymatous
Calciumoxalatecrystals: Calciumoxalateprismsandclusters.
Starch : Simpleandconpound.
]IMMICALCONSTITI.JENTS: Clerodanefurano diterpenes: columbin,tinosporaside,

Alkaloids: Tatorhizine,palmatine, berberine,tembeterine,
Sesquiterpene glucoside: tinocordifolioside
Phenylpropane disaccharide : Cordifolioside
A & B.
Others: Choline,tinosporicacid,tinosporon, tinosporal.
]HEMICAL TESTS Generaltestsfor alkaloids.Forprocedure seethetopic
PRELIMINARYPHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING
]SES Antipyretic,analgesic,antiinflammatory,antidiabetic,
hepatoprotective,etc. XXX
H^*,NI"A.
ROOT
SYIIONYMS : Withaniaroot,Ashvagandha, Asgandh(Hindi)
Askandha,
BIOLOGICAL SOTJRCE : of driedrootsandstembasesof llithaniasomniferaDvn.

It consists
(Syn.PhylsalissomniferaLhul,P.tlexuosaLinn.,P. arborescenceDC).
Fam.Solanaceae.
MACROSCOPY
6- 12mm
Cork : Smooth,buffto greyyellowwith longitudinal
\
wrinkles.
Lateral roots: 2 to 3, smallersizelike fibre.
Shape: Conicalor cylindrical,staightandunbranched
l0-17cm
Stem
ORGANOLEPTIC
CHARACTERS : Color : greyishyellowOdour : Characteristic
andfaintly
pungent, Taste: Mucilagenoys acridandbittertaste
EXTRAFEATURES: Frachre: Smoothandpowdery(starchy).
pores.
of soft,solidmasswith scaffered
Centerof therootis creamyandconsists
MICROSCOPY
Cork
Cortex,
Phloem-,,:
Cambium
Sec.xylem
Groundtissuewith pnmaryxylbm
Schematicdigram (T. S.)
218
r )1"'
i layersof isodiametric
non-lignified,
suberised
lls.
Cork cambium: Singlelayeredor indistinct.
Occupy715'n partof theTS.Fewlayersof slightly

flattenedparenchymatous cells.Outercellsarewith interspaces
\.
}';
whrlelnnercellsarearransed compactly.All the cellsareheavily
ri
loadedwith starchgrains(6 - 14 starchgrains/cell)
-rrl:
Phloem: Isodiametric parenchymatouswith cellsintercellular

spaces.In old rootsphloemconsists
of sievetubes,companion
cellsandparenchyma.
Cambium: Fewlayersof tangentially

elongated
cells.
onsistsofxylem parenchyma,
tracheids
and
fibres.
nr
.r-
Medullaryrays: multiseriate. o
(t
: Parenchyrnatous,
loadedwith starchgrains. s.
!^J+ Occassionaly
primaryiylem in thecentralpartcan -l
be seen. o
ua
.14
T.S.of Withaniaroot =
N)
\o
gnosy
220 Practical Pharmaco
Old root : Colk is cxfbliated
ol clushed.
Pheilocicr-rri
consistst-rl'about
20 layelsof conrpact
parechyrnatous
cells.
Phlocnt containssievetubes,cclmpanioncellsandphloemparenchyma.
Xt,lc-nrc()ntillns n a f d a n o v ir s c u lAl n s s c lu s et o e c n o t n e r .s e D a l ' a tebdv m u l tts e a te
nrcduliiilvlavs.
Stem base: Pcridclnr consists of 2 - 3layersof cork,phellogen andphellodeum.
Cot'tcxshowsoutelcells- collenchyrnatous andinnelcells- parenchymatous.
Fcw pcricyclicI'ibres. Plimaryphloemis crushed
Xylcnrshowsprcsence of parenchyma, vessels, flblesandtracheids.
t vt cou t l l V | ays : u n ls c n ilt ct o n t uit t s c nat c . P ith: S olidDa le nc hv m a t ous .
STAINING/DIAGNOSIS/MICRO
CHEMICAL TESTS:
Sr. No. Test Observation Inference
(l) P hl ol ogl uci nol + conc.HCI ( l:l ) Pink Lieniiiedfibelsandvessels
(2 r I trclincsolut io n Blue Starchgralns
(.?r Dil. Hvclrochloric acid Crystalsg etdissolved L a l c tu mo x a l a tec f v s ta l s
ii withoutcl'l'ervesence
^ I't'^,.,,^,. ^ -,, ^
NIICROSCOPI(JAL
CHARACTERISTICSOF POWDEREDDRUG :
Cork : Irlcgul ar ' l outl

y i nr ' d. Vessels boldcledpits.spiralandunnular'.
: Lignil'icd.
I
t +"
a" ( g-
:c
7;
*
t
F*
#
*
Fibres: I-ignilieclthickwalled. Calciumoxalate: Microsphenoid.
Starch : Simple,f'ewcompound.
Renifblmandoval.
Abundantin parenchymatouscells.
CHEMIf,]AL'I-TTSTS :
(r) Dil. KM nOI sol uti on+ few dropsof aq.extract) Dccololisation
of KM n O as olr t t io n.
(ii) Acl cxlfact + FcClrreagent(5Eo)) No dalkenin_u.
CHEMICAI. CONSTITIJENTS: Withanolides(Steroidallactoneswith ergostaneskeleton):

withnnone, I. II. III. A. B. '
withaI Cl' in A witha sorridienonc..withanolides
D , E , F . C , H . II , K. L. M. WS - I, P anclS, withanolide
(-
C.
Alkaloids (0.27o Cuscohygrine. tropine.anahygnne.
): anaferinc etc.
Uses A d a p toucn. l rr lt r t ur t )()u r ' .h y p o tcn sivC.
respu'atofy
stimulant,
antispasmodic, antiartharitic.
antibacterial.
h c p a t ol ) r (c) tc
uvcctc.
Allied drug :
Vv'itlrutritr
<ottgttluttsDilnn Showsdil'f'crence
in col'texandstarchgrains.
Adulterant:
Wild ashwagandha
: i) Obtaincdfl'omwilclolants.
rr) H i gh carbohvdrate
contcntandva r ilb lecomposr
tlon of alkaloids.
XXX

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TEGHNIQUESAND EXPERIMENTS

Basedon Syllabusof D. Pharm.(E.R.lggi), B. Pharm.and M. pharm.

This booktries to imparttechnicalknordedgefor histological

Yourco-operation in the form of suggestions and comments are mostwelcome,

Mysincerethanksaredueto Prof.S . C .P a l(Nasik),

27. CINCHONABARK 107

36. STARCH t37

Eyepiece: To observethe mamified

Drow tube : To fit the eve

Body tube : Holdsthenose

STAINING / DIAGNOSIS/ MICRO-CHF]MICAI,'I'ES'I'S

Oil cells: In ^/ n (ialciumoxalate:.

,Ar PlainMirror TO CONDENSER

(Il) Light illuminatingthe objectmaybeadjusted with IRISDIAPHRAGM.The dipphragmmaybeopenedor

M.P. - Magnificationof objectivex Magnificationof eyepiece.e.g.if you areobservingan objecton a slide

In orderto revealthe tissuearrangementlongltudinallyviz. alongthe planesparallelto the long axisboth

Put the sampleselectedin a test

Similarly,cut sectionsof theleafin theblockof pith whichshallgivesectionsof the leafwhenseparated

Thick Thin Thick Thin section

In caseofa leafdrug cutapart ofthe leafpassing throughmidrib

Fordetail,referreactionsof cell wallsandreactionsof cell contenlsin thetopicPLANT CELL.

, r ) Takea cleanwatchglassandaddthestainingsolutionto it. -:--.: -: ---

,2) With the help of a brus[ tranderthe sectiontakenfrom waterto

(3) Pickup thesectionafter2-3minutesandtransferit to watchglass

(l) Takea cleanglassmicroslide.

(2) Onthisslidetransferthesectionto bemounted.

(3) Add one or two drops of water on the sectionwith a

(4) Takea cleancoverslip with the help of a forcepand

(5) Ifany air bubbles

(6) With the helpof a blottingpaper,wipeoff excesswater

Takea cleanwatchglass.Add safraninsolutionto it, and

Transferthe sectionin watchglasscontainingrvater;keep

{ Transferthis safraninstainedsectionto a watch glass

tE E&n it &Stc rtrincdnd mw nqrdc eftydrzdmcherwice,over

For dehydrationdoublestainedand washedsectionis treatedwith increasingstrengthsof alcoholfor I

30 Voa[c. 50 %oalc. 75 %6alc. 90 %oalc. 100% aic.

Formounting,select a I to 1.2mmthickglassslideanda thin cover Cloveoil (5 minutes)

Canadabalsamin xvlol Placecoverslip

Slightlywarmtheslideor keeptbr dryingln sun in a dust-freeplace.Naturaldryingis a time consuming

SAFRANIN+ LIGNIN -------------->DEEP RED

irrst stainthe sectionwith safraninand treatwith 50 % alcoholas in

Thesectionis thqn transferedto a cleanslide,treatedwith plain clove

Canada balsam rcsinous

43 Taftea pieceof cottonctothandwipethemicroscope to removeanydust.With xylol, wipeall the lensesr

{5 Placethe slidepreparedon thestageof themicroscope

the clips.Now the slidecanbe movedforward,backuardor sidewaysabovethe stage

4.6 With the help of coarseadjustment screw(while

4.7 Note the observationunder low pou,er, if further

4.8 Thelow powerobservation asminutedetailsof cellsarenot visibleor not

CYToPLASMThe fluid presentinsidethecetlnrall

ti) Schult'zmaceration fluid

lt0 Schult'zmaceration fluid .

Cleanandconvenient for use.

6.2 PLANT TISSIJES

MERISTEMATiC PERMANENT TISSUES

SIMPLE COMPLEX SECRETORY

itr: :rlj::::il::: ti:i itill:i.ir.tfi,ill+-+tt*li[tf,i$F.ii!:#ltt*i:rti

2. Thesecellsarepresentat growingpointsi.e.tipsof a Usuallypresentrn the groundtissueand

h acti cal Phalmacognosy 3I

itr: :rlj::::il::: ti:i itill:i.ir.tfi,ill+-+ttli[tf,i$F.ii!:#ltti:rti