Land Law

Property law
Rod Edmunds
Alastair Hudson
Paul Kohler
Lucinda Pattison
Anne Street
Claire de Than
This guide was prepared for the University of London by:
u Rod Edmunds, , BA (Cantab), LLB (Cantab), Senior Lecturer, Queen Mary University of
London
u Alastair Hudson, LLB, LLM, PhD, NTFS, FHEA, FRSA, Professor of Equity and Finance
Law, University of Strathclyde and UK National Teaching Fellow, Fellow of the Royal
Society of Arts and Fellow of the Higher Education Academy
u Paul Kohler, MA (Cantab), Senior Lecturer and Undergraduate Tutor, School of Law,
SOAS University of London
u Lucinda Pattison, LLB (Hons), PgCertHE, PgDipLP, Senior Lecturer, University of

Westminster
u Anne Street, LLB (Hons), LLM, Starting Well Tutor, School of Law, SOAS University of
London
u Claire de Than, BA (Hons), LLM, Professor of Law.
This is one of a series of module guides published by the University. We regret that
owing to pressure of work the authors are unable to enter into any correspondence
relating to, or arising from, the guide.
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Published by: University of London
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Property law page i
Contents
Module descriptor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Studying property law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 A suggested approach to study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 The examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Three fundamental ideas every student of property law must know . . . . . 15
1.5 Some basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 The 1925 reforms and unregistered land law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1 A brief overview of the 1925 reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Reduction in the number of legal estates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 The unregistered title system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Overreaching in the unregistered title system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Introduction of a system of land charges registration in unregistered title . . 32
2.6 The doctrine of notice in unregistered title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7 Diagrammatical summary of unregistered title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3 Registration of title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1 Basic features of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Land Registration Act 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 The categories of interest in registered title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 The effect of the Land Registration Act 2002: overriding interests . . . . . . 47
3.5 Diagrammatical summary of registered title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4 Settlements, trusts for sale and trusts of land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1 Background to settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Strict settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 Trusts of land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5 Co-ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.1 The two forms of co-ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2 The means by which co-ownership might arise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3 Distinction between joint tenancy and tenancy in common . . . . . . . . . 73
5.4 Severance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.5 The 1925 and 1996 reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.6 Rights of beneficiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6 Landlord and tenant: the law of leases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.1 The distinction between leases and licences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 General characteristics of a lease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3 Creation of a lease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
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6.4 Determination of leases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.5 Covenants running with the land and the reversion . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7 Proprietary estoppel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.1 Proprietary estoppel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8 Easements and profits à prendre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.1 Nature and characteristics of an easement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2 Creation of easements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.3 Extent and extinguishment of easements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.4 Running with the land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.5 Effect of the Land Registration Act 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
8.6 Profits à prendre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9 Freehold covenants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.1 Passing of the benefit and burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.2 Passing of the burden at law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.3 Discharge and modification of restrictive covenants . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10 Mortgages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.1 Creation of mortgages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.2 Position of the mortgagor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.3 Rights of the mortgagee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
11 Adverse possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
11.1 Unregistered land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.2 Registered land with 12 years’ adverse possession before 13 October 2003 . 183
11.3 Registered land under the Land Registration Act 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . 185
11.4 Unregistered land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Feedback to activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Using feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Property law page iii
Module descriptor
GENERAL INFORMATION
Module title
Property law
Module code
LA2003
Module level
5
Contact email
The Undergraduate Laws Programme courses are run in collaboration with the
University of London. Enquiries may be made via the Student Advice Centre at:
https://sid.london.ac.uk
Credit value
30
Courses in which this module is offered

LLB, EMFSS
Module prerequisite
None
Notional study time

300 hours
MODULE PURPOSE AND OVERVIEW

Property law is one of the seven foundation modules required for a qualifying law
degree (QLD) in England and Wales. Standard Entry and Graduate Entry students
following a QLD pathway must pass an examination in this module in order to meet
the requirements of their programme.
This module introduces students to the fundamental principles that underpin land
ownership in England and Wales and provides them with a sound understanding of the
law that governs the creation, protection and transfer of interests in land.
MODULE AIM
Through examination and analysis of the statutory and case law framework, students
will develop a detailed knowledge of the substantive law, enabling them to critique
the current law, and identify, explain and apply key legal principles to moderately
complex real world scenarios. By situating the law in its social and economic context,
the module also seeks to highlight the ethical issues that frequently arise in this area
and allow students to appreciate the practical impact and importance of property law.
LEARNING OUTCOMES: KNOWLEDGE

Students completing this module should be able to explain the framework of modern
land law and describe its key principles and concepts. In particular they should be able
to:
1. Compare and contrast the functions of the rules of common law and statute, and
common law and equity;
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2. Explain how rights and interests in land are acquired, protected and transferred;
3. Appreciate how property law adapts to social and economic conditions, raises
ethical issues and has practical importance.
LEARNING OUTCOMES: SKILLS

On completion of this module students should be able to:
4. Articulate well-argued solutions to complex legal problems, referencing relevant

legal authority appropriately;
5. Evaluate legal and ethical issues arising in topics of particular contemporary

significance, taking account of their social and economic context;
6. Use appropriate legal terminology specific to property law.
BENCHMARK FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) benchmark statement for Law 2019.
MODULE SYLLABUS
a. General principles. The concept of land. Doctrine of tenures and estates. Freehold
and leasehold estates. Legal and equitable rights. Principles of the 1925 legislation.
b. Transfer of land, with reference to the conveyance of registered and unregistered titles
in land. Formalities and proprietary estoppel. Land Registration Acts 1925 and 2002.
Concept of overreaching. An awareness (in general terms only) of unregistered
land law concepts such as the doctrine of notice and Land Charges Act 1972.
c. Ownership of land. Settlements. Co-ownership of land. Trusts of land under the

Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996.
d. Landlord and tenant. The term of years absolute. Its nature, creation, assignment
and forfeiture. Enforceability of leasehold covenants. The lease/licence distinction.
e. Licences. Bare licences. Contractual licences, their revocability and enforceability

against third parties. Estoppel licences.
f. Easements. Characteristics, extinguishment and extent. Creation of express and

implied easements but excluding easements arising by prescription.
g. Freehold covenants of land. The common law and equitable rules relating to the
running of the burden and benefit of covenants between neighbouring estate
holders.
h. Mortgages and charges, with particular reference to land. Nature and creation.
Position and rights of the mortgagor. Rights and remedies of the mortgagee.
i. Adverse possession.
LEARNING AND TEACHING
Module guide
Module guides are the student’s primary learning resource. The module guide covers
the entire syllabus and provides the student with the grounding to complete the
module successfully. It sets out the learning outcomes that must be achieved as
well as providing advice on how to study the module. It also includes the essential
reading and a series of self-test activities together with sample examination questions,
designed to enable students to test their understanding. The module guide is
supplemented each year with the pre-exam update, made available on the VLE.
Property law page v
The Laws Virtual Learning Environment

The Laws VLE provides one centralised location where the following resources are
provided:
u a module page with news and updates;
u a complete version of the module guides;
u mini lectures;
u pre-exam updates;
u past examination papers and reports;
u discussion forums where students can debate and interact with other students;
u quizzes – multiple choice questions with feedback are available for some modules.
The Online Library

The Online Library provides access to:
u the professional legal databases LexisLibrary and Westlaw;
u cases and up-to-date statutes;
u key academic law journals;
u law reports;
u links to important websites.
Core text
Students should refer to the following core text. Specific reading references are
provided for this text in each chapter of the module guide:
¢ Dixon, M. Modern land law. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2021) 12th edition

[ISBN 9780367484484].
ASSESSMENT
Learning is supported through tasks in the module guide and online activities.
These formative activities will enable development of skills outcomes and help
prepare students to achieve the module learning outcomes tested in the summative
assessment.
Summative assessment is through a three hour and fifteen minute unseen

examination. Students are required to answer four questions out of eight from a
choice of essay and problem questions.
Please be aware that the format and mode of assessment may need to change in
light of extraordinary events beyond our control, for example, an outbreak such as
the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. In the event of any change, students will be
informed of any new assessment arrangements via the VLE.
Permitted materials
Students are permitted to bring into the examination room the following specified
document:
¢ Core statutes on property law 2021–22 (Palgrave Macmillan).

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Notes
1 Introduction
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Studying property law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 A suggested approach to study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 The examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Three fundamental ideas every student of property law must know . . . 15
1.5 Some basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

page 2 University of London
Introduction
This module guide is designed to help you study the property law of England and
Wales. Each chapter will highlight the most important aspects of the topic and give
guidance as to core texts and essential and further reading. Within each chapter you
will find exercises (activities) designed to test your understanding of the topic and
self-assessment exercises to monitor your understanding and progress. There are also
sample examination questions with advice on possible approaches to the questions.
The key to the successful study of property law is a solid knowledge and understanding
of the relevant statutory and common law rules, coupled with an appreciation of how
those rules fit together. Although you must study each topic separately, it is only at
the end of the module that full understanding of property law is really possible, so at
the end of this guide it may be helpful to stand back from the subject and think about
how the topics interrelate. Note that many examination questions will require the
application of principles from more than one chapter of this guide, particularly the
problem questions. For example, registration of title (Chapter 3) can affect the answer
to almost any question. Again, when you have finished this guide, it will be useful to go
back to the questions in the earlier chapters and see whether you can now give a more
detailed or different answer, in the light of subsequent chapters.
IMPORTANT NOTICE
The discussion in each chapter identifies the examinable material within the scope of
this guide and aims to give some clear guidance on the suggested way of proceeding
with your work and the examination.
There seems to be a tendency for some students to attempt to predict the contents
of a future examination by compiling a spreadsheet of what has ‘come up’ in previous
examinations and thus predicting what is ‘likely to come up’ next time around. You
should know that the examiners do not operate in this fashion. They do not follow a
mathematically precise allocation of questions. Instead, the guide for this academic
year gives you guidance about the examinations for this academic year. It is worth
bearing in mind that the examinations sat in different regions of the world on the
same day are different. So, you cannot assume that a spreadsheet calculating the
mathematical probability of a question ‘coming up’ is a reliable guide. It is not.
The structure of this module guide

Each chapter of this module guide considers a different topic, which is capable of
forming the subject of a separate examination question.
At the end of each chapter there is a guide to the manner in which each chapter might
be examinable, in the form of essays or problem questions.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
u approach the study of property law in a systematic way
u understand some of the key definitions and concepts used in property law
u understand what the various elements of the text are designed to do
u begin your study of property law with confidence.
Property law 1 Introduction page 3
1.1 Studying property law
1.1.1 A coherent but complex subject

When studying property law, you will benefit, as in any other legal subject, from a
disciplined approach and logical analysis; and, as usual, you also need to develop the
skill of thinking and arguing conceptually. However, property law is full of categories
and sub-categories: a successful answer to any problem question will depend upon
accurate, comprehensive and logical analysis of how the facts of the question fit
into those categories. Thus, for example, there are two categories of land known
as registered title and unregistered title, and the body of rules applying to each
is fundamentally different. So, when answering a problem question, determining
which category is relevant, then applying the corresponding body of rules, is an
important consideration. Failure to do so can sometimes lead to a totally wrong
answer. Although you will need an awareness of the basic principles of unregistered
land, the emphasis throughout the module, and in this guide, is predominantly on
registered land because this is increasingly the more important body of rules in
practice. The treatment of unregistered land is therefore limited in two ways. First,
in Chapter 2 the approach that unregistered land takes to protecting land law rights
is looked at in outline, principally as a way of providing a comparative perspective to
the way registered land deals with the same issues covered in Chapter 3. Secondly,
elsewhere in the syllabus (and this guide), unregistered land law is considered in
specific instances where it continues to have particular substantive relevance (such
as with adverse possession (Chapter 11). Again, we will often look at legal rights and
equitable rights separately, since law and equity have very different approaches to the
enforceability of rights in relation to land. Accurate labelling of rights and situations,
with a calm approach, will make the application of the correct line of authorities
reasonably straightforward.
Some students regard property law as a ‘difficult subject’; others like the fact that
so much of it is statutory. It is complex in places and remarkably straightforward
in others; sometimes in need of radical reform and sometimes very modern. As a
subject, hindsight adds coherence, since the answer to many questions requires an
understanding of a number of interrelated issues or topics of study. This field of law
uses ancient and technical language and frequently refers back to history – often at
great speed and with little depth. But a calm, structured approach both to studying
the key principles and to answering questions will help you a great deal. Property law
can be an accessible and enjoyable subject (everyone needs and uses property and
land, even the homeless), and the historical element adds both important context and
colour to the principles.
Property law requires us to understand that ‘property’ is a relationship between

people over a thing, rather than the thing itself. Property is a creation of law – it is the
rights we have against other people recognised by our legal system in relation to the
thing we claim to own. There are, of course, different types of property and divisions of
property law rules (which are not always mutually exclusive). The focus of the module
is on land, and law that concerns ownership and other rights over land. Land law is
about the relationships which people and the state have with land. Nobody can live
without land, and most people have to share it, creating competing rights. England
and Wales have a limited supply of land and (at least in towns and cities) a dense
population, so disputes about rights over land are common. People’s relationships to
land depend on many factors and have a strong cultural element. Property law thus
tells us much about the society to which it applies. Land can be a financial asset, a
home, something spiritual and incapable of individual ownership, or belong to the
state or to a ruler, for example. In a market-based society, land must be freely tradable,
but there must also be security for those who own it and those who have lesser rights
in it, such as a right to walk across it. Many land law problems will involve not just two
but three sets of competing interests: those of a buyer of the land, a seller of the land
and a third party who has some lesser interest in the land (e.g. a right to live there for
life, or a loan secured against it).
Impact of the Human Rights Act 1998

Since the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA 1998) came into force in October 2000, all fields
of law have had to be reconsidered in light of the rights protected by the European
Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR). Property law has
not been immune to this impact: some of the cases which you will be reading will
refer to human rights principles, public authorities must uphold ECHR rights, new
statutes must comply with them, and courts must both interpret legislation ‘so far as
is possible’ in accordance with ECHR rights (s.3 HRA 1998) and apply those rights where
relevant in the common law. Practical considerations and long-established principles
of law may raise human rights issues. For example, we shall see in Chapter 11 ‘Adverse
possession’, that there has been much debate about the extent to which a squatter’s
claim to the disputed land will violate the rights of the landowner: the Grand Chamber
of the European Court of Human Rights overruled a first instance decision which had
found such a violation.
Four key questions

There are four key questions to ask in response to any land law problem, and you must
always be prepared to answer them and to explain why the answers matter:
1. Is the title to the land registered or unregistered? (Even though it is important

to appreciate the significance of this distinction by asking the question, you can
expect that title is registered unless specifically advised to the contrary.)
2. What interests may exist in the relevant land?
3. Is each of the possible interests legal or equitable?
4. Have any necessary steps been taken to protect each of the possible interests?
Since there has been so much statutory intervention in land law at different times, the
dates on which events occur in a problem question are often crucial, and a ‘before and
after’ answer is often necessary. Questions will usually target your knowledge of key
legislative changes in this way. But case law is also important, whether in interpreting
statutory rules or in creating legal rules in its own right. Please note: unless told
otherwise, you should always answer a question as if you were giving advice on the
date of the examination, not the date in the question.
A little history
The historical evolution of English land law is a complex but interesting story, and from
the 20th century has been characterised by the increasing intervention of the state in
the regulation of the use and occupation of land (e.g. housing law, planning law and
regimes for the protection of tenants). However, in the syllabus we concentrate rather
on the private law aspects of the subject (i.e. on what land is; what interests can exist
in land; how such interests may be created, transferred and extinguished; and the
extent to which such interests are enforceable against third parties). An understanding
of the basic principles of property law is obviously important for lawyers, but it is also
relevant for lay people making arrangements for the ownership, occupation and use of
land in their everyday lives.
Although you are advised to make your way through the guide topic by topic, you
should bear in mind that property law, especially in relation to land, has a coherence
that is lacking in some legal subjects and that there are themes that run through the
subject and give it a certain unity; this is evident in the cross-referencing to be found
in the guide and the textbooks. For example, the distinctions between proprietary and
personal rights, between legal and equitable interests, and between registered and
unregistered conveyancing are fundamental to an understanding of modern land law,
and the principles of the 1925 legislation (as amended and supplemented), outlined in
Chapter 2, provide a framework within which you should read the chapters that follow.
1.1.2 Outline structure of this module guide

In property law, the order of study of topics is to some extent a matter of personal
choice. This module guide has been structured to enable you to begin with the
basic foundations, then proceed to detailed understanding of each of the key topics.
However, you must remember that many of these topics are interrelated, and the rules
of some topics overlap with others.
Essential reading
¢ Cooke, ‘What is land law?’ Available on the VLE.
The guide contains the following chapters:
Chapter 2 The 1925 reforms and unregistered land law

The rules of competing rights in land applying to land which has not had its title
registered in the title register, and the reforms introduced by the Land Registration Act
1925. Persons other than the ‘owner’ of land may claim to have rights in the land, for
example to live on it or to use it.
Chapter 3 Registration of title

The rules of competing rights in land where title has been registered in the land
register, and the impact of the reforms introduced by the Land Registration Act
2002. Registration of title is compulsory, and registration of a right in land has very
important effects upon its enforceability against third parties.
Chapter 4 Settlements
The rules for creation of a chain of interests in land, for example ‘I give my house to
A for life then to B absolutely’. The mechanisms by which such settlements could be
created historically, and the modern rule for trusts of land.
Chapter 5 Co-ownership
Co-ownership is when two or more people are entitled to simultaneous enjoyment of
land. It can be created formally or informally, and we shall look at both statutory and
case law rules for co-ownership and its termination.
Chapter 6 Landlord and tenant: the law of leases

The distinctions between leases and licences. Key aspects of the law of landlord and
tenant, including the ‘ingredients’ of a lease, its defining features, its termination and
the enforcement of certain promises made in leases.
Chapter 7 Proprietary estoppel

The doctrine of proprietary estoppel.
Chapter 8 Easements and profits à prendre

An easement is a right to do something on someone else’s land. It is a right in land.
Thus it can continue indefinitely, binding successive owners of the affected land.
Chapter 9 Freehold covenants

Neighbours often try to restrict each other’s behaviour in order, for example, to
prevent the running of a business in a residential area. A restrictive covenant is a
promise made by the owner of land that he will not do a particular thing, such as run a
business; it may be enforceable against subsequent buyers of that land.
Chapter 10 Mortgages
Most people finance their purchase of land via a mortgage, which is a loan secured on
the land. The law has to balance the rights and duties of the mortgagor (borrower of
money) against those of the mortgagee (the lender of the purchase money).
Chapter 11 Adverse possession

This is the controversial topic of squatters’ rights, which has been radically reformed
by the Land Registration Act 2002.
1.2 A suggested approach to study

You should start with this module guide. Start at the beginning and work through the
chapters sequentially, reading the core textbook and doing the activities as directed.
1.2.1 Reading
Core text
¢ Dixon, M. Modern land law. (London: Routledge, 2021) 12th edition [ISBN
9780367484484]. This is available in VLeBooks via the Online Library.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz, B. and R. Sexton Complete land law: text, cases and materials. (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2019) sixth edition [ISBN 9780198824909].
¢ Burn, E.H. and J. Cartwright Maudsley & Burn’s land law: cases and
materials. (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2009) ninth edition
[ISBN 9780199226177].
¢ Clarke, A. and P. Kohler Property law: commentary and materials. (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2005) [ISBN 9780521614894].
¢ George, M. and A. Layard Thompson’s modern land law. (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2019) seventh edition [ISBN 9780198828020].
¢ Gravells, N.P. Land law: text and materials. (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 2010)
fourth edition [ISBN 9780421963603].
¢ Gray, K. and S.F. Gray Elements of land law. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008)
fifth edition [ISBN 9780199219728].
¢ MacKenzie, J-A. and A. Nair Textbook on land law. (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2020) 18th edition [ISBN 9780198839828].
A very good introduction, and useful for short explanations of difficult topics.
¢ Smith, R.J. Property law. (Harlow: Pearson, 2020) 10th edition

[ISBN 9781292286716].
From now on, we will refer to these texts in an abbreviated form using author names,
chapter numbers and chapter titles, for example:
¢ Dixon, Chapter 2 ‘Registered land’ and Maudsley and Burn, Chapter 1

‘Introductory topics’.
Statute book
You should also obtain a statute book.
Information about the statute books and other materials that you are permitted to
use in the examination is printed in the current Module Descriptor, which you should
refer to.
Please note that you are allowed to underline or highlight text in these documents –
but you are not allowed to write notes, etc. on them.
Legal journals
In addition to the essential texts, you should consult a range of legal journals to keep
yourself up to date with academic writing on the subject:
u Law Quarterly Review
u Modern Law Review
u New Law Journal
u Estates Gazette
u Conveyancer and Property Lawyer.
Many other legal periodicals will contain relevant articles and it is good academic
practice to consult the latest editions in libraries, if you are able to do so.
1.2.2 Structure of the guide

Each chapter follows the same basic structure:
1. Title.
2. List of contents – main section headings.
3. Introduction – telling you what the chapter deals with.
4. List of learning outcomes – the things you should be able to do when you have
finished working through the chapter successfully.
5. The main text – divided into short sections.
6. Sample examination questions – these are the kind of questions you may have to
answer in your examination. You are also given advice on how to answer them.
1.2.3 Working through a chapter of the module guide

This guide takes you through the entire subject of property law in a logical and
systematic way, with each chapter covering a particular topic or group of topics. It is
centred on the textbook Modern land law by Dixon. Much of your study time should
be taken up reading the textbook, though you will also have to read (and think about)
numerous case reports.
Introduction
Begin each chapter of the module guide by noting the contents and then reading the
introduction.
Learning outcomes
Note the list of learning outcomes and keep these in mind as you work through the
rest of the chapter.
When you come to the end of a chapter, check yourself against the list of learning
outcomes. For example, by the end of Chapter 2 you should be able to ‘decide whether
third party rights are enforceable against a purchaser of unregistered title land’. Ask
yourself: Can I explain what sort of third party rights might be involved here? Can I
explain the rules for enforceability, both in law and in equity as appropriate?
If you can do so, then it is safe to proceed. If you cannot do so, you should go back over
the work you have done until you can.
Core text
This tells you what parts of the textbook are required reading for the topic you are
studying. This is where you will find the information that you will need to pass your
examination. Do not skip the readings.
You should read the readings at the point when they are referred to. As an example,
this is what should happen when you read Chapter 11 ‘Adverse possession’. After
reading the introduction to the chapter, you will see that the Core text is Chapter 12
of Dixon. You should read this chapter before going any further into the module
guide chapter. You will be told to read parts of it again later. Now work through the
remainder of Chapter 11 of the guide, re-reading sections of the key chapter of the
textbook when you are asked to do so – carefully and in more detail.
Make notes of anything you do not understand, and add any new words and phrases to
vocabulary index cards, if you are keeping them.
Activities
In every chapter you will find activities. These are exercises that are designed to help
you learn and understand important issues. They do this by getting you to think about
a question and devise a response. Activities will not have simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers:
often you will need to write down a few sentences, so activities also give you useful
practice in using legal English. Sometimes you will be asked to read a particular case
in full and make notes on it before answering the questions. These cases are generally
key decisions which will be helpful in understanding and applying relevant legal rules.
In most cases, feedback is provided at the end of the guide, but it is essential to do
the activities before you look at the feedback. Do each activity to the best of your
ability, then check the feedback. How well did you do? If your answer to the activity
was incorrect or incomplete, think carefully about what went wrong. Do you need to
re-read part of the textbook, or work through the module guide chapter again?
Self-assessment questions
These are factual questions designed to test your memory of the chapter you have
just worked through. You may find it useful to ask a friend, fellow student or family
member to test you on these questions. No feedback is given because you can always
find the answer somewhere in the text of the module guide chapter.
Quick quiz
There are also quick, multiple-choice questions for you to use to check your
understanding. Answers can be found on the VLE.
Sample examination questions

Most chapters contain one or two sample examination questions. These are examples
of the kind of questions that have been asked on the particular topic in previous
years. You should answer the examination questions fully. This will give you practice
in presenting your knowledge and understanding of the topic in a thorough and
integrated way. Think about each question. Ask yourself:
u What does this question relate to?
u What data do I need to answer it, in terms of relevant statutory provisions, case law
and perhaps academic opinion from articles?
u Is this a topic on which there are differing academic views?
u What is an appropriate, balanced solution to the question?
Next read the Advice on answering the questions that follows. This will help you put
together an effective answer. Spend 30–35 minutes writing your answer. By writing
down answers you will develop the skill of expressing yourself clearly and logically
on paper. It will also help you to approach the examination at the end of the year.
You need as much practice as possible in writing fluently and lucidly throughout the
academic year.
Reading cases
Cases are referred to in the text. These cases are not chosen at random: they are the
important cases that have established or modified the law. You should read them
in full whenever possible, and make notes. But you should not assume that a case is
not relevant simply because it is not covered in the guide; you are expected to be
familiar with the contents of all the required readings. Reading cases enriches your
understanding of the law; without this step you will find any law subject drier and
less comprehensible. There are no shortcuts in law other than those which we have
already made on your behalf by telling you what to read and providing you with
practice materials in the module guides. Other so-called shortcuts just leave you short
of marks in the examination!
Remember to make notes when you read cases.
Further reading
When you have completed your study of a section or chapter of the guide and textbook,
check whether any further reading is recommended. There will usually be at least one
academic article recommended, or a Law Commission report. Some articles give a useful
overview of a whole topic, whereas some deal with a tricky issue or rule in detail.
1.2.4 Advice for studying property law
Learn each topic as you study it and frequently revise

You will never fully understand any topic in property law unless you gain a good
working idea of how it all fits together; you cannot stop thinking about registered title
simply because you have ‘moved on’ to another chapter.
Read each chapter in your textbook at least twice

What is unclear at first reading will often become clear on a second or subsequent
reading. This is particularly true in a subject as interrelated as property law.
Read as many of the important cases as you can

Textbooks have to summarise cases succinctly, and summarising can be an obstacle
to both accuracy and understanding. You are more likely to understand a decision in a
particular case if you have read the case itself. Judges often give very useful summaries
of related or previous cases in their judgments; some judges ‘tell the story’ of the case
in a memorable and engaging way which deepens your appreciation of the issues in
the topic.
Read as much of the further reading as you can

This will be important for essay questions in the examination, and for an appreciation of
likely reforms. It will also help with tricky issues in problem questions. You should keep
up to date with Law Commission reports and consultations, which contain excellent and
accurate summaries of the law in addition to proposing potential reforms.
Take full notes of what is said in any lectures and tutorials

Also make notes of any relevant material that you read – chapters in textbooks, articles
and cases. Keep these notes in a loose-leaf file so that you can add new material to
each section as the need arises. In this subject, diagrams may be a very helpful way of
supplementing your notes; you will often have to distinguish between two or more
people who claim rights in the same land, or between successive ‘owners’ of the same
land, and it is much easier to do so with reference to a clear diagram. You will find
examples of such diagrams in this module guide.
Read with a book of statutes at hand for reference

You are allowed to bring a statute book into the examination hall, but you will not be
able to use it effectively unless you are already familiar with its contents. You simply
will not have time in the examination hall to read sections of statutes for the first time
and ponder whether they affect the issues in a question! Statutes are not easy to read,
and you will need to take trouble with this, reading each section that your book or
article refers to several times to ensure that you have grasped all its details. Property
law is highly dependent upon statutes, so you must know your way around your
statute book.
Condense your own full notes into a skeleton set of notes

Your skeleton notes will be infinitely more valuable than someone else’s, and are
essential to ensure that you learn and revise properly. You will need an ordinary, bound
notebook, with separate sections for each topic that you learn. Ask at a law stationers
for some ‘counsel’s notebooks’ if you can; they are more substantial than ordinary
school exercise books and come in ruled and unruled varieties.
When you have finished studying one topic in property law, go through all your full
notes and condense them into headings, subheadings and any further divisions that
are convenient. Do this at first on rough paper so that you can find the best way of
setting things out and summarising your full notes. Then copy your final version onto
the right-hand page of your notebook, making sure that you add the names of the
cases and statutory references that are involved in answering questions. On the left-
hand page, summarise each case referred to on the right-hand page in no more than
three or four lines, and make a note of when each statutory provision mentioned will
apply. When you have done that, put your skeleton notes aside, take some more rough
paper and see if you can write out from memory what you have just written. Check it
with the skeleton and, if need be, repeat the exercise until you have the whole section
clearly fixed in your memory.
Practise answering the sample examination questions

The difference between an average answer and a good answer in property law will
often be in spotting the full range of issues for discussion, giving each an appropriate
amount of discussion and applying all relevant statutory and case law authority.
Never write a ‘here is all I know’ essay-style answer to a problem question; spend as
much of the available time as you can applying the relevant law, not describing it.
The difference between a good answer and a fail will often be a basic error such as
incorrect labelling of the relevant issues for discussion: for example, if a question
concerns adverse possession of land with registered title but you apply the rules for
unregistered title, then the resulting answer will score very poorly. But what really
makes a difference in effectively answering essay questions is spotting the full range of
issues and showing a critical appreciation of them, giving appropriate weight to each
issue. Make sure that you answer the question which is actually being asked, not one
which you would prefer or have prepared! If you have been asked to read an academic
article, you need to be able to discuss it in an essay. Many students do poorly in the
examination because they are not familiar with the materials in the module guide and
newsletters: there are no excuses for such negligence!
Read the Examiners’ reports

It is extremely important to read the last few years’ Examiners’ reports as they contain
much helpful information on common mistakes and misunderstandings made by
students in the examinations, as well as guidance on the key elements of answering
each question. Although the reports will not give specific advice concerning what is
going to come up in the examination you will be sitting, they give a large amount of
useful information about what the examiners are looking for, both in general terms
and specifically, if a question in the same area does happen to come up. Although
there can be no guarantees concerning what questions will be asked in any particular
examination, a survey of recent Examiners’ reports will give you a good feel for the type
of questions and topics that have been raised in the past which, as we all know, is an
important aspect of revising for a forthcoming examination.
Study time
You should probably spend at least eight hours a week on this subject, increasing
the amount to two hours daily in the six weeks before the examination. Remember,
though, that individuals vary greatly in their needs; the time to stop studying is when
you know the topic thoroughly and are confident about applying its rules – and not
before. It is very important to plan your time carefully. Do not forget to leave time
every week and month for revision, in addition to the period before the examination.
Revision must be a continuous process, not a last-minute panic.
1.3 The examination
1.3.1 General advice

At the end of the academic year there is the examination. If you have worked
consistently and well throughout the year this should not be too daunting. All you
are being asked to do is to demonstrate to the examiners that you have mastered the
subject to the required standard; you will be able to do this if you have undertaken
sufficient study throughout the year. Where too many students go wrong is to think
that they only have to study and revise four, five or six topics. That is a very serious
mistake. The topic you were relying on may not appear on the examination paper,
or it may appear, but in a way which you did not expect. It will often be in a form
which requires an appreciation of other, related, topics. You may therefore not have
the confidence to attempt an answer. Or one topic might be combined with another
and you will find that you have only revised half the question. If you have worked
conscientiously and covered the syllabus fully, you will not encounter any of these
difficulties. Every year some candidates appear to answer the wrong question by
mistake, without realising the significance of key aspects of the question; this can only
be because of lack of breadth of subject knowledge.
Having said that, there may be one or two topics which you just cannot get to grips
with. If that is the case, then look at the topic intelligently and ask yourself whether
it is sufficiently unrelated to other topics to leave safely out of consideration for the
examinations. But be careful: as has been said repeatedly already, so much of property
law is interrelated. You cannot hope to pass without an understanding of how it all fits
together. Furthermore, if you are planning a career in law, you cannot afford to have
gaps in your knowledge.
1.3.2 The format of the examination

The examination usually comprises eight questions. Some of these are essay questions,
which require you to show knowledge of the law and a critical approach to the law, and
sometimes an evaluation of recent or likely reform. You must be familiar with how each
topic in property law might appear in a problem question: for example, if A has promised
B that she can live in his house for the rest of her life, you should be able to recognise that
this triggers a discussion of whether B has gained the right to do so through a contractual
licence or estoppel, and the nature of the arguable right. If X often walks across land
belonging to Y, you should recognise that this could be an easement, a licence or even
adverse possession depending upon the other facts given in the question.
To cope with problem questions successfully, you must be able to see what issues
arise from the facts and advise on them accurately and succinctly, referring always
to the sources of law upon which you rely for your conclusions. The law may well be
uncertain. If so, you must explain why, and then choose what you believe to be the
decision most likely to be made by the court, giving reasons for your choice. There
may be several potential lines of argument (as in the last example): make all of them,
evaluating factors for and against the success of each. If a question asks you to advise a
particular person, do so, considering the impact of your arguments upon that person.
In general, you must be aware of major proposals for reform of the law. Property law
has been in a process of overhaul for some years, with further changes planned. You
must also show a capacity for independent thought. It follows that during your studies
you should:
u think for yourself about the persuasiveness of the arguments put forward in what
you read
u ‘read around’ the topic – you have access to many useful sources of further reading
online
u discuss problems with your tutor or lecturer if you have one
u discuss problems with fellow students, either in person or via the virtual learning
environment (VLE).
Statute books: You are allowed to bring one of the permitted statute books into
the examination room. Remember the rules about highlighting and not annotating
statute books (see the current Regulations).
1.3.3 Advice on answering examination questions

This section gives you some advice on answering problem questions and writing
essays in the Property law examinations. This is intended to give you advice that
might help you if you are wondering how to write an answer. It is not compulsory.
University education encourages you to find your own way. However, these
approaches may well be useful if you are unsure.
General overview: how to answer a problem question

When answering a problem question, there are four steps towards a good answer. The
key is to maintain a tight, lawyerly structure.
u First, you must identify the issue that you are considering (most problems will
have four or more principal issues in them and so you must repeat this exercise for
each one of those issues).
u Second, you must set out the law applicable to addressing that issue.
Importantly, this does not mean that you should simply write out a short textbook,
which merely describes the law in this field: that sort of approach can only earn
you a low mark. Some candidates simply write a two- or three-page summary of
the chapter of the module guide, without identifying which parts of the law are
relevant to the analysis of the issues in the problem. This poor technique means
that they are only awarded low marks. What you should do is set out the legal
principle(s) applicable to the decision on the specific issue that you have identified
at each point. You should set out the law relevant to the issue that you identified.
u Third, you must apply that law to the facts of the problem. This is the part that
attracts the most marks. You need to identify the salient factors in the decided
cases or statute, which will help you to decide the parties’ respective rights and
liabilities in relation to the salient facts of the problem in relation to that particular
issue. Just repeating all of the facts of the problem is not enough: rather, you must
explain how each party would use those facts in support of their arguments. The
skill that is being tested is how well you can take your knowledge of the law and
use it to identify the likely outcome of the case set out in the problem question
if it went to court. It is likely that a problem question will place you in a grey area
between cases that have taken different approaches, in which case you must argue
your way towards a conclusion in the light of those cases.
It is not enough simply to write out all of the law you know: rather, you must apply
the approach of the judges in the decided cases to the problem question. If it
helps, you could think of yourself as telling the examiners how you think a judge
would decide this problem question in the future, given the way in which the
courts have approached the cases that have already been decided; or you could
think of yourself as legal counsel advising the parties as to the likely outcome if
these matters went to court.
u Fourth, you must come to a conclusion as to your analysis of the problem. There is
no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answer: rather, it is important that you argue your way towards
what you consider the answer to be. It is your ability to make these arguments (in
relation to the facts of the problem and in the light of the decided cases) that is
being tested in the examination.
If you think you need more facts to be sure of what the answer should be, then you
must explain what further facts you need to know and how they would affect your
interpretation of the law that you have set out. It is not enough to say simply ‘I do
not have enough facts.’ Instead you must explain what more you would need to
know and how it would affect your answer. However, there is usually enough in the
problem question to allow you to come to a conclusion based on your knowledge of
the law and the things that you are told that the parties have said and done. So, you
should ensure that you have wrung every argument from the facts that you can.
You may prefer to explain how you think each of the parties (or the claimant’s
and the defendant’s lawyers, if you prefer) would set out their arguments but it
is still good technique to conclude by explaining which of those arguments you
consider to be the stronger in the circumstances. You are marked on the strength
of your argument, not (as was mentioned before) on whether or not the examiners
happen to agree with your conclusion.
u As a further element, you can introduce any academic or other commentary

that is relevant to the law raised in your problem answer. This can be a reference
to ideas in the assigned reading (which perhaps criticise the law), or dissenting
opinions of judges in decided cases (which is always fertile ground for finding
ideas), or even ideas that you have found in background reading in journals, in the
textbook or online.
However, you need to make your commentary refer back to your discussion of the
problem. Some students just state ‘Prof X argues that this is a bad rule’ and say
nothing further. Commentary is much more effective if you can (a) explain (in the
little time available to you when answering a problem question) more precisely
what the commentator’s arguments actually were, and (b) explain how this insight
could affect your analysis of the problem in a way that is helpful to the parties.
If you use commentary in this way then this will increase your mark, provided that
you have performed the four previous steps effectively. Your revision time could
involve identifying the sort of points you could make in the short amount of time
that is available to you for this purpose in the examination.
Each section of the guide suggests a structure for answering problems in each
particular topic. The four-step structure above is used in relation to each individual
issue that arises under each specific topic. The sample examination questions sections
within the guide will help you to identify how to approach any particular problem
question using this four-step approach.
Remember the four-step approach to answering problems:
issue | law | facts | conclusion
Some further advice on how to think about answering a problem question

This approach to answering problem questions might help you to think about what
you are asked to do. The key point is this: do not ignore the facts of the problem. Do
not simply repeat the facts of the problem as though you were writing a letter to your
best friend explaining what had happened. (A surprisingly large number of students
do this. Your ability to repeat the facts of the problem without any legal analysis is not
a skill you are being asked to display. The skill you are being asked to demonstrate is
the application of the law to the facts of the problem so as to reach a conclusion on
each issue in the problem.)
Perhaps it would help you to imagine that you are the claimant’s (or defendant’s)
lawyer preparing a memorandum that explains what the issues are and what the
law is, before analysing in detail what rights your client has (and what rights your
opponent will have). You should identify which facts support or disprove your client’s
claim to their rights. You should evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both
parties’ arguments. A good lawyer always prepares their opponent’s likely arguments
as well as their own, just as a sports team analyses their opponents’ likely tactics in
advance of a game.
The spectrum technique

One way of answering problem questions, which you might find useful, is the
‘spectrum technique’. In this technique you identify two cases that reach different
outcomes on the same point of law. You should place one case at one end of the
spectrum and the other case at the other end. You should identify which features led
to the answer ‘yes’ in one case and which features led to the answer ‘no’ in the other
case. You should explain what the salient facts were in each of these cases (i.e. the facts
that were crucial in the court’s judgment). Then you should consider the facts of the
problem in front of you and ask the following question: which features of the problem
question resemble the ‘yes’ case and which resemble the ‘no’ case? You should explain
why it is that you think the facts of the problem question lend themselves most clearly
to a resemblance to one end of the spectrum or the other. This should help you to
argue your way to a conclusion on the facts of the case in front of you.
A good example arises in Section 6.1 of the guide on the lease/licence distinction and
the cases of Antoniades v Villiers and AG Securities v Vaughan. These cases were decided
together by the House of Lords as joined appeals. Simply put, the issue was whether
two or more occupants of a flat had joint rights or separate rights. In the former case, a
romantic couple intended to live together, they acquired their rights at the same time in
identical terms, but the landlord insisted on a number of clauses being included in their
agreement that were never intended to be enforced (such as a right for the landlord to
†
share the single attic room with the couple if he chose to do so†); whereas in the latter Try to imagine it: the
case the four occupants were unknown to one another before coming into occupation landlord arrives in the middle
of the property, they acquired rights of different types at different times and there were of the night and insists on
no sham terms in the agreement. When examining the problem question in front of you, being able to spend the
you should consider whether the occupants came into occupation jointly, whether their night with this couple. This
rights were acquired in the same terms at the same time and whether or not any of those has led some academics to
refer to this case, ironically,
terms were shams that would not be enforced as they were drafted.
as the ‘three in a bed’ case.
The idea is so aberrant that
General overview: how to write an essay
the court quickly decided this
In writing an essay it is important to have a point: that is, you must have a ‘thesis’ (or clause must be a sham that
argument) which you are seeking to prove or to advance through your essay. was not a part of the parties’
true bargain. If you read the
u A thesis can be a particular line of argument that you are following (although
cases in law reports you will
a good essay will usually consider the strength of the counter-arguments as it
understand far more than if
progresses): an example would be, ‘The doctrine of proprietary estoppel is too
you only read about them in
uncertain to be a useful part of land law’, or whatever. This thesis is therefore an
this guide or in the textbook.
argument to which you should keep returning in your essay; the points you make
And sometimes the facts are
should be advancing that argument, albeit that you should consider any counter- remarkable, as in this case:
arguments in the judgments, etc. as you go. just like a novel based on a
u Alternatively, your thesis might be to take an argument made by someone else true story or a soap opera.
(e.g. ‘Lord Neuberger’s dissenting judgment in Stack v Dowden is preferable
to the approach of Lady Hale and Lord Walker in Jones v Kernott promoting an
uncertain concept of “fairness”’, or ‘This essay challenges the approach taken by
Prof Dixon in relation to freehold covenants’) and to prosecute that argument by
means of setting out the various points made in that argument and considering
their strengths and weaknesses one at a time. (The less-successful candidates in
examinations tend to make superficial, brief points about the arguments made by
different jurists (whether academics, judges, policymakers or practitioners) in the
assigned reading and therefore do not demonstrate any knowledge of the reading
nor any understanding of the detailed issues. Examination success is in the detail.
You must explain these arguments in detail.)
u A third approach to a thesis in an essay would be to act like a dispassionate

scientist who is simply observing that there are two or three competing arguments
in the literature or the case law, describing those arguments in detail and
observing by way of conclusion what the principal differences between those
arguments are (and whether or not any of them appears to be stronger than the
others, and why). So, you would not have to decide whether to prefer Lady Hale or
Lord Neuberger in Jones v Kernott, etc., but merely set out their different arguments
and identify a thesis such as, ‘There is an important difference in the approaches
taken by Lady Hale and Lord Neuberger, as this essay shall demonstrate.’
In advancing that thesis, you must employ an analysis of the decided case law or statute
(as appropriate) as well as any academic commentary to which you have been referred
in the guide or textbook, or which you have found for yourself. Simply setting out a
superficial description of the law will not gain you a good mark in itself. Rather, the marks
are earned by demonstrating how an analysis of that law impacts on your thesis.
A good essay will present an argument in the form of a thesis and not simply rehearse
your notes or the material discussed in the guide. In that sense, a good essay is
‘analytical’ and not merely ‘descriptive’. It is, however, vital that you answer the
question that you have been set: it is not enough simply to write an essay that you have
prepared in your head without any reference to the question you have been asked.
1.4 Three fundamental ideas every student of property law

must know
The following case illustrates an interesting point about whether property law governs
the ability of people to use land which appears to be available to the public, or whether
there is some general right for all human beings to use that property. You should
consider this case, and what it tells us about property rights, at the end of this section.
u R (Newhaven Port and Properties Ltd) v East Sussex County Council [2015] UKSC 7
This case raises very interesting questions about the rights of people in England and
Wales to wander freely on beaches. The basic question was this: for it to be possible
to register the foreshore of a beach in Sussex as a town or village green under s.15 of
the Commons Act 2006, it was necessary to show that people did not wander along
the beach with permission to do so (i.e. ‘by right’) but rather that they were entitled to
wander along the beach without anyone needing to give them a right at all, because
they simply had that right by virtue of being a human being (i.e. ‘as of right’ under
s.15). In essence, the thinking was that areas would only be registered as ‘a village
green’ under statute if the public generally could wander there as of right. Otherwise,
there would be landowners whose ability to exclude others from their land would
be abrogated completely by that land becoming a kind of public land in the form of a
village green.
This question arose in relation to an area of beach near Newhaven. Newhaven was
an important harbour established in the 1880s after the previous harbour became
unusable. Before then, the beach had not existed. It is now a moderately busy ferry
port among other things. It was held that the beach in Newhaven had been made
available to the public for the purposes of bathing after that area had been developed
as a new harbour mouth: therefore, importantly, that right had been granted to the
public ‘by right’ by the owners of the land that had been developed as the harbour.
In essence, the role of the Newhaven authority governing the use of this land meant
that any right to use the beach involved permission being granted ‘by right’ by the
authority, and consequently that the public did not have this use ‘as of right’. As a
result, the area could not be registered under the Commons Act 2006.
This case goes to the heart of the nature of property and of property law. Property
law protects the ownership and other rights of people in property. In relation to land,
there may be areas of land where it is not commonsensical to think about them as
being owned because everyone uses them. For example, Oxford Street in London (its
busiest shopping street) is owned by the public authority that is responsible for that
street, but when hundreds of thousands of people walk along that street every day,
they do not really think about it as being ‘owned’ by anyone. Nevertheless, there is an
authority with the power to close the road (perhaps for a march or a procession) or to
dig up the road or to reorganise where the buses can stop. Similarly, with a beach, we
might not think about its ownership if members of the public are routinely able to go
there to lie in the sunshine or swim or walk their dogs or whatever. Nevertheless, there
will be notices which explain the rules that the owner of the land intends to impose
on people: rules about having barbecues on the beach, or limits on the type of vehicle
that can be used on the beach, etc. As a result, the public’s use of land may make some
people think that there is no owner of that land, but property law will take a different
view – just as the Supreme Court did here. The very fact that someone has the ability to
exert a power to create rules over the use of land makes it more likely that any use of
that land is only permitted because the landowner or authority grants a right to do so.
Older cases like Blundell v Catterall (1821) 5 B&Ald 268 had considered that there was
no general, common law right to walk along the foreshore (between the place where
high tide and low tide would reach). On the basis that there was no general common
law right to wander along the foreshore, the only explanation was that the right
to use the foreshore in this instance was a result of the authority’s power to make
regulations governing the beach. On these facts, it was important that the Newhaven
authority had the power to create regulations over the harbour, including rules as to
where people could and could not swim. (In relation to a busy harbour, it would be
odd if there were no regulations of that sort.) Therefore, this was not land which was
appropriate to register as a village green under the Commons Act 2006.
1.4.1 The two axioms of English property law

For our purposes, and because we are only studying private rights in land during this
module, property can be defined (somewhat simplistically) as rights against the world,
in contrast to the contractual rights you studied earlier in your degree which are rights
against individuals. Thus, when a child shouts ‘mine’, a landowner says ‘keep out’ or a
corporation seeks an injunction alleging trademark infringement, all three claimants
are asserting that they have rights better than anyone else in the world (or at least,
for reasons you will see later, better than the vast majority of the world including the
individuals to whom these actions are directed). In other words, a private property
right gives the rights-holder the ability to exclude anyone in the world from interfering
with that right apart from someone (if there is someone) with a better claim to the
right in question. That is why property is so powerful as it implicitly involves a claim
that has consequences for just about everyone else in the world.
Unfortunately (for your studies if not the law), the picture is somewhat more
complicated because in this jurisdiction there are in fact two types of property right,
known as legal and equitable interests. The former were the traditional rights of
property recognised by the common law, whereas the latter were rights known only to
the Court of Chancery. The equitable jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery developed
during the Middle Ages as an alternative means of providing justice and offered a more
flexible form of redress to the rigidity of the writ system employed in the common
law courts. In the context of property this meant that equitable interests were a form
of property that was recognised by the Court of Chancery and arose either when the
common law’s formal rules had not been followed in the creation or transfer of an
established type of interest, or when a new interest, unknown to the common law, was
recognised by equity.
The jurisdiction of the common law and equity was merged by the Judicature Acts
1873–75 and thus from that point on every court was able to recognise both legal and
equitable property interests. But that does not mean our interest in the source of
these two forms of property is simply historic, for it was only the administration of the
common law and equitable systems that were merged. From that point on any of our
courts could award both common law and equitable remedies but the Acts had no
bearing on the substance of the law. Consequently, common law remedies continued to
be awarded as of right, while equitable ones remained discretionary; the only difference
being that henceforth the same court could administer both types of remedy. From
the perspective of property this meant that the reforms did not (and could not) have
any bearing on a very significant substantive difference between legal and equitable
property interests, which remains of major (if lessening) significance today.
It is now time to explain that difference and thereby establish the two axioms of
English property law which must be understood before progressing further. Nothing
that comes later in this module will make sense without an appreciation of the
fundamental difference between legal and equitable property interests.
A legal property interest, as you would expect, conforms to the traditional notion of
property. It is a right that binds the world and thus the first axiom of English property
law encapsulates that simple truth in the unassuming (but powerful) phrase: ‘Legal
rights bind the world’.
The picture is, however, more complicated when we turn to equitable interests, which
were a form of property recognised by the Court of Chancery but not the common law
courts. A person asserting an equitable property interest was therefore claiming that
someone other than the legal interest holder had a claim that took priority over the
legal owner. Consider the medieval ‘use’, for example, the forerunner of the modern-
day trust. When a departing landowner transferred his land to a trusted friend ‘to the
use’ of his wife and children he was doing so in the expectation that the friend would
manage the land on behalf of his family. However, if the trusted friend turned out to
be untrustworthy, the family would not be able to seek redress from the common law
because in the common law’s eyes the friend, as legitimate transferee, was the legal
owner. Historically, those who could not bring their claim within the narrow confines
of a common law writ sought justice by petitioning the King. As an issue of justice the
King would delegate such matters to his leading spiritual adviser, the Lord Chancellor,
who, as an ecclesiastic, traditionally decided such matters on the basis of fairness and
the conscience of the parties.
In such circumstances the family’s claim could only succeed if the transferee’s
conscience was bound and, although the King’s delegated discretion slowly became
more formalised with the establishment of a Court of Chancery, the notion of conscience
still underpins the concept of equity today, with very significant consequences for the
ambit of equitable property interests. Clearly a court of conscience would have no
problems in providing redress for the family in circumstances where the transferee of
the legal title had acted in bad faith; or knew of their interest at the time of the transfer;
or was a volunteer who, having paid nothing in acquiring the title, lost nothing in
discovering that it was to be held ‘to the use’ of the family. In all these circumstances
equity decreed that the transferee took subject to the rights of the family and one
could consequently describe an equitable interest as a personal right against anyone
in the world who acquires the legal title to property in bad faith, or with notice of any
pre-existing equitable interest, or who gives no value for the legal title they acquire.
However, rather than list all those bound by an equitable interest, it is simpler to define
the concept as a species of property right binding everyone apart from the one character
who is not bound by such an interest, represented by the cumulative opposite of the
alternatives who are. For if any transferee of a legal estate who acts in bad faith or has
notice or gives no value is bound by a pre-existing equitable interest, it follows that only
a transferee who acts in good faith, has no notice and has given value takes free from it.
This consequently represents the second axiom of English property law: ‘Equitable rights
bind the world with the exception of the bona fide purchaser of a legal estate for value
without notice’, often referred to as ‘equity’s darling’.
This is not an easy concept and it is worth re-reading the previous paragraph a number
of times and then turning to your textbooks for further details. Before doing so,
however, three quick points should be made.
1. You need to recognise that at the heart of English land law there are a subset of
property interests, known as equitable interests, which in historic terms were
always vulnerable. Thus, if the owner of a piece of land (traditionally referred to
as ‘Blackacre’ in such pedagogic examples) granted someone else an equitable
interest over Blackacre (such as a restrictive covenant, or an interest behind a trust,
or an equitable easement, etc.) that equitable interest would not survive the sale
of Blackacre to equity’s darling. In other words, the owner of an equitable interest
stood to lose that interest whenever equity’s darling arose and much of the next
two chapters are concerned with how the law addressed that vulnerability.
2. One cannot, as students often suggest, solve the problem simply by abolishing the
distinction and classifying all property interests as legal interests. The difference
between legal and equitable interests is, for example, critical to the trust. This is
an extremely important creation of English property law, based on the division
of ownership into separate legal and equitable titles, with the former vested in
trustees who manage the property on behalf of beneficiaries, who as equitable
owners have the right to enjoy its fruits. Similarly, persuasive justifications exist
for the continuance of other forms of equitable property interest. Thus, rather
than abolish the distinction, it is managed via a series of statutes which you will
consider in some detail over the next two chapters. For our purposes this will begin
with s.1 Law of Property Act 1925 (LPA 1925) – which lists all those rights in land
capable of being legal (provided the necessary formalities in their creation and/or
transfer are adhered to) – and end with the Land Registration Act 2002 (LRA 2002),
which has reduced the importance (but not abolished the significance) of the legal
and equitable divide. As you will see in Chapters 2 and 3 we have, since 1925 (and,
prior to that, in a less comprehensive way), sought to address the vulnerability of
equitable property interests by means other than the abolition of the conceptual
difference which, even after LRA 2002, continues to be relevant and must still be
understood by every student of English property law.
3. Finally, a word of warning, although you (and others – including your examiners)
might wish to dispute what comes next (remember marks are awarded not on
whose side you take in any debate but on how well you frame your arguments and
understand the contrary ones). Although the phrase ‘equity’s darling’ is a useful
shorthand for the ‘bona fide purchaser of legal estate for value without notice’, the
term has the capacity to mislead. So please feel free to employ the phrase (where
appropriate), but for present purposes pause for a moment to question whether
the language seduces us into assuming that equity’s darling is, in some sense,
equity’s favourite. For, if that is so, we need to ask why a court of conscience would
choose one innocent over another by preferring equity’s darling to an equally
bona fide owner of an equitable interest, who stands to lose that interest despite
being no less deserving of equity’s favours. The truth is that equity’s darling is not
favoured by equity, but simply beyond its reach, for a court of conscience has no
peg on which to hang its jurisdiction when confronted by a purchaser of the legal
estate in good faith for value without notice. Equity is consequently not forsaking
those with an equitable interest but simply has no means to enforce such rights
over someone whose conscience is not bound. As was made clear in Pilcher v
Rawlins (1871–72) LR 7 Ch App 259, equity’s darling signifies the limits of equity, not
her largesse – but do you agree?
1.4.2 The fourth dimension of land ownership

As you will see when you embark on your introductory reading, the system of land
ownership under English law dates from feudal times when, under the doctrine of
tenure, the monarch granted land to feudal lords who re-granted much of what they
received to those below them in the feudal hierarchy, who likewise made similar re-
grants to those even lower in the chain of command and influence. A feudal pyramid,
with the monarch at the apex, thereby developed which preserved the Crown’s power
via a system of patronage and self-interest. Details of the feudal pyramid and how
and why it collapsed are included in your textbook reading but at this stage we need
to introduce one concept that emerged from the doctrine of tenure and remains
critical to the workings of land law today, even though the tenurial system that begat
it is little more than a footnote in its history. In simple terms, the doctrine of tenure
involved the conditions upon which a grant of land was made, including how long
the interest was to last; and it was the doctrine of estates that was employed by our
medieval predecessors to introduce, into the three dimensions of spatial existence
(represented by the simple equation length x breadth x height/depth), what Einstein,
many centuries later, termed the fourth dimension, namely time. The establishment
of the estate meant that land could not only be parcelled up physically (in measured
plots which always include both the two-dimensional surface area and also a suitable
distance above and below ground – on claiming rights to which, see Bernstein v
Skyviews [1978] 1 QB 479 (airspace); and Bocardo SA v Star Energy UK [2010] UKSC 35
(below the surface)) but also temporally (over years, lifetimes or for as long as there
were lineal descendants or heirs), safe in the knowledge that because land is, for our
purposes, indestructible it would still be around (and in the same place!) when a
future interest came into possession after the previous estate came to an end. Thus, at
the heart of land ownership lies what Rudden memorably described as an ‘interposed
abstraction’, a man-made intangible construct sitting between the all-too real and
permanent land and its similarly real, but all-too transient, owner.
As it is the estate, rather than the land, which is owned it is often stated that it is only
the Crown (from whom historically every estate is ultimately derived) that actually
owns land under English law and, although legal historians and the occasional judge
have doubted this analysis, no one can deny that the estate is the most important
interest in land under this system. For the estate is an open-textured property right
that gives its owner possession of the land and the ability to use it in innumerable (but
not unlimited) ways, in contrast to lesser forms of property interest in land such as
easements (for example, a right of way exercised by one landowner over that of their
neighbour), restrictive covenants (a private right one landowner has to restrict what
happens on their neighbour’s land) and mortgages (whereby someone is granted an
interest over land as security for a debt they are owed), which give the owner of the
interest a non-possessory, and much more limited, single-use right over the land to
which they are attached.
The two most important estates in land law today are the ‘fee simple absolute
in possession’, which is a rather inelegant phrase to signify a freehold estate of
potentially perpetual duration, and the ‘term of years absolute’ (that, as the only
leasehold estate, is more commonly referred to simply as a lease, letting, tenancy
or (somewhat inaccurately) demise) which is limited to last for a fixed maximum
period of time. Both estates are listed in s.1(1) LPA 1925 as the only two estates capable
of existing at law although they can (if the necessary formalities in their creation
or transfer have not been complied with) also exist in equity. There are, in fact, two
further freehold estates, namely the life estate (which lasts for the lifetime of the
grantee or another) and the fee tail (an estate subject to limitations concerning who
may inherit the land and often limited to male lineal descendants of the grantee).
These can only exist in equity (i.e. behind a trust) and, although you should be aware
of their existence, will not be covered in great detail in this module.
1.4.3 The role of formalities

Although property interests in land can be acquired by original acquisition via the
taking of possession (which will be covered in Chapter 11), the vast majority of legal
and equitable interests in land are acquired derivatively. This occurs either through
the transfer of an existing interest (e.g. when a fee simple owner, leaseholder,
mortgagee, etc. transfers the interest to another) or via the grant of a subsidiary
interest carved from an existing one (as when a fee simple owner grants someone a
lease, easement, restrictive covenant, etc. or a leasee (e.g. an existing leaseholder)
grants a sub-lease, etc.). Derivative acquisition usually occurs deliberately by means
of either a gift or a bargain (but not always, as you will see when we consider the
creation of non-express easements) in which case, it is both reasonable and prudent
for the law to require the completion of certain requirements, known as formalities,
which provide evidence of what was intended, concentrate the minds of the parties
involved and, as the jurist Lon Fuller once noted, channel people down certain legally
prescribed routes. It should be noted, however, that formalities also have the capacity
to cause injustice, as where one party relies to their detriment upon an oral (and thus
unenforceable) agreement or declaration of trust involving land. In such situations
equity will sometimes (but not always, as that would undermine the formality)
intervene to enforce the arrangement via the doctrine of proprietary estoppel, which
will be considered in Chapter 7.
You will consider formalities in more detail as the module progresses, but it is
important to understand the basics from the outset. This requires us to first
differentiate a contract from a conveyance. In the context of land transactions the
contract is the agreement to transfer an interest, which usually (but not always, as in
the case of a gift) precedes the actual transfer known as a conveyance. Although land
transactions cover much more than just the buying and selling of land, this distinction
is most often encountered in that setting, where the first stage is referred to as
‘exchange of contracts’ and the second stage ‘completion’. As you will see, different
formalities apply to contracts and conveyances, as the former is a bilateral instrument
formally confirming the agreement that has been reached, while the latter is a
unilateral procedure whereby the actual transfer takes place.
All contracts in land are governed by the following simple (and sensible) requirement:
u Under s.2 Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989 (LP(MP)A 1989)
a contract to transfer a legal or equitable interest in land must be in writing,
containing all the terms and signed by both parties.
Such a contract is known as an estate contract, which is an equitable interest

capable of binding the land. In other words, once a landowner (or other interest
holder in land) enters into a formal contract with someone to transfer an interest
in the land, that obligation can bind a third party. For example, if A formally
contracts to sell Blackacre to B but then conveys Blackacre to C, B has an equitable
right capable of binding C, under the conditions considered above, enabling B to
require C to convey Blackacre to B under the terms of the original estate contract
by which A had been bound to B. In Scott v Southern Pacific Mortgages Ltd [2014]
UKSC 52, the Supreme Court held that the specifically enforceable contract to
grant an estate does not give the intended purchaser a proprietary right in the
estate (from which they could carve out subsidiary interests for the benefit of third
parties) but only an equitable right to require specific performance of the contract
as against anyone in whom title to the estate is currently vested (a point we return
to at 6.3.2).
The requirements for conveyances are slightly more complicated as they differ
depending upon whether the interest being conveyed is legal or equitable.
u Under s.52 LPA 1925 the creation or conveyance of a legal interest in land must
be by deed (which is defined under s.1 LP(MP)A 1989 as a signed and witnessed
document).
u Under s.53(1)(a) LPA 1925 the creation or disposal of an equitable interest in land
must be by signed writing.
As you will see in Chapter 3, further requirements apply in the context of registered
title, but you first need to assimilate these basic rules before concerning yourself
with those procedures.
It must also be noted that there are a number of exceptions to these requirements,
including short legal leases of no more than three years which, provided the rent
is set at the market rate and no premium charged at the outset, can be created
orally under s.54 LPA 1925. The operation of implied (i.e. not express) trusts of land
are also excepted from these formal requirements, and similar (but not identical)
formalities apply to express trusts of land.
u Under s.53(1)(b) LPA 1925 there must be signed written evidence that an express trust
of land was declared (even though the declaration itself might have been oral).
u Under s.53(1)(c) LPA 1925 any subsequent conveyance of an existing equitable

interest (whether in land or anything else) must, like the creation or disposal of
equitable interests in land, be by signed writing.
The five formal requirements introduced above need to be learnt and understood as
they are relevant to every aspect of this module.
1.5 Some basic definitions

This section builds upon the three fundamental ideas we have just considered, by
requiring you to define many of the terms introduced in that section along with a few
related definitions that you should also master. Please do not skip this activity as you
will need to understand (rather than simply learn) all of these concepts in order to
complete this module successfully.
To get started, briefly re-read section 1.4 along with Dixon, Chapter 1, and refer to a
legal dictionary. You can also look these terms up on the internet and see how well, or
badly, they are defined in resources such as Wikipedia. Once you have decided upon a
definition, fill in the following table including explanations or statutory provisions. Do
not expect all your sources to agree, for, as you will see, even some of our basic terms
are ambiguous and, often, what constitutes the best definition is dependent upon
context.
There are no answers provided for this activity as you should build on what has been
discussed by researching further yourself. Write your answers in pencil so that you can
easily amend your definitions as your knowledge increases.
Term Definition and explanation
Property
Proprietary interest
Proprietary right
Personal right
Real property
Personal property
Land
Cuius est solum rule
Tenure
Feudal pyramid
Doctrine of estates
Corporeal hereditament
Incorporeal hereditament
Chattels
Fixtures
Ownership
Possession
Title
Unregistered title
Registered title
Fee simple absolute in possession
Term of years absolute
Easement
Mortgage
Restrictive covenant
Common law and equity
Equity’s darling
Legal estate
Legal interest
Equitable interest
Trust
Settlor and settlement
Express trust
Implied trust
Trustee
Beneficiary
Legal title
Beneficial interest
Interest in possession
Interest in remainder
Reversionary interest
Substantive examination advice

As you will have discovered from your research for the previous activity, whether
something is or is not a fixture is determined by the application of two tests: namely,
the degree of annexation and the purpose of annexation. On the occasions a question
is set in this area students normally recite both tests and then state that the latter,
being the more important, is the one to be followed if there is any divergence in their
application. Very few go beyond this point even though it is a very unsatisfactory
explanation. What, after all, is the point of having two tests if, whenever they produce
differing results, you choose one over the other? If it is as simple as that, there really is
no point in having two tests, as only the latter one determines the result.
Many textbooks go little further but if you were to read one of the central cases,
namely Holland v Hodgson, you would see that Mr Justice Blackburn does. In his
judgment (can you work out where?) he explains how the two tests interrelate with
the application of the degree of annexation test raising a presumption that the
thing in question is or is not a fixture. Presumptions are mechanisms by which we, as
lawyers, assign the burden of proof. Thus, after applying the degree of annexation test,
the burden of proving otherwise passes to whichever party is seeking to establish the
opposite, by application of the purpose of annexation test. I hope you can see how, via
a close reading of a single case, you can gain far greater insight into how the two tests
interrelate than by reading any number of textbooks. The case provides an excellent
means by which to address any fixtures problem or essay.
Sample examination question

‘The law of fixtures is needlessly complicated by supposedly employing two tests
to determine whether something is or is not a fixture, when in reality only one of
those tests is ultimately important.’
Discuss.
Advice on answering the question

This question asks you to think about the two rules in more abstract terms, to work
out why the law of fixtures proceeds in this way and what this says about the legal
process in general.
Let us begin with the degree of annexation test and try to work out why we utilise
such a simplistic test at the outset. Calling it simplistic sounds like a criticism but in
fact that’s the very reason why we use it. Put simply, the annexation test is definitive:
something is or is not attached to the land. Although there might occasionally be a
few doubts, generally we will have no problem in deciding whether or not something
is deemed to be a fixture by applying that criteria.
Simple tests are extremely important for they are certain, easy/swift to apply and, as a
consequence, cheap to administer, for there is little room for argument. Provided they
achieve the right result, they are therefore very useful and non-lawyers often ask why
the law cannot always utilise simple tests to provide clear unambiguous answers. The
problem is, however, that although tests can be unambiguous, life most certainly is
not; there are many complexities that cannot be addressed by a simple binary process.
One could simply reject simple tests on this basis. However, in so doing, we would be
forsaking all the advantages we began by listing. Provided the test usually gives the
right result it would be ludicrous to reject it simply because it occasionally fails so to
do.
In contrast to the degree of annexation, the purpose of annexation test is far more
nuanced. Such tests are extremely important to the law as they allow us to do justice
when faced with a world where we often encounter complexities. But justice in this
form comes at a high price as this form of test lacks the same degree of certainty,
is harder/slower to apply and expensive to administer for there is much room for
argument. One could, therefore, simply reject this approach on that basis but it would
again seem ludicrous to abandon a test that works, particularly when it does so in
exactly those situations where the simple test fails to provide a sensible solution.
So how do we square this circle to achieve both justice and certainty? The answer
of course, as we have already seen, is to employ both tests. Thus, the simple, quick
and certain test is applied first. Usually that gives the right result and we stop there
and stick with the presumption. If it is contended that an injustice has occurred and
the wrong result achieved (e.g. an ornamental garden comprising statues resting by
their own weight), the burden of proof is placed on the party seeking to remedy that
injustice. In reality, it is a compromise between certainty and justice. The application
of one or other test would maximise one factor to the detriment of the other; only
by employing both tests in this way do we achieve a degree of certainty and justice
which, in sum, achieves more than the maximum either would achieve individually.
We could stop there but you should take two further steps in this analysis, for the
above is arguably an idealised account. First, the application of the second test is more
problematic than discussed above. Not only is the purpose test nuanced, it is also
subjective, for, despite the fact the court is seeking to find the objective purpose of the
annexation (and not the subjective intent of the person who made the annexation),
different judges will come to different decisions on the same facts; that is why the case
law in this area is inconsistent. We consequently pay a high price for such subtlety and
risk achieving justice via the injustice of inconsistent judgments.
Second, be really critical for a moment: could you argue that what has gone before is
little more than deception? Try reading TSB v Botham and look at what really happens
in the case: although purporting to apply the two tests, does the court simply seek
to achieve what, in its view, the market expects (a point also made by Blackburn
towards the end of his judgment in Holland)? After all, the second test presents a
false dichotomy as to whether the thing was placed there to improve the thing or
to improve the land, when in reality it is both (in the sense that the thing and its
location are important to the enjoyment of each) and neither (in the sense that it is
not the land nor the thing that is improved but the users’ enjoyment of each that is
enhanced). In short, one can get to the result one wants simply by changing how one
phrases the question and/or answer.
2 The 1925 reforms and unregistered land law
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1 A brief overview of the 1925 reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Reduction in the number of legal estates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 The unregistered title system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Overreaching in the unregistered title system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Introduction of a system of land charges registration in unregistered title . 32
2.6 The doctrine of notice in unregistered title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7 Diagrammatical summary of unregistered title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Introduction
Although it is common to refer to ‘unregistered land’ or ‘registered land’, it is more
correct and useful to label the two situations as ‘unregistered title’ and ‘registered
title’. Land itself is not registered, but the title to it can be, and usually is. The rules of
unregistered title are of diminishing practical importance and are irrelevant to most
land transactions these days. Even though you may not need to be able to apply both
sets of rules, knowing how unregistered land law works in the general terms covered
in this chapter still has value. It will help you to acquire a deeper understanding of the
development of various aspects of land law, especially adverse possession (Chapter
11). Additionally, it gives a context to the development of aspects of registered land
and provides a comparative basis and valuable context that illuminates the legal
mechanisms (covered in Chapter 3) that seek to balance the protection of purchasers
of registered land and those people who hold third party interests (such as easements
and restrictive covenants) over registered land.
This chapter therefore briefly focuses on three key features of unregistered title:
u the register of land charges, which operates to protect third party interests
u the extension of overreaching of equitable interests
u the residual scope of the doctrine of notice.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter and the relevant readings, you should be able to:
u explain the meaning and nature of ‘overreaching’
u explain the operation of the system of land charges registration
u describe the ways in which the 1925 reforms have attempted to simplify
conveyancing
u decide whether third party rights are enforceable against a purchaser of
unregistered title land.
Property law 2 The 1925 reforms and unregistered land law page 29
2.1 A brief overview of the 1925 reforms
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 1 ‘An introduction to modern land law’.
Further reading
¢ Gravells, Chapter 1 ‘Introductory topics’.
Background
In order to understand the structure of English land law today it is useful to examine
the policy of the 1925 legislation which overhauled it. Some of the reforms were
made to simplify and rationalise the substantive law (e.g. the assimilation of real and
personal property law and the reduction in the number of tenures to one form), but
the most important, for our purposes, were those designed to simplify conveyancing.
The wide variety of rights that may bind land (i.e. third party rights) makes dealings
in land much more complex than dealings in other forms of property and raises the
fundamental question of how the law should strike a balance between the interests of
third parties and those of purchasers. (You will discover that land lawyers use a variety
of different expressions to describe this tension, which is a persistent and central
concern in a number of the land law cases you will study. So, you may encounter
linguistic formulas that ask if a purchaser of land is bound by any pre-existing third-
party rights (property rights that other people have over the land being sold). Or, put
differently, the question may ask if third-party property rights are enforceable (or
take priority) over the title a purchaser of land has acquired. By and large, the 1925
reforms favour the purchaser and simplify conveyancing by eliminating the need for
the purchaser to make complex inquiries before purchase. In this chapter we shall
consider unregistered titles in land, and in Chapter 3 we will look at registered titles.
Remember that the position in registered land is much more important in practice
today and it will therefore be given greater prominence in later chapters of this guide.
However, for a richer understanding, you will find it useful to have a broad grasp of the
response unregistered land takes to the same type of priority dispute.
Although the two systems are conceptually very different, with registered land being
concerned with creating a comprehensive register of land titles, they have a number
of similarities. Thus, rights which are overreachable (see Section 2.4) under the one
system are overreachable under the other, and rights which are registrable under
the one system may be protected on the (different) register under the other. Most
basically (and importantly), the rationale under both systems was to reduce the need
for the purchaser to make excessive inquiries and inspections of the land, although
that does not mean they are under no obligations in that regard.
2.2 Reduction in the number of legal estates
Types of estate under the 1925 law

The 1925 legislation drastically reduced the number of estates and third party rights
that may subsist at law and so reduced the number of interests that automatically
bind a purchaser. Section 1(1) Law of Property Act 1925 (LPA 1925) provides that the only
two estates that may subsist at law are:
1. the fee simple absolute in possession (the holder of such an estate is effectively
the owner of the land) and
2. the term of years absolute (i.e. the lease).
The only interests that may subsist at law are listed in s.1(2) LPA 1925 and include
(among others) an easement (e.g. a right of way or a right to light) and a charge
by way of legal mortgage. All other estates and interests take effect in equity (i.e.
they are equitable interests) (s.1(3) LPA 1925). Thus, any freehold estate apart from
the fee simple absolute in possession is necessarily equitable (although relatively

rare). For example, if land is given to A for life with remainder to B in fee simple, both
A’s life estate and B’s remainder interest are equitable as they are both estates not
listed within s.1((1) as being capable of being legal. As you will see in Chapter 4, this is
achieved by means of a successive interest trust with a trustee holding the legal estate
on trust for A for life remainder to B.
A fee simple owner who has granted a lease is still technically ‘in possession’, since
‘possession’ includes receipt of rents and profits or the right to receive them (s.205(1)
(xix) LPA 1925). Consequently, a landlord can still hold a legal estate in land despite
someone else being in exclusive possession under a lease.
It is also very important to realise that s.1(1) and (2) LPA 1925 merely state what estates/
interests may subsist at law. As we saw in section 1.4.3, to be a legal estate/interest it
is necessary to ensure that the estate/interest is created or transferred by the correct
formalities. For example, in most cases a deed is also necessary for the purpose of
conveying or creating a legal estate (s.52 LPA 1925). Note that this is a fresh deed to
effect a transfer between the vendor and purchaser and not merely the handing over
of the existing deeds, which may prove the good root of title (i.e. that the person
transferring the title can provide sufficient proof it was theirs to transfer).
If a deed is not used in the creation or transfer of the estate/interest, the intended
recipient will not receive the intended legal estate/interest. One then has to ask what,
if anything, the intended recipient will receive. Interestingly, in the context of land
law, provided there is a specifically enforceable contract to transfer a legal estate (i.e.
a contract that complies with s.2 LP(MP)A 1989), an equitable version of the estate/
interest will vest in the intended recipient on the basis of the equitable maxim that
‘Equity looks as done that which ought to be done’. From that point on, the transferor
therefore holds the legal estate/interest on a constructive trust for the transferee who
acquires the equitable title despite the failed legal conveyance.
2.3 The unregistered title system
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 3 ‘Unregistered land’: Sections 3.1–3.4.
Essential reading
¢ Smith, ‘The central concerns of property law’. Available on the VLE.
Further reading
¢ Gravells, Chapter 2 ‘Title deeds conveyancing’.
The 1925 reforms and the further reforms introduced by the Land Registration Act 2002
(LRA 2002) will be covered in detail in Chapter 3 after we have considered unregistered
title. But before proceeding further it might be useful to answer a question that is
probably perplexing you already. Namely, why are there two systems? The policy of
the Land Registration Acts 1925 and 2002 after all was to simplify conveyancing by
registering all titles to land in a central register, and LRA 2002 requires registration of
title whenever land is transferred or subjected to a first legal mortgage. So why do we
bother with unregistered title?
After 1925, the system we know as unregistered title was meant to be a temporary
measure, to deal with some of the problems that made conveyancing so time-
consuming and costly, while a comprehensive register of title was gradually
introduced. The assumption at the outset was that all land in England and Wales would
be registered within a decade and no one expected the unregistered title system to
still be in existence almost a century later. Thus, many of its defects are not the fault
of the designers but because the design is dated. Even today, around 10 per cent
of titles in England and Wales are still unregistered, in spite of the extension of the
situations which trigger compulsory registration under LRA 2002 and the introduction
of incentives for voluntary registration of title. Although the government has set 2030
as the target date to achieve comprehensive registration of all land titles in England
and Wales, it is difficult to judge if it will succeed when some land has been held by
the same owner, such as a charity or family trust, for hundreds of years and so its title
remains unregistered. It is consequently still of some, albeit diminishing, relevance
to know whether title to land is registered or not before the protection and priority
of competing interests can be evaluated. When an unregistered title is registered, it
is necessary to know which third-party interests were enforceable against the holder
of the title immediately prior to registration in order to judge whether such interests
will:
u require entry on the register
u bind a purchaser regardless of registration
u be void for lack of previous protection (or for some other reason) under the
unregistered title system.
These questions will be answered by applying the rules of unregistered title.
2.4 Overreaching in the unregistered title system
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 3 ‘Unregistered land’: Section 3.7 ‘Overreachable rights’.
The scheme of the 1925 legislation was that although a purchaser would be bound
by legal interests whether they knew of them or not (remember the ‘axiom legal
rights bind the world’), equitable rights would be either overreachable or registrable
as land charges. Overreaching is a process by which a purchaser of a legal estate
takes it free of (will not be bound by) pre-existing equitable rights in the land, but
the equitable interests do not ‘vanish’: they attach instead to the purchase money,
converting rights into a corresponding share in that money. Overreachable rights
are generally those of a family nature (such as interests existing behind a trust) and
registrable rights are those of a commercial nature (such as easements, covenants and
options). Interests which are registrable as land charges under the Land Charges Act
1972 (LCA 1972) cannot be overreached.
Students often have difficulty understanding why some equitable interests are
overreachable while others are registrable. The reason lies in the nature of the
equitable interest that is thereby protected. In a trust we expect the trustees to
manage the assets held on trust, and that usually includes the power to buy and
sell trust property. It is therefore important, for both the beneficiary and the buyer,
that when a trust asset (such as land) is sold, the beneficiary’s interests move from
the asset to the proceeds of sale, for otherwise a trustee could never sell any trust
property. In contrast, when dealing with non-trust equitable interests, the holder of
the interest needs the interest to continue binding the land over which it is exercised,
even after that land is sold.
In contrast to overreachable interests, we do not want the interest to move from the
land to which it relates to the proceeds of sale but to continue in place despite the
change of ownership in the land. Thus, when land is sold, overreaching ensures that
beneficial interests move from the land to the proceeds while registration enables
non-trust equitable interests to continue binding the land.
As Robert Walker LJ in Birmingham Midshires Mortgage Services Ltd v Sabherwal [2000]

80 P&CR 256 noted:
The essential distinction is…between commercial and family interests. [A commercial

interest] cannot sensibly shift from the land affected to the proceeds of sale. [A family
interest] can do so…since the proceeds of sale can be used to acquire another home.
Overreaching therefore clearly applies to beneficial interests and, since Sabherwal,

also, it seems, to those family interests created via proprietary estoppel that are akin
to a beneficial interest. (Perhaps a more questionable extension of overreaching is

applying it to the right to have an unconscionable transaction set aside: Mortgage
Express v Lambert [2016] EWCA Civ 555.)
The system of overreaching is not confined to land but extends to any property held
on trust, although the mechanisms differ. We will only give detailed consideration
to overreaching in land where, under s.2 LPA 1925, the purchaser will take free of any
beneficial interests provided they pay the purchase money (if there is any) to at least
two trustees under s.27(2) LPA 1925. Overreaching is therefore a very useful tool for
purchasers of legal estates in land, freeing them from fear of hidden or undisclosed
equitable interests in the land (or even the need to look for them) and thereby
assisting the free alienation of property. Overreaching applies in both unregistered
land and, as we will see in the next chapter, also in registered land. It is available to
purchasers of an estate in land and mortgagees but not to the grantee of an easement
that may be contained in a conveyance: Baker v Craggs [2018] EWCA Civ 1126. However,
it should be noted that there is no overreaching where the sale is not made in good
faith, even if the purchase money is paid to two or more trustees: HSBC Bank plc v Dyche
[2009] EWHC 2954 (Ch).
However, students often ask why overreaching assists beneficiaries. Assuming the
beneficiaries want it to take place – which is not the case with beneficiaries who prefer
to stay put – the mechanism clearly does not provide any absolute guarantee that
the two trustees will not run off with the beneficiaries’ money (to which their rights
attach via the operation of overreaching). This is indeed quite true but the two trustee
rule does make that practically more difficult as any defrauding of the beneficiaries
now requires a conspiracy in which at least two trustees will have to get involved. This
still happens on occasion, of course, but it is generally thought that the two trustee
rule limits such opportunities and is helpful to beneficiaries, although it should not
be forgotten that, in the residential context, they may in practice prefer an interest in
land to one in money; a house after all is first and foremost a home, rather than just an
investment.
1. Explain the concept of overreaching and how it operates.
2. Which interests in land will be overreached on purchase?
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of overreaching?
Summary
‘Family’ interests in land will be overreached, attaching instead to the proceeds of sale,
if payment for the land is made to two trustees. This process is a great advantage for
purchasers of land, simplifying their side of the conveyancing.
2.5 Introduction of a system of land charges registration in

unregistered title
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 3 ‘Unregistered land’: Sections 3.5 ‘The purchaser of unregistered
land and the protection of legal rights’ and 3.6 ‘The purchaser of unregistered
land and the protection of equitable interests: the Land Charges Act 1972’.
Further reading
¢ Gravells, Chapter 2 ‘Title deeds conveyancing’.
As stated above, it is not appropriate to apply the machinery of overreaching to

equitable interests of a commercial nature (e.g. estate contracts, restrictive covenants,
etc.). Prior to the 1925 reforms, such interests were governed by the doctrine of notice,
that is, they were binding on the whole world except the bona fide purchaser of a
legal estate for value without notice. This involved the purchaser making inquiries
and inspections on the land. In order to obviate the necessity for such steps to be
taken, the system of land charges registration was introduced in 1925. LCA 1972, which
replaces the Land Charges Act 1925, provides for the registration of certain land
charges against the name of the owner of the land in the land charges register. The
land charges are set out in s.2 LCA 1972 and the most important for our purposes (to be
considered in more detail in later chapters) are:
u the puisne mortgage (class C(i))
u the general equitable charge (class C(iii))
u the estate contract (class C(iv))
u the restrictive covenant (class D(ii))
u the equitable easement (class D(iii)) and
u a spouse’s/civil partner’s right of occupation under the Family Law Act 1996 (class F).
A land charge is registered against the name of the estate owner whose estate is
intended to be affected (s.3 LCA 1972). The registration of a land charge constitutes
actual notice to the whole world, hence protecting the interest even when the land is
sold (s.198 LPA 1925). However, if a land charge is not registered before the completion
of a purchase, the effect depends on the type of land charge and the characteristics
of the purchaser (s.4 LCA 1972). Thus (and it is an important difference to note), an
estate contract or a restrictive covenant or an equitable easement will be void for
non-registration against a purchaser of a legal estate for money or money’s worth,
whereas a puisne mortgage or a general equitable charge or a spouse’s right of
occupation of the matrimonial home will be void for non-registration against any
purchaser for value of the land or any interest in the land (whether legal or equitable).
These specific provisions in s.4 underline that, broadly speaking, it is immaterial
whether a purchaser who buys a legal estate has notice of an interest that is void
against him for non-registration (on which see also s.199 LPA 1925). The purpose of the
land charges registration system is to do away with the traditional doctrine of notice.
The leading authority on the operation and integrity of land charge registration – the
House of Lords ruling in Midland Bank v Green [1981 ] AC 513 – is well worth reading.
Broadly speaking, the decision underlines the importance to holders of land charges
of using the land charges registration scheme or they run the risk that their rights
become unenforceable against a purchaser of the legal title to unregistered land.
‘Money’s worth’ includes anything which is worth money (for example, transferring
shares or other land to the seller) and includes nominal consideration; ‘value’ is a
broader term which means money, money’s worth or marriage consideration. (In
Chapter 3 we will see that in the law applying to registered title, by contrast, marriage
consideration is no longer ‘value’ while nominal consideration is also excluded from
the definition.) Note carefully that any unregistered land charge is valid against a
person who has received the land as a mere gift.
The land charges registration system has considerable advantages from the
purchaser’s point of view in that it generally relieves him of the need to make inquiries
and inspections on the land. Its major defect from his point of view is that registration
is not against the land (as is the case with registered land) but against the name of
the estate owner. One estate may have been owned by many successive people since
registration of land charges began, with the potential of land charges registered
against each owner under his own name. Since s.23 Law of Property Act 1969 (LPA
1969) reduced the length of title which has to be investigated in order to find a ‘good
root of title’ to 15 years (see below), it has become even more difficult for a purchaser
to discover all the relevant names, yet he is still deemed to have actual notice of the
charges registered against them (e.g. a restrictive covenant registered in 1930 against
the name of the estate owner at that time). However, if bound by such a hidden
interest, then he may be entitled to compensation at public expense (s.25 LPA 1969).
1. What is a land charge and how is it to be protected?
2. Give examples of land charges and the categories in which they should be
registered.
3. When will a purchaser be bound by a land charge?
Summary
The 1925 and 1972 reforms radically changed the enforceability of third party interests
in land. Interests in unregistered land which have a commercial value should be
registered as appropriate categories of land charges. If no such registration is carried
out, then such an interest is void against a purchaser for value or for money/money’s
worth, depending upon its nature. The doctrine of notice has no application to land
charges; thus an unregistered land charge is void even if the purchaser has actual
notice of it. But the system of land charge registration is difficult and has caused
problems.
Registration by name of the estate owner (s.3 LCA 1972), rather than by title, is a
particular deficiency but is, of course, an inevitable aspect of a system that was
introduced as a stopgap measure prior to the introduction of a comprehensive system
of land title registration.
2.6 The doctrine of notice in unregistered title
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 3 ‘Unregistered land’: Sections 3.8 ‘A residual class of equitable
interests in unregistered conveyancing’ and 3.9 ‘Inherent problems in the
system of unregistered land’.
Although it was the general scheme of the 1925 legislation that equitable interests
should be either overreachable or registrable, the doctrine of notice continues to
govern those equitable interests that fall outside the scheme. In some instances
equitable interests have been deliberately excluded from the scheme, and in others
the doctrine of notice covers unintentional gaps in the statutory provisions. As most of
these interests will be discussed in later chapters, it is sufficient here to note some of
the more important interests which are still governed by the doctrine of notice:
u restrictive covenant made between lessor and lessee
u restrictive covenant created before 1926
u equitable interest arising under the doctrine of proprietary estoppel
u interest held on constructive trust
u equitable interest under a bare trust
u beneficial interest under a trust of land where the interest is not overreached
because, for example, the capital money is paid to only one trustee: see Caunce v
Caunce [1969] 1 WLR 286.
Constructive trust and proprietary estoppel interests remain quite common and are,
in fact, becoming increasingly prevalent, so the doctrine of notice has an unexpectedly
large role to play in unregistered land. In such cases as the above list, the doctrine of
notice plays a residual role and a purchaser is bound unless he is a bona fide purchaser
of the legal estate for value without actual, imputed or constructive notice.
The meaning of actual notice should be apparent. Imputed notice applies when the
purchaser’s agent has notice of the interest. Constructive notice is harder to spot.
A person has constructive notice of all facts of which he would have acquired actual
notice had he made those inquiries and inspections which he ought reasonably to
have made. An outline of the process of buying and selling unregistered land (which
is no longer possible) will help set the idea of notice in context. A purchaser would
call for a good root of title – one which is at least 15 years old – and examine all the
documents which trace later dealings with the land to reveal the names of potential
interest holders. For example:
1900 by 1997 by 2006 by 2008 by 2010 by 2013 by

this deed I this deed I this deed I this deed I this deed I this deed I
Atticus Brutus Cato Darius Egnatius Flavia
transfer to transfer to transfer to transfer to transfer to transfer to
you you Cato you Darius you you Flavia you Gaius
Brutus Egnatius
In these circumstances a purchaser from Gaius would need to go back to the second
conveyance in the list (i.e. between Brutus and Cato in 1997, being the first conveyance
that is at least 15 years old) and inspect it and all subsequent conveyances to reveal
the names of all the estate holders that held the title from the good root of title.
The purchaser would then have to inspect the land charges register and look for any
interests registered against the names of all the previous owners thereby revealed
(Brutus, Cato, Darius, Egnatius, Flavia and, of course, Gaius). As you can see, Atticus is
hidden behind a good root of title and while any interest registered against his name
(or for that matter an owner previous to him) would still bind our purchaser, the
purchaser would normally be entitled to compensation under s.25 LPA 1969 in respect
of unknown interests hidden behind a good root of title.
A purchaser must also inspect the land and make inquiries of all persons in actual
occupation of the land regarding any rights that they may claim. Under the rule in Hunt
v Luck [1902] 1 Ch 428 a tenant’s occupation is notice of all that tenant’s rights and the
presence of the vendor in occupation does not exclude the possibility of occupation
by others.
It may be difficult for a purchaser to discover who, apart from the vendor, is living on
the land, particularly where a dishonest vendor arranges for the purchaser to visit at
a time when the other occupiers are absent. When it is clear from an inspection of
the land that someone else is in occupation, a purchaser must make enquiries of that
person: he is not entitled to rely on what the vendor may tell him about that person’s
rights. However, it is not certain what steps a purchaser is expected to take in order to
discover who is in occupation. Should he question neighbours or check the electoral
register? It certainly seems that he may not be entitled to rely simply on appointments
made with the vendor; he may be expected to make surprise visits and physically
inspect the land to see whether anyone other than the seller is in occupation: see
Kingsnorth Trust Ltd v Tizard [1986] 1 WLR 783.
1. When will a purchaser be bound by a restrictive covenant entered into before
1926?
2. What is the consequence of failure to register a land charge?
3. Which equitable interests are still subject to the doctrine of notice?
4. What is constructive notice and when does it apply?
2.7 Diagrammatical summary of unregistered title

Once you have assimilated these rules you need to ensure you understand how they
dovetail together. The following diagram might help you in that process as it distils
this sometimes bewildering set of rules into a series of binary questions. As we hope
you will see, the system is not as complex as it first appears.
The diagram will work for any interest and can be used to establish whether an
interest granted by an estate owner will bind a subsequent transferee of that estate.
Once you have acquainted yourself with it, please try the following activity.
UNREGISTERED TITLE YES NO
BINDING
Is it a puisne mortgage? Was it registered?
s.2 (4)(i) LCA 1972
Is it registerable? Does purchaser come within

s.2(1) LCA 1972 s.4 LCA 1972? Midland Bank v Green
Is interest legal?
s.1(1)(2) LPA 1925
Is purchaser equity’s
Is it overreachable? darling? Kingsnorth v Tizard
s.2 LPA 1925
Is interest equitable? Has it been overreached? NOT

s.1(3) LPA 1925 State Bank of India v Sood BINDING
Summary
Those interests in unregistered land which are neither registrable as land charges
nor overreachable remain subject to the old doctrine of notice. Actual, imputed or
constructive notice of such equitable rights may mean that they bind even a purchaser
of a legal estate in the land. Much of the relevant law is confusing and complex.
Leaving aside these finer details, what matters most for the purposes of your studies
is an awareness of the ways in which equitable interests needed to be protected
within the unregistered land law system if they were to bind purchasers of the legal
title to land. Not only will this help you to become familiar with the nature of many of
the land law rights covered in the this module, it will also help you to appreciate the
similarities and differences in how the same equitable rights must be protected where
title to the land is registered (rather than unregistered) under LRA 2002 (Chapter 3).
You should, in particular, note that:
u Only those estates and interests mentioned in s.1(1) and (2) LPA 1925 are capable of
being legal (provided the requisite formalities are complied with, otherwise they
will only be equitable).
u All other interests in land can only exist in equity as specified under s.1(3) LPA 1925.
u Equitable interests are often divided into commercial equitable interests (such
as estate contracts, restrictive covenants, equitable easements, etc.) where the
interest only has meaningful value to its owner so long as it binds the land over
which it is exercised, and family equitable interests (such as beneficial interests
behind a trust of land) where the interest has value irrespective of what assets the
trust currently holds.
u The aim of both registered and unregistered conveyancing is to create mechanisms

to enable commercial equitable interests to continue binding the land on a
subsequent purchase, while at the same time allowing family equitable interests to
securely move from the land to the proceeds of sale when a subsequent purchaser
arrives. Commercial equitable interests are therefore normally protectable (so that
they continue to bind the land) by registration systems under both registered and
unregistered title (see below).
u Family equitable interests can always be overreached (so that the interest moves
from the land to the proceeds of sale) in both registered and unregistered title
provided purchase monies (if they arise) are paid to two trustees under ss.2 and 27
LPA 1925.
u There are four basic categories of property interests in unregistered conveyancing.
u Legal interests that bind the world (apart from puisne mortgages which must
be registered as a land charge under LCA 1972).
u Commercial equitable interests (such as estate contracts, restrictive

covenants, equitable easements, etc.) which can be protected under LCA 1972
by registration against the name of the unregistered estate owner.
u Overreachable interests (i.e. beneficial interests under a trust of land) that, if

not overreached, are governed by the equitable doctrine of notice.
u An anomalous category of non-overreachable, non-registrable equitable

interests (e.g. pre-1925 restrictive covenants) that are only governed by the
equitable doctrine of notice.
Notes
3 Registration of title
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1 Basic features of the system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Land Registration Act 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 The categories of interest in registered title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 The effect of the Land Registration Act 2002: overriding interests . . . . 47
3.5 Diagrammatical summary of registered title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Introduction
In the previous chapter we examined the principles underlying the 1925 legislation
and in particular the reforms designed to simplify unregistered conveyancing.
However, the unregistered system is becoming much less important now that
registration of title has become compulsory on dispositions throughout England
and Wales. This system is contained in the Land Registration Acts, supplemented by
the Land Registration Rules. The mechanics of the system are fairly complex and you
are not expected to master them completely. This chapter will concentrate on the
general principles underlying the system and some of the flaws that have emerged
in its operation. You should fully understand the implications of the House of Lords
decision in Williams & Glyn’s Bank Ltd v Boland [1981] AC 487, as well as the fundamental
changes made by LRA 2002, which came into force on 13 October 2003. In particular,
you must be aware that LRA 1925 has been repealed; any references to that statute in
this module guide or in the readings are for the purposes of comparison only.
Learning outcomes
u set out the principles of registered conveyancing
u distinguish these from the system of unregistered conveyancing
u explain how third party rights are to be protected in registered land
u explain ‘overriding interests’, the problems to which s.70(1)(g) LRA 1925 gave rise
and the changes under LRA 2002
u explain the circumstances in which title must be registered compulsorily
u evaluate the reforms introduced by LRA 2002.
Throughout your study of property law, you should make absolutely sure that you
understand that:
u registered title is the norm, although unregistered title does still exist
u separate rules apply to land of registered and unregistered title in many topics
studied
u it is crucial to have clear and separate notes on the rules that apply to registered
and unregistered title in respect of each new topic studied
u it is extremely important to be able to apply those principles accurately in
problem questions.
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 2 ‘Registered land’.
Property law 3 Registration of title page 41
3.1 Basic features of the system
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 2 ‘Registered land’: Sections 2.1 –2.3.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Part 3 ‘Registered land’.
¢ Gravells, Chapter 3 ‘Registration of title’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 13 ‘Purchasers: registration of title’ (excluding Sections 3

‘Alteration’ and 4 ‘Indemnity’).
As noted in Chapter 2, a comprehensive (but not immediately universal) title

registration system was first introduced in England and Wales by LRA 1925, to be
succeeded over three-quarters of a century later by LRA 2002.
Reference will, however, continue to be made at various points in this chapter to the
former Act: first, as part of historical context; and, second, since many of its principles
and rules survive in the new legislation. As new authoritative cases will only emerge
over time on key aspects of LRA 2002, you will need to be familiar with cases decided
on the ‘old’ law under LRA 1925, but you must treat such cases with appropriate
caution and appreciate how the rules were different at the time of those cases being
decided.
A registered title comprises an area of land in respect of which a person is the

registered proprietor (i.e. owner). Each title is subdivided into a property register, a
proprietorship register and a charges register, a copy of which used to be issued to
the current registered proprietor. It was formerly known as the land certificate and
provided evidence of title, but LRA 2002 makes no provision for land certificates.
No copies of the register are issued, but a proprietor may be issued with a Title
Information Document which provides basic information about ownership of the land.
However, this is not a ‘title deed’, because the register is the proof of title.
It should be noted that the term ‘registered land’ is an inaccurate label: it is the estates
(and some interests) in land which are or can be registered (see s.1 LPA 1925). One
fundamental difference from the system of unregistered title should also be noted
at the outset. Whereas in the unregistered system a purchaser will require a vendor
to show a good root of title and a fresh investigation of title becomes necessary on
each sale, in the registered system the legal title is investigated just once (by the Land
Registrar) and then registered. The system is often described as being based on three
principles:
1. The mirror principle. This means that the register is intended to reflect accurately
all the facts material to a given title. Purchasers are not concerned with the past
history of the title, nor are they required to carry out the sort of inquiries and
inspections that may be expected of the purchaser of unregistered land; the
doctrine of notice has no application. Overriding interests are the one important
exception to the mirror principle.
2. The curtain principle. Trusts are kept off the title in order to simplify the transfer of
the legal estate.
3. The insurance principle. The title is guaranteed by the state and is indefeasible
without compensation.
However, you should be wary of this description as:
1. The mirror is cracked, as the existence of a category of overriding interest that

binds, despite not being protected on the register, means that the registered title
does not accurately reflect the totality of interests material to the given title.
2. It is sometimes argued that the curtain is ripped as, according to State Bank of India
v Sood [1997] Ch 276, overreaching can only occur if the trustees are acting intra
vires. This would appear to require the transferee to inspect the trust instrument to
check whether the trustees have the power to transfer title.
The criticism would appear to be unfounded, however, because even if the dicta
is true (which seems unlikely) under s.26 LRA 2002, the purchaser’s title is not
affected by any limitations which have not been effected by means of a restriction
recorded on the register.
3. The insurance premium is probably the most expensive in the world with
only an extremely tiny proportion of the fees received being paid back out in
compensation.
The system of registration of title was designed to simplify conveyancing and was not a
code of land law; indeed, it is generally undesirable that the substantive law applicable
to a piece of land should depend on whether the title to the land is registered or not.
Whereas in unregistered conveyancing the transfer of a legal estate is completed by
the deed of transfer (the conveyance), in registered conveyancing the transfer, under
LRA 1925, was effectual and complete only when the transferee was recorded in the
land register as the new proprietor (see 3.2 regarding the position under LRA 2002). The
purchaser for value thereby acquires a legal estate subject to entries on the register
and overriding interests but free from all other estates and interests irrespective of
whether he has notice of them. Of course, if the disposition is made without valuable
consideration (which, unlike in unregistered title, excludes nominal consideration:
s.132(1) LRA 2002), the transferee takes subject to all pre-existing property rights,
irrespective of whether they are registered or overriding (s.28 LRA 2002).
Further reading
¢ Dixon, M. ‘The reform of property law and the Land Registration Act 2002: a risk
assessment’ (2003) Conv 136.
¢ Law Commission Report, ‘Land registration for the twenty-first century: a

conveyancing revolution’ (2001) Law Com 271.
¢ Law Commission Report, ‘Updating the Land Registration Act’ (2018) Law Com
380.
¢ Sparkes, P. ‘The discoverability of occupiers of registered land’ (1989) Conv

342–54.
3.2 Land Registration Act 2002
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 2 ‘Registered land’: Sections 2.4 ‘An overview of the registered
land system under the Land Registration Act 2002’ and 2.12 ‘An overview of the
Land Registration Act 2002’.
Further reading
¢ Gray and Gray, Part 8 ‘Dealings and their effect’: Sections 8.1 ‘Contract and
transfer’ and 8.2 ‘Dealings with registered estates’.
As a first attempt to create a comprehensive title registration system, LRA 1925 was
by no means unsuccessful, although it is probably fair to say that the overall concept
was more impressive than the detail, where various flaws emerged over time. In
order to address those weaknesses, and to take advantage of new technology to
make the transfer of land more efficient, the Land Registry and the Law Commission
consequently joined forces to produce an improved model. Law Com 271 was
published in July 1998 and entitled ‘Land registration for the twenty-first century: a
conveyancing revolution’. The Act that finally emerged, however, notwithstanding
the tagline, included rather more evolution than revolution; particularly given the
subsequent history of one of its key proposals.
LRA 2002 received Royal Assent on 26 February 2002 and came into force in October
2003. Most of the changes only affect land once it is subject to a new disposition under
the terms of the Act (i.e. when a subsequent registered transaction occurs or, with
previously unregistered titles, when any of a list of ‘trigger’ events occurs, such as
grant of a lease for more than seven years, transfer of an existing lease with more than
seven years to run, and of course sale of a fee simple).
In testament to the success of the original vision, the new system shares many of the
features and principles of its predecessor. The fundamental objective of LRA 2002 is
that ‘the register should be a complete and accurate reflection of the state of the title
of the land at any given time, so that it is possible to investigate title to land online,
with the absolute minimum of additional enquiries and inspections’ (Law Com 271,
para.1.5). It remained true to the mirror principle, but intended to use technology to
ensure that the reflection of rights was clearer and more accurate. The curtain and
insurance principles, and the corresponding concepts of overreaching and indemnity,
are largely unaffected by LRA 2002.
One of the most revolutionary aspects of the new regime was to have been a system
of electronic conveyancing. However, it proved difficult to overcome various practical,
legal and technical obstacles, and the Land Registry consequently abandoned their
programme to develop end-to-end e-conveyancing in 2011 and have no current plans
to revisit the issue.
To enable electronic conveyancing, a key conceptual change introduced by LRA 2002

was to move from a system of registration of title to one of title by registration, with
the actual act of registration conferring title on the transferee, rather than simply
recording the transfer that has taken place. However, because this substantive
conceptual change has been made in the absence of electronic conveyancing, it
remains to be seen how well the new rules will work absent the system they were
intended to support.
In tandem with the conceptual shift (but not as a direct result of the new Act) the
Court of Appeal in Swift 1st Ltd v Chief Land Registrar [2015] Ch 602 held that Malory
Enterprises Ltd v Cheshire Homes (UK) Ltd [2002] Ch 216 had been decided per incuriam in
deciding that the fraudulent transfer of an estate only transferred the bare legal title
on registration, leaving the original proprietor with a beneficial interest. Thus, under
both LRA 1925 and LRA 2002, a registered transfer now gives the transferee in good
faith full legal and beneficial ownership, even if preceded by a fraud.
The other main changes introduced by LRA 2002 were as follows:
u changes to the nature and scope of overriding interests in registered land
u substantial changes to the law of adverse possession for registered land (see
Chapter 11)
u the expansion of the situations in which registration of land is compulsory, with a

corresponding encouragement of voluntary land registration
u the creation of a new Office of the Adjudicator to Her Majesty’s Land Registry
to deal with disputes about registered land (from July 2013, the functions of the
Adjudicator have been transferred to the Land Registration division of the Property
Chamber of the First-tier Tribunal).
3.3 The categories of interest in registered title
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 2 ‘Registered land’: Sections 2.6 –2.9.
There are three basic categories of interest in registered title:
1. substantively registered estates and interests the existence of which is guaranteed

by entry on the register
2. protectable interests by which an entry can be made on the register protecting or

safeguarding a claim to such an interest
3. overriding interests which bind even though they have been neither substantively
registered nor protected by means of an entry on the register.
3.3.1 Estates and interests capable of substantive registration

The substantively registrable category comprises the only estates and interests
guaranteed by the Land Registry. As confirmed in Swift 1st Ltd v Chief Land Registrar
[2015] Ch 602 the registration of such an interest gives the registered owner a
guaranteed interest, as discussed in greater detail in 3.4 below.
Originally, the only interests capable of substantive registration were the legal fee
simple and any legal term of years of which more than 21 years remained unexpired.
The list under LRA 2002 is longer and includes:
u legal fee simple
u legal leases with over seven years left to run
u legal mortgages
u expressly created legal easements where the servient land is a registered title
(even if the dominant land’s title is not yet registered)
u expressly created legal profits.
3.3.2 Third party rights which need to be protected by entry on the

register
This category (formerly known as ‘minor interests’) includes all interests which are
neither substantively registrable (s.27 LRA 2002) nor overriding, but can be protected
by an entry on the register. Unlike the former category of substantively registrable
interests, any entry on the register, in respect of a minor interest, does not guarantee
the existence of such an interest but simply preserves its priority, insofar as it exists,
against a subsequent disposition. For example, if A protects an option by an entry
against the registered title of B, who then transfers her registered title to C, C takes
the land subject to A’s option insofar as it exists. Whether or not the option binds C,
however, is ultimately not dependent upon A’s entry on the register but on whether
its validity can be independently established, if challenged by C. In other words, the
entry on the register, is a necessary but not conclusive step in preserving A’s option.
Normally, then, failure to protect a valid option means that it cannot take priority
through the register, even if it may still take priority as an interest that overrides by
virtue of being coupled with actual occupation (considered below). Aside from that
possibility, an unregistered option may exceptionally be given priority by imposing
personal liability on a purchaser by imposing a constructive trust to prevent behaviour
that would otherwise amount to an unconscionable attempt to deny the existence
of the right: Lyus v Prowsa [1982] 1 WLR 1044; Lloyd v Dugdale [2001] EWCA Civ 1754; and
Chaudhary v Yavuz [2011] EWCA Civ 1314.
There are two kinds of interest under this category, which are protected by two
different types of entry on the register.
1. A notice is a mechanism by which commercial equitable interests are nailed to the

land to ensure they survive subsequent dispositions (s.32 LRA 2002).
2. A restriction provides a means to apply any limitations on a registered proprietor’s

ability to deal with the land and is used to ensure that family equitable interests
move from the land to the proceeds of sale (s.40 LRA 2002).
Thus, any commercial equitable interests that in unregistered land would be registrable
under LCA 1972 will bind a purchaser if protected by entry of a notice on the register
(s.32 LRA 2002). If they are not protected, they do not bind him even if he has notice
(unless they comprise an overriding interest as discussed below). Note, however, that
equity will not allow a statute to be used as an engine of fraud. This may be the best way
of justifying the decision in Lyus v Prowsa Developments Ltd [1982] 1 WLR 1044.
In contrast, family equitable interests, under s.33 LRA 2002, cannot be protected by a
notice and are therefore not capable of the same form of protection as commercial
equitable interests. However, the beneficiary may enter a restriction (s.40 LRA 2002)
requiring any purchaser to comply with the rules of overreaching. Thus, although a
restriction does not protect family equitable interests by nailing the interest to the
land and binding subsequent purchasers, as a notice does in respect of commercial
equitable interests, it can be used to safeguard them, by giving the beneficiary the
protection of overreaching (which makes it much harder to defraud a beneficiary of
his interest, by requiring that the purchase monies are paid to at least two trustees).
If overreaching takes place, because either a restriction was entered requiring it, or
because the purchaser complied with its requirements anyway, the purchaser takes
free from any overreachable interests (e.g. family equitable interests). If, on the other
hand, there is no restriction and overreaching does not take place, whether or not
the purchaser is bound by such an interest depends upon whether it is an overriding
interest under para.2, as discussed below. The important point to note is that an
overreachable interest will never bind a purchaser who complies with overreaching
(City of London Building Society v Flegg [1988] AC 54) and will only bind a purchaser who
does not comply with overreaching, if it is additionally an overriding interest (Williams
& Glyn’s Bank v Boland [1981] AC 487).
3.3.3 Interests that override

Registered dispositions take effect subject to interests that override (formerly known
as ‘overriding interests’ and still usually referred to as such) and as these do not appear
on the register, sensible purchasers need to inspect the land and make enquiries so
that they know whether the land they are buying is affected by any such interests.
It is thus very important to know whether a third party interest in land is one which
overrides or one which requires protection on the register (see below). Overriding
interests are hence a hazard for the purchaser: not visible on the register but binding
upon the purchaser regardless of notice. No compensation is payable if the register is
altered to give effect to an overriding interest since, strictly speaking, the purchaser
has suffered no loss. Some limited information on LRA 1925 is helpful in order to
appreciate the changes introduced under LRA 2002, but remember that s.70 has been
repealed and replaced, and so its categories are no longer the law; they are mentioned
here for comparison purposes only. Overriding interests were listed in s.70 LRA 1925
and included, among others, the following four categories:
u s.70(1)(a) easements and profits, including some openly exercised equitable

easements under Celsteel Ltd v Alton House Holdings Ltd [1986] 1 WLR 666 and
Thatcher v Douglas (1995) 146 NLJ 282 (CA). This category continues under LRA 2002,
but in a more limited form (see below).
u s.70(1)(f) ‘rights acquired or in the process of being acquired under the Limitation
Acts’, that is, the rights of an adverse possessor (see Chapter 11): these will generally
not override under LRA 2002 in their own right but will normally come within
para.2 (see below).
u s.70(1)(g) ‘rights of every person in actual occupation of the land or in receipt of

the rents and profits thereof, save where enquiry is made of such person and the
rights are not disclosed’: this was the most litigated category of overriding interest
and generated detailed case law. The person claiming an overriding interest had to
prove that:
u they had a right subsisting with reference to ‘land’
u they were ‘in actual occupation’ or in receipt of rents and profits
u no inquiry had been made of them concerning their interest. Again, this
category continues under LRA 2002 but in a more limited form (see below).
u s.70(1)(k) ‘leases granted for a term not exceeding 21 years’. This category continues
under LRA 2002, but in a more limited form (see Section 3.4).
Activity 3.1
Can you distinguish Strand Securities Ltd v Caswell [1965] Ch 958 and Chhokar v
Chhokar [1984] FLR 313, bearing in mind the fact that in each case the persons
claiming the overriding interest had furniture in the property though they were
living elsewhere? Consider also Kling v Keston Properties Ltd [1985] 49 P&CR 212.
Activity 3.2
Read Williams & Glyn’s Bank v Boland [1981] AC 487 and Abbey National Building
Society v Cann [1991] 1 AC 56, and make notes on their relevant facts, decisions and
ratios.
a. Which of Mrs Boland’s interests in the land were overriding, and why?
b. What is actual occupation?
c. When must actual occupation occur in order to protect an interest?
d. Why was Mrs Cann not in actual occupation at the relevant time?
Feedback provided for part (a) only.
Activity 3.3
Look up the rule in Lyus v Prowsa [1982] 1 WLR 1044. Why is this case treated as a
questionable decision?
3.3.4 Complications in the system

The scheme is generally that equitable interests are either registrable or
overreachable and that legal interests will bind a purchaser either because they
are registered or because they are overriding. However, it is important to note that
interests in registered land may sometimes fall into one class and sometimes into
another; in particular, where someone with an interest is in actual occupation, they
may either make an entry on the register or rely on their occupation as entitling them
to an overriding interest. Thus, as noted above, an unprotected commercial equitable
interest (such as an option to purchase the freehold) which can be protected by
entering a notice, may constitute an overriding interest if coupled with actual
occupation.
Moreover, a family equitable interest (such as a beneficial interest arising under a trust
of land) which cannot be protected by a notice but could have been safeguarded (to
the extent overreaching does safeguard) by the entering of a restriction (requiring
overreaching) may bind a purchaser as an overriding interest if likewise coupled with
actual occupation (assuming that overreaching has not otherwise occurred).
Thus, the person who has failed to use the tools available to protect (notices) or
safeguard (restrictions) their interest might still be protected. However, the purchaser
is required to make enquiries (not unlike those required under the doctrine of notice
in the unregistered system) to discover interests that could have been protected by
means of a notice or safeguarded by means of a restriction.
In the (very rare) case of strict settlements, the problems discussed above do not
arise. Similarly, a spouse’s right of occupation under the Matrimonial Homes Act 1983
(now the Family Law Act 1996) is declared not to be an overriding interest; it should be
protected by entry on the register. Note, though, that a spouse may incidentally have
another interest which is capable of overriding the disposition, such as a constructive
trust interest (see Chapter 5).
Some cases also expanded the protection of overriding interests. In Malory Enterprises
Ltd v Cheshire Homes (UK) Ltd [2002] EWCA Civ 151, actual occupation of derelict land did
not require residence but ‘some physical presence, with some degree of permanence
and continuity’.
1. What were the main criticisms made of LRA 1925?
2. What are the apparent inconsistencies between the protection of third party
rights in unregistered and registered title?
Summary
The system of registered title to land was introduced in order to simplify and facilitate
conveyancing of land. In order to do so, one of its fundamental principles is that the
register should be a complete mirror of the interests in the land, guaranteeing those
interests. It has by no means been completely successful in doing so, but the further
reforms under LRA 2002 should go some way towards meeting the criticisms of its
predecessor statutes. Interests in registered land can be divided into those which
require registration in their own right as ‘titles’, those which override registration and
those which can be protected or safeguarded by entry of a notice or restriction on the
register.
3.4 The effect of the Land Registration Act 2002: overriding

interests
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 2 ‘Registered land’: Sections 2.4 ‘An overview of the registered
land system under the Land Registration Act 2002’ and 2.12 ‘An overview of the
Land Registration Act 2002’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 6 ‘Interests protected by registration and overriding
interests’: Section 6.5 ‘Overriding interests or unregistered interests that
override registered dispositions’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 13 ‘Purchasers: registration of title’: Section D ‘Overriding

interests’.
As mentioned above, LRA 2002 effected significant changes to the nature and scope
of overriding interests. In particular, it sought to minimise the number of interests
that can bind despite not being recorded on the register, which are now termed
‘interests that override’ rather than ‘overriding interests’. Section 70(1) LRA 1925
has consequently been replaced by a smaller category of interests as detailed in
Schedules 1 and 3 LRA 2002. Although superficially similar, care must be taken as there
are significant differences between the two schedules. Schedule 1 applies to the first
registration of title and is broader than Schedule 3, which applies to subsequent
registrations and contains a more limited array of overriding interests. The reason
for this difference is because first registration is an essentially administrative act,
recording the title already acquired under the rules of unregistered conveyancing,
and is not intended to have any substantive effect on the title registered. Thus,
those unregistrable interests that bound the land, when it was acquired by the new
purchaser via the unregistered conveyance immediately preceding first registration,
need to survive that initial entry on to the register.
Questions on registered land are far more likely to concentrate on the rules of
registered conveyancing rather than on issues of first registration. It is consequently
Schedule 3, rather than Schedule 1, on which you should focus your studies.
Section 71 imposes a duty on the person applying for first or subsequent registration
of a disposition to disclose information about any rights of which they are aware
which might fall within the scope of Schedules 1 or 3 and are therefore overriding. The
number of overriding interests should therefore diminish as more dispositions are
made under the new legislation. It is also likely that some interest holders will lose
rights which were overriding on first registration when there is a later disposition
(see Dixon, M. ‘The reform of property law and the Land Registration Act 2002: a risk
assessment’ (2003) Conv 136–56).
There are clearly some rights that were overriding interests under s.70(1) LRA 1925
which no longer override under either of the above Schedules. The rights of adverse
possessors no longer override unless they are accompanied by actual occupation,
while the rights of a person in receipt of rents and profits from the land are likewise no
longer protected.
Most short legal leases have also been recategorised, since para.1 of both Schedules
allows them to override if they run for seven years or less, a reduction from the former
s.70(1)(k) requirement of 21 years. There are exceptions (s.4 LRA 2002), including
reversionary leases that take effect more than three months after the date of their
grant. Leases for more than seven years, or with more than that length of time to run,
are now registrable in their own right. Power exists in s.118 LRA 2002 to reduce further
the qualifying period from seven years. It may be used as and when e-conveyancing
is up and running. When viewed against the LRA 2002’s drive to achieve a conclusive
register, it may be wondered how exempting short leases from the LRA 2002
provisions may be justified. As some will be leases of people’s homes and others
granted for short-term use of commercial properties, expecting registration may be
unrealistic, burdensome and clog up the register for very little benefit.
Leases more than three years but less than seven years have acquired a dual status and
can be protected by a ‘notice’ (and often are in commercial contexts), although there
is currently no need as they qualify as overriding interests, provided they are legal.
Care should be taken in respect of equitable leases, as para.1 does not apply to them as
the term ‘granted’ refers exclusively to legal leases (see City PBS v Miller [1952] Ch 840).
The category of easements that override has also been reduced under para.3 by
limiting it to legal easements and excluding all equitable easements (reversing
Celsteel v Alston [1986] 1 WLR 666). As an expressly granted legal easement can only
acquire that status via registration (s.27(2)(d) LRA 2002), this limits the category of
unregistered easements that override to those legal easements that arise either
impliedly or by prescription. Furthermore, under Schedule 3 (but not Schedule
1) the category is further limited to include only those legal easements that have
been exercised within 12 months of the disposition, or were actually known to the
transferee, or were obvious on a reasonably careful inspection of the land. These
limitations in Schedule 3 aim to reduce the likelihood of a purchaser being bound by
easements that are invisible (such as drainage rights) or used intermittently and it is
hoped may encourage their registration by those who benefit from them.
Actual occupation
The most problematic category of overriding interest will continue to be the interests
of those in actual occupation of the land, formerly governed by s.70(1)(g) and now by
para.2. As before, the provision only covers those with an interest in the land (i.e. the
mere fact of occupation is not itself protected if the occupier has no separate property
interest in the land) but provided the occupier does have such an interest there need
be no causal connection between that interest and the occupation that might thereby
protect it (e.g. an unprotected option over the land owned by someone who, quite
separately, say as a family member, happens to be in actual occupation of the land,
is still capable of being an interest that overrides). Whether governed by Schedule
1 or Schedule 3, the rights of a person in actual occupation will override only to the
extent that they coincide with that occupation. This reverses Ferrishurst Ltd v Wallcite
[1998] EWCA 1874 and emphasises that ‘actual occupation’ is really just a warning to
an intending purchaser of the existence of third party rights in the land, not in itself a
guarantee of such rights. Actual occupation has a significantly different meaning under
Schedule 3 (but not Schedule 1) where the rights of a person in actual occupation will
not override a purchaser if either:
u enquiries have been made of the right-holder and they have failed to disclose the
right in circumstances where they could reasonably be expected to disclose it, or
u the right-holder’s actual occupation is not obvious on a reasonable inspection of

the land, and the person potentially bound did not have actual knowledge of the
interest at the time of the disposition.
Thus, s.70(1)(g) LPA 1925 has been replaced with a modified rule that appears kinder to
non-disclosers in one respect: a person who does not know they have a right cannot
be expected to disclose it under Schedule 3. An example of this would be where
estoppel might operate but the interest holder (whose interest has proprietary status
by virtue of s.116 LRA 2002) does not yet know that they have a right which they should
disclose. However, the new provision has arguably gone further and (inadvertently?)
reversed Hypo-Mortgage Services v Robinson [1997] 2 FLR 71. In that case it was held that,
as a child cannot sensibly answer any enquiry made of them, such a person cannot
be in occupation for the purposes of s.70(1)(g). In other words, the court limited the
provision only to those whom the purchaser can sensibly question, on the basis that
it would be unfair to the purchaser if they were bound by the occupation of someone
whom they could not quiz as to whether they had an interest. In contrast, the new
provision states that only those who fail to answer the question when they could
reasonably be expected to do so risk losing their interest, which implicitly suggests
that those who cannot answer the question can still be in occupation (for there is no
need to excuse their failure to answer if they are, as in Hypo-Mortgage, not deemed to
be in occupation for the purposes of the provision). The LRA 2002 is narrower than its
statutory predecessor in another respect – the removal of overriding status from those
who are in receipt of rents and profits from the land.
More importantly, the second change is significantly more restrictive, since interest
holders in undiscoverable occupation will no longer be protected. Thus, a purchaser
is no longer bound by an occupier’s interest unless the interest holder’s occupation
(rather than their interest) is obvious on a reasonably careful inspection of the land or
is otherwise known to the purchaser. Although the Law Commission were strongly of
the view that this provision would not reintroduce the equitable doctrine of notice,
critics have argued it will necessarily reintroduce a (less developed or subtle) form
of constructive notice concerning what is, and is not, ‘obvious’ on what is, and is not,
a ‘reasonably careful’ inspection of the land. There has been a dearth of cases from
which to judge who is right and it will probably be advisable to think in a ‘before
and after’ way for some years to come. There can be no doubt, however, that many
of the cases from the ‘old’ law of s.70(1)(g) will remain relevant in interpreting the
requirements of LRA 2002, although you must not forget that the rules have changed
and you need to note that when citing pre-2003 case law.
There has been considerable judicial (and academic) exploration of actual occupation
both before and since the LRA 2002. The courts have (understandably) declined to
suggest a definitive and comprehensive test, partly because much may depend on
factors such as the nature and purpose of the land being occupied: see Link Lending v
Bustard [2010] EWCA Civ 424 (Mummery LJ); and Abbey National v Cann [1990] UKHL 3
(Lord Oliver). Determining the existence of physical presence is essentially a question
of fact (Lord Wilberforce in Williams & Glyn’s Bank v Boland [1981] AC 487). Occupation
should certainly be more than temporary/preparatory and involve a considerable
degree of continuity and permanence. Ordinarily, this will present little difficulty
where the claimant is living in a house. Even then, the occupier’s absence for a period
of time may not be fatal, depending on its duration, the reason for the absence and
the existence of a continuing intention to occupy – maybe supported by the presence
of belongings and furniture: see Link Lending; Chhokar v Chhokar [1984] EWCA Civ 7;
Thompson v Foy [2009] EWHC 1076 (Ch); and compare AIB Group (UK) plc v Turner [2015]
EWHC 3994 (Ch). Alternatively, a claimant may be in actual occupation either via some
representative – other than a licensee (such as a caretaker) (Strand Securities v Caswell
[1965] Ch 958) or merely through the presence of the claimant’s furniture. Exercising
a right of way over the servient land is use rather than occupation (Chaudhary v Yavuz
[2011] EWCA Civ 1314); and, even if an easement of parking or storage might count as
occupation for the purposes of para.2 to be overriding, it will need to be obvious on a
reasonably careful inspection of the land.
At what date must a claimant be in actual occupation to override a disposition? This

is potentially problematic where a claimant moves into occupation during the so-
called ‘registration gap’ – the period that customarily elapses between the date of the
completion/transfer to the disponee and the later date when the title is registered.
For s.70(1)(g) LRA 1925, the House of Lords in Abbey National v Cann (obiter) identified
the date of transfer as the time to test for actual occupation and, although the LRA
2002 refers to the person being in actual occupation at the date of the disposition,
this has also been taken to be the time of the transfer – and there is even a judicial
suggestion by Lewison J (Thompson v Foy) that occupation must continue to the time
of registration.
As mentioned previously (see also Chapter 2) a beneficiary in occupation may gain

overriding status where mortgage monies are paid to only one trustee (Boland),
signalling the dual nature of the protection the LRA 2002 affords such rights. But,
where the payment is to two trustees, the beneficial rights cannot be overriding
because they will have already been overreached (City of London Building Society v Flegg
[1988] AC 54).
1. What are the key changes introduced by LRA 2002?
2. How has LRA 2002 changed interests that override?
3. What is the difference between interests that override a first registration

and interests that override a subsequent transfer of the land? Why is there a
difference?
4. Where registered land is transferred, when will a right protected by actual

occupation lose its overriding status?
5. What would be the advantages of abolishing overriding interests altogether?
Activity 3.4
From your reading, draw up a table for the following grades of title to freehold and
leasehold land that may be registered, and fill in the details of where each of them
applies and which third party interests bind the registered proprietor of each.
Grade of title registrable Where this applies Binding third party interests
Absolute freehold
Possessory freehold
Qualified freehold
Absolute leasehold
Possessory leasehold
Grade of title registrable Where this applies Binding third party interests
Qualified leasehold
Good leasehold
No feedback provided.
3.5 Diagrammatical summary of registered title

Once you have assimilated these rules you need to ensure you understand how they
dovetail together. The following diagram might help you in that process as it distils
this sometimes bewildering set of rules into a series of binary questions. As we hope
you will see, the system is not as complex as it first appears.
REGISTERED LAND YES NO
BINDING
Has it been registered?
Has it been
protected by Is it an overriding interest?
‘notice’?
Is interest
Is there a registrable disposition
registrable?
made for ‘valuable consideration’
under LRA 2002 ss.29, 132?
Is it protectable
by a ‘notice’? Is it overreachable? Has it been NOT
overreached?
BINDING
The diagram will work for any interest and can be used to establish whether an
interest granted by an estate owner will bind a subsequent transferee of that estate.
Once you have acquainted yourself with it please try the following activity.
Activity 3.5
Paul transfers the registered title of Whiteacre to Samantha for £10,000. Will
Samantha be bound by the following interests, all of which arose prior to the sale of
Whiteacre to Samantha?
a. An easement granted by Paul to his neighbour Bethany.
b. A restrictive covenant granted by Paul to his neighbour Saskia.
c. Eloise’s beneficial interest in Whiteacre arising from her contribution to the

purchase price Paul paid when he bought the property.
d. Tamara’s licence to occupy Whiteacre.
e. The option to purchase Whiteacre Paul granted Chris.
f. How, if at all, would your answer to each of the questions change in each of the
following alternative circumstances?
u Samantha paid £10 for Whiteacre.
u Samantha paid a peppercorn for Whiteacre.
u Samantha gave no consideration for Whiteacre.
u The legal title of Whiteacre was co-owned by Paul and Gordon who jointly
conveyed it to Samantha.
1. What are the key changes introduced by LRA 2002?
2. How has LRA 2002 changed interests that override?
3. What is the difference between interests that override a first registration

and interests that override a subsequent transfer of the land? Why is there a
difference?
4. Where registered land is transferred, when will a right protected by actual

occupation lose its overriding status?
5. What would be the advantages of abolishing overriding interests/interests that

override altogether?
6. Which third party interests bind a first registered proprietor?
7. Why are interests that override a danger for the purchaser of a registered title?
8. What are ‘minor interests’ now called? Give examples, and explain how they
appear on the register.
9. Which events trigger compulsory registration of title?
10. Why would a person choose to register title to his land voluntarily?
Substantive examination advice

u In problem questions, always ask whether the title is registered or unregistered
and be prepared for questions that ask you to apply the rules pertaining to both
systems. If you are not told whether the title is registered or not, answer in the
alternative where that is significant.
u If you are advising on both registered and unregistered title, initially answer the
entire problem on the basis of registered title and then briefly explain how each
of your conclusions would differ (either in outcome and/or detail) if title was
unregistered.
u Avoid obvious errors – for example LCA 1972 applies only to unregistered title, not
registered title.
u Do not go behind the facts you have been given – thus if you are told ‘X has given
Y an easement’ you do not need to consider the Re Ellenborough requirements of
an easement as you have already been told that Y has one. Nor do you need to
consider whether it was expressly or impliedly granted as, in that example, you
have already been told it is an express assignment as X gave it to Y. You therefore
only need to consider whether the easement is legal or equitable (i.e. how it was
given) and how that will affect its status in registered and/or unregistered title.
u Remember, in registered title there are three basic categories of property interest:
1. Major interests – substantively registrable legal interests (e.g. fee simples,

leases over seven years, easements, charges and profits in gross) the existence
of which is guaranteed by the Land Registry.
2. Minor interests – a prima facie interest that can be protected by either a notice
(e.g. commercial equitable interests such as estate contracts, restrictive
covenants, equitable easements) or a restriction (e.g. overreachable beneficial
interests behind a trust of land) entered on the register – these interests are
not guaranteed by the Land Registry and thus their legitimacy has not been
tested but the right (insofar as it exists) is protected (insofar as it can be) by
registration.
3. Overriding interests – interests that can bind even though not substantively
registered nor protected (even if they are registrable and/or could be
protected): including short- and medium-term legal leases (i.e. no longer
than seven years); implied or prescriptive (but not express) legal easements
(that have either been exercised in the last 12 months, or are known to, or
discoverable by, the purchaser); and any property interest that is coupled with
(but not necessarily causally linked to) discoverable occupation.
u Remember, in registered land, under s.27 LRA 2002, any express registrable interest
capable of being legal will only be legal (even if a deed has been used to convey
it) once it has been substantively registered. Until then it is only equitable (and, as
such, can be protected by means of a notice if there is some reason why it cannot
be substantively registered and hence made legal).
Further reading
¢ Dixon, M. ‘Proprietary estoppel and formalities in land law and the Land
Registration Act 2002: Theory of unconscionability’ in Cooke, E. (ed.)
Modern studies in property law. Vol. 2 (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2003) [ISBN
9781841131733].
¢ Bevan, C. ‘Overriding and over-extended? Actual occupation: a call to orthodoxy’

(2016) Conveyancer and Property Lawyer (2) 115.
¢ Bogusz, B. ‘The relevance of “intentions and wishes” to determine actual

occupation: a sea change in judicial thinking?’ (2014) Conveyancer and Property
Lawyer 27–39.
¢ Cooke, E. and P. O’Connor ‘Purchaser liability to third parties in the English land
registration system: a cooperative perspective’ (2004) 120 LQR 640.
Sample of extracts from examination-type questions
Question 1
W lives in Rose Cottage, the matrimonial home, of which her husband, H, was the
registered proprietor with absolute title. In 2020 H deserted W and mortgaged the
cottage to B Bank. The mortgage payments are well in arrears and B Bank now seeks
possession of the cottage. W, who had given H £10,000 towards the purchase price
of the cottage, refuses to leave. Discuss.
Question 2
Lucy was the registered proprietor of Pinkacre. In 2017 she granted Peter a five-year
lease of a cottage on Pinkacre; in 2018 she contracted to grant Quentin a four-year
lease of a field for grazing purposes; in 2019 she agreed orally to let Rick have
exclusive use of a barn for three years at an annual rent of £300, and she invited
Rick to pick as many apples as he liked from her orchard. In 2021 she sold Pinkacre
to William, who has now written to Peter, Quentin and Rick telling them to keep off
his land. Discuss.
Advice on answering the questions
Question 1
The issues to consider are:
u What is the nature of W’s interest in the cottage?
u Does it bind the bank?
u Does her contribution to the purchase price give her an equitable interest behind a
trust for sale (now a trust of land governed by the Trusts of Land and Appointment
of Trustees Act 1996) (see Chapter 5)? If so, could she have protected her interest
on the land register? Could she rely on her occupation of the cottage to give her an
overriding interest?
Consider Boland and Cann, and the effect of LRA 2002. What about her right of
occupation under the Family Law Act 1996?
Question 2
This is not a question on leases and licences; the key issue is whether William, the
purchaser of Pinkacre, would be bound by the interests of Peter, Quentin and Rick – a
question which requires an understanding of LRA 2002. Thus, Peter’s five-year (legal)
lease is not compulsorily registrable and would clearly bind William as an overriding
interest within para.1 Schedule 3. Quentin’s contract for a lease, even if not protected
on the register, would bind William as an overriding interest within para.2 Schedule 3,
assuming that he is in actual occupation.
Rick would appear to have a (legal) three-year tenancy of the barn (s.54(2) LPA 1925)
which would bind William under para.1 Schedule 3. On the other hand, Rick’s bare
licence to pick apples on Pinkacre would not be a proprietary interest capable of
binding a purchaser.
Focus of the assessment

Within the scope of this chapter, there are four principal areas for assessment:
1. An essay title asking you to consider the suitability and efficacy of the reforms to
the land registration system in 2002.
2. A problem question asking you to consider the appropriate treatment of a variety

of different rights, contract and other arrangements within the land registration
system.
3. A problem question asking you to consider the rights of people in ‘actual occupation’
and other informal rights against the registered proprietor of the property.
Quick quiz
Question 1
Anne wants to transfer her registered title in Whiteacre to Paul. Which is the correct
method?
a. She hands the bundle of deeds she has to Paul.
b. She hands Paul a deed which states that Anne transfers Whiteacre to Paul (the
document complies with s.1 LP(MP)A 1989).
c. She and Paul agree a document which states that Anne is going to transfer
Whiteacre to Paul (the document complies with s.2 LP(MP)A 1989).
d. She hands him a deed which states that Anne transfers Whiteacre to Paul (the
document complies with s.1 LP(MP)A 1989). Paul is then registered as owner
under s.27 LRA 2002.
Question 2
Anne has a trust interest in Greenacre; the legal title is held by her partner Dell.
Paul has purchased Greenacre from Dell and wants Anne to move out. Which is the
correct statement of Anne’s position?
a. Anne’s beneficial interest will be binding on Paul if Anne has entered her
interest in Greenacre on the land register as a restriction (s.40 LRA 2002).
b. Anne’s beneficial interest is automatically lost on transfer as her interest has

been overreached when purchase money was paid to Dell.
c. Paul will only be bound by Anne’s interest if she is in actual occupation.
Question 3
Anne bought Whiteacre from Paul. Her neighbour Nina claims that Anne cannot use
Whiteacre as a business as Nina entered into a restrictive covenant with Paul. How
should Nina have protected her interest?
a. She must enter the restrictive covenant onto the land register as a notice against
Whiteacre.
b. She cannot protect it against a bona fide purchaser.
c. If Nina is in actual occupation of her land she can have an overriding interest.
Question 4
Anne has a trust interest in Blueacre. Legal title is held by her parents, Daniel and
Dorothy. Paul has purchased Blueacre from Daniel and Dorothy and, after paying
the purchase monies to them both, wants Anne to move out. What is the correct
statement of Anne’s position?
a. Her interest has been overreached so she has no right to stay in Blueacre.
b. Paul is bound by her interest if she is in actual occupation of Blueacre.
c. Anne’s trust is binding on all but bona fide purchasers without notice.
Question 5
Anne has entered into a contract to buy Greenacre from Paul. He has now sold
Greenacre to Claire. Anne is saying that Claire must now sell Greenacre to her. What
is the correct statement of Anne’s position?
a. Anne has an estate contract, this is an equitable interest and if Claire is a
purchaser she takes free of the interest provided she had notice.
b. Anne should have protected the estate contract with a notice under s.32 LRA
2002 on the charges section of the land register. If she has, then Claire is bound
by that interest; if she has not, then Claire takes free regardless of notice or her
bona fides.
c. Anne has a contract with Paul and has a personal claim against him in breach of
contract.
Answers to these questions can be found on the VLE.

Notes
4 Settlements, trusts for sale and trusts of land
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.1 Background to settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Strict settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3 Trusts of land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Introduction
Settlements are beneficial interests in land created in favour of a series of persons.
Like much in land law, the rules for settlements were changed greatly in 1925; this
was designed partly to prevent the creation of long-lasting settlements, and partly
to overcome various problems with the old doctrine of ‘strict settlements’. Today all
settlements take effect as trusts of land under the Trusts of Land and Appointment
of Trustees Act 1996 (TLATA 1996), although some problems still exist. You need to
understand the problems under the old law so that you will be able to appreciate the
major changes introduced by TLATA 1996.
Learning outcomes
u explain the main characteristics of the strict settlement and trust for sale, and
the problems which each caused
u appreciate how a trust of land operates
u describe and critically evaluate the ways in which TLATA 1996 has reformed the
law relating to settlements of land.
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 5 ‘Successive interests in land’.
Essential reading
¢ Gray and Gray, ‘Regulation of trusts and co-ownership’. Available on the VLE.
Further reading
u Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 7 ‘Trusts of land’.
u Maudsley and Burn, Chapter 6 ‘The trust of land’.
u Smith, Chapter 14 ‘Successive and concurrent interests: introduction’.
Property law 4 Settlements, Trusts for Sale and Trusts of Land page 59
4.1 Background to settlements

The broad purpose of a settlement is to create a series of beneficial interests in favour
of a succession of persons. So, if S wants to transfer his land to A for life, then to B in
fee simple, this will be a settlement. Historically, settlements were used particularly by
the wealthy and the aristocracy in order to keep land in the ownership of one family
for a very long time, preventing its fragmentation. In 1925 there were several key
reforms to deter the creation of long-lasting settlements, including: a limitation upon
the length of time for which they could run (the rule against perpetuities); punitive
tax regulation; and the Settled Land Act 1925 (SLA 1925), which introduced complex
and costly rules for the running of ‘strict settlements’, a particular form of settlement
which created consecutive interests in the land (e.g. to A for life, then to B absolutely).
†
Since 1925, all strict settlements must involve a trust.† But, as is indicated below, it Read Gray and Gray,
became clear that strict settlements were beset by problems for all involved and they ‘Regulation of trusts and
were largely replaced by ‘trusts for sale’. The terminology is, however, difficult: strict co-ownership’. Available on
settlements (which can no longer be created) were only one form of settlement, and the VLE.
the term ‘strict settlement’ is still sometimes used to describe a chain of successive
interests in land. Until 1997 a trust for sale operated whenever concurrent interests
were created in land (e.g. where it was held by a cohabiting couple), or where the term
‘trust for sale’ was applied expressly to a settlement creating consecutive interests.
Again, it became clear that the trust for sale was not the most appropriate mechanism
for family arrangements which created beneficial interests in land, since its logic was
that the trustees of the land had a duty to sell it but only a power to postpone sale; a
family rarely views land as only a financial asset, and far more frequently buys land for
the primary purpose of retaining it as a home rather than selling it.
The greatest change in this area came in 1997 when TLATA 1996 came into force.
Whereas formerly a settlement of land was created either by way of strict settlement,
where the purchaser took his title from the tenant for life under SLA 1925, or by way
of trust for sale, where he took it from the trustees for sale, today all settlements take
effect as trusts of land under ss.2, 4 and 5 TLATA 1996. Existing SLA 1925 settlements are
unaffected and will continue to be governed by the complex rules summarised below,
but as no new SLA 1925 settlements can be created, strict settlements will become
increasingly less important and will not be examined substantively. You should
therefore focus your studies chiefly on the trust of land. What follows on settlements,
and also the trust for sale, is designed to provide you with a broader context in
which to place the trust of land as the modern legislative framework that supports
co-ownership.
Cases on trusts for sale will also be useful in interpreting some of the rules of the
trusts of land which now replace them. We will look at each of these three types of
ownership of land in the order of their historical significance.
The rules of trusts of land will be examined further in Chapter 5 in relation to

co-ownership. Please make sure that you understand the fundamental difference
between a settlement of land (where two or more persons have successive interests
in the same land, now almost always under a trust of land) and co-ownership (where
two or more persons have concurrent interests in the same land, again now under a
trust of land). While the same mechanism now governs both, they are conceptually
and historically different.
4.2 Strict settlement
4.2.1 Machinery
Section 1(1) SLA 1925 defined a settlement as an instrument under which land stands
limited in trust for any persons by way of succession or for an infant in possession
for an estate in fee simple or for a term of years absolute. This means that whenever
successive interests in land were created, a strict settlement arose, as in the simple
example used above: ‘to A for life, then to B absolutely’, or even ‘to A for life, remainder
to B for life, remainder to C absolutely’. After 1925 a settlement under SLA 1925 had to
be created by two stages:
1. a vesting deed, which vests the legal fee simple in the tenant for life, describes the
property and names the trustees, and
2. the trust instrument, which declares the trusts arising under the settlement.
Where the settlement was made by will, the will constituted the trust instrument and
the executors made a vesting assent in favour of the tenant for life. In this way the legal
estate was separated from the beneficial interests, as has long been the case with trusts
for sale. If no vesting deed was executed the tenant for life or statutory owner could
require the trustees of the settlement to execute one (s.9(2) SLA 1925), and until this was
done, no disposition of the land inter vivos could operate to pass a legal estate, unless it
was made in favour of a purchaser without notice of the fact that the tenant for life or
statutory owner had become entitled to have a vesting deed executed in their favour
(s.13 SLA 1925, the ‘paralysing section’, so-called because it is designed to prevent evasion
of the Act by making it generally impossible to dispose of the legal estate).
Example
To illustrate the SLA 1925 machinery, suppose that in 1950 land is settled by will on
A for life, remainder to B for life, remainder to C in fee simple. The will is the trust
instrument and the executors must execute a vesting assent in favour of A. A now
holds the legal estate on trust for himself for life and for B and C. Since 1925 life
interests and future interests are necessarily equitable. On A’s death the settlement
continues. The legal estate vests in A’s special personal representatives (the trustees
of the settlement) and B may call on them to vest the legal estate in him, which he
will then hold on trust for himself and C. On B’s death the settlement is at an end. The
legal estate devolves on B’s general personal representatives who are bound to convey
it by ordinary assent to C, the absolute owner. The remaining discussion of a strict
settlement assumes that the settlement was created validly before 1997.
4.2.2 Roles and rights
Tenant for life

The tenant for life is defined as any person who is of full age and beneficially entitled to
possession (ss.19 and 20 SLA 1925) and in the rare cases where there is no tenant for life
or the tenant for life is a minor, the legal estate is to be vested in the statutory owner
(usually the trustees of the settlement). Since 1925 the legal estate and the statutory
powers are vested in the same person (usually the tenant for life) to hold on trust for
those entitled under the settlement. The tenant for life has considerable powers, the
most important of which (the powers to sell, lease and mortgage) are exercisable
upon giving notice to the trustees of the settlement. There are certain statutory
restrictions on the exercise of these powers (ss.41 and 71 SLA 1925) and dispositions
which do not comply with the requirements of the Act are void (s.18), but as long as
the tenant for life acts bona fides, it appears that neither the trustees nor the court may
interfere with the exercise of the tenant for life’s powers.
The powers of the tenant for life are not assignable and although the settlement
may confer upon them additional powers, any provision designed to cut down their
powers is void (s.106 SLA 1925). Consider a proviso that the tenant for life is to forfeit
their interest on ceasing to reside on the settled land. If the tenant for life ceases to
reside in the exercise of their statutory powers (e.g. as a result of selling the land),
the proviso is void, but if they cease to reside for some other reason, the proviso is
operative and their interest determines: see Re Ames [1893] 2 Ch 479 and Re Acklom
[1929] 1 Ch 195.
A residence condition (a requirement that a tenant for life must reside on the settled
land) can be more effectively enforced if the land is settled on a trust of land.
Trustees of the settlement

Section 30 SLA 1925 defines who shall be the trustees of the settlement. Although the
legal estate in the settled land is not vested in them as trustees, they have important
functions in relation to the settlement. They give consent to certain transactions
and they receive notice from the tenant for life of their intention to effect certain
transactions. Moreover, they receive and hold capital money (e.g. money arising from
the sale, lease or mortgage of the land) and they must apply it in one of the ways set
out in s.73 SLA 1925, as the tenant for life may direct.
Purchaser of settled land

A purchaser is not entitled to see the trust instrument and is entitled and bound
to assume that the particulars in the vesting deed are correct (s.110(2) SLA 1925). A
purchaser dealing in good faith with the tenant for life is taken – as against all parties
entitled under the settlement – to have given the best price that could reasonably be
obtained, and to have complied with all the requisitions of the Act (s.110(1) SLA 1925).
Provided that they pay the purchase money to the trustees of the settlement, to a trust
corporation or into court (as the tenant for life may direct) they get a good title; the
beneficial interests under the settlement are overreached and take effect in the purchase
money. The general scheme is clear: the beneficiaries are protected by the requirement
that the purchaser pay the purchase money to the trustees of the settlement and the
purchaser is protected as long as they comply with the provisions of the Act.
4.2.3 Problems with strict settlements

Strict settlements were a strange anomalous form of trust, with trustees who had few
real powers and with the most important powers given to the life tenant, a beneficiary.
There were also very old-fashioned restrictions upon the life tenant’s ability to dispose
of the land other than by sale (e.g. they could not lease it for more than 50 years), and
the ability to mortgage the land for such an important reason as to raise money with
which to improve the land was severely limited. The documentation required was
complex and the wording of SLA 1925 was antiquated. Further, although most lawyers
avoided them whenever possible, strict settlements could be created accidentally,
particularly when a person wrote their own will and thus created successive interests
(e.g. ‘my house is to go to my husband for his life, and then to our son’). The husband
in that example would have a power to sell the house as life tenant, with nobody able
to prevent him from doing so.
4.2.4 Trusts for sale: a brief overview

Between 1925 and the beginning of 1997, the express creation of ‘an immediate
binding trust for sale’ was the method of avoidance of strict settlements. A trust for
sale essentially gave the trustees of the land a duty to sell it, and a power to postpone
the sale. This was a very artificial way of looking at most land ownership since the
equitable interests behind the trust attached to the proceeds of sale rather than to
the land itself, with the help of overreaching. The consent of named persons could be
required for a sale, and this was sometimes used to make the exercise of the duty of
sale difficult. Since the duty to sell was paramount, if one trustee wanted a sale then
they could impose their decision on the other(s). Section 30 LPA 1925 gave a discretion
to the courts in deciding whether a sale should be imposed in spite of contrary wishes,
and a great deal of case law was generated on the issue of how a court should balance
competing desires of beneficiaries to sell the land or reside on it. There was also (until
1955) a denial that beneficiaries had any right to occupy the land held on trust for
sale. See Lord Denning’s judgment in Bull v Bull [1955] 1 QB 234 where he held that a
beneficiary did have the right to occupy the land; this has been almost universally
accepted since. The main problem with the trust for sale’s application to land law was
that its premise was simply incompatible with the nature of family trusts of land: a
duty to sell, the doctrine of conversion and the initial denial of a beneficiary’s right to
occupy the land are not a good fit with the reality of the situation where land provides
a home and people care about more than its value as a financial asset.
1. What is a strict settlement and what are the historical reasons for and against
creating one?
2. Define (a) trust for sale; (b) trust of land; (c) life tenant.
3. Who has the power to sell the land in a strict settlement? Can anyone stop him?
4. Why are strict settlements now very rare?
5. What were the advantages and disadvantages of trusts for sale?
Further reading
¢ Hopkins, N. ‘Legislative comment: the Trusts of Land and Appointment of
Trustees Act 1996’ (1996) Conv 411.
4.3 Trusts of land
4.3.1 Introduction to trusts of land

The law on co-ownership in England and Wales is complex. It is difficult to know when
two or more people acquire rights to land. The land register records the ‘legal owner’
(or proprietor) of the property but does not identify other people who may also have
rights (‘equitable rights’) to that same property. The law on ‘settlements’ (that is, the
law on ‘trusts’ in modern parlance) governs the way in which land law recognises the
rights of people to the land who are not recorded as the proprietor of that land on the
land register.
These rights can arise in the form of express trusts (which are created deliberately
by the ‘settlor’ of a trust in compliance with the statutory formalities for a trust, as
discussed below), or in the form of trusts implied by law, which the court interprets as
being appropriate on the facts of any given case. Trusts may be implied by law by way
of constructive trust, resulting trust or proprietary estoppel (as considered in Chapters
5 and 7 respectively).
In Chapter 5 ‘Co-ownership’ we consider the ways in which the concepts of ‘joint

tenancy’ and ‘tenancy in common’ have been used in the cases to conceptualise the
rights of co-habitants to their home. In this chapter we consider how legislation has
been used to explain the operation of trusts over land.
According to s.1 TLATA 1996, ‘trust of land’ means ‘…any trust of property which
consists of or includes land…’, whether express, implied, resulting or constructive, and
whether created before or after the Act itself came into force, except for existing strict
settlements. Where a settlement takes effect by way of a trust of land (as all post-1996
settlements), the legal estate is vested in the trustees of land. All trusts for sale of land
are thus converted into ‘trusts of land’. Trustees of land have broader powers than
those previously enjoyed by trustees for sale under ss.28 and 29 LPA 1925 (ss.6–9 TLATA
1996), including the power to delegate any of their powers to beneficiaries of full age
beneficially entitled to possession.
Unlike pre-1997 trustees for sale, they are under no duty to sell the land (ss.4 and 5
TLATA 1996). The doctrine of conversion (whereby the interest of a beneficiary under
a trust for sale was regarded as an interest in personal property) is abolished (s.3
TLATA 1996), but the overreaching machinery (whereby, on payment of the purchase
money to two trustees or a trust corporation, the interests of the beneficiaries are
overreached) is retained. Beneficiaries will generally have the right to occupy the trust
land (ss.12 and 13 TLATA 1996).
The rules relating to consents and consultation are similar to those which applied to
trusts for sale and which were formerly contained in s.26 LPA 1925, but ss.14 and 15
TLATA 1996 go much further than s.30 LPA 1925 in their provisions, allowing a trustee or
beneficiary to apply to the court for an order relating to the exercise of the trustees’
functions, and in the provisions setting out the matters to be considered by the court
in determining such an application. It is important that you fully understand the effect
of TLATA 1996 on both settlements of land and the co-ownership of land. Co-ownership
is considered in Chapter 5, where we shall return to TLATA 1996 in more detail.
4.3.2 Introduction to the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act

1996
TLATA 1996 created an important set of reforms. The law had previously used a
concept of a ‘trust for sale’, which presumed that any co-owned land held on trust
was intended for sale. This made it very difficult to explain how such land could be
occupied as a home because the trustees were expected to sell that land. TLATA 1996
replaced the old ‘trust for sale’ with the new ‘trust of land’. The trust of land provisions
explained how the beneficiaries of a trust of land could occupy the trust property as a
home without assuming that it was intended to be sold.
Importantly, TLATA 1996 (in ss.14 and 15) set out the issues that the courts are required
to take into account when deciding whether a property should be sold or whether
it should be kept as a home. The courts are required to take into account the needs
of any insolvency or mortgage creditors, as well as the rights of any children in
occupation of the property. The case law had previously prioritised the rights of
creditors over all other people, except in very limited circumstances. Consequently,
the provisions as to the sale of the home that comprises the trust property are
important in considering the nature of the law (in terms of essay-writing) and in
analysing the circumstances that the courts will take into account when considering
the sale of the property (in terms of answering problems).
4.3.3 Disputes as to whether property held under a trust of land should

be sold or retained
Introduction
The case law before TLATA 1996 took a very particular view of the circumstances in
which the trustees in a trust for sale could delay a sale. Ordinarily, a sale would always
be ordered to protect creditors – whether creditors in an insolvency or mortgage
creditors (i.e. a bank). No other category of person seemed to have this protected
position. This made it very difficult for persons in occupation of a home to resist
trustees who wanted to sell the property, especially if there were creditors, because
the court would nearly always order that the property should be sold.
The provisions of TLATA 1996 regarding disputes as to sale

When there are disputes between the beneficiaries to a trust, or between trustees
and some or all of the beneficiaries, then it is open to the parties to petition the court
for an order as to how they should proceed. The parties will seek an order of the court
further to s.14 TLATA 1996. The court is empowered under s.14 TLATA 1996 to make any
order it sees fit. Section 14(1) provides that:
Any person who is a trustee of land or has an interest in property subject to a trust of
land may make an application to the court for an order under this section.
The scope of any order which the court is entitled to make is set out in s.14(2):
…the court may make any such order –
(a) relating to the exercise by the trustees of their functions (including an order
relieving them of any obligation to obtain the consent of, or to consult, any person in
connection with the exercise of any of their functions), or
(b) declaring the nature or extent of a person’s interest in property subject to the trust,
as the court thinks fit.
The principal question is: what are the matters that the courts must take into account
when exercising their powers under s.14? In this regard, s.15 sets out four factors that
must be considered:
(a) the intentions of the person or persons (if any) who created the trust,
(b) the purposes for which the property subject to the trust is held,
(c) the welfare of any minor who occupies or might reasonably be expected to occupy
any land subject to the trust as his home, and
(d) the interests of any secured creditor of any beneficiary.
Therefore, the court must consider, first, the settlor’s intentions in creating the trust
of land. Second, the objectives that were set out in that trust. Thus, a trust that was
created for the purpose of providing a home for the beneficiaries would be likely to
preserve the home primarily (where possible), whereas a trust created for investment
profit would be more likely to be sold. Third, the ‘welfare’ of any children who occupy
the property. Given that children ordinarily do not contribute financially to the
acquisition of property and given that children cannot own property or enter into
loan contracts, the case law has tended to overlook their interests (assuming that they
will go wherever their parents go). This provision gives the position of children legal
status for the first time. Fourth, the interests of any secured creditor, who could be a
mortgagee (i.e. a bank lending money on a mortgage) or a business creditor who has a
property right granted to them over the property.
Cases like Re Citro [1991] Ch 142 had taken the position that the interests of insolvency
creditors would be given priority over the interests of other people. In Re Citro, it was
no answer to an application for sale on behalf of the bankrupt’s creditors that the loss
of the home that was the subject of the trust would require the family to leave the
area in which they lived and to uproot their children from their schooling.
It was held that a sale of the property would not be refused unless the circumstances
were exceptional and that this form of hardship was, in the maudlin and yet lyrical
view of the court, merely one of the melancholy features of life. As Nourse LJ put it in
Re Citro:
What then are exceptional circumstances? As the cases show, it is not uncommon
for a wife with young children to be faced with eviction in circumstances where the
realisation of her beneficial interest will not produce enough to buy a comparable
house in the same neighbourhood or indeed elsewhere. And, if she has to move
elsewhere, there may be problems over schooling and so forth. Such circumstances,
while engendering a natural sympathy in all who hear of them, cannot be described as
exceptional. They are the melancholy consequences of debt and improvidence with
which every civilized society has been familiar.
The sense one might take from this passage is that this area of law is miserable and
that the law is not going to do anything to relieve that misery for people faced with
the prospect of losing their homes to insolvency creditors.
The first situation in which an application for an order for sale was denied was that in
Re Holliday [1981] 2 WLR 996, a case in which the bankrupt had gone into bankruptcy on
his own petition to rid himself of his creditors and one in which the debt was so small
in comparison to the sale value of the house that there was thought to be no hardship
to the creditors in waiting for the bankrupt’s three children to reach school-leaving
age before ordering a sale. However, that hardship will be caused to the children
or to the family in general as a result of a sale in favour of a trustee in bankruptcy
is considered, as mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, to be merely one of the
‘maudlin vicissitudes of life’ (i.e. one of the sad parts of life).
There is a balancing act to be conducted by the court between these four potentially
contradictory considerations. It does not appear that there is any significance in the
ranking of these matters, which the courts are required to take into account (i.e. it
does not seem to signify that the matters to be taken into account have been listed in
this particular order).
Consequently, one of the purposes of TLATA 1996 was to equalise the positions of
different classes of people who were not creditors but who would want their needs to
be considered when an application for the sale of a home was made. Importantly, the
legislation did not identify which class of person should win. Instead, the legislation
only requires the court to consider the positions of each of those classes of person in
any given case. Therefore, the old case law will still be important in deciding how this
legislation might be applied in the future.
The law before 1996 tended to consider the home to be simply another financial
asset that should be sold to earn a profit. Sales of homes held on trust would only
be delayed in exceptional circumstances. The law after 1996, arguably, considers the
home to be more than simply a financial asset that should be sold.
The following situations were held sufficient to justify delaying a sale of the property:
u where the debt owed was very small and constituted only a fraction of the total
market value of the house at issue (Re Holliday [1981] 2 WLR 996)
u where the bankrupt’s spouse was terminally ill and had special housing needs
(Claughton v Charalambous [1999] 1 FLR 740)
u where the property had been adapted specially to accommodate an occupant’s

special housing needs (Re Gorman [1990] 1 WLR 616)
u where the bankrupt’s spouse had been diagnosed as being a paranoid

schizophrenic (Nicholls v Lan [2006] EWHC 1255 (Ch)).
Aside from these narrow circumstances, the law ordinarily orders a sale of the
property to protect insolvency creditors or mortgagees.
The statutory position in relation to insolvency

There are, however, specific provisions in the Insolvency Act 1986 that modify TLATA
1996 in practice. Section 335A(1) Insolvency Act 1986 overrides the provisions of TLATA
1996 by providing that:
Any application by a trustee of a bankrupt’s estate under section 14 [of TLATA 1996]
for an order under that section for the sale of land shall be made to the court having
jurisdiction in relation to the bankruptcy.
The application under s.14 is therefore bound up with the hearing of the bankruptcy
petition. The court’s powers are as follows (s.335A(2)):
On such an application the court shall make such order as it thinks just and reasonable
having regard to—
(a) the interests of the bankrupt’s creditors;
(b) where the application is made in respect of land which includes a dwelling house
which is or has been the home of the bankrupt or the bankrupt’s spouse or civil
partner or former spouse or former civil partner–
(i) the conduct of the spouse, civil partner, former spouse or former civil partner], so
far as contributing to the bankruptcy,
(ii) the needs and financial resources of the spouse, civil partner, former spouse or
former civil partner], and
(iii) the needs of any children; and
(c) all the circumstances of the case other than the needs of the bankrupt.
Harrington v Bennett [2000] BPIR 630 noted five particular features of s.335A Insolvency
Act 1986:
1. where the application is made more than one year after the vesting of the
bankrupt’s property in the trustee, the interests of creditors are paramount
2. the court can only ignore the creditors’ interests in exceptional circumstances
3. the categories of exceptional circumstances are not closed, with the result that it
is open to the judge to decide what may constitute exceptional circumstances in
future cases
4. the term ‘exceptional circumstances’ indicates circumstances ‘outside the usual

melancholy consequences of debt or improvidence’
5. the fact that the sale proceeds may be used entirely to discharge the expenses of
the trustee in bankruptcy is not an exceptional circumstance.
Therefore, by the time of Harrington we can see that we have returned to the position
in Citro because the interests of the creditors are found to be ‘paramount’.
1. List the main changes made by TLATA 1996.
2. In which circumstances will a trust of land now exist?
3. When do beneficiaries of a trust of land have the right to occupy it?
4. What has happened to all pre-existing trusts for sale of land?
Summary
Strict settlements were a historical method of keeping land in the family for
generations. Trusts for sale saw land as just an investment. TLATA 1996 has replaced
both with a ‘new’ trust of land (although some strict settlements do still exist), where
trustees have the power either to sell or to retain the land. Both strict settlements
and trusts for sale had disadvantages for the beneficiaries and strict settlements in
particular were unnecessarily complex. The new trust of land has many advantages
over its predecessors, and the courts have a clear role in resolving disputes between
trustees and/or beneficiaries. Trustees of land now have the same powers as if
they were absolute owners of the land (subject to contrary provisions in the trust
instrument), and so are much freer to deal with the land in accordance with the
true purposes of the trust. But they also have corresponding duties to consult the
beneficiaries and to exercise reasonably their discretion about matters such as which
beneficiary may occupy the land. We shall return to these powers and duties in the
next chapter in the context of co-ownership of land.
Further reading
¢ Battersby, G. and G. Ferris ‘The impact of the Trusts of Land and Appointment of
Trustees Act 1996 on purchasers of registered land’ (1998) Conv 168.
¢ Hopkins, N. ‘The Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996’ (1996)
Conv 411.
Question 1
‘The Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996 has at last placed the law
relating to settlements and trusts for sale of land on a rational and straightforward
basis.’
Discuss.
Question 2
Martin and his family occupy a house, The Grange, in Devon, England, which is
subject to a trust of land. That trust was created so as to provide a home for Martin
and his family. The house is occupied by Martin, his wife Clarissa and their children
Desmond and Eve. The house is secured by way of a mortgage with Whale Bank for
80 per cent of the purchase price of the property. The property has increased in
value since its purchase in 2000 with the result that the mortgage is only equal to
50 per cent of the value of the property. Martin is a self-employed, freelance writer.
Martin has developed mental health problems and therefore is unable to continue
working. He was declared bankrupt last week. Clarissa is unable to find work that
will meet the mortgage repayments. Desmond, aged 17, suffers from a physical
disability, which means that he requires extensive adjustments to a home, which
were made to The Grange when it was acquired.
Eve is aged 15 and has close social and emotional ties to the area, including a happy
school life.
Advise Martin on his family’s possibilities for remaining in occupation of the
property.
Question 1
This question requires some historical comment on strict settlements and trusts
for sale and the practical difficulties of each, including accidental creation of strict
settlements, the role of the life tenant in a strict settlement, the doctrine of conversion
and the operation of the duty to sell under a trust for sale. Section 30 LPA 1925 should
be discussed in outline (see also Chapter 5) and then the main features of TLATA 1996
explained and evaluated, in particular the new powers and duties of trustees of land.
Remaining areas which are not ‘rational and straightforward’ should be suggested (e.g.
s.8, which deals with consent requirements and also allows a settlor to remove powers
of disposition which the trustees of land would otherwise have; and the continued
existence of old strict settlements, which could easily have been converted by statute
into trusts of land).
Question 2
The issue here is whether there should be a sale of The Grange under s.14 TLATA
1996. Martin and his family will need to argue that a sale should be delayed. Section
15 requires that the court consider the four factors set out in that section – a good
answer would go through them in turn, discussing anything relevant to the facts of
the problem. First, the intention of the settlor was to provide a home for Martin and
his family, and therefore this would be an argument for delaying sale. Second, the
objective of the trust was to provide a home, similarly.
Third, the position of the minors (Desmond and Eve) might justify a delay. Desmond’s
‘welfare’ is particularly significant because his condition requires the sort of
adjustments that have been made to The Grange. Re Gorman did find that the special
housing needs of the defendant were important and would justify a delay in sale.
Therefore, a delay (until he is of the age of majority – i.e. 18) would be justified, as in
Holliday. It might be difficult to argue for a delay longer than that. Eve’s position is
weaker because the courts have not (as in Citro) traditionally been concerned about
ordinary problems like a child having to leave their school (even if that would be a
wrench for the child). Unlike Desmond, she does not have the same quality of ‘welfare’
problem. It might be possible that a court would order a delay of three years until she
reached the age of majority.
Fourth, the position of the mortgagee is important as a secured creditor. The decision
in Harrington would justify making an order for sale so that the creditor can recover its
potential loss (given that bankrupt Martin is unlikely to be able to make repayments
within a year, and Clarissa is unable to find work to pay off the debts). The unsecured
creditors in the bankruptcy would not have any rights under s.15 because that
provision is limited to ‘secured’ creditors (i.e. creditors with rights against the home).
Holliday delayed the sale because the debt was very small (only £2,000); here the debt
is still equal to half of the value of the house, even if it has fallen from 80 per cent of
the value 17 years previously.
It would then be open to you to comment on the desirability of this area of law: for
example, should the law prioritise the needs of secured creditors like mortgagees so
as to protect the housing market, or should the law protect the desire of people to
stay in their homes?

Within the scope of this chapter, there are two principal areas for assessment:
1. An essay on the nature of, and the changes created by, TLATA 1996 when
compared with the earlier trust for sale model and its case law.
2. A problem question asking you to advise whether or not a sale of a home held
on trust should go ahead on a particular set of facts. (This problem question may
stand on its own, or the TLATA 1996 issues may be part of a broader problem
question about co-ownership.)
Quick quiz
Question 1
What was the major change to settlements effected by TLATA 1996?
a. It made all settlements trusts of land under ss.2, 4 and 5.
b. It made all settlements trusts for sale.
c. It made no change at all.
Question 2
What is Paul’s interest in the settlement ‘To Paul for life then to Anne’?
a. Paul has a life interest in remainder.
b. Paul has a vested interest in possession.
c. Paul has legal title and beneficial interest vested in possession.
Question 3
What is NOT the usual role of trustees of a strict settlement?
a. Under s.30 SLA 1925 they do not have legal title in the land but they are required
to consent to certain transactions the life tenant may wish to make.
b. Under s.73 SLA 1925 they must apply the capital money arising from the land as
the life tenant may direct.
c. They hold the legal title to the land.
Question 4
What is the importance of s.3 TLATA 1996?
a. It removes the principle of overreaching from trusts of land.
b. It sets out what a trust of land means.
c. It removes the doctrine of conversion from a trust of land.
Question 5
What is the importance of ss.14 and 15 TLATA 1996?
a. They set out who can apply for a court order for the exercise of trustees’
functions.
b. They set out the beneficiaries’ right to occupy.
c. They set out the duty of a trustee to sell.

5 Co-ownership
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.1 The two forms of co-ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2 The means by which co-ownership might arise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.3 Distinction between joint tenancy and tenancy in common . . . . . . . 73
5.4 Severance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.5 The 1925 and 1996 reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.6 Rights of beneficiaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Introduction
This chapter deals with the situation that arises where two or more persons are
entitled to the simultaneous enjoyment of land. Such situations occur frequently in
everyday life (e.g. when a married couple purchase a matrimonial home or when a
person dies leaving their house to their children). For reasons we explore in section
5.3, whenever land is co-owned it is held via a trust, and we need to spend a few
moments understanding this extremely important property holding device. The trust
concept was introduced very briefly in section 1.4.1, when we considered the two
axioms of land law, and you should re-read that section before proceeding further.
At its heart a trust is centrally concerned with the division of ownership and is best
understood by contrasting the concept with the absolute ownership with which you
are more familiar.
Where property is owned absolutely the owner’s legal title includes the beneficial
ownership and comprises the rights both to control the property and to enjoy it. There
is simply one absolute title that gives the owner all the rights one normally identifies
with ownership which, while not literally absolute (e.g. a landowner cannot normally
build without planning permission or drive their car above the speed limit), do include
the right to control and enjoy insofar as the law allows. In contrast, under a trust,
ownership is divided between the trustee (in whom the formal legal title is vested)
and the beneficiary (who holds a separate equitable interest). Under this model the
formal legal title and beneficial ownership are separated with the former vested in the
trustee, who controls the property but cannot enjoy it, because the legal title now no
longer includes the beneficial ownership, which adheres to the equitable interest, and
therefore belongs to the beneficiary (or someone claiming under the beneficiary).
It is important to understand the distinction between legal ownership and equitable

ownership, which can be represented diagrammatically like this:
LAW Trustee(s)
EQUITY Beneficiaries
The scheme of the 1925 legislation was to impose a statutory trust for sale in all cases
of co-ownership, but although this was intended to simplify conveyancing, it gave rise
to a number of legal problems, not least because it was often inappropriate to apply
to co-ownership principles (like the doctrine of conversion, now abolished) associated
with express trusts for sale. However, since the Trusts of Land and Appointment of
Trustees Act 1996 (TLATA 1996) came into force, trusts for sale have been converted
into trusts of land. Co-ownership now takes effect behind a trust of land. While
many LPA 1925 provisions governing co-ownership remain good law, TLATA 1996 has
introduced important reforms in this field.
Learning outcomes
u explain the distinction between a joint tenancy and a tenancy in common
u describe the various modes of severance
u recognise the situations in which a resulting trust or constructive trust may arise
u explain the significance of the LPA 1925 and TLATA 1996 reforms relating to
co-ownership
u apply the above rules and principles to hypothetical situations.
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 4 ‘Co-ownership’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 8 ‘Co-ownership of land – the basic principles’.
Property law 5 Co-ownership page 71
¢ Smith, Chapter 15 ‘Joint tenancy and tenancy in common’.
You may like to re-read Gray and Gray, ‘Regulation of trusts and co-ownership’.
Available on the VLE.
5.1 The two forms of co-ownership

Co-ownership arises whenever two or more people are simultaneously entitled in
possession to an interest in the same land. Although there were historically other
methods of shared ownership (and there arguably still are) the joint tenancy and
the tenancy in common are the only forms of co-ownership that can exist in English
private law today. The difference between the two is both conceptual and substantive.
Under a joint tenancy, the joint tenants collectively own the whole and do not have
individual interests. When one dies, their interest dies with them until, after the death
of the penultimate joint tenant, the co-ownership comes to an end and the survivor
becomes the sole owner of the property. This is known as the right of survivorship and
it follows that a joint tenant has no interest that can be left to pass via a will because,
by the time the will comes into effect, they have no interest to bequeath as their joint
interest died with them. Thus, only the survivor has an interest at the end of the joint
tenancy on the death of the penultimate joint tenant, which they can leave by will.
They are then the sole beneficial owner, whose interest will not die with them but
survives to pass via their will or under the rules of intestacy.
Joint tenancy Tenancy in common
25% 25%
100%
25% 25%
No individual interest. Each individual has a

separate interest.
In contrast, under a tenancy in common each co-owner has a separate and defined
share in the co-owned property. Such a share is intangible, but real, in the sense that
the property has not been physically divided (which is why such interests are often
referred to as undivided shares) but represents a solely owned interest in part of
the whole, which can be disposed of either during the lifetime or on the death of
the tenant in common. It is important to understand what is meant when we speak
of the share under a tenancy in common being undivided. Tenants in common, like
joint tenants, have unity of possession (meaning that each co-owner has the right to
possess the whole of the land alongside the other co-owners). Consequently, apart
from under certain statutory provisions to be considered later, if any co-occupier
has the right to exclude another from part of the property this is incapable of being
co-ownership, under either a joint tenancy or a tenancy in common, but is simply two
separate ‘ownerships’.
Before proceeding we will introduce another idea which will be important to your
understanding of co-ownership, namely the concept of beneficial ownership, which
signifies the person(s) with the right to benefit from the property. For example, in
the simplest form of ownership, where there is a single legal owner of property (e.g.
a car or an estate in land, etc.), that person is said to have an absolute title, including
not just the formal legal title but also the beneficial interest. Such an owner can both
manage the property (via their legal title) and enjoy it (as beneficial owner). In other
words, their absolute title comprises both the formal and beneficial interest, although
it would be a mistake to consider these as two separate concepts as they are united
within the absolute title.
In contrast to absolute ownership, consider once more the trust, an idea we introduced
in Chapter 1, where it was described as a mechanism based on the division of ownership
into separate legal and equitable titles, with the former vested in trustees who manage
the property on behalf of beneficiaries who as equitable owners have the right to enjoy
its fruits (see diagram above). In terms of beneficial ownership, therefore, under a
simple trust it is not the legal owner but the equitable owners who have the beneficial
interest, which is why we refer to them as beneficiaries. The term ‘beneficial ownership’
is therefore often used as a synonym for the equitable interest behind a trust.
5.2 The means by which co-ownership might arise
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 4 ‘Co-ownership’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 8 ‘Co-ownership of land – the basic principles’.
The majority of homes in the United Kingdom are shared by two or more adults, and
very often each will contribute directly (e.g. by paying the deposit or mortgage) or
indirectly (e.g. by covering ancillary costs – either financially or in kind – including
running expenses, home improvements, childcare, etc.) to its value as both a home
and an investment. In such situations the parties are best advised to regulate their co-
ownership by means of a formal express agreement. This should set out the rights and
obligations of each in relation to the land and include an express declaration of trust,
which, as it comprises land, should fulfil the requirements of s.53(1)(b) LPA 1925 and be
evidenced by signed writing.
Unfortunately, however, cohabitees often fail to formalise the basis on which such
an important asset is to be held, often because couples rarely consider that their
relationship might come to an end, nor what will happen if it does. Where no express
trust has been declared in accordance with s.53(1)(b) LPA 1925, co-ownership will
often arise informally (even by conduct without the parties realising the implications
of their behaviour), usually under the provisions of s.53(2) LPA 1925, which exempts
implied trusts from the formalities of an express trust. So, in addition to express
trusts, such equitable co-ownership may occur through the application of principles
of resulting trusts, constructive trusts or (rarely) proprietary estoppel. See Chapter 7
for the latter, but bear in mind that the relationship between constructive trusts and
proprietary estoppel is an uncertain and difficult one which you will need to consider
later, once you have assimilated the basics of both these separate but interrelated
doctrines.
A resulting trust arises (among other cases) when:
u a person contributes directly towards the purchase of a home but does not have
their name on the legal title (known as ‘purchase in the name of another’). In such
a case there will be a presumption that the contributor has a beneficial interest in
the land behind a resulting trust.
A constructive trust arises (again, among other cases) when:
u a person has contributed, directly or indirectly, to the purchase and/or

establishment of a home but does not have their name on the legal title in
circumstances where the court is willing to recognise a common intention on the
basis of that contribution and/or other evidence. This is known more specifically as
a common intention constructive trust to differentiate it from the other types of
constructive trust.
Resulting and constructive trusts will be examined in greater detail later in this
chapter, but it should be noted that there are important recent cases which indicate
that the basis on which cohabitees’ rights in the home are calculated is evolving. There
are also relevant recent reform proposals, which would introduce radical change if
they become law – although there is currently no prospect of this occurring.
When analysing a situation of co-ownership or answering a problem question, it is

therefore necessary to discuss the legal and equitable positions relating to ownership
separately, and it is helpful to draw diagrams to represent the changing positions as

the facts of the scenario develop. For example, if land is conveyed to A and B, in law
they will take it as joint tenants. If B has paid two-thirds of the purchase price and
A one-third, then in equity A and B will (at least outside the residential context) be
tenants in common, as shown in Figure 5.1 (see Section 5.3.2 for why).
Law A+B joint tenants
Equity A (1/3) B (2/3) tenants in common
Figure 5.1: Legal and equitable positions relating to ownership
5.3 Distinction between joint tenancy and tenancy in common
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 4 ‘Co-ownership’: Sections 4.1 –4.7.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 8 ‘Co-ownership of land – the basic principles’:
Sections 8.1 –8.9.
¢ Hudson, Chapter 15 ‘Trusts of homes’. Available on the VLE.
¢ Smith, Chapter 15 ‘Joint tenancy and tenancy in common’.
Although there were historically other methods of shared ownership of land, the joint
tenancy and the tenancy in common are the only significant forms of co-ownership
today and it is the right of survivorship that is the most significant difference (see
Dunbar v Plant [1998] Ch 412). We have already discussed this but, to recap, it means
that on the death of each joint tenant, their interest in the land dies with them until
only one of the original co-owners remains, who then holds the land as sole owner.
By contrast, on the death of a tenant in common their ‘undivided share’ passes under
their will or intestacy; survivorship does not apply to tenancy in common.
In equity it is possible to co-own land via either (or both) a joint tenancy or tenancy
in common. At law it is only permitted to do so via a joint tenancy. The reason for
what sounds, initially, like a strange rule is purely practical. Before 1925, land could
be co-owned legally via either a tenancy in common or a joint tenancy (as personalty
still can be co-owned today). As you will see below, under a tenancy in common there
is no unity of title, which means that the tenants in common could have different
documentary titles. As anyone who has ever bought a house will know, investigating
title is an expensive and time-consuming business and thus, in a bid to speed up
conveyancing, the 1925 legislation limited legal co-ownership to joint tenancies
(meaning there was only one legal title to investigate) and also limited the maximum
number of legal joint owners to four (Trustee Act 1925), to further reduce the
complication of dealing with the legal title (see ss.34 and 36 LPA 1925).
Thus, if a legal title is conveyed to more than four co-owners or as a tenancy in

common it will simply take effect as a legal joint tenancy limited to no more than the
first four legal owners named in the conveyance (s.34 LPA 1925). Although this makes
dealing with the legal title much simpler, it lacks flexibility. After all, there might be
more than four people with an interest in the property or, because they do not want
to be bound by the right of survivorship, the co-owners might not wish their interest
to be held via a joint tenancy. To simplify conveyancing but to maintain such flexibility,
the 1925 legislation (as interpreted at least) consequently played a simple but neat
little trick by imposing a trust whenever land was co-owned. This squared the circle
of simplifying dealings with the legal title (by imposing limits on how it might be
held) but maintaining flexibility with regard to the beneficial interest (by allowing the
equitable interest to be held under a joint tenancy and/or a tenancy in common with
no limit to the number of beneficial owners).
5.3.1 The four ‘unities’

It is therefore particularly important to know whether co-owners hold as joint tenants
or as tenants in common. To determine this, three questions need to be asked:
1. Are the four unities present? If not, there cannot be a joint tenancy. There must be
unity of title, time, interest and possession:
u Unity of title requires that all co-owners derive their interests from the same
document or act.
u Unity of time requires that the interests of all co-owners vest in them at the
same time.
u Unity of interest requires that all co-owners have the same interest in the land
(e.g. freehold estate).
u Unity of possession requires that each co-owner is as much entitled to

possession of the land as any other co-owner.
As we have already seen, unity of possession is also an essential element of tenancy

in common. Therefore a co-owner who is not in occupation is generally not
entitled to claim an occupation rent from a co-owner in occupation, although the
matter is now governed by ss.12 and 13 TLATA 1996, which contain some exceptions
to this general rule (see below).
So, only if all four unities are present can there be a joint tenancy, but a tenancy in
common requires only unity of possession to be shown.
2. Are there any words of severance in the grant indicating that the tenants were to
take as tenants in common (e.g. ‘X and Y in equal shares’)?
3. Is the situation one where equity presumes a tenancy in common?
The principle of joint tenancy makes sense if you think about it as similar to a marriage.
In the Christian marriage ceremony, traditionally, there was an important moment

in front of God when two people (husband and wife) became ‘one flesh’. That is, two
people are treated as being one person in front of God. A joint tenancy is similar in the
sense that two or more cohabitants acquire unified rights because their rights come
into existence at the same time, with the same rights, in relation to the same title and
into possession at once. Their rights are indivisible unless they go through the process
of severance, just as a married couple are treated as being indivisible unless they
divorce or one of them dies.
In answering problem questions in this area it is important to identify (i) whether

there is a joint tenancy, and, if so, (ii) whether severance has taken place.
5.3.2 The acquisition of equitable interests in the home
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 4 ‘Co-ownership’: Section 4.11 ‘The express and implied creation
of co-ownership in practice: express, resulting and constructive trusts’.
The law relating to the acquisition of equitable interests in the home (often referred
to as ‘trusts of homes’) – that is, situations in which there is cohabitation of property
and those cohabitants are contesting whether they have rights in the property and
the size and nature of their rights – is one of the most interesting areas of land law. The
subject matter of the cases is easy to understand: there are relationship breakdowns,
cohabitants resisting mortgage lenders who wish to take possession of property and
other situations in which claimants argue that it is ‘unconscionable’ for them to be

denied some property rights in a home.
There are many cases in this area and they tend to disagree with one another.
Therefore, the approach that is taken here is to begin with the most recent decision
of the Supreme Court (that in Jones v Kernott [2011] UKSC 53) as the centrepiece. That
judgment does not overrule any cases and therefore understanding the trends in
those earlier cases will remain significant in discussing the likely future application of
Jones v Kernott.
The Supreme Court in Jones v Kernott attempted to explain the earlier decision
of the House of Lords in Stack v Dowden [2007] UKHL 17. The approach set out in a
joint judgment of Lady Hale and Lord Walker in Jones v Kernott is the most coherent
approach in this area. It is suggested that that is the approach you should use as the
structure for answering problem questions in this area:
1. If the property is registered in the name of one person, presume that that person
is the sole equitable owner; whereas, if the property is registered in the name of
more than one person, presume that those people are equitable co-owners of the
property.
2. Those presumptions can be rebutted by identifying a different common intention

of the parties. This common intention should be ‘inferred’ from the circumstances,
but done so ‘objectively’. The concept of ‘common intention’ was debated
intensely in the earlier case law, and that earlier case law remains important.
3. If the quest for the common intention produces no answer, then the court may do
what is ‘fair’ in the circumstances.
Therefore, the important message to take from this three-part layout is the following:
in answering a problem question you will have to identify the parties’ common
intention, which you will do by looking at all of the earlier case law on ‘common
intention’. If that search for a common intention is inconclusive then you can ask what
is ‘fair’.
5.3.3 The current law

In Jones v Kernott the Supreme Court restated and clarified the familiar principles of
Stack v Dowden and confirmed the approach taken in Oxley v Hiscock [2004] EWCA Civ
546. However, there was less unanimity between the Supreme Court judges on when
common intention should be inferred or imputed, or whether fairness is the key issue
– for a unanimous judgment, there is a lot of disagreement, with the judges reaching
their decision by completely different routes! The core principles as Lady Hale and
Lord Walker see them are stated in para.51 of the judgment:
In summary, therefore, the following are the principles applicable in a case such as this,
where a family home is bought in the joint names of a cohabiting couple who are both
responsible for any mortgage, but without any express declaration of their beneficial
interests.
(1) The starting point is that equity follows the law and they are joint tenants both in law
and in equity.
(2) That presumption can be displaced by showing (a) that the parties had a different
common intention at the time when they acquired the home, or (b) that they later
formed the common intention that their respective shares would change.
(3) Their common intention is to be deduced objectively from their conduct: ‘the relevant
intention of each party is the intention which was reasonably understood by the other
party to be manifested by that party’s words and conduct notwithstanding that he
did not consciously formulate that intention in his own mind or even acted with some
different intention which he did not communicate to the other party’ (Lord Diplock in
Gissing v Gissing [1971] AC 886, 906). Examples of the sort of evidence which might be
relevant to drawing such inferences are given in Stack v Dowden, at para 69.
(4) In those cases where it is clear either (a) that the parties did not intend joint tenancy
at the outset, or (b) had changed their original intention, but it is not possible to
ascertain by direct evidence or by inference what their actual intention was as to
the shares in which they would own the property, ‘the answer is that each is entitled
to that share which the court considers fair having regard to the whole course of
of dealing between them in relation to the property’: Chadwick LJ in Oxley v Hiscock
[2005] Fam 211, para 69. In our judgment, ‘the whole course of dealing…in relation to
the property’ should be given a broad meaning, enabling a similar range of factors to
be taken into account as may be relevant to ascertaining the parties’ actual intentions.
(5) Each case will turn on its own facts. Financial contributions are relevant but there are
many other factors which may enable the court to decide what shares were either
intended (as in case (3)) or fair (as in case (4)).
Both Stack v Dowden and Jones v Kernott involved a title that was in joint legal names.
The issue in each case was therefore restricted to quantifying shares in a property in
which they both had an interest, via their joint legal title.
Lloyds Bank plc v Rosset [1991] 1 AC 107, on the other hand, was more complex as the
property was not in joint legal names and thus Mrs Rosset had first to show she had
acquired an interest before any quantification could take place. The House of Lords held
that (in the absence of any express common intention) she could only acquire such an
interest if she made direct financial contributions to the purchase price or the mortgage
instalments. Following Stack v Dowden there was some academic debate as to whether or
not the House of Lords’ reasoning in the case was applicable to such ‘acquisition’ cases,
with some commentators arguing that the much narrower approach in Rosset remained
the applicable authority when the home was not in joint legal names despite Baroness
Hale’s comments in Stack that Lord Bridge’s speech in Rosset was outdated.
Admittedly, within a few weeks of Stack, in Abbott v Abbott [2007] UKPC 53, the Privy
Council had appeared to apply its principles to a case where the legal title was not in
joint names. However, on this occasion acquisition was not in question, as the legal
owner had already conceded that his wife had a beneficial interest, and thus the
judgment was only concerned with quantification. The case involved an appeal from
Antigua and Barbuda (where there are no provisions, as in this jurisdiction, to reassign
property interests on divorce). The family home was in the sole name of the husband
and the trial judge awarded a 50:50 split; this was overturned by the Court of Appeal
on the basis that the wife had failed to satisfy Lord Bridge’s criteria in Rosset. The Court
of Appeal found that the wife was entitled only to the small share represented by her
actual financial contributions to the mortgage. The Privy Council restored the trial
judge’s award, with Baroness Hale reiterating that Lord Bridge’s approach in Rosset was
outdated. Applying Stack, a holistic view of the facts should be taken in modern times;
common intention could be inferred where there was a direct or indirect contribution
to the acquisition of the land. Of course, this is going beyond the ratio of Stack, which
relates to the quantification of shares, not their establishment, but it does appear clear
that a more flexible approach is now taken than that found in Rosset.
Thus, despite Abbott, either because the case did not consider acquisition or because
as a Privy Council decision it was only of persuasive and not binding authority, some
continued to argue that Rosset remained the applicable authority when the legal title
was in a single name, notwithstanding Baroness Hale’s forthright comments. However,
the Court of Appeal rejected such arguments in Geary v Rankine [2012] EWCA Civ 555.
The case involved a property in the name of one trustee but the court made clear that
Stack, rather than Rosset, was the relevant authority. Additionally, the decision in O’Kelly
v Davies [2014] EWCA Civ 1606 accepted the broader arguments from Stack to establish
a beneficial interest. Despite the absence of binding authority on the point, this
appears to settle the argument as to whether Rosset should be followed in such cases.
Obviously, where the legal title is in a single name the non-legal owner first has to
show they have acquired an interest before it can be quantified under Stack. The Court
of Appeal consequently held there was a two-stage test in which the claimant first had
to show a common intention that they should acquire an interest and then a common
intention as to what that interest should be. Although the common intention as to
acquisition could only be deduced from express words or inferences, the Court of
Appeal was willing to allow the size of the share to be imputed in the absence of
express words or inferences concerning quantification.
It is ironic that even the ‘new’ approach in the law since Abbott v Abbott [2007] UKPC
7 still means that in cases like Oxley v Hiscock [2004] EWCA Civ 546 and Stack and Jones
v Kernott the equitable interest in the property was divided in shares that equated to
the parties’ respective cash contributions. What is different is that in those last two
cases it was the female litigants who were the larger earners in their relationships than
their male partners.
Clearly the restrictive approach in Rosset is now history, with Stack going some way to
address the legitimate expectations of those who make a non-financial contribution
to the family home (usually the women in terms of childcare and home making) and
who could rarely, absent a direct financial contribution or an express arrangement,
come within the terms of Rosset. However, the price paid is a high one, with Baroness
Hale’s holistic approach importing a large degree of uncertainty into the law. Each case
is likely to turn on its own particular facts (and, dare one say it, each judge’s particular
view as to what is and is not significant), making it very difficult for solicitors to advise
clients of their position; a point implicitly recognised in Baroness Hale’s judgment
where, as a former Law Commissioner, she calls for legislative intervention in this field.
It is indeed not just the courts who are pressing for change on this issue. Law Com 307
31 July 2007, ‘Cohabitation: the financial consequences of relationship breakdown’,
found that the current law is a patchwork of principles which is ‘complex, uncertain,
expensive to rely on and, as it was not designed for family circumstances, often gives
rise to outcomes that are unjust’. While not recommending that cohabitees should have
access to the same remedies as married couples, the Law Commission proposes that
where an unmarried couple have cohabited for a set number of years (precise number
to be agreed later) or had a child together, and have not expressly agreed that the new
scheme would not apply to them, then new principles should apply to the allocation of
their property on dissolution of the relationship. It would be necessary for a claimant to
show that they had suffered an economic disadvantage by making contributions to the
relationship. A court would then have discretion to grant appropriate financial relief,
while having regard to the needs of any dependent children.
The proposals’ limitations should be noted; however, they would not apply where the
cohabitants are not a couple, or where a third party is involved in the facts (as in Rosset
itself). Thus, even if the proposed new scheme did become law, some cases would still
have to be decided under whatever version of the Stack principles then applies.
5.3.4 Understanding the old case law on ‘common intention’

Let us recap. In the wake of Jones v Kernott and Stack, the presumptions can be
rebutted if the parties’ common intention can be shown to be something different
from the presumption. Significantly, the parties’ common intention is to be identified
objectively from the circumstances – that means, you must look at the circumstances
and decide what the parties must have meant their common intention to be if they
did not consciously form such a common intention. The problem that remains is this:
what do we mean by ‘common intention’? The answer is to be found by looking at the
old case law on the meaning of that expression.
Hudson (see Further reading) suggests that there are five divisions in the case law on
‘common intention’ before Stack and Jones v Kernott in the following form:
1. The narrow form ‘common intention constructive trust’ identified in Rosset

identifies that two forms of rights in the home are acquired on the basis of (i) an
agreement, arrangement or understanding between the parties, involving some
detriment, created before the acquisition of the property, as to the parties’ rights
in the property; or (ii) a contribution to the purchase price of property or to the
mortgage instalments (such that it is ‘at least extremely doubtful whether anything
less will do’). This approach seemingly permits no other means of acquiring rights
in the property than these two.
2. The ‘balance sheet approach’ in which resulting trust thinking is used to focus
solely on cash contributions (e.g. Springette v Defoe (1992) 24 HLR 552; Huntingford v
Hobbs [1993] 1 FLR 736) where the claimant acquires property rights in the home in
proportion to the size of their cash contribution to the purchase price of the property.
This approach takes into account no non-financial contributions to the property.
3. The ‘family assets approach’ in which the court ‘undertakes a survey of the entire
course of dealing between the parties’ (including non-financial contributions to
the home, and payments to things other than the purchase price or the mortgage),
and therefore is not limited to financial contributions. In relation to long-standing
marriages, this approach has held a wife’s contribution to utility bills, occasional
mortgage payments and to bringing up the children, keeping the home and
finding occasional work when the family needed money, to be sufficient to acquire
one-half of the equitable interest in the home (as in Midland Bank v Cooke [1995] 4
All ER 562). This is the antithesis of the first two approaches because it will take into
account everything done between the parties.
4. The ‘unconscionability approach’ in which courts identify circumstances in

which it would be unconscionable for the claimant to be denied some rights in
the property (e.g. Jennings v Rice [2002] EWCA Civ 159; Cox v Jones [2004] EWHC
1486 (Ch)). This is, broadly speaking, the approach used in Australia. It seems to
have faded away in England and Wales in recent years because it has not been
mentioned in recent cases. On this basis, the claimant caring for an old woman for
several years for little or no pay, in the expectation seemingly that her house would
be left to the claimant, might lead to an award of £200,000 to compensate the
claimant for their detriment (as in Jennings v Rice).
5. Proprietary estoppel will award rights when there has been a representation
(or assurance, or understanding, which the defendant knew the claimant was
developing) on which the claimant relied to their detriment. This doctrine is
‘remedial’ in the sense that the court can award whatever it considers appropriate,
ranging from an award of the entire freehold (Re Basham [1986] 1 WLR 1498)
through to mere compensation (Jennings v Rice) or a combination of property
rights and financial compensation (Gillett v Holt [2001] Ch 210). This fifth doctrine
is not based on common intention and was not referred to in Jones v Kernott,
although it was affirmed by the House of Lords in Thorner v Major [2009] UKHL 18.
Answering a problem question in this area

When answering a problem concerning the issue of whether or not a person has an
equitable interest in a home, the following approach is suggested. (You are welcome
to take another approach if you prefer it on your reading of the cases. This suggested
approach draws one line through the various cases.) It is based on the joint judgment
of Lady Hale and Lord Walker (which is very similar indeed to the summary provided by
Lord Kerr) in Jones v Kernott:
u First, apply the presumptions in Jones v Kernott: single ownership of the legal title
presumes single ownership of the equitable interest, whereas multiple ownership
of the legal title presumes multiple ownership of the equitable interest.
u Second, recognise that the presumptions can be rebutted (i.e. ignored) if the
parties’ common intention can be shown to be something other than the
presumption. So, apply the various different approaches to common intention to
the facts. Your goal is to demonstrate that you know each different approach is
likely to produce a different outcome:
1. Apply the (unpopular but clear) test in Rosset (i.e. have the parties formed the
necessary agreement, arrangement or understanding, or has the claimant
contributed to the purchase price or to the mortgage instalments?) Mere
contributions to supervising construction work or to utility bills will not matter
on this account.
2. Apply the balance sheet approach, remembering that the majority of the
House of Lords in Stack and the Supreme Court in Jones v Kernott refused to
follow resulting trust thinking in the future.
3. Apply the family assets approach in Midland Bank v Cooke by undertaking

a survey of the entire course of dealing between the parties, including the
length of their relationship (where a long-term marriage would seem to
justify allocation of large rights in the property), contributions to day-to-day
familial expenses, bringing up children as a couple, and so forth. This would
justify dividing the property 50:50 between a married couple when resisting a
mortgagee’s repossession claim (as in Cooke).
4. Apply the unconscionability approach to prevent the claimant being treated

unconscionably. This may justify a wide range of outcomes.
5. Apply proprietary estoppel principles.
u Third, if the common intention analysis is inconclusive, you may rely on doing what
is ‘fair’ between the parties.
It may be that the five-fold approach to common intention has too many cases in it for
you to discuss in the time allotted in the examination. In that case, you could omit the
balance sheet and unconscionability approaches (being the approaches that are least
often followed in the case law). You might also be instructed in a problem question
to omit proprietary estoppel: this is because proprietary estoppel is covered in a
different chapter of the guide and because the examiners are aware of how much time
you have to write your answers. Consequently, you need only focus on the first and
third approaches in detail, bringing in comment on the others as you wish.
In terms of an essay, it would be possible to use these different categories of approach

to common intention and the model set out in Jones v Kernott as the structure for an
essay, together with the reading set out in this chapter of the guide. Alternatively,
you could follow the different judgments in Stack and consider the strengths and
weaknesses of the judgments of Lady Hale, Lord Hoffmann (with his ambulatory
constructive trust) and Lord Neuberger (whose dissenting judgment considered the
use of a resulting trust adapted for the equity of the parties’ subsequent situations),
and then show how Jones v Kernott tried to solve those problems. Alternatively again,
you could discuss any of the academic discussions of the law in this area which are set
out in the assigned reading.
Which type of trust is used

Jones v Kernott operates on the basis of ‘constructive trust’, albeit that the principles in
relation to the home are different from other forms of constructive trust in the general
law. An express trust over the land would trump this constructive trust, as in Pankhania
v Chandegra [2012] EWCA Civ 1438. It is also to be assumed that proprietary estoppel
continues to be potentially significant in relation to ownership of the home (and land
generally) even though it is not mentioned in Jones v Kernott. Some commentators
have taken the approach that there is a difference between whether or not rights are
acquired in the home in the first place, and the size of that equitable interest in the
home. It is not always so clear that the judges take the same approach.
Question 1
Ted and Sylvia were an unmarried couple who bought a disused farmhouse
together in August 2018 for £250,000. In 2018, Ted was a struggling playwright aged
30, whereas Sylvia was a successful poet, aged 25, with one very successful book of
poems already published. This difference in their professional fortunes was a source
of tension in their relationship.
The purchase was funded as to £25,000 by way of a gift from Sylvia’s parents and
the remainder by way of mortgage from Mammoth Bank, which was taken out in
Ted’s sole name. The legal title in the property was registered in Ted’s sole name.
Ted told Sylvia that putting the house in his name was ‘a legal formality that will be
sorted out if we get married in the future’. As the couple stood on the doorstep on
the day that they moved into the house, Sylvia said: ‘I don’t care about the law: I
think of this as being our home together, darling.’
The vendor of the house worked at the company which published Sylvia’s work.
Therefore, Sylvia had been able to acquire a reduction in the price of the property
by £10,000 to the sale price of £250,000.
The house was a large farmhouse outside Exeter. The couple intended to have a
big family together. Ted told Sylvia that she must stay at home to supervise the
extensive renovation works which were being done on the property while he
flew to Los Angeles for two months to try to make some money there. Ted had not
earned any money in the 12 months leading up to this.
In fact, all of the mortgage repayments were made from the profits from Sylvia’s
first book during 2018 and 2019. Sylvia supervised the builders and did a reasonable
amount of cosmetic work around the house herself. She was also very stressed
about Ted’s continued absence. Consequently, she missed her deadline for the
delivery of her second book of poems to her publishers. In the meantime, Ted had
managed to sell a screenplay to a Hollywood film studio while flying backwards and
forwards between Exeter and Los Angeles. As a result of this sale of the screenplay,
Sylvia and Ted were able to share the cost of the renovation, in the amount of
£50,000, equally between them. The value of the property increased by £150,000
as a result of the renovations.
On the evening when the building work was finally finished in August 2019, Sylvia
said: ‘I have put a lot of work and money into this property, but I am slightly worried
that it’s all in your name’. Ted replied: ‘Don’t bother me with all that now. We will
be rich now that I am such a big success.’ The next day, Sylvia created a will which
passed all of her rights in the house to her sister, Kitty.
Secretly, Ted had begun an affair with a famous Hollywood actress. When Sylvia
found out about the affair she fell into a deep depression and committed suicide
last month.
Advise Kitty as to Sylvia’s rights in the property at the time of her death.
Question 2
‘The case law relating to the ownership of the home continues to exist in a state of
some confusion. Different courts have set out very different models of the parties’
rights. The result is that it is impossible for litigants to know their rights before they
go to court. It would be preferable for there to be legislation in this area. It would
be worth having a little injustice at the edges if the main principles could be made
clearer.’ Discuss.
Question 1
Issues in relation to addressing this problem: we shall consider this problem on the
basis of the decisions in Stack v Dowden [2007] UKHL 17 and Jones v Kernott [2011] UKSC
53 and the case law leading up to them. The decision of the Supreme Court in Jones v
Kernott has explained Stack v Dowden and the principles to be followed in the terms set
out here, in the joint judgment of Lord Walker and Lady Hale, at paragraph [51], as set
out above, principally:
…(2) [The] presumption can be displaced by showing (a) that the parties had a different
common intention at the time when they acquired the home, or (b) that they later
formed the common intention that their respective shares would change.
(3) Their common intention is to be deduced objectively from their conduct…
(4) …where…it is not possible to ascertain by direct evidence or by inference what their
actual intention was…‘the answer is that each is entitled to that share which the court
considers fair having regard to the whole course of dealing between them in relation to
the property’…
(5) …Financial contributions are relevant but there are many other factors which may
enable the court to decide what shares were either intended (as in case (3)) or fair (as in
case (4)).
Following that structure, the legal title is placed in Ted’s sole name, which raises a
presumption that Ted is the sole owner. However, there is evidence to suggest that
Sylvia is intended to have separate rights. First, Sylvia made all of the repayments on
the house and therefore it would be unconscionable to deny her any rights in the
house; second, Ted bullied Sylvia and therefore placing the house in his name may
have been done as a result of bullying; third, she made a will that treated her share
separately from that of Ted. Therefore, there are good reasons for supposing that their
intentions were different from the record on the legal title.
This section follows the order of the cases as they are discussed above:
u Following the authorities on common intention, we could start with Lloyds Bank plc
v Rosset [1991] 1 AC 107. Under Rosset, it is not clear that there was any agreement,
arrangement or understanding that was not procured by bullying. As to common
intention by conduct, we must look at the fact that Sylvia contributed all of the
cash and therefore she should acquire all of the equitable interest. Interestingly, it
was contributions to the purchase price or the mortgage which would count, and
therefore it is unclear whether on a literal reading of Rosset Ted’s contribution to
the renovation works should count years later.
u The balance sheet cases would allow Sylvia to take into account her acquisition of a
discount on the purchase price on resulting trust principles (e.g. Cox v Jones [2004]
EWHC 1486 (Ch); although Evans v Hayward [1995] 2 FLR 511 would not have taken
into account mere haggling).
u The family assets case of Midland Bank v Cooke [1995] 4 All ER 562 asked that we look
at the ‘entire course of dealing between the parties’, which might assist Ted here
because it would consider the fact that the things said between the couple at the
outset suggested that the house was to be held jointly between them. However,
there was no unconscionable pressure or lying in those cases (as there had been in
Eves v Eves [1975] 1 WLR 1338 when a common intention was not found as a result).
u It is unclear here when a representation could be said to have been made that
would support a proprietary estoppel analysis.
If this analysis is inconclusive, then Jones v Kernott suggests that the court could look at
‘fairness’. It might be said to be ‘fair’ here for Sylvia to have acquired the majority of the
rights in the home as a result of her larger cash contribution to the purchase and also
her half contribution to the renovation works, and to take into account the history of
bullying between them. Consequently, it could be said that the majority of the equitable
interest should be treated as having been severed from any joint tenancy as a result of
being left on trust for Kitty, save for a portion represented by Ted’s cash contribution to
the renovations. Thus, Kitty should inherit Sylvia’s share and be entitled to sell the house
(accounting to Ted in cash for his contribution to the property (possibly accounting for
the increase in value caused by the renovations)). More controversially, Kitty could argue
to be entitled to evict Ted from the property (save for accounting to him in cash for his
contribution to the renovation works) so that she could move into the property herself if
she wished (an approach which would accord with the flexibility shown in the estoppel
case of Stallion v Albert Stallion [2009] EWHC 1950 (Ch)).
Question 2
In writing an essay it is important to have a point: that is, you must have a thesis that
you are seeking to prove or to disprove. In advancing that thesis, you must employ an
analysis of the decided case law or statute (as appropriate) as well as any academic
commentary to which you have been referred in the textbook. Simply setting out a
description of the law will not gain you a good mark in itself. Rather, the marks are
earned by demonstrating how an analysis of that law impacts on your thesis.
Here, clearly, you must consider the decision of the Supreme Court in Jones v Kernott.
That judgment is really a commentary (and slight correction) on the judgments of the
House of Lords in Stack v Dowden, except for the introduction of ‘fairness’. This case
was considered in detail in the assigned reading. This essay gives you enormous scope
to take whichever approach to the subject you wish. The assumption in the title is
that there was something wrong with the approach taken in the Supreme Court: you
should decide whether you want to be similarly critical, or whether you think that
Jones v Kernott marks an improvement over Stack v Dowden (especially now that it has
forgotten the assumption that everything will be sorted out by the TR1 Land Registry
form). The judgment delivered jointly by Lord Walker and Lady Hale divides between
common intention and fairness.
The idea of common intention emerged originally in the speeches of Lord Diplock in
Pettitt v Pettitt [1970] AC 777 and Gissing v Gissing [1971] AC 886, and has been contested
in every following decision as to its precise meaning and scope (e.g. Lloyds Bank plc
v Rosset, Grant v Edwards [1986] Ch 638, Midland Bank v Cooke, Oxley v Hiscock [2004]
EWCA Civ 546, etc.). You could probably consider the model established in each of
those cases (as discussed in the reading in detail) and examine their strengths and
weaknesses, before culminating with Kernott and asking whether you think the
Supreme Court should have acted differently. By examining all of these cases you could
adopt the ‘dispassionate scientist’ approach (as set out in the advice on essay writing
in the Introduction to this guide) by simply explaining the differences between the
various judges in the many cases, instead of choosing which one of them you prefer.
This is a subject in which explaining the differences between the cases well could be
sufficient to achieve a first class grade, especially if you address the precise question
you are asked in the essay title.
Activity 5.1
Read Stack v Dowden [2007] UKHL 17 and note the relevant facts and decision,
including how the House of Lords views the cases mentioned earlier in this chapter.
Also read the Law Commission recommendations in Law Com 307 (summarised on
their website at www.lawcom.gov.uk).
a. How should Lord Bridge’s judgment in Rosset now be viewed?
b. To what extent would the Law Commission recommendations be a radical

reform?
c. How similar are the Law Commission recommendations to the approach taken
by the House of Lords in Stack v Dowden?
d. How does Lord Neuberger’s approach in Stack differ from that of the majority?
1. Explain what is meant by joint tenancy and tenancy in common. What is the
difference between them?
2. How can a person whose name is not on the legal title to land acquire a
beneficial interest?
3. What is common intention and how is it significant in co-ownership?
4. What are the ‘four unities’ needed to establish joint tenancy?
5. When does co-ownership arise via a resulting trust?
6. What kinds of contributions will trigger a constructive trust?
7. How have the principles as to quantification of shares of cohabitees in their

home changed recently?
Summary
Co-owners at law are joint tenants. Co-ownership in equity can take the form of joint
tenancy or tenancy in common, and may be created expressly or impliedly. A person
may become a co-owner in equity by making contributions to the property sufficient
to trigger either a resulting trust or a constructive trust. The extent of such a co-
owner’s interest may not be directly proportionate to their contributions, and courts
have recently relaxed the criteria upon which such interests are calculated.
Further reading
¢ Smith, Chapter 11 ‘The family home’.
¢ Bridge, S. ‘The property rights of cohabitants – where do we go from here?’

(2002) Fam Law 743.
¢ Probert, R. ‘Sharing homes – a long awaited paper’ (2002) Fam Law 834.
¢ Dixon, M. ‘The never-ending story – co-ownership after Stack v Dowden’ (2007)

Conv 456.
5.4 Severance
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 4 ‘Co-ownership’: Section 4.11 ‘Severance’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 8 ‘Co-ownership of land – the basic principles’:
Sections 8.10–8.12.
¢ Smith, Chapter 15 ‘Joint tenancy and tenancy in common’, Parts 2 ‘Severance of

the joint tenancy’ and 3 ‘Do we need both the joint tenancy and the tenancy in
common?’.
Severance is the process by which a joint tenancy in equity can be converted into a
tenancy in common, to avoid the operation of survivorship. As only a joint tenancy is
permissible at law, one cannot sever the legal title (s.36 LPA 1925). If there are more
than two co-owners in equity, severance will operate to give a tenancy in common
only to the severing party; the others will remain joint tenants. So, if A, B and C are
joint tenants at law, holding for themselves as joint tenants in equity, then A severs,
the result is as shown in the diagram below. Please note, when severing, the share
any party acquires is calculated directly by reference to the number of joint tenants
(any of whom is entitled to an equal share of the joint tenancy on severance) and not
according to the parties’ original contributions. So, for example, if on purchase A had
contributed 40 per cent to the initial purchase, and B and C had each contributed 30
per cent, if A severed he could get 33.3 per cent (100 per cent divided by three).
At Law A+B+C
In Equity A+B+C
If A severs his joint tenancy then the position would be
At Law A+B+C
In Equity B + C as joint tenants of 2/3

A as tenant in common of 1/3
Under s.36(2) LPA 1925 a joint tenancy in equity can be severed in writing or by such
other means as would sever a joint tenancy in personalty (as discussed below under
Williams v Hensman (1861) 70 ER 862). The writing is a unilateral act by which one joint
tenant gives notice to all the other joint tenants. The writing must show sufficient
intention to sever the joint tenancy immediately; see Burgess v Rawnsley [1975] Ch 429
and Gore and Snell v Carpenter (1990) 60 P&CR 456. There are a wealth of cases, some
contradictory, on how to evince this intention. Compare, for example, Harris v Goddard
[1983] 1 WLR 1203 and Re Draper’s Conveyance [1969] 1 Ch 486.
If the writing displays the necessary intention it must be served properly on the other
joint tenants (s.196 LPA 1925). This requires it to be sent to their last known place
of abode or business. It is not necessary that the notice is actually read by the joint
tenants, as it is deemed to be served the moment it arrives (not when posted as in
the postal rules). It was consequently held by Neuberger J (as he then was) in Kinch v
Bullard [1999] 1 WLR 423 that the subsequent destruction of the notice to prevent the
other joint tenant(s) reading it did not prevent the severance taking place, although
obiter it was further suggested that the party who destroyed the notice (or more
accurately their estate) would be estopped from relying upon the hidden severance
to their advantage if they in fact predeceased the other joint tenant(s). It also makes
no difference to the notice being effectively delivered and therefore constituting
severance where the sender of the notice signs for it on delivery; see Re 88 Berkeley
Road [1971] (Ch) 648. The writing is not required to be signed, nor take any special
form, nor comply with any formalities, although if sent by registered post, it is deemed
to have arrived on the day it would have done in the normal course of posting unless
returned undelivered.
In Williams v Hensman (1861) 70 ER 862 Page Wood VC identified three common law
forms of severance in equity.
1. A further unilateral act of severance is possible via ‘acting on your share’. This
involves the joint tenant doing some irrevocable act of alienation and is slightly
contradictory as, despite not having a share, they acquire one by acting on a share
they do not yet have. This includes complete alienation, such as transferring one’s
beneficial interest to another, by satisfying the requirements of s.53(1)(c) LPA 1925
or agreeing to do so under a specifically enforceable contract that complies with
s.2 Law of Property (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989 (LP(MP)A 1989). It may
also be partial alienation by mortgaging or charging one’s beneficial interest.
Similarly, if a person is declared bankrupt this will automatically sever their joint
tenancy as all the bankrupt’s assets (including any interests under a joint tenancy)
automatically vest in the trustee in bankruptcy at that point.
2. Mutual agreement (see Burgess v Rawnsley [1975] Ch 429). An agreement to make

mutual wills, to sever or to deal with the land in a manner which implies severance,
will all form severance by mutual agreement. Note that although a valid contract
concerning land requires writing under s.2 LP(MP)A 1989, Burgess v Rawnsley concerns
the intention of the parties and not the issue of formalities, and so severance can
occur even though the agreement which causes the severance is unenforceable in its
own right due to lack of formality. Although mutual agreement sounds tautological it
is not, for the agreement has to include all the joint tenants, not just some of them.
3. Course of dealing (otherwise known as mutual conduct). A course of dealing is

sufficient to indicate a common intention that one or more tenants should be
regarded as having an undivided share. Like mutual agreement, the course of
dealing has to be mutual and involve all the joint tenants rather than just some of
them (hence the alternative title). See Gore and Snell v Carpenter.
4. Homicide, though obviously this is rare. See Re K [1985] Ch 85. This unusual form of
severance operates because a joint tenant who kills another joint tenant will not
be allowed to profit from their crime, and so survivorship must not operate.
Severance cannot be by will (Re Caines [1978] 1 WLR 540) and must be inter vivos
because by the time the will comes into operation any interest under a joint tenancy
will already have disappeared under the doctrine of survivorship. It was stated in
Gould v Kemp [1834] 2 My & K 304 that the right of survivorship takes precedence over
testamentary dispositions.
Changes to the beneficial ownership will not alter the legal ownership. You cannot
sever a joint tenancy at law: the only way this will change is if a legal joint tenant dies,
when they then automatically disappear from the legal title under the doctrine of
survivorship.
Activity 5.2
X and Y are beneficial joint tenants. X writes to Y offering to sell his interest for
£5,000. Y replies that she would like to buy X’s interest, but that she can only pay
£4,000. Is the joint tenancy severed? Explain.
Summary
While a legal joint tenancy cannot be severed, an equitable joint tenancy may be
severed in a variety of ways, and thus converted into a tenancy in common. The most
important of these methods are actions that destroy one of the four ‘unities’ described
in 5.3.1 above. Severance can also come about by notice in writing of an intention to
sever immediately, provided it is communicated.
Further reading
¢ Crown, B.C. ‘Severance of a joint tenancy of land by partial alienation’ (2001) 117
LQR 477.
¢ Gardner, S. ‘Family property today’ (2008) 124 LQR 422.
¢ Tee, L. ‘Severance revisited’ (1995) Conv 105.
5.5 The 1925 and 1996 reforms
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 4 ‘Co-ownership’: Sections 4.4 –4.9.
5.5.1 Difficulties with the pre-1996 position

As we saw in 5.3, since 1925, to simplify conveyancing (but maintain flexibility), a trust is
imposed whenever land is co-owned. Under the 1925 reforms the particular device used
was a statutory trust for sale. Under a trust for the sale the trustees are under a duty to
sell the property unless they unanimously agree to postpone the sale. Although this
might seem a curious land holding mechanism, it is particularly well-suited to situations
where land is treated primarily as an investment to be bought and sold as it ensures
that the owners liquidise their assets unless they unanimously agree not to do so. In
1925, when land was owned by a small minority of investors and most families lived in
rented accommodation, this made absolute sense, but became increasingly problematic
after the Second World War when an increasing number of families bought their own
homes. Whereas the primary importance of land to an investor is its exchange value in
the market place, the same is not true of an owner-occupier who is primarily interested
in its use value as somewhere to live. Thus a land holding device that included an
implicit dynamic towards sale was ill-suited to providing the stability a family required,
particularly in light of the rising divorce rate and breakdown of family life that occurred
during the post-war period, where co-owners were likely to disagree as to whether the
land should be retained or sold. The courts sought to deal with this issue by gradually
developing the secondary or collateral purpose test where, despite the primary purpose
of a trust for sale being (by definition) sale, they were prepared to postpone sale where
the secondary purpose (e.g. providing a home for children) could still be attained.
5.5.2 Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996

TLATA 1996 replaced the statutory trust for sale with the trust of land, a land holding
device that was neutral as between sale and retention. Purchasers could still choose
to create a trust for sale but even those now came within the machinery of the trust
of land (as did the statutory trusts for sale that had been imposed automatically prior
to 1996). Strictly speaking it is thus no longer necessary to ponder the secondary or
collateral purpose of a trust of land as such trusts have no primary purpose. However,
as you will see below (in 5.6), the collateral purpose case law is still relevant as it
played an important role in the framing of s.15 which non-exhaustively lists the issues
that the court must consider when deciding whether to order the sale or retention of
the land after an application by an interested party for an order under s.14.
5.5.3 Trustees’ powers and duties
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 7 ‘Trust of land’: Sections 7.5–7.13.
The TLATA 1996 provisions are important. A trust of land is any trust whose property
is, or includes, land (s.1(1)(a)). It may be created formally or informally, and so may be
express, resulting or constructive (s.1(2)(a)). The legal estate is vested in ‘trustees of
land’. The trustees are under no duty to sell the land; rather they have a power of sale.
They may sell or retain it (ss.4 and 5). They have all the powers of an absolute owner
(s.6(1) and (2)). They may convey the land to the beneficiaries (s.6(1)) and they may
delegate any of their functions to the beneficiaries (s.9), provided the beneficiaries are
of full age and entitled in possession. Provisions requiring the consent of any person
before dealing with the land are valid, except in charitable and ecclesiastical trusts
(ss.8 and 10). As under the previous law the trustees must consult the beneficiaries in
the exercise of their functions and give effect to their wishes (s.11). This is an important
restriction upon the powers of trustees of land, but can, however, be excluded in an
express trust. Trustees are only required to consult ‘so far as is practicable’ and should
give effect to the wishes of the majority by value of the beneficiaries, but only insofar
as they are consistent with the general interests of the trust.
Activity 5.3
To what extent have the powers and duties of trustees of land been changed by
TLATA 1996?
5.6 Rights of beneficiaries
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 4 ‘Co-ownership’: Sections 4.4–4.9.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 9 ‘Co-ownership – the resolution of disputes’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 16 ‘Trusts of land’, Part 3 ‘Management of the land’: Section A

‘Sale’.
Beneficiaries of a trust of land have the right to occupy trust land, although this right
may be restricted or excluded, in which case compensation may be payable (ss.12 and
13 TLATA 1996). The House of Lords had to apply these sections for the first time in Stack
v Dowden [2007] UKHL 17 in the context of occupation rents, and (having read the case
for Activity 5.1) you should be familiar with how the judges dealt with the TLATA 1996
issues in that case, including Lord Neuberger in his dissent.
In many cases, one or more of the co-owner beneficiaries will want either to force
or to prevent a sale of the land. Before TLATA 1996, as discussed above, it had already
become recognised that where land was bought for the purpose of providing a home
to be occupied by the beneficiaries, sale could be postponed in order to allow such
occupation to continue. An important provision, replacing s.30 LPA 1925, is s.14 TLATA
1996, which allows a trustee or any person with an interest in the land to apply to the
court for an order relating to the exercise by the trustees of any of their functions. You
should note that applications made under s.14 divide into two main types: disputes
where no one is bankrupt and disputes consequent upon bankruptcy, and that very
different results may occur between one type of case and the other. Section 15 sets
out the matters to be considered by the court in hearing applications where no
bankruptcy has occurred:
u the original intentions of the creator of the trust
u the purposes for which the land is currently held
u the welfare of any minor who occupies the land as a home

u the interests of any secured creditor of any beneficiary.
All of these factors were taken into account by the courts in determining applications
under the old s.30 LPA 1925 and the question arises as to the extent to which cases
decided under s.30 are still relevant (such as Jones v Challenger [1961] 1 QB 176, Re Evers’
Trust [1980] 1 WLR 1327 and Re Citro [1991] Ch 142).
Recent cases have expanded the interpretation of s.15. In The Mortgage Corporation v
Shaire [2001] Ch 743, it was shown that the post-1997 scheme is dramatically different
in relation to the rights of beneficiaries versus those of creditors. A matrimonial home
was held in joint names by Mr and Mrs Shaire. Mr Shaire was deemed to have charged
his beneficial interest to secure his business debts (as a result of forging his wife’s
signature on a purported mortgage of their joint legal interest which obviously had
no effect on her beneficial interest). The Mortgage Corporation sought an order for
sale with vacant possession when the debts were unpaid so that they could claim
his beneficial interest (but not hers of course). Applying s.15, the court held that the
mortgagee’s interest was only one of the four factors which the court had to consider,
and that there was a wider discretion in favour of families under s.15 than under the
prior law. Nothing in the facts indicated that the mortgagee’s interest should take
priority over, for example, those of resident children, and Neuberger J commented
that pre-TLATA 1996 cases should no longer be regarded as decisive.
There is, therefore, no presumption under s.15 to make an order in favour of the
creditors of any beneficiary, but it is still the case, as noted by the Court of Appeal in
Bank of Ireland Home Mortgages v Bell [2001] 2 FLR 809, that their voice will normally
prevail. There are arguably policy reasons why this is the case (as the credit system
requires secured lenders to feel confident that they can realise their security if the
debtor fails to repay their debt) but also a very simple practical explanation. For if a
creditor is unsuccessful under s.15, after making an application under s.14, he can of
course proceed to make the beneficiary bankrupt at which point the court’s discretion
under s.14 is no longer governed by s.15, but by s.335A Insolvency Act 1986, which,
after a year’s grace, does give preference to the creditors, save where ‘exceptional’
circumstances can be found – meaning something beyond the range of distressing
circumstances typically associated with bankruptcy (Re Bremner [1999] 1 FLR 912). Thus,
if the trustee in bankruptcy makes an application under s.14 it is important to realise
that s.15 is no longer operative and the court is required to apply the subtly (but
importantly) different criteria under s.335A.
Activity 5.4
a. How are the rights of co-owner beneficiaries different under a trust of land from
under a trust for sale?
b. To what extent do the interests of occupying beneficiaries of a trust of land take

priority over the interests of secured creditors of the beneficiary?
Summary
TLATA 1996 has radically changed the rules under which land is held on trust. It is
important to understand, and be able to apply, the powers of trustees and rights of
beneficiaries under the statute. Trustees no longer have a duty to sell the land, and
beneficiaries’ rights may have been strengthened by s.15.
Further reading
¢ Clements, L.M. ‘The changing face of trusts: the Trusts of Land and Appointment
of Trustees Act’ (1998) 61 MLR 56.
¢ Dixon, M. ‘To sell or not to sell: that is the question. The irony of the Trusts of
Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996’ (2011) 70 CLJ 579.
¢ Hopkins, N. ‘The Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996’ (1996)
Conv 411–31.
¢ Pascoe, S. ‘Section 15 of the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996
– a change in the law? (2000) Conv 315.
¢ Pawlowski, M. ‘Ordering the sale of the family home’ (2007) 71 Conv 78.
Question 1
Herbert and Wilma were married in 2004. They bought a house, Hersanmyne, for
£200,000, of which £250,000 was contributed by Wilma’s mother, Martha, who was
to live with them in Hersanmyne. The house was conveyed to Herbert and Wilma
on trust for themselves and Martha as joint tenants. Herbert and Wilma had a son,
Sam, in 2007 and a daughter, Dawn, in 2010. In 2013 Herbert left Hersanmyne and
has never returned. In 2014 Martha sent a letter to Herbert saying that she wished
to have her share in the house repaid so that she could provide during her lifetime
for Wilma and the grandchildren. Herbert ignored the letter. Martha died in 2015,
leaving all her property to Wilma.
Herbert owned a business which failed in 2020, and he has debts of £30,000. His
creditors are now pressing for payment and threatening bankruptcy proceedings.
His only asset is his interest in Hersanmyne, now worth £50,000.
Wilma wishes to remain in Hersanmyne. She has no capital other than her interest
in the house, but she has enough income to run the house and maintain herself and
the children. Advise Wilma.
Question 2
In 2018, Mr Norton, who had three sons studying in London, decided to buy a flat for
them to live in. He paid the whole of the purchase price, and the flat was registered
in their names (Mark, Luke and John) as beneficial joint tenants. In 2020 Mark got
married, moved out and sold his interest in the flat to John. In 2021 Luke wrote
to John offering to sell his interest in the flat to John. John accepted the offer in
principle but they had still not agreed a price when Luke was killed in a climbing
accident. Luke left his estate to Mark and John equally.
Dispute has now arisen between Mr Norton, Mark and John as to (i) who owns the
flat, (ii) who is entitled to occupy the flat, and (iii) whether the flat should be sold.
Discuss.
Question 3
In 2015 Nick and his girlfriend, Ann, bought a small house for £300,000. Nick
contributed £280,000 and Ann contributed £20,000, a gift from her mother, Jean.
The house was registered in Nick’s sole name. Nick was an unsuccessful musician,
but Ann had a well-paid job and paid most of the household expenses. In 2018 Ann
gave birth to a son, Charlie. In 2019 Nick and Ann invited Jean to come and live with
them. Jean provided £30,000 to have an extra bedroom and bathroom added to
the house for her use. In 2020, while Jean, Ann and Charlie were away on holiday,
Nick mortgaged the house to the Midtown Bank. He has recently defaulted on his
mortgage repayments and the bank is seeking possession of the house with a view
to selling it.
Advise Jean and Ann. If the house were sold, how would the proceeds of sale be
divided?
Question 1
Issues to consider: what was the effect of the 2014 conveyance? Note that, in spite of
the unequal contributions to the purchase price, it was the intention of the parties
that they should hold the house as beneficial joint tenants: see Goodman v Gallant
[1986] Fam 106.
So Herbert and Wilma held the legal estate on a trust for sale (today taking effect as
a trust for land under TLATA 1996) for themselves and Martha as joint tenants. Did
Martha’s letter operate to sever her joint tenancy? Section 36(2) LPA 1925 ‘notice in
writing’? The effect of Martha’s death will depend on whether severance occurred or
not. Consider both possibilities. How is the beneficial interest in the house held now?
Can Herbert force a sale of the house? Consider ss.14–15 TLATA 1996. The principles
laid down in the cases on s.30 LPA 1925 continue to have some relevance and may
therefore have some value in your discussion. If the house is sold, how will the
proceeds of sale be divided?
Question 2
Take care at the outset to consider the effect of the 2018 conveyance. Only once the
scene has been set does it make sense to go chronologically through the various events
that follow. The flat is conveyed to the three brothers as beneficial joint tenants. Any
presumption of a resulting trust in Mr Norton’s favour is rebutted by clear evidence
that he intended the flat as a gift to his sons. A trust arises and the brothers hold the
legal estate on trust for themselves as joint tenants in equity. The events of 2020 and
2021 require a discussion of severance. Clearly Mark has severed his joint tenancy,
but what are the effects of the severance? (Mark remains a trustee and the beneficial
interest is held by John and Luke jointly (two-thirds) and John as tenant-in-common
(one third).) Did Luke sever his joint tenancy by mutual agreement or course of
conduct? If not, the right of survivorship operates on his death and Mark and John hold
the legal estate on trust for John absolutely. If Luke did sever, Mark and John hold the
legal estate for themselves as tenants-in-common (one sixth/five sixths); in this case
the TLATA 1996 provisions regarding occupation and sale would have to be considered.
Question 3
There are several key issues to be considered; make sure not to miss any of them.
As Nick was the sole legal owner of the house, the first issue was whether either Ann
or Jean could rely on equity (resulting/constructive trust or proprietary estoppel) to
claim an interest in their favour. There is an immense of body of case law here. Ann
would probably argue for a constructive trust (Oxley v Hiscock [2004] EWCA Civ 546 and
Stack v Dowden [2007] UKHL 17 would be relevant here), while Jean would attempt to
rely on estoppel. The second issue is one of priority (i.e. would the bank take subject
to the interests of Ann and Jean, if any?) and requires you to consider whether their
interests might override the mortgage by virtue of para.2 Schedule 3 LRA 2002.
Finally, you should consider TLATA 1996 and analyse the extent to which the court has
exercised its s.14 discretion in favour of secured creditors. The division of the proceeds
of sale would depend on conclusions reached on the earlier issues.

Within the scope of this chapter, there are three principal areas for assessment in
the examination:
1. A problem question asking you to apply the case law leading up to Jones v
Kernott [2011] UKSC 53 to a factual scenario where two or more people are
contesting their respective rights in their home.
2. An essay asking you to analyse the case law leading up to Jones v Kernott by
reference to the approach taken in the essay title.
3. An essay combining the material in the second assessment with proprietary

estoppel (as discussed in Chapter 7).
Quick quiz
Question 1
Which statutory provisions can be relied on for the creation of an implied trust in
land?
a. s.53(1)(b) LPA 1925.
b. s.53(2) LPA 1925.
c. s.1 TLATA 1996.
Question 2
Which statutory provision stipulates that land can only be co-owned legally as a
joint tenant?
a. s.36 LPA 1925.
b. It is a common law rule.
c. s.34 LPA 1925.
Question 3
When residential property is conveyed into joint names but there has been unequal
contribution to the purchase price, what is the presumption made by the court?
a. That it is held on resulting trust as tenants in common.
b. That it is held as joint tenancy in equity.
c. That it is held on constructive trust.
Question 4
How can a joint tenancy be severed?
a. s.36 LPA 1925 provides for severance by notice and Williams v Hensman sets out
the other methods for severing a joint tenancy in equity.
b. A joint tenancy can never be severed; see s.36(2) LPA 1925.
c. By any act which breaks the four unities.
Question 5
What is not a consideration under s.15 TLATA 1996?
a. The wishes of the trustee.
b. The wishes of the beneficiaries.
c. The purpose of the trust.

6 Landlord and tenant: the law of leases
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.1 The distinction between leases and licences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.2 General characteristics of a lease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.3 Creation of a lease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.4 Determination of leases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.5 Covenants running with the land and the reversion . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Introduction
The law of landlord and tenant is a vast subject and it is inevitable that the Property
law syllabus, like most property law textbooks, concentrates on the general underlying
principles, omitting any detailed treatment of more specialised topics such as the
various statutory codes designed to protect certain categories of tenants. This chapter
is also selective and concentrates on those areas of leasehold law that are problematic
or that illustrate some of the broad themes of English property law (e.g. the distinction
between legal and equitable interests, and that between rights in rem (leases) and
rights in personam (licences)). You are expected to be familiar with the relevant
terminology and, in particular, to understand the following:
u the distinction between a lease and a licence
u the requirements for a lease to be created validly
u when covenants (promises) in leases will be enforceable by and against successors

in title of the original landlord and tenant
u the difference between the assignment of a lease and the grant of a sub-lease.
Learning outcomes
u set out the essential characteristics of a lease as compared to a licence
u describe the methods of creating, forfeiting and assigning a lease, and
distinguish an assignment from the grant of a sub-lease
u evaluate the extent to which leasehold covenants are enforceable by and against
successors in title of the original parties
u apply all of the above to answering problem questions.
Property law 6 Landlord and tenant: the law of leases page 93
6.1 The distinction between leases and licences

A licence is a permission to do something, for example, to occupy or to use. When a
person has permission to occupy land, it can be either:
u a lease, granting statutory protection and creating an estate in land, or
u a licence, a personal right, based on contract or permission.
Landlords trying to avoid the protections given to tenants have often tried to evade
their duties by trying to create a licence. The courts have seen beyond this and applied
the argument of substance (what was really created) over form (what people say they
created). We will begin by looking at what a licence is and then move on to consider
leases in more detail.
The distinction between leases and licences is significant in the study of property
law because it is a straightforward illustration of the difference between having a
proprietary right (such as a lease) or a personal right (such as a licence). The holder of a
licence has merely personal (i.e. contractual) rights against the owner of the property
they occupy. Because this right is purely contractual, it will not be enforceable against
the rest of the world, unlike a proprietary right. By contrast, the holder of a lease has
proprietary rights against the landlord, as well as having contractual rights against
their landlord. This means that in many of the cases we consider leaseholders had
rights under the Rent Acts to protect them from being arbitrarily thrown out of the
property. It also means that their rights, as proprietary rights, are capable of binding
anyone in the world.
6.1.1 Licence
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 9 ‘Licences to use land’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 10 ‘Licences and proprietary estoppel’: Sections 10.1
–10.5.
¢ Gray and Gray, Part 10 ‘Privacy, access and exclusion’: Sections 10.3–10.5.
¢ Smith, Chapter 22 ‘Licences’.
A licence, in its most basic form, turns a trespass into a permission to occupy or use.
For the latter there is a close link with the creation of easements (see Chapter 8). In
relation to occupation a person may be:
u a bare licensee, whose licence may be revoked
u a contractual licensee, whose licence may not be revoked in breach of contract, or
u a licensee by estoppel (see Chapter 7).
It is not always possible to predict which solution will commend itself to the court in
any particular case, and students tackling problems in this field would generally be
advised to consider all the various possibilities.
Activity 6.1
Does each of the following have a licence, and if so, of which type? What does it
permit them to do? What does it not permit them to do?
a. A postal worker delivering mail to a house.
b. A landlord entering premises to read an electricity meter.
c. A student who shares a house with four others, without any written agreement.
d. A 20-year-old student who lives at home with his parents.
e. A woman attending a dinner party at a friend’s house.

f. A police officer investigating a reported burglary, the owner not being present
at the house in question.
g. A woman who has lived with her partner for 10 years; he promised her that she
would never be evicted.
6.1.2 Definitions and creation of licences
Bare licence
A bare licence is simply a permission to enter or use land where consideration has not
been given in return. The licence prevents a claim of trespass being brought against
the licensee unless they exceed the bounds of the licence. As was famously said by
Scrutton LJ in The Calgarth [1927] P 93, ‘When you invite a person into your house to use
the staircase you do not invite him to slide down the banisters.’
A bare licence may be created expressly or impliedly; for example, there is an implied
licence for all persons who believe that they have legitimate business to walk up the
path to someone else’s house and knock on the door (or deliver a letter).
A bare licence may be revoked without notice at any time, and is automatically
revoked by the death of the licensor or by disposition of the land in question, except
where a licence is granted expressly or impliedly to a class of people by definition
rather than to an individual (e.g. the postal worker will not have to ask each new
owner or tenant of a house for permission before walking up the path, and a new
postal worker will be covered by the licence given to their predecessor).
Contractual licence
A contractual licence is, unsurprisingly, a licence granted in exchange for
consideration. As a result, general principles of contract law are relevant to their
creation. So a contractual relationship entered into by family members will be
presumed to have no legal effect. This will also be a factor in deciding if a proprietary
right has been created via a lease (see below). Very often a contractual licence has
been used in an attempt by a landowner to evade the statutory protection afforded to
leaseholders, but remember that courts do not like ‘sham’ devices.
Other examples of contractual licences include paying to use a commercial car park
or a ticket for a performance of a play. It can thus be seen that the contractual licence
is very flexible and capable of covering a wide range of dealings and relationships. The
key issues concerning contractual licences have been: (1) revocability, and (2) whether
they bind third parties.
1. Revocability
As the agreement is contractual there is assumed to be the normal remedy for breach
of contract: damages. However, as an agreement over land would be unique (as all
land is unique) then it may be subject to the equitable remedies. Specific performance
of the agreed contract will make the contract enforceable (Verrall v Great Yarmouth
Borough Council [1981] QB 202), as will an injunction preventing breach.
Activity 6.2
Read London Borough of Hounslow v Twickenham Garden Developments Ltd [1971] Ch
233 and Verrall v Great Yarmouth Borough Council [1981] QB 202 and make brief notes
of the facts and decisions of these cases.
Although the equitable remedies may give the agreement an appearance of being
akin to a property interest, Ashburn Anstalt (discussed below) has made the differences
clear and confirmed that contractual licences are not proprietary interests.
This means the issue is more problematic when there has been a sale of the land by
the licensor. Is the agreement enforceable against third parties?
2. Enforcement against third parties

In line with general contractual principles, to be able to claim on a contract you must
be privy to that contract. The privity requirement was modified by the Contract (Rights
of Third Parties) Act 1999 but the attack on privity came much earlier in relation to
land. Not surprisingly, Lord Denning, who was not a fan of privity in contract, generally,
led the attack. See Lord Denning’s judgments in Errington v Errington and Woods [1952]
1 KB 290, Binions v Evans [1972] Ch 359 and DHN Food Distributors Ltd v Tower Hamlets
London Borough Council [1976] 1 WLR 852.
In Binions v Evans, Lord Denning built his arguments in favour of enforceability of the
licence against third parties by relying upon the existence of a constructive trust
triggered by the knowledge of the plaintiffs of the rights of the licensee, since ‘it
would be utterly inequitable for the plaintiffs to turn the defendant out contrary to
the stipulation subject to which they took the premises’. This is not in itself creating a
property right in the licence but a constructive trust as a remedy for a breach based on
the third parties’ knowledge of the licence.
In Ashburn Anstalt v Arnold [1989] Ch 1 the Court of Appeal restated the traditional view
that contractual licences are not generally binding on third parties. However, the
court also recognised that, in exceptional circumstances, a constructive trust may be
imposed to compel a purchaser to give effect to a contractual licence.
According to Fox LJ (p.22 of Ashburn Anstalt):
Before Errington the law appears to have been clear and well understood. It rested on an
important and intelligible distinction between contractual obligations which gave rise to
no estate or interest in the land and proprietary rights which, by definition, did. The far-
reaching statement of principle in Errington was not supported by authority, not necessary
for the decision of the case and per incuriam in the sense that it was made without
reference to authorities which, if they would not have compelled, would surely have
persuaded the court to adopt a different ratio. Of course, the law must be free to develop.
But as a response to problems which had arisen, the Errington rule (without more) was
neither practically necessary nor theoretically convincing. By contrast, the finding on
appropriate facts of a constructive trust may well be regarded as a beneficial adaptation of
old rules to new situations.† †
Do you agree with Fox LJ’s
approach to Errington? The
Thus, in general a contractual licence will not be capable of binding a third party.
Court of Appeal has since
Previously it was also thought that the holder of any type of licence could not sue in referred to Ashburn Anstalt as
trespass or nuisance. But this was challenged in Manchester Airport plc v Dutton [2000] being the authority on this
QB 133 (trespass). However, it is worth noting that Dutton was a 2:1 majority decision, aspect of contractual licences
and that the dissenting member of the Court of Appeal was the property lawyer! in Habermann v Koehler (1996)
73 P&CR 515 at p.523.
Activity 6.3
Read the extracts from Manchester Airport plc v Dutton [2000] QB 133 in your
casebook or read the case online, and answer the following questions.
a. What reasoning did Laws J use to support his finding that a contractual licensee
could bring a claim against a trespasser?
b. Does it matter that the licence holder is not in occupation of the land? If not,
why not?
Licence coupled with an interest

Sometimes a licence is granted in connection with an interest, such as a profit à
prendre (see Chapter 8). When a person is given the right to shoot animals on land,
they may be granted a licence to enter the land in order to remove the dead animals.
The licence exists to facilitate the enjoyment of the interest. Such a licence cannot
be revoked before the interest concerned has ended. If the interest in land is binding
on successors in title, the licence attached to it is also binding and may be validly
assigned to third parties.
Licence by estoppel
These licences arise by way of the doctrine of proprietary estoppel. If the estoppel is
proved then the remedy awarded may be a licence to use or occupy the land. In Ottey
v Grundy [2003] EWCA Civ 1176 the Court of Appeal had to decide whether there had
been detrimental reliance on the part of the claimant and how to give effect to the
equity that arose in her favour. Look at the case: do you think the court reached a fair
result? See Chapter 7 for more detail.
1. Define ‘bare licence’.
2. Can dealings within a family give rise to an intention to create legal relations?
3. When a licence is revoked in breach of contract, what is the court’s likely

response?
4. What was the argument adopted by Denning LJ in Errington v Errington and

Woods [1952] 1 KB 290?
5. What impact has Manchester Airport plc v Dutton [2000] QB 133 had on the rights
of licencees?
Summary
We have seen that contractual licences have evolved from personal contracts to
entities which closely resemble leases. They may even become enforceable against
third parties in some circumstances (e.g. where the conscience of the successor in title
to the licensor has been affected to such an extent that a court is willing to impose a
constructive trust). The extent to which third party enforceability exists is unclear, and
the issue needs clarification by a Supreme Court decision.
Further reading
¢ Battersby, G. ‘Contractual and estoppel licences as proprietary interests in land’
(1991) Conv 36.
6.2 General characteristics of a lease
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 6 ‘Leases’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 11 ‘Leases – the basic requirements’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 18 ‘Leases: types and requirements’.
6.2.1 Introduction to leases

An estate in land gives the owner of that estate exclusive possession of the land. There
are two estates in land which are capable of existing at law, the fee simple and the term
of years absolute. The term of years is a lease. It is ‘carved out’ of the greater estate. Land
will be owned by a fee simple owner (the landlord/lessor) who may grant a lease to
the tenant (lessee). A lease of land involves both proprietary and contractual rights for
both the landlord and the tenant, and so is subject to contradictory pressures. This is
heightened by the lease’s commercial importance and the wide range of transactions
which it encompasses. A tenant is an ‘owner’ of an estate in land, albeit temporarily and
subject to restrictions, but equally they are a consumer contracting for the provision of
‘services’. To further complicate the situation and as evidence of this tension between the
contractual nature of a lease and its proprietary nature, recent cases (see Bruton v London
& Quadrant Housing Trust [2000] 1 AC 406) have upheld the existence of contractual, non-
proprietary leases. The reasoning behind the decision in Bruton may be that the tenant
needed to be defined as a tenant to come within the statutory protections for tenants,
rather than an attempt by the judiciary to undermine the long-standing nature of leases.
It also shows the limited rights enjoyed by a person who has a licence. However, to keep
things simple at this stage, a lease or term of years is exclusive possession of land for a
certain period of time.
Lord Templeman set out the requirements of a valid lease in Street v Mountford [1985]
AC 809:
u exclusive possession
u fixed term
u rent (either a one off payment (a premium) or paid periodically).
So this is a good place to begin our discussion.
A lease is one of the legal estates in land (s.1(1)(b) LPA 1925), as a term of years absolute
in possession. Although it refers to a term of years, a lease can be much shorter.
Exclusive possession
As stated by Lord Templeman in Street v Mountford, this is the right to exclude others
from the land: a tenant is entitled to keep out ‘the world’, which includes the landlord,
unless the landlord is exercising limited rights reserved to them by the tenancy
agreement to enter and ‘view and repair’. So your lease may provide for the landlord
to enter on certain conditions, but it is your permission which provides for this, not
the landlord’s property right. This is one of the major factors considered by the courts
in making the distinction between a lease and a licence.
Fixed term
A lease must have a maximum duration, ascertainable from its outset. This
requirement is subject to exceptions and statutory modifications. This term can be
set at the outset or be ascertained as a periodic tenancy. So you may have a lease
which is for a month; should neither party end the agreement this may be renewed
for another month. Although the maximum term of the lease is not clear at the outset,
the successive terms of the right to exclude are clear.
Rent
Rent is not an essential characteristic of a lease (see s.205(x) and (xxvii) LPA 1925;
Ashburn Anstalt v Arnold [1989] Ch 1), but almost every lease will involve payment of
rent or a lump sum by the tenant. A periodic tenancy’s duration is aligned with the
period over which the rent is quantified (e.g. if rent is quantified on a monthly basis,
it is a monthly periodic tenancy and can be brought to an end by a month’s notice to
quit from either party).
There must be a capable grantor and grantee. This means that the person who creates
the lease has a greater estate in the land.
Fee simple owner creates
99-year lease. The tenant then

creates
60-year lease. The tenant then
creates
25-year lease − and so on
Each lease is ‘carved out’ of the greater estate (s.1(5) LPA 1925). So the person with a 60-
year lease cannot grant a 90-year lease because their estate in land would end before
that time.
There must also be a person capable of granting a lease and one able to accept the
grant (a capable grantor and grantee). So if a person does not have an estate in
land they cannot create a lesser estate (see above). This was considered in Bruton v
Quadrant Housing. A housing association was the licencee of property. As a licensee,
the housing association did not have an estate out of which it could grant a lease (i.e.
a proprietary estate in land). The housing association gave X the exclusive right to
occupy the property. X subsequently sought the protection of a statutory provision
which applies only to tenants. The House of Lords held that X had a non-proprietary
lease and was a tenant of the property.
6.2.2 Exclusive possession

This topic is capable of forming the subject matter of a problem question or of an
essay question in itself, distinct from the rest of the law on leases.
The test in the leading case

The decision of the House of Lords in Street v Mountford identified that the court will
look for ‘the true bargain’ between the parties and so will ignore shams. Therefore, just
because a document claims on its face to be ‘a licence’ that does not mean that the
courts will treat it as such unless they genuinely believe that that is the true bargain
between the parties. It is common for landlords to claim that their arrangement
is merely a licence (and therefore that it does not create proprietary rights for the
tenant). The courts will ignore such provisions if they consider that that is not the true
position between the parties in the remainder of the circumstances.
The key identifying factors of a lease are that:
u there must be exclusive possession
u it is for a term (i.e. a period of time)
u it is at a rent.
The purpose of problem questions in this area is to ask you to analyse closely the
terms of the agreement between the parties in the light of the precise circumstances
(including the layout of the property the claimants occupy), and then to present an
analysis of whether that should be deemed to be a lease or a licence by comparison
with the decided cases. The skill that is being tested is your ability to apply these tests,
analyses and dicta to the facts of the problem.
Two House of Lords judgments essential to answering a problem question in this

area
The joined appeals in the House of Lords in AG Securities v Vaughan and Antoniades v
Villiers (both at [1990] 1 AC 417) are particularly useful in analysing problem questions
of this sort. These joined appeals had very different scenarios and came to different
outcomes. You must read the joined judgment in these cases in the law reports to
understand the detail of those circumstances so that you can use them to answer
problem questions. As discussed in the Introduction to this guide, this lends itself
to the ‘spectrum technique’ of problem-answering: put each case at the end of a
spectrum with its various determining factors and then argue whether the case in
front of you is closer to one end of the spectrum or the other.
u On the one hand, Antoniades v Villiers involved a romantic couple who rented a small
flat (in the form of a room in an attic) from a landlord with an agreement which
purported (on its own terms) to be a licence. The arrangement was held to be a
lease. The House of Lords was particularly influenced by the fact that a number of
terms in the agreement were shams. Indeed, the landlord went so far as to reserve
a right to spend the night with the couple (which cannot have been intended in
reality!). The occupants had exclusive possession of the property in practice.
u On other hand, AG Securities v Vaughan involved a group of unconnected individuals

who responded at separate times to adverts to rent a room in a four-bedroom
flat, which was rented out by a company. Each occupant had exclusive possession
over their own bedroom at most, but not the communal bathroom, kitchen,
living-room and so forth. Moreover, they had none of the four unities (of time,
title, interest or possession) because they came into occupation at different times
and moved rooms when someone moved out depending on seniority and the
desirability of the vacant room. Consequently, it was held that the occupants in
Vaughan only had licences.
u In answering a problem question in this area, one way of proceeding is to compare

the facts of the problem with each of these cases (identifying similarities and
differences), and so argue your way to a conclusion as to whether the problem
question resembles one case more closely than the other.
u NB: applying these two cases is not all that you should do. The leading case setting
out the test is Street v Mountford (which you should lay out first). There have been
several cases in this area after Antoniades and Vaughan and you should discuss
relevant cases from that body of law in your answer, too.
Other useful cases

In Aslan v Murphy [1990] 1 WLR 766 it was held that the landowner had not retained
exclusive possession by including in a residential occupation agreement a term that
required the occupant to vacate the premises for 90 minutes every day. The Court of
Appeal concluded that the term was ‘wholly unrealistic’ and a clear pretence, and that
it should be ignored in ascertaining the true relationship between the parties.
In Mikeover v Brady [1989] 3 All ER 618 two friends (not a romantic couple) were
required to sign a separate agreement, with the result that each was responsible for
half of the total rent payable. The same provision appeared in Antoniades v Villiers
whereby each occupant (being part of a romantic couple) was supposedly responsible
for half of the rent. In Antoniades v Villiers the provision was treated as a sham and
disregarded. Yet, in Mikeover v Brady the provision was found to be effective (so that if
one party had not paid their part of the rent then the other party would not have been
required to make up the other half) and therefore they were found not to have a lease
together but rather to have separate licences. Again, this is an example of two subtly
differing cases that reach different outcomes.
An occupier who does not have exclusive possession cannot be a tenant; they
will usually be a licensee. Moreover, the fact that an occupier does have exclusive
possession does not necessarily mean that he is a tenant; he may still be a licensee.
The easiest way to illustrate this is a hotel room. You would expect that if you book
your room you will be there alone for the duration of your stay. It would be a surprise
to have booked a room and to arrive to find the hotel had put another guest in the
room to share with you. You do not have a lease but a licence to occupy. The terms
of the agreement grant you sole use – not because you have a right to exclude but
because the room is your property. The courts have taken great pains to establish
whether the occupation is a property right or merely personal. They are aware of the
use of sham documents. The fact that a person has called the agreement a licence is
merely an indicator of its status: the courts look to the substance of the agreement
and not the form.
Following the House of Lords judgment in Street v Mountford, whenever an occupier

is granted exclusive possession of residential accommodation for a fixed or periodic
term at a stated rent, there is a presumption of a tenancy. Special circumstances might
rebut that presumption. For example:
u friendship – Marcroft Wagons v Smith [1951] 2 KB 496
u family – David v Lewisham (1977) 34 P&CR 112
u employee – Norris v Checksfield [1991] 1 WLR 1241
u lodgings, where services are provided such as cleaning – Marchant v Charters [1977]
1 WLR 1181
u each responsible for own rent – Mikeover v Brady [1989] 3 All ER 618.
Activity 6.4
Think about the following questions as you do your reading:
Does Street v Mountford mean that the parties’ intentions will seldom be relevant?
Would Marchant v Charters be decided the same way today? Why should not parties
be free to enter into a residential licence agreement?
A number of cases have explored the exact limits of Street v Mountford [1985] AC 809.
Although the courts will be astute to strike down sham devices purporting to deny
the occupier exclusive possession (for example: Antoniades v Villiers; Aslan v Murphy;
Skipton Building Society v Clayton [1993] 25 HLR 596) it is still possible to enter into a
genuine non-exclusive occupation agreement, for example: AG Securities v Vaughan
[1990] 1 AC 417 and Mikeover Ltd v Brady.
Conversely, exclusive possession at a rent for a term does not necessarily connote a
tenancy if there are other factors of greater significance to be considered: see Mehta
v Royal Bank of Scotland [1999] L&TR 340. In Gray v Taylor [1998] 1 WLR 1093 exclusive
†
possession by an almsperson† at a rent did not create a lease since the charitable Almsperson: a person
trustees who were ‘landlord’ did not have the power to create a tenancy. receiving charity (alms).
The charity may consist of
Where there is more than one potential tenant then you must prove that as co- gifts of money, but in earlier
owners they are joint tenants. As a legal title to land can only be co-owned by joint centuries money was often
tenants (s.1(6) LPA 1925), to have a legal lease they must satisfy the four unities (see AG given for the building of
Securities v Vaughan): ‘almshouses’ where elderly
1. Possession – they all have the right to exclusive possession against the world. poor people could be
housed. Many of these small
2. Interest – they all have the same interest in the property and their rights and but elegant dwellings still
obligations are joint rather than separate. exist.
The photograph below
3. Time – the interest begins and ends at the same time.
shows almshouses in Stoke
4. Title – the estate is created by a single transaction. Newington, London.
1. What is the difference between exclusive possession and sole occupation?
2. What is the significance of the lease/licence distinction?
6.2.3 Certainty of term

The term must commence at a time certain and exist for a definite period (see Lace v
Chantler [1944] KB 368 where a lease expressed to last for the duration of the Second
World War was deemed to be too uncertain).
As long as the maximum duration of the term is known in advance, it is immaterial

that it may come to an end at an earlier date (e.g. by the service of a notice to quit or
on the occurrence of some other event). A periodic tenancy satisfies the rule because
each party has power to determine it by notice. If either party lacks such power, the
Lace v Chantler rule is not satisfied. In Prudential Assurance Co Ltd v London Residuary
Body [1992] 2 AC 386 the House of Lords reasserted a strict interpretation of the
certainty of term rule after a number of cases (most notably Re Midland Railway Co’s
Agreement [1971] Ch 725 and Ashburn Anstalt v Arnold [1989] Ch 1) had sought to relax
its requirements. The judgment is notable for the forthright assertion of orthodoxy
by Lord Templeman (who, incidentally, was the losing senior counsel in Re Midland
Railway Co’s Agreement) in the face of an otherwise hesitant and ambivalent House of
Lords who queried, but ultimately did not challenge, why any such requirement exists.
In light of the House of Lords’ unenthusiastic application of the rule in Prudential it is
perhaps not surprising that the Supreme Court took the opportunity afforded them by
counsel’s clever argument in Mexfield Housing Co-operative Ltd v Berrisford [2011] UKSC
52 to sidestep the requirement by resort to old case law and a rarely invoked statutory
provision. The case involved a clause in an occupancy agreement that stated that it
could only be terminated if the occupier was in arrears or had otherwise breached its
terms. In the Court of Appeal it was held that the agreement was void as a lease for
uncertainty of term as its maximum duration was uncertain under Prudential v LRB.
On appeal to the Supreme Court the agreement was seen differently: it was accepted
that a lease of uncertain duration was void for lack of certainty of term. However,
before the 1925 legislation, such a lease would have been deemed to be a tenancy
for life determinable on the happening of the uncertain event, which under s.149(6)
LPA 1925 was converted into a tenancy for 90 years, determinable on the death of
Ms Berrisford or in accordance with the terms of the original agreement. Although it
was not necessary to determine the point, Lord Neuberger also expressed the view
that Ms Berrisford would also have won on her alternative ground that the terms of a
licence should continue to bind the original parties to the licence. The Supreme Court,
like the majority in Prudential v LRB, showed no great enthusiasm for the certainty of
term requirement and consequently embraced an imaginative means of avoiding its
implications on these facts. However, you should be aware of the limits of the decision.
For example, the device whereby a lease of uncertain duration is deemed to be a
determinable life tenancy will not work where the lessee is a corporate entity as they
cannot hold a lease for life.
In Mexfield, the application of the rule that converts an uncertain term to a 90-year
lease determinable on the tenant’s death (‘the Rule’) was consistent with the intention
of the transacting parties. However, Baroness Hale contemplated situations in which
the application of the Rule would frustrate their intention. Hildyard J was confronted
with just this situation in Southward Housing Co-operative Ltd v Walker [2015] EWHC
1615 (Ch). The landlord granted to the tenants a weekly tenancy but agreed not to
terminate the tenancy as long as the tenants observed their obligations under the
lease. As the fetter on the landlord’s ability to terminate the tenancy created an
uncertain term, Hildyard J had to decide whether the Rule applied. As a matter of
construction, Hildyard J concluded that the parties envisaged that the tenancy would
be long term, but that they did not intend to create a lease for the tenants’ lives: the
provision permitting the landlord to terminate in the event of breach was inconsistent
with any such intention. Accordingly, Hildyard J considered that the application
of the Rule to the case before him ‘would confound the accepted approach to the
construction of any agreement, including a tenancy agreement, substitute for the
meaning of the contract on its true interpretation an entirely different contract,
and thereby contradict the intention of the parties’. Hildyard J was able to avoid this
‘bizarre’ result. After a careful analysis of the judgments in Mexfield he concluded
‘with diffidence and anxiety’ that the Rule can be displaced where its application
would be inconsistent with the intention of the transacting parties or would frustrate
fundamental aspects of their agreement. One question remained for consideration:
if the lease was void for uncertainty and was not saved by the application of the
Rule, what was the effect of the parties’ agreement? Hildyard J adopted the obiter
comments in Mexfield and held that the agreement took effect as a contractual licence
– a licence which could only be determined in accordance with its terms. Southward,
then, both distinguishes Mexfield on the facts and also addresses the role of intention,
a point that the Supreme Court had left open. More controversially, in Gilpin v Legg
[2017] EWHC 3220 (Ch), Judge Paul Mathews went further (at [84] and [85]) expressing
(obiter) ‘respectful doubt’ on whether the authorities considered by the Supreme
Court did in fact support the Rule.
A term is usually limited to take effect from the date of the grant (i.e. in possession)
but it is possible to create a term limited to commence at some future date (a
reversionary lease), but not more than 21 years from the date of the grant: see s.149(3)
LPA 1925. A lease for life or until marriage (which would otherwise fall foul of the rule
in Lace v Chantler) is, if granted at a rent or in consideration of a fine, to take effect
as a lease for 90 years: s.149(6) LPA 1925. Lack of a commencement date does not
necessarily render a lease void, particularly if it is a commercial lease and the parties
intended it to be enforceable: Liverpool CC v Walton Group plc [2002] 1 EGLR 149. Finally,
note that perpetually renewable leases are converted into terms of 2,000 years: s.145
and Schedule 15 LPA 1922.
The danger here is that a lease containing a covenant for renewal on the same terms
may be construed as a perpetually renewable lease and converted to a 2,000-year
term. Compare Caerphilly Concrete Products Ltd v Owen [1972] 1 WLR 372 and Marjorie
Burnett Ltd v Barclay [1981] 1 EGLR 41 where it was stated that ‘...the leaning of the courts
has been against perpetual renewals’.
1. What are the four unities?
2. Why are they important in relation to leases?
Summary
A lease grants exclusive possession of the land for a certain fixed or periodic term,
usually in consideration of a rent or premium. The lease/licence distinction centres
upon whether the claimant has exclusive possession.
Further reading
¢ Davey, M. ‘Privity of contract and leases – reform at last’ (1996) 59 MLR 78.
¢ Low, K. ‘Certainty of terms and leases: curiouser and curiouser’ (2012) 75 MLR 401.
¢ Lower, M. ‘The Bruton tenancy’ [2010] Conv 38.
¢ Sparkes, P. ‘Certainty of leasehold terms’ (1993) 109 LQR 93.
6.3 Creation of a lease
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 6 ‘Leases’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 11 ‘Leases – the basic requirements’: Section 11.5
‘Formalities for leases’.
6.3.1 Legal leases

A lease is capable of subsisting at law (s.1(1)(b) LPA 1925). To be legal it must meet
certain formal requirements. Here the length of the lease is crucial, but remember that
despite the length of the lease it must satisfy the basic requirements of a lease.
Some leases are exempted from formality requirements by ss.52(d) and 54(2) LPA 1925.
The exemption only applies where three requirements are satisfied. First, the lease must
be granted for a term of three years or less. (This will include a periodic lease based on
the payment of rent.) Second, the lease must take effect in possession (i.e. the term must
commence on the same day that the lease is granted). Third, the lease must be granted
at the prevailing market rent: Fitzkriston LLP v Panayi [2008] EWCA Civ 283.
Leases over three years but up to (and including) seven years must be created by deed
(s.52 LPA 1925 – see s.1 LP(MP)A 1989 for what constitutes a deed).
A lease over seven years is now a trigger for registration under s.27 LRA 2002 and in
addition to creation by deed it must be registered to take effect at law.
Leases requiring substantive registration

Any legal leasehold estate for a term of more than seven years requires registration
(ss.3(3), 4(2) and 27(2) LRA 2002). Thus, the length of a lease requiring registration has
been shortened considerably from 21 years under LRA 2002. This means that the lease
over seven years will have its own substantive entry on the Land Registry.
Leases protected by notice and leases that override

A lease exceeding three years but not exceeding seven years can be protected by the
entry of a notice on the charges register of a registered title (ss.32/33 LRA 2002). A lease
of three years or under cannot be entered on the register (s.33 LRA 2002).
Although leases exceeding three years but not exceeding seven years can be
protected by the entry of a notice, there is little incentive to protect them in this way
because they are automatically overriding under para.1 of Schedule 3 LRA 2002. The
reason why it is not possible to protect a lease of three years or less by a notice is to
maintain the efficiency of the register and not clog it with minor short interests.
Leases created before October 2003, which would have been overriding under LRA
1925, will remain overriding (para.12 Schedule 12 LRA 2002).
6.3.2 Equitable leases

When a person has tried to create a legal lease but failed to fulfil the requirements (set
out above) there may still be an equitable lease. For this to operate, the agreement
must satisfy the requirements for an estate contract set out in s.2 LP(MP)A 1989, which
replaces s.40 LPA 1925. If these requirements are satisfied, the principle in Walsh v
Lonsdale (1882) 21 Ch D 9 may apply.
A question that is commonly raised is the extent to which an agreement for a lease is
as good as a lease. As between the parties it may be, but in a number of other respects
it is not.
The doctrine depends on the discretionary remedy of specific performance. Consider

the circumstances in which the remedy would not be available: see, for example,
Coatsworth v Johnson [1886–90] All ER 547.
Before 1926 an equitable lease, which is a form of estate contract, was liable to be
destroyed by a bona fide purchaser of a legal estate for value without notice.
However, the position in respect of post-1925 agreements has been changed, as

regards unregistered land, by the Land Charges Act 1972 (i.e. they are registrable as
class C(iv) land charges). If the land is registered, equitable leases may, and now often
must, be protected by entry on the land register and they may also rank as overriding
interests if they fall within the terms of protection provided by para.2 of Schedule 3 of
the LRA 2002.
Activity 6.5
In 2018 Anne enters into an agreement to give exclusive possession for 10 years of
Greenacre (a registered title) to Paul for a quarterly rent of £300. All the terms are
in a written document and they both sign this. Paul moves in and regularly pays the
rent. Anne has now sold the freehold of Greenacre to Simon. Simon wants Paul to
move out. Advise Paul.
Activity 6.6
Does it matter to a tenant whether his lease is legal or equitable?
Activity 6.7
How does (a) an equitable lease and (b) a periodic tenancy come into existence?
A lease may also be created by estoppel: Tower Hamlets LBC v Sherwood [2002] EWCA Civ
229, but of course it is inchoate until recognised as existing by a court.
Summary
Where an ‘ordinary’ legal lease fails, either a periodic tenancy or an equitable lease
may exist instead and allow the enforcement of an agreement between the parties.
6.4 Determination of leases
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 6 ‘Leases’: Sections 6.7 –6.9.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 14 ‘Termination of leases’: Sections 14.1 –14.4.
¢ Smith, Chapter 19 ‘Leases: obligations and remedies’, Part 4 ‘Forfeiture’.
¢ Law Commission Report, ‘Termination of tenancies after tenant default’

(October 2006) Law Com 303.
¢ Law Commission Report, ‘Renting homes’ (November 2003) Law Com 284.
6.4.1 Forfeiture
A lease or tenancy may be terminated in a number of ways. Most of these give rise to
no particular difficulty, though some points regarding forfeiture and notice need to be
noted. The Law Commission has made repeated far-reaching proposals for the reform
of the law, which will be noted below.
Forfeiture is the landlord’s right to re-enter premises because of a tenant’s breach

of covenant. It should be noted that there are special controls on the forfeiture
of residential tenancies. A lease cannot be forfeited for breach of covenant unless
it contains a forfeiture clause, and a landlord may in any case be prevented from
proceeding with the forfeiture if he waives the breach (i.e. if with knowledge of the
breach he does some unequivocal act recognising the continued existence of the
lease): see Matthews v Smallwood [1910] 1 Ch 777.
Activity 6.8
Consider the sort of acts from which waiver may be implied: read Central Estates
(Belgravia) Ltd v Woolgar (No 2) [1972] 1 WLR 1048, then answer the following
questions:
a. How had Woolgar breached the lease?
b. Why were the landlords so keen to forfeit the lease?
c. How important are the intentions of the parties? Here the landlord did not
intend to waive the breach and the tenant was aware that he did not.
No feedback provided for parts (a) and (b).

Moreover, before a right of forfeiture can be enforced (e.g. by issuing and serving a writ
for possession), certain conditions must be satisfied, though the breach of a covenant
to pay rent is treated differently from the breach of any other covenant.
Non-payment of rent – there must be a formal demand (unless this is excluded by the
lease or dispensed with by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852) and the tenant may
apply for relief both in equity and, usually, under the 1852 Act.
Other breaches – the landlord must serve on the tenant a statutory notice in writing
under s.146 LPA 1925 which must specify the breach complained of, require it to be
remedied if possible and require the tenant to pay compensation (if required). If the
breach is capable of remedy, the landlord must allow a reasonable time to elapse to
enable the tenant to comply with the notice; they may then proceed to enforce the
forfeiture. If successful, forfeiture will also affect any subtenant since their sublease
will be destroyed. The question whether a particular breach is capable of remedy is
important both in determining whether a s.146 notice which does not require the
breach to be remedied is good or not, and in considering whether the tenant has had
sufficient time to comply with the notice.
Activity 6.9
Read about the following cases in your textbook and casebook and make notes
on how the court in each case classified breaches of covenant as remediable or
irremediable:
u Rugby School (Governors) v Tannahill [1935] 1 KB 87
u Glass v Kencakes Ltd [1966] 1 QB 611
u Expert Clothing Service and Sales Ltd v Hillgate [1986] Ch 340
u Akici v LR Butlin Ltd [2005] EWCA Civ 1296.
Would it be possible to argue that breaches of negative covenants (i.e. promises
‘not to do’ something, such as build on land or run a business on premises) are in
their nature not capable of remedy whereas breaches of positive covenants are? Or
may the breach of a negative covenant sometimes be capable of remedy?
Relief against forfeiture

Finally, at any time before the landlord has re-entered, the tenant may apply for relief
against forfeiture, which may be granted on such terms as the court thinks fit (s.146(2)
LPA 1925); a subtenant may also apply for relief (s.146(4) LPA 1925), as can the holder
of a charge on the land in question (Bland v Ingrams Estates Ltd [2001] 2 WLR 1638). A
tenant may apply for relief even when the landlord has forfeited the lease by physical
re-entry on the land: see Billson v Residential Appointments Ltd [1992] 1 AC 494. A key
issue is whether forfeiture is a disproportionate penalty for the specific breach. If it is,
then relief is likely to be granted.
The court may grant relief even for a breach which is irremediable. Consider the kind
of factors that the court will take into account in deciding whether to grant relief or
not (see Shiloh Spinners Ltd v Harding [1973] AC 691; Bathurst (Earl) v Fine [1974] 1 WLR
905; Central Estates (Belgravia) Ltd v Woolgar (No 2) [1972] 1 WLR 1048; GMS Syndicate
Ltd v Gary Elliott Ltd [1982] Ch 1; Bland v Ingrams Estates [2001] Ch 767; Freifeld v West
Kensington Court Ltd [2015] EWCA Civ 806).
In relation to most leases of more than 21 years, ss.168 and 169 Commonhold and
Leasehold Reform Act 2002 prevent a landlord from issuing a s.146 notice unless the
tenant has either admitted the breach or a leasehold valuation tribunal has accepted
the evidence of breach. These sections came into force on 28 February 2005 and do
not affect s.146 notices served before that date.
6.4.2 Notice
A fixed term lease cannot be determined by notice unless this is expressly agreed;
a periodic tenancy is determined by notice and any term that seeks to prevent the
landlord from ever determining the tenancy is void at law as being repugnant to the
nature of the tenancy: see Centaploy Ltd v Matlodge Ltd [1974] Ch 1.
Subject to contrary agreement the notice of termination is a full period expiring at the
end of a completed period, though it is half a year in the case of a yearly tenancy. For
example, a weekly tenancy commencing on a Monday can be determined by notice
given on or before one Monday to expire at midnight on the following Sunday.
Subject to the limitations in the first paragraph above, a lease may be terminated by
either party by the giving of notice. The notice must be an unambiguous exercise of
the relevant term in the lease (Aylward v Fawaz (1997) 2 HLR 408). The requirements
of a lease regarding notice and how it is to be given must be complied with strictly,
although the bare majority of the House of Lords in Mannai Investment Co v Eagle Star
Life Assurance Co [1997] AC 749 held that minor errors do not invalidate notice as long as
the decision to terminate the lease has been conveyed with sufficient clarity. See also
Ravenseft Properties v Hall [2001] EWCA Civ 2034.
Activity 6.10
a. Two parties agreed a tenancy to commence on 1 January 2021, at a rent of
£12,000 per annum payable monthly. In February 2021 the landlord decided that
he wanted to determine the tenancy. How should he do this?
b. What if the tenancy had been for eight years?
6.4.3 Other methods of termination

A lease will in general be terminated by any transaction which results in the leasehold
estate and its reversion being owned by the same person (including merger and
surrender). Lord Millett in Barrett v Morgan [2000] 2 AC 264 said that ‘a surrender is
simply an assurance by which a lesser estate is yielded up to the greater, and the term
is usually applied to the giving up of a lease or tenancy before its expiration’. (The
House of Lords appears to have affirmed Lord Millett’s dissent on the property issues,
but mainly concentrated on the (now irrelevant) tax problem.)
Surrender requires a deed at law, but a contract for surrender is effective in equity.
Informal surrender is implied when the landlord and tenant conduct themselves in a
manner which is inconsistent with the continuation of the lease.
6.4.4 Reform proposals

The Law Commission has repeatedly made reform proposals in this field of law. It
stated in its 2006 report (Law Com 303, ‘Termination of tenancies for tenant default’):
It has long been recognised that this area of the law is in need of reform. It has been the
subject of frequent criticisms for many years. It is complex, it lacks coherence, and it can
lead to injustice.
Consequently, the Law Commission proposed in the 2004 consultation paper that the
current law should be abolished and replaced by a statutory scheme under which
almost all termination proceedings would be heard in court, with greater fairness to
the tenant. The scheme is designed to be complementary to that proposed under the
Law Commission report on ‘Renting homes’ (Law Com 284, November 2003). Their
2006 Report proposed more specific reforms in its suggested Landlord and Tenant
(Termination of Tenancies) Bill. The aims of the proposed new scheme for forfeiture
would be simplification, transparency and rebalancing of rights. The circumstances
which justify forfeiture would be labelled ‘tenant default’ and would allow forfeiture
regardless of whether the landlord had a right of re-entry or forfeiture clause in the
lease. Waiver of breach would be abolished. A tenant default notice (rather similar
to the current s.146 notice) would be required to be served by the landlord and if the
breach were not remedied, then a court could give whatever remedy was thought
appropriate and proportionate in the circumstances from six suggested orders. The
government has not yet responded to the 2006 Report.
Summary
The main methods of termination of leases are the giving of notice and forfeiture.
In both cases, extra protection may be given to residential tenants. The courts have
discretion to grant relief from forfeiture even where a tenant’s breach is irremediable.
6.5 Covenants running with the land and the reversion
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 6 ‘Leases’: Sections 6.4 –6.6.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 13 ‘The running of covenants in leases’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 20 ‘Leases: parties and the running of covenants’.

The lessor may assign their reversion and the lessee may assign the lease. A deed is
necessary for the legal assignment of a reversion and of a lease no matter how short
the term. Many leases contain a covenant against assignment, subletting or parting
with possession of the land without the landlord’s consent and in such cases s.19(1)
Landlord and Tenant Act 1927 provides that this consent is not to be unreasonably
withheld. If the tenant seeks the consent but it is unreasonably withheld, they may go
ahead and assign, etc. without the consent. The Landlord and Tenant Act 1988 imposes
on the landlord certain obligations relating to the giving and withholding of consent.
6.5.1 Enforceability of covenants

The Landlord and Tenant (Covenants) Act 1995 (LTCA 1995), which came into force on 1
January 1996, has radically altered the law in this field. However, most of its provisions
apply only to post-1995 leases and, therefore, the previous law will remain important
for a long time to come. You will need to understand both regimes. In the discussion
that follows the old regime (old leases) will be set out first and then the LTCA 1995
reforms (new leases).
It may help to keep this image in mind when working out the rules below.
Original Assignee of
lessor Reversion
Original Assignee of
tenant Lease
Leases created before 1 January 1996: Original parties

Under the doctrine of privity of contract the original parties remain liable on the
covenants of the lease for the duration of the term. As stated by Lord Templeman in
City of London Corporation v Fell [1994] 1 AC 458:
The common law did not release the original tenant from liability for breaches of covenant
committed after an assignment…the fortunate English landlord has two remedies after
an assignment, namely his remedy against an assignee and his remedy against the original
tenant.
This can prove very onerous – particularly for the original tenant. A good example
is Centrovincial Estates v Bulk Storage [1983] 46 P&CR 393, where the original tenant
was liable for the two quarterly instalments of increased rent unpaid by a later
assignee of the lease; the original rent was £17,000 per annum and the revised rent
was £40,000 per annum. Due to the perceived unfairness to original tenants who
have not themselves defaulted, the courts (for example in City of London Corporation
v Fell and in Friends’ Provident Life Office v British Railways Board [1996] 1 All ER 336)
have sought to limit the operation of this principle. In Fell the House of Lords gave a
limited concession to original tenants by holding that they were not liable for rent left
unpaid by a later assignee of the lease, where the term of the lease had been extended
beyond its original 10-year term by a later assignee. In Friends’ Provident the Court of
Appeal found that an original tenant was not bound by later variations of the lease
between landlord and assignee, unless the variation had been foreseen in the terms
of the original lease (e.g. by having a rent review clause). In relation to pre-1996 leases
LTCA 1995 now restricts the right of a landlord to recover rent from the original tenant
after assignment via s.17, so that now the landlord must serve the original tenant with
warning of their potential liability for an assignee’s breach – a ‘problem notice’ – within
six months of the rent becoming due. This limits the tenant’s potential liability to six
months’ worth of rent in effect, but note that the provision does not apply to damages
owed for breaches of non-rent covenants. However, s.19(1) entitles the original tenant
made liable for an assignee’s breach to recover a leasehold interest in the land,
once they have paid the full amount owed, so in effect they can get very valuable
compensation.
Assignee of lease
It is also important to determine the circumstances in which persons other than the
original parties to a lease can sue or be sued on covenants in that lease. In the case
of the assignment of a lease the rule is that both the benefits and burdens pass if two
conditions are fulfilled. In the first place, the covenants must ‘touch and concern the
land’ or ‘have reference to the subject matter of the lease’. Most textbooks contain
lists of covenants that have been held to touch and concern the land or not to do so.
Examples include Hua Chiao Commercial Bank Ltd v Chiaphua Industries Ltd [1987] AC
99, where the Privy Council held that the landlord’s obligation to return the tenant’s
deposit at the expiration of the lease did not touch and concern the land, and Kumar
v Dunning [1989] QB 193 where the Court of Appeal held that a covenant by a surety
guaranteeing the payment of rent did touch and concern the land.
In Swift Investments v Combined English Stores [1989] AC 632, the House of Lords
approved Kumar v Dunning and held that the test to be applied was whether:
u the covenant benefited only the reversioner for the time being
u it affected the nature, quality, mode of user or value of the reversioner’s land, and
u it was not expressed to be personal.
The second general requirement is that there must be privity of estate between the
lessor and the assignee of the lease (i.e. there must be a legal lease – see Purchase v
Lichfield Brewery [1915] 1 KB 184) and there must be a legal assignment of the whole
term. If these conditions are satisfied, the common law rule in Spencer’s Case (1582) 77
ER 72 lays down that the benefits and burdens of covenants that touch and concern
the land will pass to the assignee of the lease.
Activity 6.11
What is the position if the original lease is equitable (or the assignment is
equitable) and there is therefore no privity of estate?
Assignees of the reversion

By virtue of ss.141 and 142 LPA 1925, the benefits and burdens of covenants having
reference to the subject-matter of the lease will pass on the assignment of the
reversion, whether the lease is by deed or not: see Rickett v Green [1910] 1 KB 253.
The assignee becomes the only person entitled to sue, even in respect of breaches of
covenant that occur before the assignment: Re King [1963] Ch 459; London and County
(A and D) Ltd v Wilfred Sportsman Ltd [1971] Ch 764.
Sublessees
There is neither privity of contract nor privity of estate between a lessor and a
sublessee, so covenants in the lease will not be directly enforceable against the
sublessee under the rule in Spencer’s Case. However, restrictive covenants may be
enforceable under the doctrine in Tulk v Moxhay (1848) 47 ER 1345 (see Chapter 9).
Moreover, if the head-lease contains a forfeiture clause, the lessor can re-enter and
determine that lease for breach of covenant, even (it seems) for breach of a covenant
that does not touch and concern the land. Then the sub-lease will come to an end,
unless the sublessee can obtain relief. The principles in this paragraph also apply
where an equitable lease has been assigned or where there has been an equitable
assignment of a lease.
6.5.2 Post-1995 leases (new leases)

Throughout LTCA 1995, no distinction is made between legal and equitable leases and
legal or equitable assignments (s.28). The benefit and burden of all covenants will pass
on an assignment of a lease or reversion, except those expressed to be personal. It no
longer matters whether the covenant touches and concerns the land.
See First Penthouse v Channel Hotels and Properties [2004] EWCA Civ 1072 on the
meaning of ‘expressed to be personal’ under LTCA 1995.
Original parties
In relation to post-1995 leases, LTCA 1995 releases a tenant from the covenants after
they have assigned (s.5) unless the assignment was in breach of covenant or by
operation of law (s.11). The Act provides a procedure for the release of a landlord
from their covenants after they have assigned (s.8), subject to their giving notice of
the assignment to the tenant and the tenant not objecting. The Act thus goes a long
way towards abolishing privity of contract in this context. The general scheme is that
when a tenant assigns their lease, they are released from the covenants (subject to the
possibility of the landlord extracting an ‘authorised guarantee agreement’). In cases
where a landlord’s consent is required to an assignment, a landlord will try to make
the tenant sign an authorised guarantee agreement, by which the tenant acts as a
guarantor for the person to whom the tenant assigns (s.16).
Assignees of lease, and assignees of the reversion

There are very few covenants which do not ‘run’ under LTCA 1995. The requirement
of ‘touching and concerning’ is abolished, so all landlord covenants and tenant
covenants automatically pass with an assignment of either the reversion or the lease.
Section 3 LTCA 1995 covers the transmission of such covenants, but personal covenants
are specifically excluded (s.3(6) LTCA). In BHP Petroleum v Chesterfield Properties [2001]
EWCA Civ 1797 it was held that all terms agreed between the original landlord and
tenant pass automatically unless a covenant is qualified so as to make it personal, with
liability between the original parties. On the facts the covenant was purely personal
and so was not covered by LTCA 1995. Thus, equally, liability for purely personal
covenants does not pass to an assignee, so the original landlord remains liable for
the duration of the lease, in respect of a personal obligation upon them to repair the
premises. The s.8 procedure for releasing a landlord from their obligations cannot
apply to a personal covenant. Moreover, an assignee has no rights or liability in relation
to pre-assignment breaches.
Sublessees
The rules relating to the enforceability of covenants against sublessees are unaffected
by LTCA 1995.
In London Diocesan Fund v Avonridge Property Company Ltd [2005] UKHL 70 the lease
included an express term releasing the landlord from the landlord covenants
immediately he assigned his interest in the property to a third party. The tenant
argued that this term was void under s.25(1) LTCA 1995, since it attempted to avoid the
requirements of ss.6–8 of that Act. The House of Lords rejected this argument and held
that the term was valid. Thus the Avonridge clause allows an original landlord to escape
liability under a lease without having to serve a notice on the tenant. It both destroys
an essential element of the Act and indicates that the House of Lords still regards
leases as contractual creations.
1. How has LTCA 1995 affected the enforceability of leasehold covenants?
2. When are covenants enforceable against sublessees?

Summary
LTCA 1995 has greatly changed the law relating to the enforceability of leasehold
covenants, and improved the position of the original parties after assignment. Almost
all covenants will ‘run’ under LTCA 1995. However, the ‘old’ law still applies to leases
created before 1996, for which it remains necessary to check whether covenants
‘touch and concern’ the land.
Question 1
In 1980, Lionel, by deed, granted to Thomas a lease of Blackacre (a house with a
tennis court), for 30 years. In the lease Thomas covenanted (inter alia) to pay the
rent, to keep the house in repair, not to do anything that might be a nuisance or
an annoyance to neighbours, and to allow Lionel to use the tennis court on one
day each week; the lease also reserved to the lessor a right of re-entry on breach
of covenant. In December 1984, Thomas by deed sublet Blackacre to Victor for the
residue of the term less three days, and shortly afterwards assigned his lease to
William. Lionel consults you, saying that the house is in disrepair, that Victor has
been convicted of possessing cannabis found on Blackacre and that he (Lionel) has
not been allowed to play tennis this year. Advise Lionel. Would your advice be the
same if all these events had occurred after 1 January 1996?
Question 2
On 1 January 1994, Lena granted Tricia a 30-year lease of Stapleton House (registered
land) at an annual rent of £15,000, payable in advance. Stephen covenanted, as
surety, to guarantee payment of the rent by Tricia. Under the lease the tenant
covenanted not to use the house for business purposes, and the tenant was given
the option to purchase the reversion. In 2000, Tricia assigned the lease to Arthur,
who had granted a five-year sub-lease to Stan, and Lena assigned her reversion to
Richard. No rent has been paid for two years. Stan has opened a hairdressing salon
in the house.
Richard wants to know (i) whether he can recover the rent arrears and from whom,
(ii) whether he can enforce the user covenant and against whom, and (iii) whether
he is bound by the option.
Advise Richard. How, if at all, would your advice differ if the original lease had been
granted in 1996?
Question 3
In 2010 Len granted Tim a lease of Commercial House for 30 years. Len covenanted,
inter alia, to maintain the exterior of the building in a good state of repair. In 2013
Tim assigned his lease to Alf and in 2015 Len assigned his reversion to Rob. The
exterior of the building is now in serious need of repair and Alf wishes to know
whether he can enforce the repairing covenant and, if so, against whom.
Advise Alf.
How would your advice differ, if (a) Len and Tim had agreed that the covenant was
to be personal, or, alternatively, if (b) Len and Tim had agreed that Len was to be
released from liability when he assigned the reversion?
Question 1
This question concerns leasehold covenants and their enforceability after assignment.
The position of subtenants is also covered. You need to work out whether each
covenant is legal or equitable and positive or negative, and whether it touches
and concerns the land or is personal. Then you will be able to tell which pass on
assignment of the lease, and can work out whether forfeiture is available for any
breach committed. Lionel is the original landlord and so you do not need to worry
about assignment of the reversion. You also have to answer the question twice: once
on the ‘old’ law pre-LTCA 1995, and then again under the ‘new’ law of that Act. It is
extremely helpful in questions on enforceability of covenants to draw a diagram
which shows all the parties, using vertical lines to represent the relationship between
landlord and tenant and horizontal lines to show an assignment. L = landlord (Lionel),
T= tenant (Thomas). So, what we have is this:
L wants to sue T for the breach of each covenant and also presumably to forfeit the
lease.
Question 2
Read and follow the three sub-questions to make sure that you do not miss any
important issues. The first part of the question largely concerns the operation of the
pre-LTCA 1995 law, though ss.17–19 apply to old tenancies. On (i) you should consider
whether the benefit of the rent covenant has passed to Richard (s.141 LPA 1925) and
whether he can enforce it against Tricia (original tenant), Stephen (surety), Arthur
(assignee) and Stan (sublessee). Different considerations apply in each case. You
should take the same approach to (ii), the important point here being the possibility
of enforcing the covenant directly against Stan under the doctrine of restrictive
covenants. On (iii) Richard will be bound only if the option has been registered or if
it is supported by ‘actual occupation’. The second part of the question concerns LTCA
1995, but the same orderly approach is called for. On (i) Richard’s position is governed
by s.3, Tricia and Stephen are released when Tricia assigns (s.5, in absence of authorised
guarantee agreement), so Richard can sue Arthur alone (s.3) for post-assignment
arrears. Richard can bring an action against Stan under s.3(5) LTCA 1995. The law
relating to the enforceability of the option is unchanged (s.3(6)(b)). You are not asked
to discuss remedies.
Question 3
This question requires a consideration of LTCA 1995. By virtue of s.3 Alf would be able
to enforce the repairing covenant against Rob, but not against Len (assuming that
Len had complied with the ss.6–8 release provisions). If, however, the covenant was
expressed to be personal, s.3(6)(a) would apply and neither the benefit nor the burden
of the covenant would pass on assignment, nor could Len be released (BHP Petroleum
Great Britain Ltd v Chesterfield Properties Ltd [2001] EWCA Civ 1797). Finally, the question
arises whether an agreement that Len should be released on assignment of the
reversion falls foul of s.25 on the grounds that it frustrates the operation of the Act.
This involves a discussion of London Diocesan Fund v Avonridge Property [2005] UKHL 70,
an important case with which you should be familiar.

1. A problem question asking you to consider whether or not the litigants have
created a lease or a mere licence.
2. An essay asking you to consider the law governing the distinction between
leases and licences.
3. A problem question on the law on leasehold covenants.
4. An essay on the changes to the law on leasehold covenants effected by the

legislation.
Quick quiz
Question 1
Which of the following is not essential for a valid lease?
a. Exclusive possession.
b. Fixed term.
c. Rent.
Question 2
If a lease has an uncertain term but rent is paid regularly will this be a valid lease?
a. No, this will fail.
b. It may be valid as a periodic lease.
c. It may be saved under the principles of Mexfield Housing Co-operative Ltd v

Berrisford [2011] UKSC 52.
Question 3
Considering your answer to Question 2, is this a legal lease?
a. Yes.
b. No.
c. Possibly.
Question 4
Which of these leases needs to be substantively registered to be legal on creation?
a. A lease of exactly seven years.
b. A lease of over seven years.
c. A lease of over three years.
Question 5
What are the requirements of a valid equitable lease?
a. It must satisfy the formalities of s.2 LP(MP)A 1989.
b. It must be a specifically enforceable contract.
c. It must satisfy the requirements of Walsh v Lonsdale.

7 Proprietary estoppel
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
7.1 Proprietary estoppel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Introduction
The doctrine of proprietary estoppel has developed in a striking manner over the last
30 years. The scope of the doctrine has been continuously extended by the courts, but
with little heed for the conveyancing problems that may be caused.
The doctrine is increasingly used to give effect to grants that fall foul of the rules for
the creation of property rights, as in Cobbe v Yeoman’s Row [2008] UKHL 55 (discussed
below). It also provides an increasingly important exception to the principle that
equity will not assist a volunteer. In some cases, for example, Lim Teng Huan v Ang
Swee Chuan [1992] 1 WLR 113, the doctrine may fill the role of the old law of part
performance.
Learning outcomes
u describe the essential characteristics of proprietary estoppel
u explain the relationship between proprietary estoppel and constructive trusts
u apply the above in answering problem questions.
Property law 7 Proprietary estoppel page 115
7.1 Proprietary estoppel
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 10 ‘Proprietary estoppel’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 10 ‘Licences and proprietary estoppel’: Sections
10.5–10.8.
¢ Smith, Chapter 22 ‘Licences’: Section 1.E ‘Estoppel licences’.
The doctrine of proprietary estoppel operates in two stages. First, the claimant must
prove that the estoppel is present. This requires the claimant to demonstrate that
(i) the defendant made them a representation (ii) on which the claimant relied
(iii) to their detriment. The claimant must also show that the defendant’s conduct
is unconscionable. A representation can involve a single, clear statement that the
claimant would acquire rights in property or an impression formed over time, which the
defendant knows that the claimant has formed (Gillett v Holt [2001] Ch 210). Detriment
may involve the payment of money (like consideration in a contract) or it may involve
something personal to the claimant like moving their children to a new school in
reliance on a promise that they would consequently have a new home (Grant v Edwards
[1986] Ch 638, although the opposite was found in Coombes v Smith [1986] 1 WLR 808).
Second, the court must identify the remedy. The claimant does not simply acquire
property rights. Instead, the court can seemingly award anything on a spectrum
ranging from property rights through to mere compensation. The basis on which
the courts make their decision is unclear: it could be an urge to enforce the promise,
to compensate the claimant’s detriment or to prevent the claimant being treated
unconscionably. In the cases, the claimant has been awarded the freehold (in fulfilment
of the promise, Pascoe v Turner [1979] 1 WLR 431), an amount of money (Campbell v Griffin
[2001] EWCA Civ 990) or a combination of those two things (Gillett v Holt).
Proprietary estoppel is an equitable doctrine. It has been explained by Cooke, E. in The

modern law of estoppel ((Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) [ISBN 9780198262220])
as forming part of a general doctrine called ‘equitable estoppel’.
As such, proprietary estoppel is discretionary (especially in relation to the remedy

that is available) and is based on the idea of seeking to reach a conscionable result in
individual cases.
7.1.1 The doctrine: establishing an equity (an equitable right)

The classic statement of the doctrine was made in Lord Kingsdown’s dissenting speech
in Ramsden v Dyson [1866] LR 1 HL 129 at 170:
If a man, under a verbal agreement with a landlord for a certain interest in land, or, what
amounts to the same thing, under an expectation, created or encouraged by the landlord,
that he shall have a certain interest, takes possession of the land, with the consent of the
landlord, and upon the faith of such promise or expectation, with the knowledge of the
landlord, and without objection by him, lays out money upon the land, a court of equity
will compel the landlord to give effect to such promise or expectation.
Lord Kingsdown’s dictum is frequently quoted with approval, but the scope of the
doctrine has been considerably extended in recent times. Where the owner of land
knowingly encourages another to act, or acquiesces in another’s acting to their own
detriment on the understanding that they are to have an interest in that land, the
owner will subsequently be estopped from asserting their strict legal rights (and
may indeed be compelled to give effect to the equity that has arisen in favour of that
other). The elements, therefore, are:
u a representation
u reliance/change of position
u detriment/disadvantage (e.g. an expenditure or loss to the promisee)
u unconscionability (i.e. in all the circumstances it is unconscionable that the

promisor should be able to rely upon their strict legal rights by breaking their
promise).
Note the following points:
u The doctrine may still apply where the owner was ignorant of the true legal
position at the time she encouraged the other person to act. The question is
simply whether it would be conscionable to allow her to insist on her strict
legal rights (see Taylor Fashions Ltd v Liverpool Victoria Trustees Co Ltd [1982] QB
133). More recently, in Matharu v Matharu [1994] 2 FLR 597 (CA) the claimant was
successful, even though the owner does not seem to have made any promise or
representation encouraging her to believe what she believed.
u Although, in many of the earlier cases, the claimant had actually spent money
on the land, it is sufficient today if she has suffered some detriment as a result
of her doing or omitting to do something. Not only do the courts take a broad
view of what constitutes ‘detriment’, but the Court of Appeal has held that,
where a representation has been made, there is a rebuttable presumption that
the claimant has acted in reliance on it. The onus is on the defendant to prove
otherwise: see Greasley v Cooke [1980] 1 WLR 1306.
u In most cases, the representation has related to a particular property in which

the claimant has an existing interest. However, the court in Re Basham [1986] 1
WLR 1498 (where the claimant lived in her own house at some distance from the
deceased’s house) refused to restrict the operation of the doctrine in this way.
u It was also held in Re Basham and again in Wayling v Jones (1993) 69 P&CR 170 (CA)
that the doctrine applied to the situation where a person encourages another
to act to her own detriment on the understanding that she will inherit certain
property on that person’s death. This approach has been endorsed by the House of
Lords in Thorner v Major [2009] UKHL 18.
u Gillett v Holt [2001] Ch 210 and Jennings v Rice [2002] EWCA Civ 159 (discussed below)
make it clear that courts are now applying a more ‘holistic approach’ to proprietary
estoppel cases and judging the facts ‘in the round’ to determine whether the
claimant has an estoppel equity and how it should be satisfied. The need for the
claimant to prove unconscionability has become the central factor in proprietary
estoppel claims.
7.1.2 The remedy

Once an equity has been established, how will the court give effect to it? An
examination of the cases will show that the range of remedies awarded by courts to
satisfy an estoppel equity is great, ranging from compensation to licences to leases
to freeholds. In Dodsworth v Dodsworth (1973) 228 EG 1115 and Burrows and Burrows v
Sharpe (1991) 23 HLR 82, compensation for expenditure incurred was considered the
appropriate remedy (particularly as it would have been impracticable to have required
the parties to continue living together). In Crabb v Arun District Council [1976] Ch 179
and Chaudhary v Yavuz [2011] EWCA Civ 1314 rights of access and way were awarded.
In Griffiths v Williams (1977) 248 EG 947 a non-assignable lease for life was awarded.
There have also been cases where the courts have held that the equity that has arisen
in the claimant’s favour can only be satisfied by the transfer of the fee simple to them
(see Dillwyn v Llewelyn (1862) 45 ER 1285; Pascoe v Turner [1979] 1 WLR 431; and Thorner v
Major [2009] UKHL 18). At the other extremity of this spectrum of possible outcomes,
a remedy may be denied if the claimant has enjoyed benefits that are found to have
‘exhausted’ the detriment so that they have not suffered any injustice: Sledmore v
Dalby [1996] EWCA Civ 1305.
There appear to be two methods by which courts have calculated the appropriate
remedy; sometimes courts appear to be giving effect to the claimant’s reasonable
expectations, and in other cases courts appear to have complete discretion as to

the choice of remedy. However, it now appears that courts are combining both
approaches by considering the claimant’s expectations and then ensuring that there
is proportionality between the detriment and the remedy awarded. In Jennings v Rice
the court considered both approaches and held that it was not appropriate to grant a
remedy merely on the basis of the claimant’s expectations, nor could the court have
absolute discretion. According to Lord Justice Walker ‘It cannot be doubted that in this
as in every other area of law, the court must take a principled approach and cannot
exercise a completely unfettered discretion according to the individual judge’s notion
of what is fair in any particular case.’ Hence, although the interest expected by the
claimant was a relevant consideration, the court must do justice by ensuring that
there is proportionality between the remedy and the detriment. Once an estoppel
equity has been generated:
(T)he value of that equity will depend upon all the circumstances including the
expectations and the detriment. The most essential requirement is that there must be
proportionality between the expectations and the detriment…
(at [36])
The modern approach is to award the ‘minimum equity to do justice’ on the facts of
the individual case. This might be nothing at all, as in Sledmore v Dalby (1996) 72 P&CR
196 (see below), or a combination remedy as in Gillett v Holt. A nuanced use of what
is a broad remedial discretion allows for an award of monetary and property rights
according to what is judicially regarded as best in satisfying the equity. This may even
involve affecting a clean break between acrimonious parties: Guest v Guest [2020] EWCA
Civ 387. Following Davies v Davies [2016] EWCA Civ 463, if the expectation is very clear and
the detriment incurred for a long time, then a claimant may be more likely to have an
expectation based remedy but the opposite if the representation is not as clear, or the
detriment incurred not as great (see also Habberfield v Habberfield [2019] EWCA Civ 890).
Activity 7.1
a. What were the relevant facts of Ives Investment Ltd v High [1967] 2 QB 379?
b. Could the decision in this case have been made on other grounds?
c. Would the result have been different in registered land?
It remains uncertain whether a contractual licensee could additionally rely on

estoppel. Thompson (1983) Conv 50 thinks so, but Briggs (1981) Conv 212 and (1983)
Conv 285 disagrees.
This is currently a fast moving part of property law that is rich in case law. The following
cases are just some of those that either illustrate settled principles or can be said to
have changed/developed a number of issues in relation to interests created by estoppel.
You should make notes on the relevant facts, decision and reasoning in each, and note
what was given to the successful claimants in order to give effect to the equity:
u In Sledmore v Dalby [1996] 72 P&CR 196, the Court of Appeal held that, although
an equity had arisen in favour of the respondent, it was no longer inequitable to
defeat it, due to the benefits which he had enjoyed over the years and the parties’
situations at the time of the action. Thus, although Dalby could have had an
estoppel interest, he was given nothing.
u In Gillett v Holt [2001] Ch 210, the defendant had promised to leave the bulk of his
estate to Mr Gillett and had made a will doing so. Subsequently he changed his
will, excluding Mr Gillett, whose claim in proprietary estoppel succeeded. The
Court of Appeal rejected the idea that there had to be a ‘double assurance’ (a
second promise, that the defendant would in no circumstances change his will). It
was enough that the defendant had behaved unconscionably by withdrawing his
promise after the claimant had, to his knowledge, relied on it to his detriment.
u In Yaxley v Gotts [2000] Ch 162, the Court of Appeal held that, even when an
agreement relating to land was void for want of formality, the doctrine of
proprietary estoppel could still operate to compel one of the parties to give effect
to a promise made under the agreement. Banner Group v Luff Developments [2000]
Ch 372 is another example.
u In Hunt v Soady [2007] EWCA Civ 366, where there had been a provisional
agreement that one beneficial tenant in common (H) would transfer her beneficial
interest to the other (S), proprietary estoppel could not operate since that
agreement had not been acted on by the other party either in good time or to
his detriment; it was not unconscionable for H to go back on her representation,
particularly given the substantial change in circumstances since the time of the
provisional agreement.
u In Holman v Howes [2007] EWCA Civ 877, a divorced couple bought a property
together, being optimistic about reconciliation and joint occupation. They both
contributed to the purchase price but the legal title was put into the sole name of
the ex-husband. He then left the house but the ex-wife continued to live there. On
application for an order to determine their beneficial shares, with the ex-husband
also seeking an order for sale, the court held that assurances had been made that
the ex-wife could occupy the property for as long as she wanted. Since there was
detrimental reliance by the ex-wife, the requirements of proprietary estoppel were
satisfied and thus in order to satisfy this equity there should be no order for sale
without the ex-wife’s consent.
u In James v Thomas [2007] EWCA Civ 1212, where there was insufficient evidence of
a common intention that J should have a beneficial interest in the property and
assurances made by T to J were vague as to the extent of any beneficial interest
which J might expect, neither a constructive trust interest nor one via proprietary
estoppel could arise. The parties had lived together for 15 years in a property held
in T’s sole name; J had helped T with his business and together they had conducted
extensive renovations of the property. The assurances which were found to be too
vague were that the renovations would be for the benefit of both parties and that J
would be provided for on T’s death.
u In Powell v Benney [2007] EWCA Civ 1283, the appellants (P) had looked after B’s
cousin (H) and improved his properties for their own use after H became unable
to look after himself properly and gave them the keys to the premises. H had
promised the properties to P upon his death but he died intestate due to his
‘will’ being invalid. The court held that there was not a strong enough causal
link between the promise and the work carried out for P to receive the entire
properties as satisfaction for the equity; although P had incurred some expense in
improving the premises, they had not been required to do so by H. Thus the case
was a ‘non-bargain’ proprietary estoppel claim; Jennings v Rice applied. To transfer
the properties to P would be out of all proportion to the detriment P had suffered,
and so the trial judge’s award of £20,000 was upheld.
u In Cobbe v Yeoman’s Row Management Ltd [2008] UKHL 55, the House of Lords
showed that the exceptions to s.2 LP(MP)A 1989 are narrower than previously
thought. A property developer reached an oral agreement in principle with an
owner to buy their property and then spent considerable sums in obtaining
planning permission. The owner then refused to proceed on the agreed terms
and enter into a binding contract. The House of Lords reversed the decision of the
Court of Appeal and held that the developer was not entitled to a remedy based on
proprietary estoppel or a constructive trust, but only to a quantum meruit payment
for his services in pursuing and obtaining planning permission. Since neither
party had thought that the agreement between them was enforceable, the owner
could not be estopped from relying upon s.2 to show that the agreement was
unenforceable. The agreement between the parties was a ‘gentlemen’s agreement’
and was too uncertain as to its terms to constitute a contract. The lower courts had
pushed proprietary estoppel too far.
u In Thorner v Major [2009] UKHL 18, a rather taciturn farmer, called Peter, died
intestate after revoking a previous will which had left the residue of his estate to
David, the son of his cousin. This would have given Peter’s farm to David. The will
had been revoked apparently because Peter had fallen out with one of the legatees
to whom he had given a sum of money and wished to exclude him. The only way
in which David could now succeed in establishing title to the farm was claiming
proprietary estoppel because on intestacy the farm would now go to Peter’s closer
relatives. David had assisted Peter on the farm for almost a 30-year period without
being paid an income. At no point did Peter state to David that he would leave
any property to him after his death. Instead, David had to make out his case from
inferences, the most important piece of evidence from his point of view being an
occasion when Peter handed a bonus notice relating to two life policies with the
Prudential on Peter’s life saying, ‘that’s for my death duties’. For the judge at first
instance, this was a watershed moment, turning David’s hope of inheriting the
farm into an expectation. Following this there were a number of other comments
made by Peter which David alleged would only have been made to a person who
was expected to inherit the farm. With Lloyd LJ giving the leading judgment,
the Court of Appeal reversed the decision of the court below on the basis that
for estoppel to succeed in these cases the representation had to be clear and
unequivocal and not drawn from inferences. However, the case was then appealed
to the House of Lords, who reversed the decision of the Court of Appeal, finding
that it had been wrong to overturn the first instance judge’s decision; the trial
judge was best placed to assess all the parties’ dealings and all the evidence before
him. For proprietary estoppel to succeed, it is indeed the case that an assurance
must be ‘clear enough’ and must relate to identified property. Both the deceased
and the claimant understood that the property was to be a farm in the state as it
existed at the deceased’s death, whatever that might be: the precise scope of the
property did not need to be agreed in advance. The House of Lords distinguished
Cobbe v Yeoman’s Row on the ground that in Cobbe there had been no doubt as to
the physical identity of the property, but there had been complete uncertainty as
to the nature of the benefit to be given to Cobbe. Further, in Cobbe, the relationship
between the parties was a commercial one at arm’s length, where the parties had
chosen not to enter into a contract and knew that they were not legally bound to
each other. Taken broadly, the decision seems to highlight that it may be harder
(but not impossible) to establish an estoppel case in the commercial (as distinct
from a family) context where the parties are aware that there is no contract –
perhaps because reliance is less justifiable in such cases. This does, however, beg
questions about the nature and credibility of the distinction. You would be well
advised to read this case as each judge considered the elements of proprietary
estoppel in useful detail and Lord Scott made some interesting arguments about
remedial constructive trusts.
u In Henry v Henry [2010] UKPC 3, the Privy Council considered an appeal from St Lucia
in a proprietary estoppel case. T bought the land from an elderly relative (G) just
before the latter’s death. G had promised to leave the land in her will to C, who had
lived on it and cultivated it for over 30 years. The trial judge had dismissed C’s claim
on the basis that he had not suffered a detriment, he had received a benefit from
the land for over 30 years and T was a registered proprietor who had given value for
the land and so took free of C’s claim. The Court of Appeal, however, did find that
C had suffered detriment and hence had an equity which bound T as an overriding
interest (St Lucia has a similar land registration system to England and Wales). On
appeal, T argued that since her purchase of the land had not been unconscionable,
she should not be bound by any equity which had arisen in favour of C. The Privy
Council held that the trial judge had misdirected himself as to detriment by failing
to weigh up C’s disadvantages and advantages resulting from the promise (Jennings
v Rice applied). The Court of Appeal had also been mistaken in its approach to
detriment. Hence the Privy Council had to consider that issue afresh, and found
that C had deprived himself of a better life elsewhere by remaining on the land;
that detriment had not been outweighed by the advantages he took from his
‘hard life in which he has to struggle to make ends meet’ occupying the land. The
resulting estoppel equity was satisfied by awarding C half of T’s share of the plot
of land (i.e. a quarter of the total); proportionality is at the heart of proprietary
estoppel. The Privy Council looked at the effect of an estoppel equity on third
parties, and noted obiter that there may be cases in which the circumstances of
a third party purchase might require a claimant’s equity to be reassessed, even

though the claimant has an overriding interest.
u In Suggitt v Suggitt [2012] EWCA Civ 1140, CA Frank promised his son, John, the
family farm, including the farmhouse. However, by his will, Frank left this entire
estate to his daughter, Caroline, subject to a power (not an obligation) that she
might transfer the farm to John if she decided that he was capable of running
and managing it. When Frank died, John sought to enforce the lifetime promise,
relying on proprietary estoppel. The first instance court found that Frank had
repeatedly made John unconditional assurances that had created a reasonable
expectation that he would inherit the farm. This raised the key issue of detrimental
reliance. At different times during Frank’s life, John had helped his father on the
farm, for which he received no wages but was provided with a home, living and
other expenses, and business opportunities. As the terms of Frank’s will indicated,
Frank did not see John as fit to run the farm and during his lifetime had made
other arrangements with local farmers. However, the first instance judge found
that John had relied on the assurances and, to some extent, suffered detriment
through the work he had contributed. John was therefore awarded the freehold of
the farm and house worth over £3 million. Caroline appealed, arguing that, given
the limited work John had done, the remedy was disproportionate to the level of
John’s detriment and exceeded the minimum necessary to do justice. Arden LJ in
the Court of Appeal considered Walker LJ’s approach to proportionality in Jennings
v Rice as not requiring a relationship between the relief and the level of detriment
suffered. What was required was a determination of whether the award was ‘out of
all proportion’ and ‘clearly wrong’. So, in cases where the claimant’s expectations
were ‘extravagant’ or ‘out of proportion’ with the detriment, the equity should
be satisfied in a more limited way. However, in Suggitt, although the farmland
and house were valuable assets, their value was reflected in the unconditional
assurances the first instance judge had found Frank had given John. The Court of
Appeal therefore upheld the first instance decision.
u In Southwell v Blackburn [2014] EWCA Civ 1347, Blackburn and Southwell met in
2000. Two years later they found a house for them to share with Blackburn’s two
young daughters. Blackburn had limited financial means and Southwell took the
title to the house in his sole name, funding the purchase with the equity from
his previous home and a mortgage for which he assumed sole responsibility.
Blackburn had given up her job and a rent-controlled secure tenancy of a house on
which she had spent around £15,000. She also invested about £5,000 in her new
home. When their relationship broke down in 2012, Blackburn applied to the court
for an equal share of the property. At first instance, her claim to a constructive
trust failed but the court found in her favour in terms of proprietary estoppel and
valued her equity at £28,500 as that would restore her financially to the position
she had been in before she gave up her house to live with Southwell. On appeal,
Tomlinson LJ supported the first instance judge’s findings that there was in fact an
assurance. Although they had not specifically discussed ownership of the house, it
was enough that, when they discussed the move, Southwell had assured Blackburn
that she would always have a secure home with him there and that it was intended
as a long-term commitment. The Court of Appeal also accepted the first instance
determination that Blackwell’s promises were made with the intention they would
be relied on and that Blackburn had done so to her detriment. Here Tomlinson LJ
referred to the approaches of that detriment as not to be treated as a ‘narrow and
technical concept’ (Robert Walker LJ In Gillett v Holt) and should be ‘assessed and
evaluated over the course of the relationship’ (Lord Walker in Thorner v Major).
As such, and agreeing with the first instance decision, it was clear that detriment
was established by Blackburn giving up a secure rented home, leaving her job and
moving into the house.
u In Davies v Davies [2016] EWCA Civ 463, Eirian Davies spent many years, on and off,
living and working on her parents’ dairy farm in Wales. Her parents wanted the
farm to stay in the family when they died. Eirian was the only one of their children
who was interested in the business. In 1985 Mr Davies first told Eirian that she
would inherit the farm. Over the years the volatile relationship with her parents
meant that Eirian left the farm a number of times but returned at her parents’
request. When she was working on the farm, she received accommodation and
benefits but earned less than she would have done elsewhere. Eirian also gave up
a more lucrative and less stressful job. Following her return in 1990, her parents
assured her that she would join their business partnership but they never signed
the 1997 partnership agreement that was drawn up. In 2009 Eirian was shown a
draft will under which she was to inherit the farm. A year later Mr and Mrs Davies
drafted a fresh will that omitted this provision. By 2012 the family relationship had
broken down so badly that it resulted in Eirian leaving the farm for good. In 2013
she brought a claim in proprietary estoppel for an interest in the land and dairy
business. At first instance, it was decided that Eirian was entitled to equitable
relief. The main issue was how the equity should be satisfied. It was thought that
in the circumstances, and with the Davies still being alive, it was not appropriate
for there to a transfer of the farming assets and that a monetary award of £1.3
million (amounting to a third of the value of the business) was a fair reflection
of the expectation and detriment Eirian had experienced. The Court of Appeal
reduced the award to £500,000, finding the first instance approach to be too
broad brush in respect of the facts establishing detriment and precisely what the
claimant’s expectation was. As to the latter, it was held that over the years there
had been a series of shifting expectations, some of which were either repudiated
or superseded, and the evidence on detriment fell short of showing that Eirian had
positioned her entire life on the basis of the assurances.
u In Moore v Moore [2018] EWCA Civ 2669, Roger and his son carried on a farming
business in partnership. Stephen claimed that Roger had assured him that he
would inherit Roger’s share in the business. However, when the father and son
fell out, Roger, who by this point lacked mental capacity, sought to dissolve the
partnership. Stephen’s counterclaim relied on proprietary estoppel. He was able to
establish the elements of the claim. The principal question that arose was the right
approach to be taken to the relief to be granted. The first instance judge satisfied
the equity by ordering an immediate transfer to Stephen of Roger’s half share in
the business and its assets. This would give effect to Roger’s clear intention to keep
the farm in family ownership. The judge took the view that Roger and his wife (and
Stephen’s mother), Pamela, should continue to receive what they had expected
to receive from the farm during their lifetimes. This involved ordering Stephen
to provide Roger and Pamela with the farmhouse to live in and to cover all its
running costs, together with paying for their care and living expenses. The finding
of estoppel was upheld on appeal. The Court of Appeal agreed that the order of an
immediate transfer of Roger’s share to Stephen should stand. However, Henderson
LJ decided that the remedy awarded at first instance failed to recognise that the
assurances had been given in a context that assumed the relationship between the
partners would remain harmonious, when it had in fact later broken down. This
made it impracticable for an order to make the parties financially interdependent
on an ongoing basis. The better approach to satisfying the equity in the
circumstances would therefore be to provide the parties with ‘a clean break’. This
would require Stephen to make generous financial provision for Roger and Pamela.
Remitting determination of the detail of the order to the High Court, the Court
of Appeal offered guidance on the nature of the relief that might be considered
appropriate. In return for Stephen getting Roger’s share, it was suggested the order
should require Stephen to: (a) pay a sizeable lump sum to his parents, allowing his
mother to be rehoused, and take care of any future health needs she might have;
(b) assume responsibility for his father’s health costs and pay his mother a weekly
sum; and (c) shoulder any tax liability arising from the order.
u In James v James [2018] EWHC 43 (Ch), the claimant, Sam, had worked for around 35
years with his father, Charles, in a farming and haulage business in Dorset. In 1990
he became a partner in the business along with his father and his mother, Sandra.
The partnership was dissolved in 2009 in the aftermath of family disharmony
created when Charles gave some land to Karen, one of Sam’s siblings. Charles
died in 2012 having previously transferred assets into his and his wife’s joint
names and making a 2010 will, leaving his estate to wife and two daughters.
Sam unsuccessfully challenged the will; and he also unsuccessfully mounted a
proprietary estoppel claim in respect of the farm against his mother and two
sisters. Judge Paul Matthews dismissed Sam’s proprietary estoppel claim. He could
not establish a clear assurance by Charles that he would leave the farm to Sam.
Charles had on occasion told Sam what his testamentary intentions were. But
the judge pointed out that such a statement of current intentions as to future
conduct was neither a promise of that conduct, nor intended to be acted upon.
(For claims that similarly proved unsuccessful for lack of a clear or uncontroverted
assurance, see Shaw v Shaw [2018] EWCH 3196; and McDonald v Rose [2019] EWCA Civ
4.) Context and the parties’ personalities played a part in the judge’s finding that
statements Charles made that Sam would one day be farming the land were not
assurances. Charles was by character reluctant to make such commitments and
Sam was known to be keen to inherit the property. The judge also held that in any
event Sam had not suffered detriment, nor could he show reliance. He had been
paid properly for his work, received benefits and had been made a partner. Nor, in
Judge Matthews’ view, could Sam show reliance. Sam would not have acted any
differently. He had never seriously considered going elsewhere to take up some
other occupation. Judge Matthews found that, although Sam had worked hard in
the haulage business, the same could not have been said of the farm in which he
was less interested. Finally, the case contains some interesting obiter remarks ([51]
and [52]) on the relationship of proportionality between the level of detriment
and the relief awarded, comparing views expressed in Davies v Davies with those
expressed in Suggitt v Suggitt – essentially favouring expectation fulfilment.
u Wills v Sowray [2020] EWHC 939 (Ch) is factually unusual as an estoppel-based claim
to a farm in that the claimants were not members of the deceased’s family. Two
brothers, James and Matthew, made separate claims based on their dealings with
Tony, their long-standing friend. Tony owned Gilmoor Farm, which comprised 50
acres of grazing land, a farmhouse, various barns and outbuildings, with a value of
around £600,000. Tony, a divorcee, had a daughter, Claire, from whom he became
estranged for a period until she was 22. In 2017, Tony died intestate and Claire
inherited the entire estate. Matthew made a proprietary estoppel claim in relation
to 50 acres of farmland and the outbuildings (but not the house). The High Court
accepted his evidence that, on more than one occasion, Tony had made promises
to the effect that the farm was Matthew’s or it would become his. In 2005, after
Tony had been reunited with his daughter, Claire, Matthew appreciated that Tony
would leave the farmhouse to her. It was accepted that the two men were very
good friends, akin to father and son, and that Matthew trusted that Tony would
keep his word. Matthew worked on the farm for more than 20 years and the first
instance judge found that his agricultural labour (digging, repairing, rotavating
and hay-making) amounted to substantial detriment. Finding that an equity had
arisen in Matthew’s favour, the Court decided that a proportionate and appropriate
remedy to meet Matthew’s expectations was for Claire to transfer all the land
(except for the plot that James was claiming) together with the outbuildings to
Matthew. James’s separate claim related to a small piece of Tony’s farmland (valued
at around £30,000) on which he had built a log cabin as a family home. It was
based on an oral transaction in 2012 by which Tony promised to leave James the
land in his will if James gave him his Jeep. The judge found that James had satisfied
all the elements of estoppel and that the lack of a written contract in compliance
with s.2 of the LP(MP)A 1989 was not a bar to James succeeding in an estoppel
claim to the land. This keeps alive the debate about the interrelationship between
formalities and proprietary estoppel. The judge held that it could, notwithstanding
Lord Scott’s obiter dicta to the contrary in Cobbe v Yeomans Row [2008] 1 WLR 1752.
The point receives only limited treatment (at [259]–[264]). It recognises that s.2 may
prevent the agreement from being a valid contract but does not stop it from being
an ingredient in another cause of action. In other words, a freestanding action
based upon proprietary estoppel need not be seen as frustrating s.2’s policy – on
which point see, too, Kitchin LJ’s observations in Farrar v Miller [2018] EWCA Civ 172
(at [59]–[68]).
u The key issue of interest in Guest v Guest [2020] EWCA Civ 387 is how the equity
that arises in favour of the claimant via proprietary estoppel should be remedied.
There is a substantial and growing body of case law – and much academic writing
– about what the court’s aim is (and should be) in the exercise of this broad
remedial discretion to do the minimum justice necessary. In short: should the
court’s award give effect to the expectation generated by the representation/
promise, unless doing so would be disproportionate (expectation-based), or
should it be concerned only to provide compensation for the detriment suffered
(reliance-based)? As Lewison LJ noted in Davies v Davies [2016] EWCA Civ 463, at
[39], this debate continues to provoke a ‘lively controversy’. He, like other judges,
has not found it necessary to resolve in a clear-cut way – even if that is desirable
or possible. A number of the recent decisions (drawing on Jennings v Rice [2002]
EWCA Civ 159) have demonstrated a willingness to opt for a nuanced and pragmatic
fusion of the expectation and reliance basis (sometimes termed ‘proportionality’).
Guest is one such instance. After leaving school in 1982, the claimant, Andrew Guest,
spent 33 or so years working on the family farm (owned by his parents David and
Josephine). Over a number of years, his parents were found to have given him
assurances that he would one day inherit at least a substantial part of the farm.
For his part, Andrew was found to have acted to his detriment by the farm work he
provided for low wages when he could have worked elsewhere for more money.
When relations with his parents broke down in 2015, Andrew gave up working on
the farm. In 2018 Andrew’s parents made a new will, disinheriting him in favour of
his brother and sister. Andrew succeeded in making out the elements of a claim
in proprietary estoppel. The question arose: what should he be awarded? Judge
Russen QC found that the promises to Andrew about what he would receive had
varied over time and were too imprecise to justify the award of what he had
been promised. Moreover, given the breakdown in the parties’ relationships, it
was appropriate to achieve a clean break by awarding Andrew a lump sum. David
appealed, contending that Andrew’s remedy should have been based on the
increase in value of the farm attributable to Andrew’s work rather than so closely
reflecting what had been promised. The Court of Appeal held that the assurance
that Andrew would inherit a substantial enough interest in the farm to enable
him to farm there long term had been clear enough. Floyd LJ approved Lewison
LJ’s sliding scale approach in Davies (based on Jennings), by which ‘the clearer the
expectation, the greater the detriment and the longer the passage of time during
which the expectation was reasonably held, the greater would be the weight that
should be given to the expectation’. Accordingly, Judge Russen’s award of a lump
sum calculated by reference to 50 per cent of the value of the farming business
and 40 per cent of the value of the land was upheld as appropriate in recognising
Andrew’s expectation and also the need for a clean break between acrimonious
parties. The Court of Appeal’s ruling may not have conclusively settled the
theoretical basis of remedial discretion but it is a useful reminder of the flexibility
that may be achieved, especially in the less usual circumstances of estoppel claims
where all the protagonists are still alive. In Moore v Moore [2018] EWCA Civ 2669,
the court also found the need to craft a remedy that took account of the need for
a clean break between acrimonious parties. Another decision worth looking at
on the exercise of the remedial discretion is Habberfield v Habberfield [2019] EWCA
Civ 890, where Lewison LJ’s guidance includes a recognition that the claimant’s
remedy should be nearer to the expectation where the detriment suffered comes
close to performing a bargain.
Section 116 LRA 2002 provides that an equity by estoppel ‘has effect from the time the
equity arises as an interest capable of binding successors in title’. Thus, it is confirmed
that an uncrystallised estoppel ‘equity’ can bind a transferee if protected as required
by the normal rules of registered or unregistered land. In registered title land it can
be protected by entry on the register or, coupled with actual occupation, is capable
of overriding a disposition (see Chapter 3). But, once the court has granted a remedy,
then whether a transferee is bound will depend on the nature of the remedy granted.
For example, if the remedy is a freehold or an easement then it will bind a transferee,
but if it is a licence or financial compensation, then it will not.
1. When will an interest arise through proprietary estoppel?
2. Which factors are relevant in determining how to give effect to an estoppel

interest?
Activity 7.2
Could Errington v Errington and Woods [1952] 1 KB 290 or Tanner v Tanner [1975] 1 WLR
1346 have been argued on the basis of proprietary estoppel?
Activity 7.3
What would have been the position if Basham in Re Basham [1986] 1 WLR 1498 had:
a. sold the cottage to X?
b. died having made a will leaving the cottage to X?
Further reading
¢ Gardner, S. ‘Fin de siècle chez Gissing v Gissing’ (1996) 112 LQR 378.
¢ Thompson, M.P. ‘The flexibility of estoppel’ (2003) Conv 225.
Question 1
David, owner in fee simple of a property called Le Nid (unregistered land),
persuaded Clarissa, his mistress, to come to live with him. He promised that she
could stay there as long as she wished, provided she gave up her flat, decorated
the kitchen and paid for a second garage to be built for her car. Clarissa agreed,
moved in, decorated the kitchen and had the garage built. After three years, their
relationship broke down and David agreed to sell Le Nid to Eric. Eric visited the
house when Clarissa was shopping, saw her clothes, and was told by David that they
belonged to a friend who would not be staying long. Clarissa wishes to remain in
the house.
Will she be able to succeed:
a. while David is the owner?
b. if David sells to Eric?
Question 2
In 2018 Dave and Pam met and decided to get married after Pam had finished her
course of study, which they expected to happen in 2021. Dave suggested to Pam that
she should move into his house (registered land). At that time Dave said ‘We will get
a bigger place when we are married, but in the meantime, why don’t you sell your
flat and move your furniture in here? You could also convert the garden shed into a
nice study for yourself.’
Pam agreed. She sold her flat, moved into Dave’s house and converted the shed into
a study. For the next three years Dave paid all the household bills and gave Pam a
small allowance while she completed her course. Pam looked after the house and
garden. In 2021 the relationship broke down and Dave gave Pam notice to quit.
Advise Pam.
What would your advice be if Dave had sold the house in 2021 to Robert during
Pam’s absence on a training course and Robert had given Pam notice to quit?
Question 3
Romeo was the sole owner of the freehold title to a house on registered land. After
meeting on holiday, Romeo and Juliet began a relationship in August 2017. In March
2018, Romeo asked Juliet to move into his house with him. This required Juliet to
sell her home for £125,000.
Juliet was concerned about her rights after she moved into Romeo’s house. In April
2018, after an evening drinking wine at Juliet’s birthday dinner, Romeo said to
her: ‘You can think of this as being your home too. I want us to have a meaningful
relationship.’
Juliet had a son, Billy, from a previous relationship. Billy was aged five. He had to
move school as a result of this move.
Juliet wanted to pay for the house to be redecorated so that it was more to her
taste. In March 2019, she asked Romeo to give her permission to do this because, as
she put it: ‘That would make me feel more like this is my home too.’ Romeo allowed
her to refit the kitchen, the master bedroom and its en suite bathroom at a total
cost of £40,000. Juliet paid for the entire £40,000. The house had five bedrooms
and eight other rooms.
In March 2020, Romeo decided to construct a guest house on the land attached
to his house. Juliet was a qualified architect. She designed the bungalow. It was a
single bedroom bungalow in the modernist style, with a kitchen and a living-room
looking over the large gardens. The bungalow was special in that it required no
heating and received all of its power from solar panels on the roof. These features
were the result of Juliet’s special knowledge and skills as an architect.
The construction work cost £100,000, which was funded half by Romeo and half by
Juliet. Juliet supervised every stage of the construction process and fitted the solar
panels herself. The construction work was completed four months ago. On regular
occasions during the construction work, Romeo said to Juliet: ‘You are amazing. No
one else could do what you do. This really is your guesthouse’.
Recently, Romeo has begun a new romantic relationship and wants Juliet and Billy
to leave the property.
Advise Juliet on her rights under proprietary estoppel principles.
Question 1
The issues to consider relate to the nature of Clarissa’s interest in the house:
1. Does she have a beneficial interest under a constructive trust?
2. Does she have a contractual licence? Is there consideration and an intent to create
legal relations? Would it be a breach of contract for David to revoke the licence?
Would the licence bind Eric, a purchaser (consider Ashburn Anstalt v Arnold [1989]
Ch 1)?
3. Could she rely on the doctrine of proprietary estoppel? What conditions would
have to be satisfied? How would the equity be satisfied as against David? Would
Eric be bound? Does he have constructive notice of her equity?
Question 2
The major issue here is the nature of Pam’s rights in the house. As Dave was the sole
legal owner, could she claim an equitable interest by way of a resulting or constructive
trust? An examination of the case law (particularly Lloyds Bank v Rosset [1991] 1 AC
107) makes this seem unlikely, although you should note the criticism of Rosset by
the House of Lords in Stack v Dowden [2007] UKHL 17 (see Chapter 5), and consider the
effect of the latter case. If she occupied the house as a licensee, was it a bare licence or
is the licence supported by a contract or an estoppel? There are problems in finding
a contract in this kind of situation – consideration? Intent to create legal relations?
Certainty of terms? – and it seems that Pam would be best advised to argue that an
estoppel had arisen in her favour.
You are expected to focus on proprietary estoppel and the ways in which the courts
have in recent years defined the scope of the doctrine. Was there an ‘assurance’
on Dave’s part? Was there ‘detrimental reliance’ on Pam’s part? Would it be
unconscionable for Dave to assert his strict legal rights? If so, how would the courts
give effect to the equity that had arisen in Pam’s favour? These are difficult questions
that require careful analysis in the light of the case law (e.g. Coombes v Smith [1986] 1
WLR 808, Sledmore v Dalby (1996) 72 P&CR 196, Gillett v Holt [2001] Ch 210). The other
issue in the question relates to Robert’s position. Assuming that Pam has an interest in
the house, it would bind Robert if it had been protected on the land register or if it was
supported by ‘actual occupation’ (para.2 Schedule 3 LRA 2002). You need to consider
both whether she was in actual occupation and whether an estoppel equity amounted
to a ‘right’ within the registration legislation; it does, under s.116 LRA 2002.
Question 3
This problem raises issues of proprietary estoppel. The principal issue is whether Juliet
acquires rights under proprietary estoppel and, if so, what the nature of her remedy
would be.
The problem falls into three phases: 2017 on moving into the property with Billy, 2018
with the redecoration and 2019 with the bungalow.
Juliet needs to demonstrate representation, reliance and detriment (and the module
guide identifies ‘unconscionability’ as a separate factor). The nature of any remedy is a
separate question.
2017: The first question is whether Romeo makes a representation or assurance. The
statement made to Juliet is about having a home, not acquiring rights in the property
and therefore may appear too slight. A succession of assurances would be sufficient,
as in Gillett v Holt; or even silence with an appropriate background of circumstances,
as in Thorner v Major [2009] UKHL 18. There is a question as to whether or not there is
sufficient detriment: factors affecting the claimant’s children (as suggested in Grant v
Edwards [1986] Ch 638) would be sufficient, although other cases like Coombes v Smith
take the opposite view and would require something such as spending money (but
not merely personal detriment, such as moving one’s children).
As to the concept of unconscionability, much depends on one’s view of encouraging

a mother and her young son to move into your home, and whether you thought
reliance was being placed on your representation about having the house as their
‘home’. The idea of the home could be a mere licence to occupy. It would be a strained
interpretation to think that this is a promise of property rights.
2018: Redecorating the property would not, in itself, acquire rights in the property in
the wake of Lloyds Bank v Rosset. There a wife supervised the redecoration of a property
(showing some skill in so doing – see Sparkes’ 1989 article) but acquired no rights. In
that case, there was a suggestion that this was the sort of work that might be expected
from a wife. The words spoken by Juliet could be said to relate only to a ‘home’ and
not to ‘property rights in a building’. The issue might turn on Romeo’s response: in
letting Juliet undertake this work, is he merely indulging his partner and restricting
her ability to remodel their home to only three rooms in a large house, or is he
allowing her to form the impression that she is acquiring rights in the home? The 2018
arrangements seem to acquire her nothing but for the fact that Juliet pays for that
work. Some students may want to make a stronger argument, especially considering
this expenditure to be large enough to raise the assumption that Juliet would acquire
some rights as a result.
This case appears similar to Lissimore v Downing [2003] 2 FLR 308 in that a homeowner
(in that case a wealthy homeowner) allowed a girlfriend to move into his home and
she unsuccessfully claimed property rights with specious suggestions that his saying
‘Wouldn’t you like to be lady of this manor?’ was intended to grant her rights in his
enormous Warwickshire estate. Even forming a long-term relationship latterly did not
acquire her rights in his capacious home.
2019: The construction of a separate building is something more than Rosset and
the redecoration. Juliet uses her architectural knowledge and skills to design and
supervise the construction of that bungalow. Moreover, Juliet meets half of the
construction cost. We are not told of any specific representation being made here.
Could Juliet acquire rights like Thorner v Major for this extra work? The words which
Romeo speaks could be considered to be similar to the words spoken in Gillett v Holt
(which were held to be a representation), although they are very ambiguous and
might not be thought to amount to a representation that Juliet is to acquire property
rights in the guesthouse.
If the estoppel had been made out in 2020, then the question arises as to remedy.
Awarding the freehold, as in Re Basham, would be inappropriate because she has not
been promised anything of that order. A bold approach could divide the property
in half if the words spoken in 2018 were taken to be a representation that the home
would be owned half each. Alternatively, the approach in Gillett v Holt would permit
some compensation and the acquisition of some property rights (perhaps the
freehold over the bungalow if it were separated from the rest of the land, as with the
cottage in Gillett v Holt which the claimant renovated). Cases such as Jennings v Rice
[2002] EWCA Civ 159 and Campbell v Griffin [2001] EWCA Civ 990 granted a right to mere
compensation – perhaps the £40,000 spent on decoration and the £50,000 spent on
the construction of the bungalow.
There would be a debate here as to whether or not (like Jennings v Rice) there would be
held to be ‘unconscionability’ even though the time period is less than in other cases.
The presence of the child may make it appear more unconscionable to throw them
out of the house.

Within the scope of this chapter, there are three principal areas for assessment:
1. A problem question focusing solely on the material in this proprietary estoppel
chapter.
2. An essay question asking you to consider the nature of proprietary estoppel

(with the many possible explanations of how the estoppel is made available and
the remedies that are available).
3. An essay question asking you to consider the nature of proprietary estoppel and
the law on constructive trusts under Jones v Kernott in Chapter 5 ‘Co-ownership’.
Quick quiz
Question 1
What are the essential elements of an estoppel arising?
a. A promise followed by reliance.
b. A promise, reliance and unconscionability.
c. A representation, reliance which is detrimental and unconscionability.
Question 2
Which of the following statements is true in relation to proprietary estoppel?
a. It can only be used as a shield and not as a sword.
b. The detrimental reliance requires some expenditure by the promisee and the
burden is on the promisee to prove there was detrimental reliance.
c. The reliance does not require expenditure. It is sufficient that there has been
some reliance. The burden is on the promisor to prove there was no reliance.
Question 3
Which statement is true?
a. The remedy is limited to monetary compensation, as the estoppel only creates
personal rights to avoid any problems related to the formalities and rules of
conveyancing.
b. There is no limit to the remedy that is available; it seeks to give effect to the
reasonable expectations of the promise.
c. The courts seek to protect the expectations of the promise, but this is only a
factor. The courts seek to ensure proportionality between the remedy and the
detriment.
Question 4
a. An estoppel promise must satisfy the requirements of s.2 Law of Property
(Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1989.
b. An estoppel promise can be by words, even if inferred from conduct or

imprecise statements.
c. An estoppel promise must be an active promise and inaction will not be

sufficient.
Question 5
Which statement is NOT true?
a. Estoppel interests cannot be overriding.
b. Estoppel interests, although uncrystallised, can be overriding if protected by

actual occupation.
c. Estoppel interests, although uncrystallised, can be overriding if protected by

registration.

8 Easements and profits à prendre
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.1 Nature and characteristics of an easement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.2 Creation of easements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
8.3 Extent and extinguishment of easements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.4 Running with the land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
8.5 Effect of the Land Registration Act 2002 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
8.6 Profits à prendre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Introduction
This chapter is concerned with some of the most important rights that a person may
exercise over the land of another. They are proprietary rights and they may exist both
at law (s.1(2)(a) LPA 1925) and in equity. It is obviously important for the purchaser of
land to discover whether a third party possesses a right that is enforceable against the
land and, if so, what is its nature and extent. Therefore, the law has laid down fairly
strict rules governing the definition of easements and profits, and the ways in which
they can be created or acquired. In practice, easements (e.g. rights of way, right to light
and right to water) are much more important than profits (the right to enter another’s
land and to remove the soil or the produce of the soil, such as crops) and this chapter
will therefore concentrate on easements, though reference will be made to the more
important differences between the two types of right.
Learning outcomes
u set out the essential characteristics of an easement and of a profit à prendre
u explain the circumstances in which an easement may be implied in favour of the
grantor or grantee of land
u explain the circumstances in which an easement will bind a purchaser of the land
affected
u apply your knowledge to hypothetical factual situations in problem questions.
Property law 8 Easements and profits à prendre page 131
8.1 Nature and characteristics of an easement
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 7 ‘The law of easements and profits’.
Essential reading
¢ George and Layard, Chapter 12 ‘Easements’. Available on the VLE.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 17 ‘The essential characteristics of easements’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 23 ‘Easements and profits’: Section 1 ‘Similar rights’ and Section 2
‘What can be an easement and profit?’.
¢ Bevan, C. ‘Opening Pandora’s box? Recreation pure and simple: easements in the
Supreme Court’ (2019) Conv 55.
Put simply, easements are rights which one landowner enjoys over the land of a
neighbour: a right of way is a common example. As with many things in law, easements
are easier to explain by example. Suppose two neighbours come to an agreement that,
since House A has no garden, its owner can use the garden of House B for sunbathing.
If the ‘right’ to use the garden satisfies the test from Re Ellenborough Park (below) and
is created by one of the recognised methods, then it may be an easement.
Activity 8.1
What if the owner of House A wants to use B’s garden every day, so
that B is unable to enjoy his own land?
Some basic working definitions

These definitions do not cover negative easements; see below for
further discussion of this topic.
u Dominant tenement: a piece of land which benefits from a right

to do something on, or over, neighbouring land (i.e. which has
the benefit of an easement)
u Servient tenement: a piece of land over which another,

neighbouring landowner has rights to do something (i.e. which
has the burden of an easement)
u Profit à prendre: a right to take something from land belonging

to another person, for example, a right to take fish from a lake on
land belonging to another, or to shoot game on it (à prendre (French) = ‘to take’ (to
be taken))
u Legal easement: an easement which was created in a manner recognised at law,

for a duration equivalent to a fee simple absolute in possession or a term of years
absolute (s.1(2)(a) LPA 1925)
u Equitable easement: any other valid easement, including all those created
informally; this includes any easement held for a period other than either a fee
simple absolute in possession or a term of years.
An easement confers a benefit upon one piece of land (called the dominant tenement)
and a corresponding burden upon another piece of land (called the servient
tenement). The benefit and burden apply to the land itself, and so are not merely
personal to those who created them. An easement is a proprietary interest in land
and can pass with the land to new owners (subject to conveyancing and registration
requirements). This means that purchasers of land may find that they are bound by
such pre-existing third party rights. There is a difficult balance of rights involved in the
recognition of easements. Because they are proprietary rights capable of passing with
the land which they affect and disrupt the servient landowner’s use and enjoyment of
their land, the law is careful not to expand the category of easements too readily. The
definition of easements must not become too vague or uncertain. But on the other
hand, easements may be necessary for the use and enjoyment of the dominant land,
or may be commercially valuable, and so the law must develop with the passing of
time, therefore the category of easements must not be closed. For a recent decision
on how the category of easements has been developed, see Regency Villas Title Ltd v
Diamond Resorts (Europe) Ltd [2018] UKSC 57.
It is difficult to define an easement in a really helpful way due to the wide-ranging and
flexible nature of the category, and it is therefore more usual to explain the nature
of an easement by reference to its essential characteristics and by comparison with
other similar rights. The essential characteristics were set out by the Court of Appeal
in Re Ellenborough Park [1956] Ch 131. The Supreme Court endorsed and offered further
guidance on them in their important ruling in Regency Villas Title Ltd v Diamond Resorts
(Europe) Ltd [2018] UKSC 57 – a decision that is well worth considering in detail.
In Re Ellenborough Park, people who owned houses around a park were granted the
right to use it as a ‘leisure garden’, but during the Second World War it was taken over
by the government. If the house owners had been deprived of a legal right, then they
were entitled to compensation under a statute. On the facts, the only possible legal
right was an easement. Eventually, the house owners succeeded in convincing the
Court of Appeal that the right to use the park was an easement. Four factors were held
to be relevant in determining whether an easement exists.
The Re Ellenborough criteria currently maintain the balance of rights mentioned above
and are generally applied, but they are flexible and must not be treated as if they were
statutory law. Most textbooks contain lists of examples of rights which have been held
to be easements, and you should make yourself familiar with a range of examples.
8.1.1 The Re Ellenborough criteria

1. There must be a dominant and a servient tenement
Unlike a profit, which may exist in gross (i.e. detached from the ownership of land),
an easement cannot exist independently of the ownership of land. An easement
must be attached (‘appurtenant’) to a dominant tenement and it passes on
any transfer of the land (s.187(1) LPA 1925). For an interesting application of this
principle, see London and Blenheim Estates Ltd v Ladbroke Retail Parks Ltd [1994] 1 WLR
31, which also holds that the creation of easements for land not yet identified is not
possible – they cannot exist independently of land. (However, this restriction does
not apply to profits.) The requirement is firmly entrenched, being well supported
by authority (see Peter Gibson LJ in London and Blenheim Estates Ltd v Ladbroke
Retail Parks Ltd [1994] 1 WLR 31 at p.36) and the Law Commission who identify the
prospect of allowing easements to exist in gross as leading ‘to a proliferation
of adverse interests in land, unlimited by the needs of the dominant land’ (Law
Com 327, 2011 at [2.24]). But is that justification entirely convincing, and might the
requirement stifle the creation of easements that are economically beneficial for
the dominant land? See Sturley, M.F. ‘Easements in gross’ (1980) 96 LQR 557.
There must be land which is burdened with the easement (the ‘servient
tenement’). An easement is a proprietary right affecting the servient tenement and
is potentially enforceable against subsequent owners of the servient tenement.
2. The easement must accommodate the dominant tenement

The right granted must not simply confer a personal advantage unconnected
with the land; it must increase the normal enjoyment of the land: see Hill v Tupper
(1863) 159 ER 51. Here, the right to put pleasure boats on a canal for profit was not
an easement, since it was held to be a personal advantage. This can be contrasted
with Moody v Steggles (1879) 12 Ch D 261 where the right to place an advertisement
on neighbouring land was held to be an easement. Here the land was used as
a public house and it was seen as not just benefiting the current owner of the
land but the intrinsic nature of the land itself. See also P & S Platt Ltd v Crouch
[2003] EWCA Civ 1110 (moorings on the servient land benefiting the hotel on the
dominant): and Regency where the recreational facilities on the burdened land
benefited the timeshare enterprise operating on the dominant land.
Be prepared to discuss this aspect of the need for accommodation and apply it to
the facts given to show that this is not a clear-cut test.
In Re Ellenborough a claim in respect of a house (without its own garden) to be able

to enjoy the recreational benefits provided from using a communal garden itself
sparked considerable discussion, not least because it seemed to be tantamount to
recognising personal/recreational rights for those occupying the land. Ultimately,
the Court of Appeal accepted the accommodation requirement was satisfied
through the use value the house gained from having the benefit of recreational
right rather than through any incidental increase in its value. By extension, the
Supreme Court in Regency recognised that recreation (including swimming and
playing golf and tennis) is a beneficial part of modern life and confirmed that there
is no blanket prohibition on the existence of recreational and sporting easements.
What matters is being able to show how, in the fact-specific context of each case,
that the particular rights claimed over the servient land do in fact accommodate
the dominant land. That in turn raises interesting questions about what limits
there may be on the way Regency is applied to future claims to recreational rights.
A second aspect of the requirement is that the dominant tenement and the
servient tenement must be sufficiently proximate: Pugh v Savage [1970] 2 QB 373.
3. The dominant and servient tenements must be owned or occupied by different

persons
A person cannot have an easement over his own land. Note, however, the concept
of a ‘quasi-easement’ under the rule in Wheeldon v Burrows (below). An easy way to
consider this is by asking whether there was diversity of ownership at the time the
application for an easement was made.
4. The easement must be capable of forming the subject matter of a grant

Since, as we shall see, an easement must originate in a grant, whether express,
implied or presumed, certain conditions must be fulfilled:
a. There must be both a capable grantor and a capable grantee.
b. The right must be sufficiently definite. If the nature and extent of a claimed
right are uncertain, it is difficult to determine what could constitute an
interruption of such a right. Cases involving claims to the free access of air
illustrate this point (see Bryant v Lefever (1879) 4 CPD 172 and Cable v Bryant
[1908] 1 Ch 259).
An easy way to remember the Re Ellenborough criteria is by the acronym ‘DADS’:
Dominant and servient tenement
Accommodate the land
Diversity of ownership
Subject matter of a grant
Activity 8.2
Since there is no such easement as a right to privacy or a right to a view, how
would a landowner who intends to sell part of his land prevent the purchaser from
interfering with his privacy or spoiling his view? (Hint: see Chapter 9.)
8.1.2 Additional points

In addition to the Re Ellenborough criteria, an easement must conform to the following
requirements.
The right must be within the general nature of rights capable of existing as
easements. Although it is often said that the list of easements is not closed, it seems
that while the category of positive easements is likely to expand with changing social
and economic conditions, the courts will be reluctant to recognise any new negative
easements. Positive easements are those which allow the dominant owner to do
something on the servient land. Negative easements operate primarily as restrictions
on use of the servient land. An example is an easement of light through a window.
An easement of this type prevents any use of the servient tenement that obstructs
the passage of light to the window. In Hunter v Canary Wharf [1997] AC 665 the House
of Lords characterised negative easements as ‘anomalous’ and indicated that the
category of negative easements is closed and is not to be expanded.
The exercise of the right must not require any action on the part of the servient
owner. A right which requires positive action by the owner of the servient tenement
in order for the right to be enjoyed cannot be an easement. As Judge Pelling QC
explained in William Old International Ltd v Arya [2009] EWHC 599 (Ch): ‘An easement
cannot impose a positive obligation on a servient owner…The servient owner’s only
obligation is to refrain from doing anything that impedes enjoyment of the easement
by the dominant owner.’
The easement must be exercisable as of right. A right which is exercisable by

permission only cannot qualify as an easement. If the exercise of the ‘right’ is
dependent on the permission of the servient landowner, the right cannot qualify
as an easement: ‘a purported grant of a right of way for such periods as the servient
owner may permit one to use it would not confer any legal right at all’ (Green v Ashco
Horticulturist Ltd [1966] 1 WLR 889).
The easement must not confer a right to exclusive possession of the servient
tenement. When deciding if a right is an easement it must not amount to exclusive
possession. If this is the case then it is not a right over a person’s land but is equivalent
to an estate in land. It is important to appreciate that an easement is a right over the
servient land for a defined, limited purpose: it must not be equivalent to exclusive
possession of the servient land.
An example of the difficulty which courts have had in applying this requirement can
be seen in relation to the simple issue of parking of cars. There have been many cases
concerning parking ‘rights’, or at least permission to park on the land of another.
The ‘right’ to park has caused particular problems, since in some cases it has been
considered to be too extensive and causes too much interference with the servient
owner’s use of their own land. Compare the reasoning of the Court of Appeal in
Batchelor v Marlow [2001] EWCA Civ 1051 with Lord Scott’s views expressed obiter in the
Scottish House of Lords decision in Moncrieff v Jamieson [2007] UKHL 42 to see different
judicial approaches to balancing competing land use. Batchelor’s ‘no reasonable use’
test has understandably been regarded as binding in more recent English decisions
(see Virdi v Chana [2008] EWHC 2901 (Ch); Kettel v Bloomfold Ltd [2012] EWHC 1422 (Ch);
and De Le Cuona v Big Apple Marketing Ltd [2017] EWHC 3783 (Ch)). However, the broad
interpretation and application it has been given appears to be consistent with Lord
Scott’s approach. Note that there is no special importance to the parking cases; we
are simply looking at them as a common modern illustration of the problems involved
in the recognition of easements (a similar problem occurs for storage – see Wright v
Macadam [1949] 2 KB 744). An interesting case is Miller v Emcer Products [1956] Ch 304
when a neighbour was given the right to use a toilet. Obviously while in use they had
exclusive possession but this was not unreasonable as the use was for short periods.
Activity 8.3
Read Moncrieff v Jamieson [2007] UKHL 42. From this and your reading so far,
answer the following question. If a person who owns a garage but no car grants
his neighbour the right to park his car in the garage, can such a right exist as an
easement?
Summary
Whether a dominant landowner may have the benefit of an easement over the
servient land of his neighbour depends to a large extent upon whether the four
criteria from Re Ellenborough Park can be satisfied. The category of easements is not
closed, but new easements are not easily recognised by analogy, especially when they
require the servient landowner to spend money, or appear to be too close to a claim to
exclusive possession of the land affected.
8.1.3 Examples of easements
Essential reading
¢ Re Ellenborough Park [1956] Ch 131, Court of Appeal.
¢ Regency Villas Title Ltd v Diamond Resorts (Europe) Ltd [2018] UKSC 57, Supreme
Court.
Activity 8.4
Which of the following could be easements, and why?
a. A right to park on neighbouring land whenever it is convenient for both parties.
b. A right to park on neighbouring land every day from 9.00 a.m until 10.00 p.m.
c. Permission to use a garden shared with 10 other houses.
d. Permission to use a garden as the only user.
e. Access to the public highway across a strip of land owned privately; the previous
owner of the land has always done so.
f. Ventilation for a basement flat; it could be provided in another way, but that
would be much more expensive.
Look back at all these examples once you have finished this chapter and see if you
can expand your answers.
8.2 Creation of easements
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 18 ‘Creation of express and implied grants of
easements’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 23 ‘Easements and profits’: Section 3 ‘The creation and transfer of
easements and profits’, Part A ‘Implied easements’.
¢ Douglas, S.J. ‘How to reform section 62 of the Law of Property Act 1925 (2015) 79
Conv 13.
¢ Douglas, S.J. ‘Reforming implied easements’ (2015) 115 LQR 251.
¢ Paton, E. and G. Seabourne ‘Can’t get there from here? Permissible use of
easements after Das’ (2003) Conv 127–35.
An easement may exist both at law and in equity. The distinction between legal and
equitable easements is important, since different methods of creation apply to each
category. The distinction is also crucial in determining whether an easement runs
with the land (i.e. passes on transfer of either the dominant tenement or servient
tenement, to be enforceable by or against the new owner(s)).
Legal easements
To exist at law an easement must be held for an interest equivalent to an estate in fee
simple absolute in possession or a term of years absolute (s.1(2)(a) LPA 1925) and can
be created expressly or impliedly.
Equitable easements
Easements held for a period other than either a fee simple absolute in possession
or a term of years must be equitable (s.1(2)(a), (3) LPA 1925). An easement will also
be equitable if it has not been created by one of the methods for creating legal
easements. Thus an easement for life or an easement that has been created informally
cannot exist at law, though it may take effect in equity. Equitable easements may be
created in a written contract which equity regards as specifically enforceable (s.2
LP(MP)A 1989, Walsh v Lonsdale (1882) 21 Ch D 9), or by proprietary estoppel. If the land
is registered then it is capable of protection by a notice on the land register (s.32 LRA
2002). In unregistered land, an equitable easement is registrable as a class D(iii) land
charge under LCA 1972 (see Chapters 2 and 3).
Easements normally come into existence either by means of a reservation (where, for
example, the vendor of land reserves a right of way over the land sold) or by means
of a grant (where, for example, the vendor of land grants the purchaser a right of way
over the retained land). Both reservation and grant may be either express (deliberate)
or implied.
8.2.1 Express creation

An expressly created easement will be legal or equitable depending upon the
character of the document which creates it.
An express legal easement must satisfy these conditions:
u duration (s.1(2)(a) LPA 1925) and
u created by deed (s.52 LPA 1925 (which satisfies s.1 LP(MP)A 1989)) and
u created after October 2003 – it requires substantive registration (s.27 LRA 2002).
An express equitable easement must satisfy these conditions:
u created by compliance with s.53(1)(a) LPA 1925 or
u created by a person with an equitable estate only or
u the legal formalities (above) have failed, as long as this failure is still a specifically
enforceable contract which satisfies s.2 LP(MP)A 1989.
Express reservation
An express reservation is where the owner of the dominant tenement deliberately
and expressly keeps the right for themselves when they sell or lease part of their land
to another. A reservation operates by way of re-grant (i.e. the purchaser is deemed to
have granted the easement to the vendor). This means that if there is any ambiguity
in the definition of the easement which cannot be dispelled by a consideration of the
surrounding circumstances, the grant will be construed against the grantor (i.e. in this
case the purchaser). See St Edmundsbury and Ipswich Diocesan Board of Finance v Clarke
(No 2) [1975] 1 WLR 468.
Express grant
Express grant is fairly self-explanatory: the owner of the servient tenement
deliberately grants the right over their land to the owner of the dominant tenement.
8.2.2 Implied creation

Implied creation will result in a legal or equitable easement depending upon the
character of the document into which it is implied. For example, an easement implied
into a legal lease will be legal, and an easement implied into an equitable lease will be
equitable.
Implied reservation
Only in two instances will easements be implied in favour of a grantor.
1. Easements of necessity These occur where the land retained would be useless
without the existence of an easement in its favour. The typical case is one where
the dominant tenement is ‘landlocked’ (i.e. where a transaction has effectively
deprived the dominant tenement of a means of access). It is wrong to assume
that ‘necessity’ would imply, for example, a right to drainage, as land can be used
without drains. Although it used to be thought that the implication of easements
of necessity was based on public policy, it is clear since Nickerson v Barraclough
[1981] Ch 426 that ways of necessity are implied from the common intention of
the parties. An easement of necessity is strictly limited to the kind of enjoyment
existing at the time of the grant. This category can overlap with the second
category, since what is necessary to enjoy the land will usually be presumed to be
the common intention of the parties transferring the land.
In Adealon International Proprietary Ltd v Merton London BC [2007] EWCA Civ 362 it
was held that where there had been no express reservation of a right of way and
there remained a realistic possibility of alternative access over land belonging to
third parties, no such right of way could be impliedly reserved. The claimant (A)
owned land bordering the A24 road, and the defendant (M) owned neighbouring
land which had another road, High Path, at its northern boundary. A could not
lawfully access either the A24 or High Path without planning permission, which had
been refused. Until 1989 the two plots had been in common ownership. A claimed
an easement by necessity over M’s land in order to have access to High Path.
Applying Manjang v Drammeh (1991) 61 P&CR 194 and Nickerson v Barraclough [1981]
Ch 426, no easement of necessity could exist on the facts.
2. Common intention These are easements necessary to give effect to the common
intention of the parties at the time of the grant. The scope of this category (which
would seem to include easements of necessity) has been strictly limited by the
courts: see Pwllbach Colliery Co Ltd v Woodman [1915] AC 634; Re Webb’s Lease [1951]
Ch 808.
Implied creation of easements by common intention is not lightly presumed,

particularly where implied reservation is argued: see Chaffe v Kingsley (1999) 77
P&CR 281. As a general principle, if an alleged easement is vital to the parties’
common intention, then they should have expressly created it in the conveyance
between them. Thus, in the context of implied reservations it is likely that little less
than a common intention that a specific easement has been reserved will suffice
to imply a reservation in the absence of the express reservation that both parties
thought existed (see Peckham v Ellison (1999) 31 HLR 1030).
Activity 8.5
Read Wong v Beaumont Property Trust Ltd [1965] 1 QB 173 and make a note of the
relevant facts, ratio, decision and reasons for the decision.
Would the decision have been the same if an adequate but more expensive
ventilation system could have been installed which did not pass through the
defendant’s premises?
Implied grant
The law is more prepared to imply easements by way of grant than reservation on the
basis that the seller of land should not derogate from their grant. That means the law
will not lightly allow the seller to imply reservations over land that was supposedly
transferred without such reservations (on the basis that the seller should have made
an express reservation if they wanted to retain rights over that land and to allow them
to do otherwise derogates from the unreserved grant that they made). That is why
implied reservations can only occur via necessity and (rarely) common intention as
considered above. Conversely, the law is more willing to imply grants over the land
the seller retains where such easements are deemed appropriate to enable the buyer
to use the land bought in the way that was envisaged (for to do otherwise would
derogate from the grant the seller supposedly made in selling the land to the buyer).
Thus, while grants can, like reservations, impliedly arise by necessity and common
intention, the latter is more flexibly interpreted and includes a generalised common
intention as to how the purchased land would be used rather than specific common
intention as to the specific easement that was intended to be reserved. In Stafford v Lee
(1993) 65 P&CR 172 Nourse LJ stated that an easement by common intention can exist
if there was a common intention between the purchaser and vendor of the land as to
some particular use of the land, and the easement is necessary in order to give effect
to that intention. On the facts, the purchaser wanted to build a house on the land and
the vendor had sold it to him for that purpose; since the only practical access for the
construction process was over the vendor’s land, it was held that an easement for the
purpose of construction had been created.
In addition to necessity and a more flexibly interpreted common intention, implied

grants can also arise under two further mechanisms. It is important to note that both
the rule in Wheeldon v Burrows (1879) 12 Ch D 31 and s.62 LPA 1925 (considered below)
are additional means by which an easement might be impliedly granted but can never
be used to impliedly reserve an easement.
Rule in Wheeldon v Burrows

The rule in this case holds that where a person transfers part of his land to another
person, the transfer impliedly carries with it all easement-like rights (known as ‘quasi-
easements’) which were enjoyed and used by the transferor before the transfer, for
the benefit of the part of the land which has been transferred. The ‘rights’ are ‘quasi-
easements’ rather than an actual easements because there is neither diversity of
ownership nor separate tenements.
This rule in Wheeldon v Burrows is based on the principle that a grantor may not
derogate from his grant, and has the effect of creating easements in situations that fall
far outside the narrow scope of the other two categories of implied easements.
The land is owned by A and he uses the drive when he lives in the house.
House Driveway
Then A sells the house to B and retains the rest of the land.
The use of the drive is implied into the sale of the house to B if the Wheeldon v Burrows
conditions are satisfied.
B A
The use of the drive is
implied into the sale of the
House Driveway
house to B if it satisfies
Wheeldon v Burrows conditions.
For the rule to operate three conditions must be fulfilled.
1. The use of the quasi-easement before the sale by the common owner-occupier
(A) must be continuous and apparent. The use of the word ‘continuous’ in this
formulation has been judicially characterised as ‘all but superfluous’. Accordingly,
the question is whether the use by the common owner-occupier was ‘apparent’.
This requirement will be satisfied if there are visible signs of the use on the ground.
2. The easement must be necessary for the reasonable enjoyment of the dominant
land. Note this is not the strict necessity required to create an easement by
necessity but for the reasonable enjoyment of the land, so includes drains, power,
etc. Even if the property is not landlocked and the grantee is therefore not entitled
to a way of necessity, the grantee may still be entitled to claim a right of way under
this rule. In determining whether the right claimed is necessary to the reasonable
enjoyment of the property granted, the courts will take into account the
inconvenience likely to be caused to the servient owner: see Goldberg v Edwards
[1950] Ch 247.
3. Finally, the ‘easement’ must have been used by the common owner-occupier (A) at
the time of the grant for the benefit of the part granted.
There is some debate as to whether (1) and (2) are cumulative or alternative
requirements, with the case law inconsistent on this point. You are advised to research
this issue yourself and come to a reasoned opinion of what the law should be on this
point.
The principle in Wheeldon v Burrows can generate a legal or equitable easement

depending on the nature of the transaction into which the easement is implied. If the
transaction is legal the implied easement will be legal; if the transaction is equitable
the implied easement will be equitable.
The principle in Wheeldon v Burrows can only be used to imply the grant of an
easement; it cannot be used to impliedly reserve an easement: Chaffe v Kingsley [2000]
1 EGLR 104.
Implication under s.62 LPA 1925

Section 62 is another mechanism by which easements can be impliedly acquired. It
operates in two distinct types of situation.
The first (and well-established) situation to which s.62 applies is one where the
dominant tenement and servient tenement have a common owner but are occupied
by different persons. The common situation is one in which the common owner has
granted a lease of part of his land to a tenant. If the common owner subsequently
conveys that leased land to a purchaser or grants a new lease to a tenant, the
purchaser or tenant will acquire as easements all rights which were previously enjoyed
with the land, even if those ‘rights’ were previously mere licences.
The process may look like this.
Land owned by B Land owned by B

leased to A
B gives A permission to use his
drive to access A’s house from
Driveway the main road as it is quicker
for A
A then buys the freehold (or renews his lease).
Land owned by A Land owned by B
All the rights and privileges

enjoyed by A are conveyed
Driveway with the conveyance to A.
The permission becomes a right.
Section 62 was essentially intended as a word-saving device on conveyance. However,

subject to any contrary intention, it operates to ‘convert’ consensual privileges into
easements. It is very unlikely that Parliament intended it to have any such effect. But
s.62 has become an important way in which easements can be created.
The requirements for the application of s.62 in this first type of situation are as follows:
a. There must be a conveyance (s.205 LPA 1925) by deed or by registered disposition.

Section 62 only applies where land is sold or leased by deed or registered
disposition, and can only create a legal easement.
b. There must be diversity of occupation of the two tenements at the time of the
conveyance. The person occupying the dominant tenement is usually a lessee.
c. The right (permission) must relate to the land: s.62 cannot convert into
easements rights that are in their nature incapable of being easements, such as
the intermittent consensual privilege enjoyed by the plaintiffs in Green v Ashco
Horticulturalist Ltd [1966] 1 WLR 889.
d. There is no contrary intention, such as the right being expressed to be personal or

merely temporary.
Wright v Macadam [1949] 2 KB 744 is a good example of the operation of s.62. The
defendant leased a top-storey flat to Mrs Wright and gave her permission to store coal
in a coal-shed in the garden of the building. The lease was renewed, without anything
further being said about the coal-shed at the time of renewal, but later the defendant
demanded a weekly rent for the use of the coal-shed. The Court of Appeal held that
when the lease to Mrs Wright was renewed, the ‘right’ (it is really a privilege) to use the
coal-shed was converted by s.62 into an easement, since it was a right already existing,
and the lease was a conveyance. Note that if the second lease had been to a third party
rather than to Mrs Wright, or if the defendant had sold the flat to a third party, then
s.62 would have given the benefit of the easement to that third party.
In Hair v Gillman & Inskip (2000) 80 P&CR 108, the Court of Appeal held that permission
given to the tenant of a building by the landowner to park on a forecourt was
converted into an easement by s.62 when the landlord conveyed the freehold of the
building to the tenant. In applying Wright v Macadam the Court of Appeal stressed
that the section would not have this effect where there was no expectation that the
permission could be other than temporary. The judge also expressed the concern that
a kindness could create an obligation for the landlord, perhaps unintentionally.
Activity 8.6
Read Goldberg v Edwards [1950] Ch 247, make notes on the relevant facts, decision
and reasoning, then answer the following questions:
a. Why did Mr Goldberg’s claim for an easement under the rule in Wheeldon v
Burrows fail?
b. How did Mr Goldberg win the case?
c. What should the landlord have done in both Wright v Macadam and Goldberg v
Edwards to prevent an easement arising on the grant of a second lease?
The second situation to which s.62 applies is one where the dominant tenement and
servient tenement have a common owner and occupier prior to the relevant grant.
This is illustrated by P&S Platt Ltd v Crouch [2003] EWCA Civ 1110, the first (modern)
case in which s.62 was applied to this type of situation. The owner of a riverside hotel
also owned an island in the river which had moorings which could be used by hotel
guests. When the hotel was sold, the sale did not include the moorings, but the
purchasers argued that they had an easement to use them under s.62. Peter Gibson
LJ held that since the right to use the moorings was enjoyed with the hotel and by
its guests as part of its business, and the rights were continuous and apparent, there
was an easement even though there had been no prior diversity of occupation of the
dominant and servient tenements.
Two particular conditions have been identified for the application of s.62 to this type
of situation.
1. The use of the quasi-easement by the common owner-occupier prior to the

relevant grant must have been continuous and apparent. As explained above
in connection with Wheeldon v Burrows, use by a common owner-occupier is
‘continuous and apparent’ when there are visible signs of the use on the ground.
2. The quasi-easement must be enjoyed with the quasi-dominant land at the time of
the relevant grant, including a reasonable period before the grant.
P&S Platt Ltd v Crouch was endorsed and applied in Wood v Waddington [2015] EWCA
Civ 538. However, this application of s.62 is not without its critics. It involves a
considerable overlap with the rule in Wheeldon v Burrows and it means that in respect
of continuous and apparent easements an implied grant arises on a legal conveyance
without any question of the easement being reasonable or necessary.
Activity 8.7
List the differences between the rule in Wheeldon v Burrows and s.62, explaining
when each will apply.
Reform
The Law Commission published a report recommending reform of easements,
covenants and profits à prendre on 8 June 2011. Among the main problems identified
in the current law are, in respect of easements, the fact that some are acquired too
easily, some may be difficult to detect and generally there is no means to modify
them unlike the provision in relation to covenants. The law relating to implied
creation is described as being ‘neither straightforward nor clear’. The report includes
recommendations that s.62 should no longer operate to transform precarious
benefits into legal easements. Although the Government has announced its intention
to introduce a draft Law of Property Bill implementing the Law Commission’s
recommendations, this has not yet happened.
Summary
You should now understand that whether an easement is legal or equitable depends
upon its form and the method of its creation. Easements may be created expressly
or impliedly, by grant or reservation. The rule in Wheeldon v Burrows and s.62 LPA
1925 may also create easements from lesser rights, interests or behaviour when land
is transferred. In many cases there will be more than one method of justifying the
existence of an easement on the facts.
8.3 Extent and extinguishment of easements
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 19 ‘Prescription for easements and profits’: Section
19.6 ‘Extinguishment of easements’.
¢ Dixon, Chapter 7 ‘The law of easements and profits’: Sections 7.12 ‘Improper or
excessive use of easements’ and 7.13 ‘The extinguishment of easements’.
¢ Conway, H. ‘Out with the old: easements and obsolescence’ (2007) 71 Conv 87.
The extent of an easement depends on its mode of creation. If it is created by express

grant, its extent is dependent upon the proper construction of the grant in the light of
the surrounding circumstances: if by implied grant, it is dependent upon the original
parties’ intentions.
Apart from by statute, easements may be extinguished either by (i) unity of possession
and ownership or by (ii) release. The former method derives from the principle that
the dominant and servient owners should be different persons. The latter may be
expressed or implied: for an express release, a deed is required at law whereas release
will be implied where the dominant owner has abandoned the exercise of the right
with the clear intention to release it. Courts were traditionally eager to presume an
intention to abandon where an easement had been unused for 20 years without
explanation, but it is now clear that only a very simple explanation is needed for
non-use. Courts are reluctant to presume abandonment, and now recognise that a
dominant owner is not likely to abandon such a valuable property right, which might
be most useful in the future. In Benn v Hardinge (1993) 66 P&CR 246 the Court of Appeal
refused to presume an intention to abandon a right of way which had gone unused
for 175 years after the dominant owner explained that throughout that period there
had been an alternative means of access to the land. It appears that, as a matter
of common sense, an easement will cease to exist when it no longer benefits the
dominant land, but the test to be satisfied is a strict one: see Huckvale v Aegean Hotels
[1989] 58 P&CR 163, where Slade LJ stated at 173 that:
In the absence of proof of abandonment, the court should be slow to hold that an
easement has been extinguished by frustration, unless the evidence shows clearly that
because of a change of circumstances since the date of the original grant there is no
practical possibility of its ever again benefiting the dominant tenement in the manner
contemplated by that grant.
In Wall v Collins [2007] EWCA Civ 444 it was held (somewhat surprisingly) that when a
leasehold and freehold estate were merged it did not have the effect of extinguishing
a right of way that had been attached to the leasehold interest. An easement had to be
appurtenant to a dominant tenement, but not necessarily to any particular interest for
the time being. After merger of the leasehold and freehold, the dominant tenement
remained unchanged and there was no legal impediment to the continued enjoyment
of the easement by the occupier for the time being of that tenement. The decision
also deals with the creation of easements via s.62 LPA 1925, and the extent to which a
right of way may be exercised over land which was not originally part of the dominant
tenement. Kent v Kavanaugh was also applied. There is a useful case comment by Ward,
T. ‘Wall v Collins – the effect of mergers of a lease on appurtenant easements’ [2007] 71
Conv 464.
8.4 Running with the land

The benefit of an easement will pass to a transferee of the dominant tenement, since
the easement is appurtenant to the dominant tenement. The burden of an easement
can only be enforced against a transferee of the servient tenement if the criteria
discussed below are followed. It is thus not enough to consider whether an easement
has been validly created, since its burden will only bind future owners of the land to
which it relates if it has the characteristic of ‘running with the land’. It is important
to know whether an easement is legal or equitable, since there are separate rules for
each. It is convenient to consider the categories separately.
8.4.1 Registered land before LRA 2002

This section is for comparison purposes only – remember LRA 1925 has been repealed.
Legal easements
The benefit of any easement automatically passed to a purchaser or transferee of the
dominant tenement. But the burden did not automatically pass with the land. Most
legal easements were registered against the title of the servient tenement, and must
be so registered if they are created after the first registration of title of the land. Legal
easements created before first registration of the land were overriding interests under
s.70(1)(a) LRA 1925. So, legal easements bound purchasers of servient tenements in
registered land.
Equitable easements
It was intended under LRA 1925 that almost all equitable easements would bind a
purchaser of the servient tenement only if registered as minor interests. But the
decision in Celsteel v Alton [1986] 1 WLR 512 meant that equitable easements which
were ‘openly exercised and enjoyed’ could also be overriding interests under s.70(1)(a)
LRA 1925. It remained uncertain whether all equitable easements would be saved from
registration requirements by Celsteel.
8.4.2 Under LRA 2002

Note the transitional provisions which applied until 13 October 2006 and protected
as overriding interests all existing easements and profits where they affected a
registered title, whether the easement was legal or equitable. It is likely that, after the
transitional provisions came to an end in 2006, some easements ceased to exist since
they were no longer overriding and had not been protected on the register.
The position is now that, on first registration, para.3 Schedule 1 provides that all legal
easements are interests that override a first registration of the servient tenement.
Thus, legal easements will bind the first registered proprietor and all subsequent
transferees of the servient tenement. Where legal easements are expressly created
after first registration, they must have been entered on the register in order to exist,
and once registered will bind all transferees of the servient tenement.
Impliedly created legal easements may override under para.3 Schedule 3 if they are
either known to or reasonably discoverable by the purchaser, or have been used
within a year before the purchase of the land. Paragraph 3 Schedule 3 applies only to
legal easements and profits. Express easements created after 2003 will need to be
substantively registered under s.27 LRA 2002 to be legal so eventually only implied
legal easements will be overriding.
An equitable easement can be protected by the entry of a notice on the charges

register. It is unclear whether there are any circumstances in which an equitable
easement can override a registered disposition under para.2 Schedule 3. It is
reasonably clear that the use of a right of way is too fleeting and intermittent to
constitute actual occupation of the servient tenement. However, the Court of Appeal
has left open the question of whether more intensive use of the servient tenement
in connection with an easement of storage or parking could amount to actual
occupation: Chaudhary v Yavuz [2011] EWCA Civ 1314.
8.4.3 Unregistered land

The benefited and burdened land will now most commonly be subject the provisions
found in LRA 2002. It is still, however, useful to be aware of the comparable position
under the unregistered land law rules. The benefit of both legal and equitable
easements will automatically pass to a purchaser of the dominant tenement, in the
same way as in registered land. Again, in relation to the burden, different rules apply to
legal and equitable easements:
u Legal easements ‘bind the whole world’ because they are legal rights and so are
binding upon a purchaser of the servient tenement.
u Post-1925 equitable easements (other than those created by proprietary estoppel)

needed to be registered as class D(iii) land charges under LCA 1972 if they were
to bind a subsequent purchaser for money or money’s worth of the servient
tenement.
8.5 Effect of the Land Registration Act 2002
Further reading
¢ Battersby, G. ‘More thoughts on easements under the Land Registration Act
2002’ (2005) Conv 195.
¢ Kenny, P.H. ‘Vanishing easements in registered land’ (2003) Conv 304–13.
Although the enforceability of easements in registered land has been explained

above, some further points are worth making and the importance of a few should
be reinforced. Under LRA 2002, easements created by electronic deed will be legal
easements, and those created by electronic written contracts will be equitable.
Further, once electronic conveyancing is fully operational, expressly created
easements will not exist until entered electronically on the register of the servient
land (s.93). Thus, it will eventually not be possible to create easements in registered
land at all except electronically.
First registration takes effect subject to any legal easement or profit à prendre (para.3
Schedule 1 LRA 2002). It does not matter whether the easement was created formally,
by informal grant or by prescription. But unregistered rights should be disclosed on
first registration and protected by a notice. Note also the following points:
u Overriding status can no longer be claimed for any easement or profit expressly
created out of a registered title after 13 October 2003 since only legal rights
override; and legal status is itself dependent upon registration (s.27(1) and para.7
Schedule 2 LRA 2002).
u But implied easements will override even though they can only be detected via
their use.
u Undiscoverable easements will no longer override a transfer.
u Legal and equitable easements that were overriding interests under the old law,
prior to the LRA 2002, will remain as such, despite the new provisions in the Act.
8.6 Profits à prendre

A profit is a proprietary right to enter the land of another and to take produce of that
land, such as crops, timber, fish or turf. It can be legal or equitable. In registered land,
all profits are overriding interests and, under LRA 2002, legal profits can be registered
with their own title. A distinction between profits and easements, as stated above,
is that profits can exist in gross (i.e. they may bind servient land even if the person
with the benefit does not own any land himself). Profits can be created in much the
same ways as easements. Detailed consideration of profits is outside the scope of this
module.
1. Which benefits from an easement: the servient tenement or the dominant
tenement?
2. Can an easement exist independently of the ownership of the land in question?
3. Can the right to play tennis or to sunbathe in one’s neighbour’s garden exist as
an easement? (Hint: see Re Ellenborough Park [1956] Ch 131 and Regency Villas Title
Ltd v Diamond Resorts (Europe) Ltd [2017] EWCA Civ 238.)
4. What are the principal rules arising from Re Ellenborough Park?
5. What are the three methods for creating legal easements?
6. How can an equitable easement be registered?
7. What is an ‘easement of necessity’?
8. What is the doctrine of ‘lost modern grant’?
9. Give an example of profit à prendre.
Question 1
‘The vendor and purchaser of land should make express provision for any
easements that they want. The law should rarely imply easements in their favour.’
Discuss.
Question 2
Oliver was the registered owner of a property which consisted of a house, a garden
behind the house and a cottage at the further end of the garden. There was a path
leading from the house to the cottage through the garden. The house fronted on to
a major road and the cottage fronted on to a narrow lane. Oliver lived in the house
and used the cottage as an office. In November 2018 he contracted to lease the
cottage to his friend, Fred, for five years from 1 January 2019. Oliver allowed Fred to
occupy the cottage in November and told him that he could use the garden shed
to store some of his things and that he could access the cottage through the house
and garden except when Oliver had guests staying at the house. In January 2019 a
formal lease was executed. In 2020 Oliver sold the whole property to Paul. Paul has
now told Fred to keep out of the house and garden and to remove his things from
the shed.
Advise Fred.
Question 1
A well-focused answer would examine in detail the situations in which the law will
imply an easement in favour of (i) the grantee of land and (ii) the grantor of land. A
grant may be implied in the case of easements of necessity, intended easements,
easements under the rule in Wheeldon v Burrows and by the operation of s.62 LPA 1925.
The implied reservation of easements is limited to the first two categories. Why does
the law make this distinction? What is the justification for implying easements? Have
the courts defined the various categories of implied easements in a restrictive or in a
broad manner? There is a wealth of case law to be considered in this context.
Question 2
The main issue was whether Fred could claim easements of way and storage over
Oliver’s land and, if so, whether they would be binding on Paul. Could these ‘rights’
exist as easements? Start by applying the Re Ellenborough criteria and point out that
there could not be an easement of storage if the effect would be to leave the servient
owner without any reasonable use for his land. But it is also important to consider
whether a right of way ‘except when there were guests staying’ could exist as an
easement (see Green v Ashco Horticulturalist). Assuming they can exist as easements,
have they been effectively acquired? In the absence of any express grant, Fred would
rely on the rule in Wheeldon v Burrows or on s.62 LPA 1925, as in Goldberg v Edwards,
where the facts were similar. Easements acquired in one of these ways would
bind Paul, a purchaser, under para.3 Schedule 3 LRA 2002, a point often missed by
candidates in examinations.
Quick quiz
Question 1
Which of the following is not an essential element of Re Ellenborough Park [1956]
Ch 131?
a. That there must be two freehold estates.
b. That there must be diversity of ownership.
c. That there must be a dominant and servient tenement.
Question 2
Which of the following is not a way to create an easement?
a. Expressly granting a right by deed and registering the easement under s.27 LRA
2002.
b. Between two freehold estates, when one gives the other permission to use a
right and then the estate with the permission is sold.
c. When there is one owner of land using a ‘quasi-easement’ who then sells the
land which forms the dominant tenement.
Question 3
Which statement is correct in relation to the main difference between a profit and
an easement?
a. A profit can exist in gross.
b. A profit can be owned by more than one person.
c. There is no difference.
Question 4
In registered land, which of the following does not identify when an easement can
be overriding?
a. Para.2 Schedule 3.
b. Para.3 Schedule 3.
c. Para.3 Schedule 1.

9 Freehold covenants
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.1 Passing of the benefit and burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
9.2 Passing of the burden at law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.3 Discharge and modification of restrictive covenants . . . . . . . . . . 156
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Introduction
Neighbours often agree that each will use their land in a particular way, or will not use
their land in a particular way. These agreements are covenants – personal obligations
made by deed and enforced by the rules of contract law – and the original parties to
the covenants can enforce them. But, in order for the covenants to bind successors
in title of the original parties, a complex set of rules must be applied. The rules
which relate to the passing of the covenants must be considered in relation to both
the common law rules and equitable rules. Although many of the rules of freehold
covenants are a creation of equity, they are in some ways similar to easements.
Like easements, they create a relationship between two pieces of land, one becoming
benefited by the covenant (the dominant tenement) and the other one burdened by
it (the servient tenement). In this context, a covenant is an undertaking by which one
party promises another that they will or will not engage in some activity in relation to
their land. The person receiving the benefit of the covenant is called the covenantee
and the person with the burden of the covenant is called the covenantor. Before the
introduction of strict planning law requirements, this was an important method of
regulating land use and maintaining the value of land. It is an important method of
ensuring good relations between neighbours and upholding or enhancing the value of
land. Positive covenants require the promisor to carry out an activity (e.g. maintain a
fence); negative (or restrictive)† covenants forbid the promisor from doing something †
For a discussion of the Law
(e.g. conducting a business on their land). Covenants are relatively easy to enforce Commission’s proposals for
between the original parties as the obligations are contractual in nature; it is when the reform of this area of the
either party sells their land to a third party that the enforceability of any relevant law, see Law Com 127, 1984,
covenants becomes more complex. ‘Restrictive covenants’.
A freehold covenant is a contractual agreement between two parties in relation to

the use of their land. Covenants can be ‘negative’, meaning that the burdened party
is required to refrain from acting. An example would be a covenant not to build a
wall above a stipulated height. Covenants can also be ‘positive’, meaning that the
burdened party is required to act. An example would be a covenant that a wall must
be built, thus involving the expense and effort of constructing a wall.
Being a contractual provision in the first place, the contract binds the original
contracting parties. The question for land law purposes is when the contractual
covenant will bind people who buy the land from the original contracting parties. The
first requirement is whether or not the covenant ‘runs with the land’ or ‘touches and
concerns the land’ – that means that the covenant must relate to the land specifically,
so that it can continue to be enforceable by whoever owns the land in the future. So, a
covenant to polish your neighbour’s shoes would be purely personal between you and
your neighbour and would not relate to the land, whereas a covenant to maintain the
sewerage system on your neighbour’s land would be something which related to the
land itself.
The benefit of a covenant will pass with the land at common law as a result of s.78 LPA
1925, as made clear in Federated Homes Ltd v Mill Lodge Properties Ltd [1980] 1 WLR 594.
The burden of a covenant will not pass at common law, despite the provisions of s.79
LPA 1925, as made clear in Rhone v Stephens [1994] 2 AC 310. The benefit of a covenant
will also pass in equity as a result of annexation, assignment or a building scheme. The
only way of passing the burden of a negative covenant is in equity under Tulk v Moxhay
(1847) 47 ER 1345. There is no way of passing the burden of a positive covenant, even in
equity, as made clear in Rhone v Stephens. These cases are considered in detail below.
Learning outcomes
u explain and apply the ways in which the benefits of covenants may run with
freehold land both at common law and in equity
u explain and apply the legal and equitable rules relating to the running of the
burdens of covenants with freehold land
u suggest ways in which this area of law could be reformed.
Property law 9 Freehold covenants page 149
9.1 Passing of the benefit and burden
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 8 ‘Freehold covenants’.
Essential reading
¢ Chappelle, ‘Restrictive covenants’. Available on the VLE.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 20 ‘Freehold covenants’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 24 ‘Covenants’.
Covenants (both freehold and leasehold) provided an important method of controlling

land use in the days before government agencies played the central role in the use and
development of resources that they play today. Covenants continue to be widely used
in order to enhance the attractiveness to purchasers of a particular development area
by ensuring that the local amenities will be preserved and property values protected.
Although it is generally desirable that covenants should be enforceable both by and
against successors in title of the original parties, the enforcement of all covenants, no
matter how trivial or how loosely defined, could impose an intolerable burden on
purchasers of the ‘servient’ land and could make that land unmarketable. Remember
that an underlying theme of land law is to maintain the value of land and to make it
freely marketable. A balance clearly must be struck between competing interests, and
the development of the law of freehold covenants should be seen in this context. They
are generally referred to as freehold covenants to distinguish them from the covenants
that landlords can place in a lease (see Chapter 6).
In this chapter we are largely concerned with covenants running with

freehold land and with the situation where there is neither privity V P
of contract nor privity of estate. (The issue of leasehold covenants is
covered in Chapter 6; review your notes if these terms do not seem benefit burden
familiar.) A typical case would be where V conveys part of his land to P,
P entering into various covenants (promises contained in a deed). The
covenants will of course be enforceable between the original parties X Y
but if V subsequently conveys his remaining land to X and P conveys
his land to Y, to what extent can X enforce the covenants against Y?
Where a covenant is enforceable, it amounts to an encumbrance over Y’s land, but to
be enforceable it would have to be shown that the benefit of the covenant has passed
to X and the burden to Y.
There are separate rules for the passing of the benefit and the burden in each of law
and equity, so it is important to organise your notes into those four categories to avoid
confusion.
It may be useful when planning the answer to identify the parties in a diagram.
A – the owner of Blackacre – B – the owner of Whiteacre –

enters into covenants with B – enters into covenants with A –
the owner of Whiteacre the owner of Blackacre
A sells Blackacre to C B sells Whiteacre to D
Is C bound by or does C have Is D bound by or does D have

the benefit of the covenants the benefit of the covenants
that A entered into with B? that B entered into with A?
It is useful then to identify the covenants that you are dealing with.
Here are some typical covenants to keep in mind when reading the rest of the module
guide.
1. A promises B that she will not build in the garden of A’s land.
2. B promises A that he will contribute to the upkeep of their shared drive.
3. A promises B that she will keep his garden tidy as B is not a keen gardener.
You need to identify who would have the benefit and who the burden of each
covenant. In covenants 1 and 3, A has the burden and B the benefit. In covenant 2, B has
the burden and A the benefit.
9.1.1 Passing the benefit at law

An original covenantee can always enforce a covenant against the original covenantor,
as this is a contract between the parties. The effect of s.56 LPA 1925 is to include those
who are not party to the covenant (i.e. not a signatory but persons in existence at the
time of the deed and mentioned in the deed as within the covenant), provided the
covenant is interpreted as having been made with, rather than simply for, them. The
courts have therefore ensured that s.56 does not undermine the contractual doctrine
of privity. See Re Ecclesiastical Commissioners for England’s Conveyance [1936] Ch 430;
White v Bijou Mansions Ltd [1938] Ch 351; and Amsprop Trading Ltd v Harris Distribution
[1997] 1 WLR 1025.
Where a covenant is made after 11 May 2000, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act
1999 may also assist. Section 1 provides that a person who is not a party to a contract
may enforce it if either it expressly provides they may, or it purports to confer a benefit
upon them, as long as the contract identifies them by name, by description or as a
member of a class. It does not matter if they did not exist at the time the contract was
made; hence it appears that the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 is wider in
application than s.56 LPA 1925.
Successors in title
The benefit of the covenant may pass to a successor in title (C and D in the diagram
above are the successors in title). There are two methods of transmitting the benefit of
a covenant to the covenantee’s successor at law.
Before considering how the benefit can run, in either case, the covenants must first
run with the land. At common law a covenant can ‘run’ with the dominant land if all of
the following requirements in (a)–(c) are satisfied:
a. The covenant ‘touches and concerns’ the land (Smith and Snipes Hall Farm Ltd v
River Douglas Catchment Board [1949] 2 KB 500). See the full ‘touch and concern’
test from Swift Investments v Combined English Stores [1989] AC 632.
b. Both the covenantee and the covenantee’s successor in title have a legal estate
in the land (although they need not be the same legal estate) (s.78 LPA 1925).
c. It was intended by the original parties to run with the land (although whether
this is essential is cast into doubt by cases such as Smith and Snipes and Swift
Investments).
The covenant can then either run by assignment or annexation.
1. Express assignment. The covenantee can expressly assign the benefit of the
covenant to his successor in title. This would say something like ‘I, A, give to you,
C, my benefit under covenant 2.’ The covenant must not be purely personal, and
the assignment must comply with the formalities prescribed by s.136 LPA 1925
(requiring both that the assignment is in writing and that the covenantor is given
express written notice of it). This method is of less significance now but would be
useful where the methods identified below have been excluded.
2. Annexation. The benefit of a covenant can be annexed to the dominant land,

either expressly by the covenanting parties or statutorily by s.78 LPA 1925. Under
LPA 1925 there is no requirement that the covenantee’s successor in title should
own the same legal estate as the covenantee. This means that the statute applies
where the covenantee grants a legal lease of the dominant land. The statute
also applies where the covenantee transfers part (rather than the whole) of the
dominant land.
9.1.2 Passing the benefit in equity

In practice it is the equitable rules governing the passing of the benefit which are of
paramount significance, because there are a number of situations where the common
law rules are inapplicable, in particular where the claimant relies upon their land
being part of a scheme of development and, most important of all, where the servient
tenement has been assigned and enforcement depends on the equitable doctrine of
restrictive covenants. In that situation it is usually argued (but see Gray) that for the
burden to run in equity the benefit must likewise do so. This should not matter as the
equitable rules for the running of the benefit are more flexible than the common law
rules. However, because equitable rules are necessarily discretionary, this might still
be significant in a situation where, due to unnecessary delay (laches) or mala fides
(bad faith), a court was unwilling to apply the equitable rules for the running of the
benefit even though the common law rules for the benefit passing, and likewise the
equitable rules for the burden similarly doing so, were both satisfied. In recent years
the courts have taken a flexible approach to rules which in their original formulation
were sometimes excessively rigid and technical. Not only must the covenant touch
and concern the land of the covenantee, but the claimant must show that they have
acquired the benefit of the covenant in one of the three ways prescribed by equity:
assignment, annexation or scheme of development.
1. Express assignment. See the discussion of express assignment in 9.1.1 above. The
benefit of a covenant can be expressly assigned to the covenantee’s successor
in title. This mode of transmitting the benefit remains important where the
operation of s.78 LPA 1925 has been excluded. Three points should be noted. (1) The
covenant must have been taken to protect ascertainable land of the covenantee,
and the assignment must be contemporaneous with the transfer of the dominant
land. Should there be something in the conveyance itself identifying the land to
be benefited? Consider Newton Abbot Co-operative Society Ltd v Williamson and
Treadgold Ltd [1952] Ch 286, where it did not take incredible detective work to
identify the dominant land. But would the decision in that case have been different
if the nearest ironmonger’s shop had been a mile away from the servient land?
(2) An assignment does not operate to annex the benefit of the covenant to the
dominant land. A chain of assignments from one owner to another, on the same
terms, is necessary: Re Pinewood Estate, Farnborough [1958] Ch 280. (3) Equity allows
the benefit to be assigned with any part of the benefited land. Thus a covenant
made with the intention of benefiting the whole of the dominant land can be
assigned on the sale of part of that land: Stilwell v Blackman [1968] Ch 508.
2. Annexation. As mentioned above, it is possible for the covenanting parties to

expressly annex the benefit of a covenant to the dominant land. The words of the
covenant must manifest an intention to benefit the land, so some reference to
the land must be made. A covenant that is made with the ‘heirs and assigns’ of the
covenantee is not sufficient to annex the benefit of the covenant to the dominant
land because no mention is made of the land: Renals v Cowlishaw (1879) 9 Ch D
125. Where the covenanting parties have not expressly manifested an intention
to annex the benefit of a covenant to the dominant land, it may be possible to
infer that intention from the terms of the instrument containing the covenant. If
it can be inferred from those terms that the covenanting parties’ intention was
to benefit the dominant land, this will be sufficient to annex the covenant to the
land. In the absence of express or implied annexation, a covenant can be annexed
to the dominant land by s.78 LPA 1925: Federated Homes Ltd v Mill Lodge Properties
Ltd [1980] 1 WLR 594. In that case, the Court of Appeal emphasised that s.78 only
applies to covenants that touch and concern the dominant land. The court also
explained that a covenant annexed to the dominant land by s.78 was annexed to
each part of the land and not just the whole. Accordingly, a transferee of part of
the dominant land will acquire the benefit of any covenants in relation to that part
of the land. Crest Nicholson Residential (South) Ltd v McAllister [2004] EWCA Civ 410
endorsed the decision in Federated Homes but held that in order for s.78 to apply
the instrument containing the covenant must identify the benefited land so that
it is readily ascertainable. The court in Crest Nicholson also affirmed the decision in
Roake v Chadha [1984] 1 WLR 40 that covenanting parties are free to expressly or
impliedly exclude the operation of s.78. In Roake v Chadha [1984] 1 WLR 40, there
was a covenant not to build more than one house per plot on a piece of land, and
another clause in the conveyance provided that the benefit of the covenant would
not pass unless it was expressly assigned. The court held that, despite the decision
in Federated Homes, s.78 could not operate to pass the benefit of the covenant to a
buyer, since the original parties had expressed a contrary intention.
Covenants created after 1925 will be automatically annexed to the land under s.78
LPA 1925. So both express and (the more dubious) implied annexation, along with
assignment, are of less importance since s.78 was enacted and is only relevant
to covenants created before 1926 (of which there are many). Sainsbury v Enfield
Borough Council [1989] 1 WLR 590 illustrates the obvious point that there can be
no statutory annexation in respect of pre-1926 covenants; appropriate words of
annexation will still be necessary.
3. Scheme of development. A scheme of development, or building scheme, is a

useful modern tool for the enforcement of covenants in a clearly defined area, with
one seller of all the plots of land involved, and where all the original purchasers
of plots knew that the covenants imposed on each and all of them were intended
to be mutually enforceable. Where such a scheme exists, a kind of ‘local law’ is
created whereby restrictive covenants are enforceable by and against the owners
of plots within the scheme (i.e. a covenant entered into by the purchaser of a plot
is enforceable both by those who have previously bought plots and by those who
subsequently buy the unsold plots and by their successors in title). Registration is
still necessary, however.
The conditions of a scheme of development were laid down in Elliston v Reacher [1908]
2 Ch 665 as follows:
u There was originally a single seller of all the land within the scheme.
u The plots of land were laid out in advance.
u Mutual restrictions were established by the original seller, for mutual benefit of all
the buyers of plots.
u The purchaser of each and every plot knew of the mutually binding nature of the
covenants.
A further condition was added in Reid v Bickerstaff [1909] 2 Ch 305 to the effect that the
area of the scheme must be clearly defined. These requirements seem to have been
onerous, since only two reported cases enforce schemes of development between
1908 and the 1960s. In recent years, however, the courts have taken a much more
relaxed approach to these conditions (e.g. those requiring a common vendor and
pre-sale lotting) and have tended merely to insist on the clear definition of the scheme
and on evidence that the original vendor and the original purchasers intended that all
purchasers should be mutually bound by, and mutually entitled to enforce, a defined
set of restrictions:
u In Baxter v Four Oaks Properties Ltd [1965] Ch 816, although a common vendor had
decided the boundaries of the scheme, he had not fixed the size of the plots before
sale, instead selling each purchaser as much land as the purchaser wanted to buy.
Cross J held that there was a valid building scheme in spite of this ‘special feature’.
u In Re Dolphin’s Conveyance [1970] Ch 654 there was no common vendor, the plots
had not been laid out in advance and the land had been sold over a period of 20
years, but a building scheme was held to be in existence.
u In Emile Elias and Co Ltd v Pine Groves Ltd [1993] 1 WLR 305 (PC) it was restated that
the area of the scheme must be fixed before the sale of plots commences; note
that this appears to throw doubt on some aspects of Re Dolphin’s Conveyance.
u In Birdlip v Hunter [2016] EWCA Civ 603 the conveyancing documents should also
make the existence of the scheme clear.
But it is important not to stray too far from the key Elliston v Reacher requirements. In
Whitgift Homes v Stocks [2001] EWCA Civ 1732, there was a great deal of uncertainty as
to how much of an estate was intended to be within a building scheme. The Court of
Appeal found that no building scheme existed even between owners of houses which
were clearly intended to have been within such a scheme, on the basis that:
the authorities show that [a] number of characteristics must be established. Among them
is certainty; otherwise, in relation to each plot of land said to fall within the scheme, the
question will continually arise: does it or does it not so fall? More precisely, is it, or is it
not subject to mutually enforceable benefits and obligations, and, if enforceable, by and
against the owners of which plots? This essential requirement of certainty makes obvious
practical sense.
(Judge LJ, para.110)
Activity 9.1
Read Federated Homes Ltd v Mill Lodge Properties Ltd [1980] 1 WLR 594 carefully and
make notes on the relevant facts, decision and reasoning. Note also the critique
of this case in your textbook, and reflect on how far subsequent case law has shed
further light on how and when it applies.
a. Must there be a reference to the benefited land in the deed for annexation to
occur?
b. What would be the effect today of a covenant which used the Renals v Cowlishaw
(1879) 9 Ch D 125 formula?
c. Can the benefit of a covenant pass by virtue of s.62 LPA 1925?
Summary
The benefit of a restrictive covenant may pass in law, by statute or in equity (via
assignment, annexation or under a scheme of development).
9.2 Passing of the burden at law
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 8 ‘Freehold covenants’: Sections 8.5 ‘Principle 2: Enforcing the
covenant against successors in title to the original covenantor – passing the
burden’ and 8.7 ‘Escaping the confines of the rules: can the burden of positive
covenants be enforced by other means?’.
The burden of a covenant cannot pass at law so as to become directly enforceable

against the covenantor’s successors in title. In Austerberry v Oldham Corporation (1885)
29 Ch D 750, the Court of Appeal applied the contractual rule that only a party to an
agreement can be burdened by it. This was confirmed by the House of Lords in Rhone v
Stephens [1994] 2 AC 310.
This rule, which is based on the need to prevent land being fettered indefinitely, has
proved highly inconvenient and has been widely criticised. Ways have been devised to
circumvent it, including: by transferring land on long lease (which can be converted
to a freehold) and hence using the law of leasehold covenants; commonhold
arrangements (see below); creating a conditional fee simple subject to a right of
re-entry; using a chain of indemnity clauses; or by the doctrine of mutual benefit and
burden.
Of these ways for indirect enforcement of a covenant, perhaps the most interesting is
the doctrine of mutual benefit and burden or, as it is sometimes called, the doctrine
of Halsall v Brizell [1957] Ch 169, according to which a person who claims the benefit
of a conveyance (e.g. the right to use a road or drains) must submit to its burden (e.g.
the corresponding obligation to contribute to the cost of maintenance). Rejecting
the application of the doctrine to the facts in Rhone v Stephens [1994] 2 AC 310,
Lord Templeman (at 322) affirmed the principle but he identified limitations on its
operation. These have been explored in a number of subsequent cases, including
Thamesmead Town Ltd v Allotey (1998) 30 HLR 1052; Davies v Jones [2009] EWCA Civ
1164, [20]–[27]; and Wilkinson v Kerdene Ltd [2013] EWCA Civ 44. In essence, three
requirements need to satisfied for the principle to be invoked:
1. the benefit and burden need to be conferred by the same transaction – usually a
conveyance or other deed
2. the substance of the benefit and burden must be related/linked in the sense of the
former being conditional on, or reciprocal to, the latter, and
3. the person who is subject to the burden must have the right to reject or disclaim it.
While the principle cannot apply where the burdened owner enjoys no benefits, it
does mean that a vendor, by reserving control of some essential facility, will be able
to enforce positive covenants connected with that facility against the purchaser’s
successors in title. However, unlike a restrictive covenant, which creates an interest
in the burdened land, the doctrine only generates a personal right to enforce the
positive covenant: Goodman v Elwood [2013] EWCA Civ 1103.
It was anticipated that the introduction of commonhold, a new form of landholding,

might have the advantage of getting around the obstacles created by the ruling in
Rhone. With effect from 2004, the Commonhold and Leasehold Reform Act 2002
introduced commonhold, an innovative scheme whereby individual units within a
property may be owned as freehold rather than leasehold, yet the management of
the land subject to the scheme can be conducted as a whole. So, a new block of flats
might be managed by a commonhold association collectively, with each flat owned
individually, and reciprocal positive covenants will help to enforce the rules of the
collective and to manage the common parts of the building. The details of the scheme
are complex. Commonhold has not so far been popular, with only something like 20
schemes created since the legislation was enacted. Thus far then it has not had the
anticipated effect of alleviating the impact of the Rhone prohibition on being able to
enforce positive covenants against successors of the burdened land. All this might
change following the Law Commission’s work on making commonhold a preferred
alternative to leasehold ownership (see ‘Reinvigorating commonhold: the alternative
to leasehold ownership’ (Law Com 394, July 2020). In January 2021, the government
announced the creation of a Commonhold Council – a partnership of leasehold groups,
industry and government – that will prepare homeowners and the market for the
widespread take-up of commonhold (see www.gov.uk/government/news/government-
reforms-make-it-easier-and-cheaper-for-leaseholders-to-buy-their-homes). It remains
to be seen how successful this initiative will be.
Finally, it should be noted that the original covenantor remains liable for performance
of the covenant after transferring the servient land to a third party. However, the
remedies available against the original covenantor in such a situation are limited.
For example, although the covenantee may be able to claim damages from the
covenantor for breach of the covenant, he cannot prevent the covenantor’s successor
in title from using the servient land in a manner inconsistent with the covenant.
Activity 9.2
If a purchaser covenants to bear half the cost of maintaining the boundary wall
situated between his and his vendor’s retained land and the vendor covenants to
bear the other half, can the vendor enforce the covenant against the purchaser’s
successor in title?
What if the purchaser had covenanted to bear the whole cost? Would he obtain a
‘benefit’ under the conveyance?
9.2.1 Passing of the burden in equity

The strictness of the common law rule that burdens will not run with the land
has been mitigated by equity. It is thus due to equity that restrictive covenants
are a worthwhile measure for the owner of the dominant land. According to
Lord Cottenham in Tulk v Moxhay (1848) 47 ER 1345, if equity did not enforce the
covenantor’s promise, then it would be ‘impossible for the owner of land to sell part
of it without incurring the risk of rendering what he retains worthless’. Since Tulk v
Moxhay it has been clear that the burden will run in equity, provided the following
requirements are satisfied:
u the covenant is negative in nature
u the covenant touches and concerns the burdened land (the Swift test)
u it protects land retained by the covenantee
u it was intended to run with the land, and
u the successor has notice of the covenant.
See Haywood v Brunswick Permanent Benefit Building Society (1881) 8 QBD 403.
There is little chance of enforcing the burden of a positive covenant against the
covenantor’s successors in title. According to Lord Templeman in Rhone v Stephens [1994]
2 AC 310 it is a basic truth of land law ‘that positive covenants affecting freehold land are
not directly enforceable except against the original covenantor’. This is so because:
Equity cannot compel an owner to comply with a positive covenant entered into by his
predecessors in title without flatly contradicting the common law rule that a person
cannot be made liable upon a contract unless he was a party to it. Enforcement of a
positive covenant lies in contract; a positive covenant compels an owner to exercise his
rights. Enforcement of a negative covenant lies in property; a negative covenant deprives
the owner of a right over property.
There is no sense in showing that the benefit of a positive covenant has passed unless
there is someone who is burdened by it. But whether a covenant is positive or negative
is a question of substance, not of form. A covenant to keep land as a wilderness is really
a covenant not to build upon the land, and so is negative in substance.† Generally, if a †
Consider whether a
covenant requires the covenantor to spend money in order to perform it, then it is a covenant to maintain land
positive covenant and its burden will not run with the land. In Rhone v Stephens, the as an ornamental garden is
covenant was to maintain a roof in good condition, which is positive in nature, and so the negative in substance (see
burden did not pass to a buyer of the house, rendering the covenant unenforceable after Tulk v Moxhay).
sale. This was unfortunate since the roof protected an adjoining cottage, whose owners
thereby lost a method of ensuring the continuance of that protection.
Activity 9.3
What objections might there be to the enforcement of positive covenants against
subsequent buyers of the burdened land?
The covenant must protect land owned by the covenantee
London County Council v Allen [1914] 3 KB 642 demonstrates that, as with easements,
there must be two tenements and the covenant must benefit the dominant
tenement. Although both parties to the covenant are free to sell their land as usual,
the covenant will only remain enforceable so long as it benefits a piece of land which
can be identified as the dominant tenement: Newton Abbott Co-operative Society Ltd
v Williamson & Treadgold Ltd [1952] Ch 286. Only the holder of the dominant land can
sue to enforce the covenant. Note, however, that a landlord’s reversion on a lease is a
sufficient interest for the purpose of this rule and may entitle the landlord to enforce
a restrictive covenant against, for example, a sub-lessee if the other requirements are
satisfied: Hall v Ewin (1887) 37 Ch D 74.
The covenant must have been intended to run with the covenantor’s land
In the case of post-1925 covenants relating to the covenantor’s land it is presumed that
this is the case, in the absence of any contrary intention (s.79 LPA 1925).
In Morrells of Oxford Ltd v Oxford United Football Club [2001] Ch 459 this requirement
was not satisfied. A person sold part of his land as a public house and covenanted not
to permit any competing business on his retained land. The Court of Appeal held that
this covenant was personal in nature and was not intended to bind the covenantor’s
successors in title.
The covenantor’s successors in title must have notice of the covenant

It is important to remember that freehold restrictive covenants entered into since
1925 must be protected in order to bind the covenantor’s successors in title. This
means that, in registered land since the enactment of the LRA 2002, it needs to be
protected by entry of a notice (in unregistered land such covenants were registrable
as class D(ii) land charges in the land charges register). As an equitable interest in the
land, a restrictive covenant entered into before 1926 was, and remains, subject to the
doctrine of notice.
Activity 9.4
Read Tulk v Moxhay.
a. Summarise the relevant facts and decision.
b. Why was the injunction granted, and what were its terms?
c. Did the court follow existing precedent?
d. Why was only the covenant against building enforceable?
e. What is the justification of enforcing restrictive covenants in equity?
Summary
The burden of a covenant can only pass in equity, and only when the requirements of
Tulk v Moxhay are satisfied (i.e. the covenant must be restrictive, created for the benefit
of land owned by the covenantee, intended to run with the covenantor’s land and
enforceable in accordance with the applicable enforcement rules).
9.3 Discharge and modification of restrictive covenants
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 8 ‘Freehold covenants’: Section 8.8 ‘Discharge and modification
of restrictive covenants’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 21 ‘Escaping from restrictive covenants’: Section
21.5 ‘Modification or discharge of a covenant under s.84(1)’; see also reform
proposals discussed in Chapter 20 ‘Freehold covenants’: Section 20.13 ‘The
chaotic state of the law on the running of benefits of covenants ’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 24 ‘Covenants’: Section 2.D ‘Modification’; see also reform

proposals discussed in Section 4 ‘Reform’.
¢ Cash, A. ’Freehold covenants and the potential flaws in the Law Commission’s
2011 reform proposals’(2017) Conv 212.
9.3.1 General powers

In certain circumstances the courts may refuse to enforce a restrictive covenant (e.g.
where the person entitled to enforce it has remained inactive in the face of open
breaches or where the character of the neighbourhood has changed significantly). In
Chatsworth Estates Co v Fewell [1931] 1 Ch 224, for example, it was argued that the benefit
of a covenant had been ‘abandoned’ when the covenantees had done nothing about
breaches by others in the neighbourhood, proceeding only against the defendant (on
the facts the court found that there had been no abandonment). But in Shaw v Applegate
[1977] 1 WLR 970 it was held that a covenantor in breach of covenant had been ‘lulled into
a false sense of security’ by the covenantee’s delay in enforcing the covenant, and so an
injunction was refused and damages awarded instead for the breach.
Moreover, s.84(1) LPA 1925 confers on the Lands Tribunal a discretionary power to
modify or discharge a restrictive covenant with or without compensation and sets out
in detail the criteria to be used.† A covenant may be discharged or modified if: †
For a discussion of the
Law Commission’s recent
u it should be deemed obsolete due to changes in the neighbourhood
proposals for the reform
u it impedes a reasonable use of the land, provided that money compensation is of this area of the law, see
adequate and either the covenant ‘provides no practical benefits of substantial Maudsley and Burn, Chapter
benefit or advantage’ or is against the public interest 12, Part VI.
u the parties agree expressly or impliedly
u it will not injure anyone entitled to the benefit.
On the whole the Tribunal has taken a restrictive approach in the exercise of its powers
and, in particular, has refused to order the modification or discharge of a restrictive
covenant merely on the ground that planning permission has been obtained for
the proposed user. Although the extension of planning control under the main
planning statute, the Town and Country Planning Act 1971 (now 1990), has reduced
the importance of private planning (where freehold and leasehold covenants play a
central role), the two systems continue to operate side by side.
Reform
On 8 June 2011 the Law Commission published a report (Law Com 327) entitled ‘Making
land work: easements, covenants and profits à prendre’. The report includes radical
and far-reaching recommendations relating to the law of non-leasehold covenants.
In particular, the Commission recommended replacing the current law with a new
Land Obligation which would allow the enforcement of both positive and negative
obligations, by and against successors in title to land. The Commission anticipated that
such Land Obligations could only be created expressly by deed and would be entered
on both affected registered titles. It was also proposed that, once the original parties
had parted with the land, they would cease to be liable for breaches that occurred
subsequently. The proposals received widespread approval (for a notable contrary
voice, see O’Connor, ‘Careful what you wish for: positive freehold covenants’ (2011) 75
Conv 191). On 18 May 2016, the government announced its intention of implementing
certain aspects of the Law Commission’s recommendations, but as yet no such
legislation has been introduced.
1. When does the burden of a freehold covenant pass to a new owner of the
servient land?
2. What are the four requirements for the burden of a covenant to pass in equity
(Tulk v Moxhay)?
3. When do each of assignment, annexation and scheme of development operate

to allow enforcement of the benefit of a covenant?
4. How does the enforcement of covenants differ in law and in equity?
Question 1
Bob was the registered owner of Pinkwall Farm, and in 2014 he sold one of the fields
(Bluefield) to Calum, a neighbouring sheep-farmer. Calum covenanted with Bob
(i) to maintain the fences surrounding Bluefield in good repair, (ii) not to erect any
structure on Bluefield, and (iii) not to use and not to permit the use of Bluefield for
any purpose other than the grazing of sheep.
In 2017 Bob granted Dan a 10-year lease of the farm and Calum sold Bluefield to Eric.
Eric has neglected to maintain the fences. He is building a shed on Bluefield, and has
allowed a friend’s daughter to keep her pony there. Discuss.
Question 2
Consider the extent to which the Court of Appeal decision in Federated Homes v Mill
Lodge Properties (1980) has simplified the law relating to the passing of the benefit
of restrictive covenants with freehold land.
Question 1
This is a fairly straightforward question on the enforceability of freehold covenants:
the answer falls into two main parts. First, had the burden of Calum’s covenants passed
to Eric? The equitable rules (Tulk v Moxhay) on the passing of the burden need to be
considered. Covenant (i) was a positive covenant; could it be enforced under the rule
in Halsall v Brizell [1957] Ch 169 or as an easement (Crow v Wood [1971] 1 QB 77)? Morrells
v Oxford United Football Club [2001] Ch 459 is relevant in determining whether covenant
(iii) was personal or intended to run with the land.
The need to register restrictive covenants is often overlooked by candidates. There is

little point in memorising the rules for running of the benefit and burden unless you
remember that they also require protection on the register. Second, had the benefit
of Calum’s covenants passed to Dan? You need to consider the equitable rules on the
passing of the benefit of restrictive covenants. Had the benefit been annexed to the
land or had it passed by assignment?
Question 2
You should start by setting out the pre-Federated Homes Ltd v Mill Lodge Properties Ltd
[1980] 1 WLR 594 law on annexation and then critically analyse the effect of the Court
of Appeal decision and its interpretation of s.78 LPA 1925. Although regarded at the
time as a highly important, if controversial, decision, subsequent cases (e.g. J Sainsbury
plc v Enfield London Borough Council [1989] 1 WLR 590, Roake v Chadha [1984] 1 WLR 40
and Crest Nicholson Residential (South) Ltd v McAllister [2004] EWCA Civ 410) have shown
that its scope is somewhat limited. The insistence in Crest Nicholson, in particular, that
the benefited land be clearly identified, operates as a major restriction on the scope of
statutory annexation.

Within the scope of this chapter, there are two principal areas for assessment:
1. A problem question dealing with the transmission of the benefits and burdens
of different types of freehold covenants (positive and negative) to successors in
title.
2. An essay question dealing with the nature of freehold covenants.

Quick quiz
Question 1
Which statement is NOT true?
a. A third party can never enforce the benefit of a covenant.
b. A third party may be able to enforce the benefit of a covenant under s.56 LPA
1925.
c. A third party may be able to enforce the benefit of a covenant under the
Contract (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
Question 2
a. At common law the only way that the benefit of a covenant can pass is by
express assignment.
b. At common law the benefit and burden of a covenant can pass.
c. At common law the benefit of a covenant can pass by express assignment,

express and implied annexation.
Question 3
a. In equity the benefit of a covenant can only pass if expressly annexed.
b. In equity the benefit of a covenant can pass by express assignment, annexation

and scheme of development.
c. In equity the benefit of a covenant has no need to touch and concern the land.
Question 4
Which statement is correct?
a. The burden of a covenant can never directly pass at common law.
b. The burden of a covenant can pass at common law if it is expressly assigned.
c. The burden of a covenant can pass at common law if it is negative in nature.
Question 5
Which statement is correct?
a. The burden of a covenant can pass in equity if it satisfies the requirements of
Tulk v Moxhay (1848) 47 ER 1345.
b. The burden of a covenant can pass in equity if it is negative in nature.
c. The burden of a covenant can pass in equity if there is a corresponding benefit

obtained.

Notes
10 Mortgages
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.1 Creation of mortgages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.2 Position of the mortgagor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.3 Rights of the mortgagee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Introduction
Most of the rules related to mortgages are quite straightforward, but the concepts
and language can be confusing or misleading. A mortgage is the conveyance of an
interest in property as security for the payment of a debt or the discharge of some
other obligation. In most situations, a mortgage is taken out by the buyer of land as a
method of financing the purchase of that land. The mortgagor is the person who takes
out the loan (the borrower, easy to remember as borrower has two o’s and so does
mortgagor); the mortgagee is the financier to whom the debt is owed (the lender, easy
to remember as lender has two e’s and so does mortgagee). The mortgagor’s interest
in the land (i.e. the value of the land after the debt attached to it has been paid) is
called the equity of redemption, and is very important for the mortgagor since it gives
them the right to redeem the mortgage, unencumbering the land. It also allows them
some protection from oppressive terms.
The equity of redemption can be disposed of in all the ways available for an interest in
land: sold, leased or itself subjected to a further mortgage called a second mortgage.
When a debtor is insolvent, a secured creditor has priority over an unsecured creditor
and the most important kind of security is the mortgage, particularly the mortgage
of land. The law of mortgages is complex, technical and in urgent need of reform.
Some knowledge of the history of mortgages is useful for an understanding of the
present position; the harsh common law rules have been supplemented by equity’s
kinder approach, and statutory measures have been introduced to protect borrowers.
However, this chapter will concentrate on the modern law and on three key areas in
particular:
u the creation of mortgages
u the protection of the mortgagor’s equity of redemption
u the mortgagee’s remedies (especially their power of sale)
Some of the Law Commission’s proposals for the reform of the law of mortgages are
set out in Maudsley and Burn, Chapter 10 ‘Mortgages’, Part X ‘Law reform’.
Learning outcomes
u define ‘mortgage’
u explain how mortgages may be created today (both at law and in equity)
u describe the ways in which the mortgagor’s equity of redemption is protected
today
u set out the principal powers of the mortgagee
u evaluate the effect of the Land Registration Act 2002 on mortgages.
Property law 10 Mortgages page 163
10.1 Creation of mortgages
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 11 ‘The law of mortgages’: Sections 11.1–11.8.
Essential reading
¢ MacKenzie and Nair, ‘Mortgages and charges’. Available on the VLE.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 22 ‘The creation of mortgages’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 25 ‘Mortgages’: ‘Introduction’ and Sections 1 ‘Forms of

mortgages’ and 2 ‘Creation of mortgages’.
10.1.1 Forms of mortgage
Legal mortgages under the 1925 legislation: for comparison purposes only
Registered and unregistered land

A legal mortgage of an estate in fee simple was effected either:
1. by a demise for a term of years absolute subject to a provision for cesser on

redemption (cesser: the early termination of some right or interest; for example,
one which stands until some condition is fulfilled, such as getting married or
having children), or
2. by a charge by deed expressed to be by way of legal mortgage (s.85(1) LPA 1925).

Similarly, a legal mortgage of a term of years absolute was effected either by a
subdemise for a term of years absolute (lease) subject to a provision for cesser
on redemption, or by a charge by deed expressed to be by way of legal mortgage
(s.86(1) LPA 1925).
Both the mortgagor/chargor and the mortgagee have legal estates, while the chargee
has a legal interest (s.1(2)(c) LPA 1925) and enjoys the same protection, powers and
remedies as if he had taken a legal term of years (s.87 LPA 1925). As the mortgagor
retains the legal estate, they may create subsequent legal mortgages.
Legal mortgages under the Land Registration Act 2002: the current law
Registered land
A legal mortgage of registered land is made by charge by way of a legal mortgage,
which must be done by deed (s.52 LPA 1925), and s.1 LP(MP)A), and is followed by
registration in the charges register of the land affected (s.27 LRA 2002), at which point
it is a registered charge. Legal rights under the mortgage only pass once registration is
effected; eventually this will be done electronically. Section 24 LRA 2002 provides that
only the registered proprietor, a person entitled to be registered under a transfer, or
the owner before first registration, may create a legal mortgage. The only method by
which registered land may now be mortgaged is the charge by deed by way of legal
mortgage, the demise of a leasehold estate (s.23(1)).
Equitable mortgages: this includes all mortgages of registered title land which are
not on the register
The mortgage of an equitable interest (e.g. a life interest arising under a settlement or
a tenancy in common) is necessarily equitable and is effected by a conveyance of the
equitable interest with a proviso for reconveyance. If not made by will, the assignment
must be in writing signed by the mortgagor or the mortgagor’s agent authorised in
writing (s.53(1) LPA 1925).
The informal mortgage of a legal interest is treated as a contract for a mortgage provided
the requirements of s.2 LP(MP)A 1989 are satisfied (i.e. it is made in signed writing); if the
contract is specifically enforceable, it is regarded in equity as a mortgage.
In the case of equitable mortgage by deposit of title deeds, the deposit must be
intended to be by way of security and in practice is usually accompanied by a
memorandum under seal. Since s.2 LP(MP)A 1989 came into force, the mere deposit
of title deeds is ineffective to create a mortgage in the absence of a written contract
which satisfies that section: see United Bank of Kuwait v Sahib [1997] Ch 107.
An equitable charge arises where property is appropriated to the discharge of a debt

or some other obligation.
Under LRA 2002, any mortgage which is not entered on the charges register is
equitable (ss.25–27). In order to be enforced it must be registered substantively; at
which point, whatever form it previously took, it becomes a legal charge (s.51).
Unregistered land
The process for creation is under the 1925 rules but since 1997, creation of a first legal
mortgage attracts compulsory first registration. Now, under s.4(1) LRA 2002 the
mortgage of unregistered land will trigger the registration of the mortgaged estate
and the mortgage itself.
10.1.2 Registration of mortgages

If the land is unregistered, the following types of mortgage are registrable as land
charges under LCA 1972:
u a puisne mortgage (i.e. a legal mortgage not protected by deposit of deeds – the
first legal mortgagee will normally hold the title deeds, as they are entitled to do
so) as a class C(i) land charge
u a contract for a legal mortgage (an estate contract) as a class C(iv) land charge, and
u a general equitable charge as a class C(iii) land charge (s.2(4) LCA 1972).
Where an equitable mortgage is protected by deposit of deeds, it is not registrable as

a general equitable charge nor, though this is less certain, as an estate contract.
These provisions are particularly important when the priority of mortgages falls to be
considered. The mortgagee of an equitable interest should give notice to the trustees
in order to secure priority under the rule in Dearle v Hall (1828) 38 ER 475.
Since 1997, first legal mortgages attract compulsory first registration.
Before LRA 2002, if the land was registered, legal mortgages or charges were required
to be perfected by entry of a notice of the registered charge against the charged title
and by the issue of a charge certificate to the chargee. Until a mortgage became a
registered charge, it took effect in equity and could be overridden as a minor interest
unless protected by an entry on the land register. Interests which would have been
registrable under LCA 1972 if the land was unregistered, also took effect as minor
interests and priority was governed by date of entry. Mortgage (lien) by deposit was
possible under s.66 LRA 1925.
But now there has been an important change: under LRA 2002, substantive
registration is required when a registered proprietor grants a mortgage, or when
a registered charge is transferred or subjected to a further mortgage. Registration
against the affected estate is vital (s.27(2)) for the mortgage to take effect as a legal
charge; without such registration, full legal remedies do not attach.
A first registration with title absolute is made subject to all mortgages and charges
existing at the time of first registration (s.11). Under s.4(1)(g) LRA 2002, grant of a
mortgage may itself trigger registration.
If the land is registered then the mortgage will be entered on the register and will be
bound by all prior interests in the land (see Chapter 3).
Summary
Legal mortgages can now only be made by legal charge under LRA 2002. Once
registered, a legal charge becomes a registered charge and achieves full legal status.
Any other mortgage will now be equitable. In unregistered land, most mortgages
require protection as a land charge.
1. What are the requirements for a legal mortgage?
2. In which circumstances does a mortgage require protection on the register in

(a) unregistered land and (b) registered land?
3. How has LRA 2002 changed the registration requirements for mortgages?
10.2 Position of the mortgagor
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 11 ‘The law of mortgages’: Section 11.9 ‘The rights of the
mortgagor: the equity of redemption’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 24 ‘The operation of mortgages’: Section 24.1 ‘Rights
of the mortgagor’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 25 ‘Mortgages’: Section 4.A ‘Rules protecting the mortgagor’.
10.2.1 General
The tension in the relationship between mortgagor and mortgagee is that a mortgage
is a contract, and freedom to contract is an important commercial principle.
Increasingly, and to some extent historically, the courts aim to protect those who have
entered into a contract on harsh or unconscionable terms. With the increase in non-
commercial mortgages there has also been legislative protection for mortgagors.
A key feature of a mortgage is the right to redeem the debt (to kill (mort) the pledge
(gage)) and reclaim the land free from debt. The courts have established principles for
striking out attempts to remove or delay the right to redeem. These ‘clogs and fetters’
on the right to redeem will be struck out by the court while the mortgage remains
intact.
Historically, the law of mortgages has particularly concerned itself with the need to
protect the mortgagor from harsh and unconscionable transactions. The key principles
were established at a time when mortgagors were more likely to find themselves in
a disadvantageous bargaining position as against mortgagees. However, the problem
today is to determine the extent to which such principles should continue to be
followed. Particularly in commercial mortgages, the protection for the mortgagor is
minimal, but there may be concerns in relation to inequality of bargaining power in
domestic mortgages. Equity has always stressed the security aspect of the transaction
and has developed rules to protect the mortgagor’s equity of redemption. Further
protection may be provided by the common law doctrine of restraint of trade and by
the Consumer Credit Act 1974 (as amended by the Consumer Credit Act 2006). The Law
Commission has proposed reform in this area: ‘Land mortgages’ Law Com 204, 1991.
Removing the right to redeem

At common law the right to redeem the mortgage is set within six months of the date
the mortgage is granted. However, equity provides for the date to be set at a much
later date (commonly 20–25 years for domestic mortgages). If there is an attempt to
place a restriction on the ability of the mortgagor to redeem the mortgaged property
free from the mortgage, such as an option to purchase, then the court may see this as
an attempt to alter the fundamental nature of the mortgage. Thus, a provision giving
the mortgagee an option to purchase the mortgaged property is generally void.
However, as a mortgage is a contract at heart, and the freedom of contract principle

is a strong consideration, if the courts feel that the option to purchase was freely
entered into as a separate agreement and not conditional on the mortgage contract
then it may be upheld. See Samuel v Jarrah Timber & Wood Paving Corp Ltd [1904] AC 323
and Reeve v Lisle [1902] AC 461 to compare the courts’ approach.
In Jones v Morgan [2001] EWCA Civ 995, a nursing home was threatened with
repossession but an agreement was reached to prevent this. The mortgage agreement
purported to give the lender the right to buy a half share in the mortgaged land. The
minority judge (Court of Appeal) thought that since the agreement was reached
independently of the mortgage and after completion of the mortgage, it was not a
‘clog’ and was valid. However, the majority disagreed and struck out the offending
term as a ‘clog’, in the process making it clear that they disapproved of the precedent
which they were being forced to apply. Lord Phillips MR stated at [86]:
the doctrine of a clog on the equity of redemption is, so it seems to me, an appendix to
our law which no longer serves a useful purpose and would be better excised.
A similar approach can be seen by the Court of Appeal in Warnborough v Garmite

[2003] EWCA Civ 1544, where the court made it clear that the mere fact that an option
to purchase the property is granted by the mortgagor to the mortgagee at the same
time as the mortgage is granted, does not mean that it is a ‘clog’; it is necessary for the
court to look at the true nature of the bargain made by the parties.
Activity 10.1
Read Samuel v Jarrah Timber [1904] AC 323 and Reeve v Lisle [1902] AC 461, and make
notes on the relevant facts, decisions and reasoning.
a. Why was the option invalid in Samuel v Jarrah?
b. Why was the option valid in Reeve v Lisle?
c. What would be the position if the mortgagee was given the option to purchase
other property of the mortgagor?
No feedback provided for part (c).
Postponing the right to redeem

As the mortgagee must be allowed to earn interest on the loan to make the business
of lending viable, then it may be possible to postpone the date of redemption.
However, attempts to postpone the date which make the equity of redemption an
illusion will not be upheld.
This is a question of degree. In Fairclough v Swan Brewery Co Ltd [1912] AC 565, F held
a 17-year lease on a hotel and borrowed, using the lease as security. The contractual
date for redemption was set to be just weeks before the lease was due to expire. The
right to redeem would not arise until the contractual date had passed, leaving only a
few weeks of the estate being free from the debt. Thus, the mortgage was effectively
irredeemable and the postponement was void. But in Knightsbridge Estates Trust v
Byrne [1939] Ch 441, even though the contractual date for redemption was set 40
years in the future, the postponement term was enforceable since the parties were
commercial, of equal bargaining power and the mortgaged estate was freehold.
Activity 10.2
To what extent do you think that Fairclough v Swan Brewery [1912] AC 565 is
consistent with the Court of Appeal decision in Santley v Wilde [1899] 2 Ch 474
or with the new approach of the courts demonstrated in G&C Kreglinger v New
Patagonia Meat & Cold Storage Co Ltd [1914] AC 25 (below)?
The doctrine of clogs on the equity of redemption has come under a great deal of
criticism in recent years: Lord Phillips MR described it as serving no useful purpose in
Jones v Morgan [2001] EWCA Civ 779. In relation to commercial mortgages it is rare for
terms to be invalidated by equity; generally all terms of such mortgages will be held to
be valid and enforceable.
Statutory protection
Mortgages are also the subject of complex statutory regimes, the detail of which is
beyond the scope of this module. Until recently there were two regulatory regimes
but the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) has been responsible for regulating all
mortgages.
Before the changes, first legal mortgages of residential properties to be occupied

by the borrower were already regulated by the FCA under the Financial Services and
Markets Act 2000 (FSMA 2000). The FCA Handbook (Mortgages and Home Finance:
Conduct of Business), issued under FSMA 2000, sets out detailed requirements for
mortgage lenders dealing with mortgages regulated under FSMA 2000. These detailed
requirements are beyond the scope of this module.
Mortgages which previously fell outside FCA regulation, such as second mortgages
and mortgages for other purposes (i.e. those on a ‘buy-to-let’ basis), were covered by
the consumer credit legislation instead (the Consumer Credit Act 1974 (CCA 1974), as
amended by the Consumer Credit Act 2006 (CCA 2006)).
The two regulatory regimes were mutually exclusive, so that an FCA-regulated

mortgage fell outside the consumer credit legislation and vice versa. However, the
government decided that responsibility for regulating second mortgages would
transfer to the FCA on 21 March 2016. Prior to this on, 1 April 2014, the regulation of
the consumer credit legislation passed to the FCA. This fulfilled the Treasury’s aim to
provide a single consistent regulatory framework for the mortgage market.
The consumer credit legislation was historically aimed at protecting borrowers with
low credit ratings, who find it difficult to obtain finance. A typical example is the
county court case of Falco Finance v Gough (1998) (unreported). Mr Gough borrowed
money secured by a mortgage whose terms imposed a standard flat annual interest
rate of 13.99 per cent, discounted to 8.99 per cent. Under the mortgage terms, this
5 per cent discount was permanently lost if, at any time, the mortgage went into
arrears (which it inevitably did). This dual interest rate was held to be an extortionate
credit bargain under CCA 1974. It was almost impossible for any borrower to make all
payments exactly on time, and the differential between the two rates had no relation
to the loss that the finance company would incur as a result of a missed payment.
In Paragon Finance v Nash [2002] WLR 685, the court held that a lender’s discretion to
vary interest rates was subject to an implied term not to exercise that discretion for
an improper purpose, arbitrarily or capriciously. However, maintaining interest rates
at 2–4 per cent above those on the high street was not a breach of this implied term or
‘grossly exorbitant’ under CCA 1974. The lender was having financial difficulties and, in
taking its own commercial needs into account, had not acted in an improper way.
In Davies v Directloans Ltd [1986] 1 WLR 823, the lender had not acted improperly by
imposing a 21.6 per cent rate of interest (at a time when market rates were 17 per
cent). In reaching this decision, the court took into account the poor credit history of
the borrower and the subsequent risk being taken by the lender.
The extortionate credit provisions of CCA 1974 were replaced by the concept of an
‘unfair relationship’ under CCA 2006. This allows the court to examine not only the
terms of the agreement, but also whether the creditor’s behaviour towards the
borrower has been unfair in any way. The legislation does not clearly define an ‘unfair
relationship’, preferring instead to leave it to the court to decide how this should be
applied on the particular facts. As with the case law on unconscionable terms, a lack of
good faith and an inequality of bargaining power seem likely to be important factors.
CCA 2006 gives the court a wide range of remedies to deal with an unfair credit
relationship, including ordering any part of the agreement to be set aside, varying
any terms, or ordering a creditor to take or refrain from taking a particular course of
action.
Although the case law on the consumer credit legislation is based on statute rather
than broader equitable principles, it seems that the principles arising out of this case
law may be applicable by analogy to the court’s equitable jurisdiction to strike down
unconscionable terms.
However, it remains to be seen how the new statutory regime will develop.
Onerous mortgage terms may also be vulnerable to challenge under the Unfair Terms
in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999 (UTCCR 1999). The FCA is responsible for
considering the fairness of terms in mortgages as well as in other types of financial
services contracts issued by FCA-authorised firms.
A term is unfair if, contrary to the requirement of good faith, it causes a significant
imbalance in the parties’ rights to the borrower’s detriment (R5 UTCCR 1999). Such a
term will not be binding on the borrower, but the remainder of the agreement will
remain in force.
In Falco Finance v Gough, the court held that the dual interest rate was contrary to the
requirement of good faith under the Regulations, taking into account the borrower’s
weak bargaining position, the powerful inducement of no legal or surveyor’s fees
being payable and the apparent attractiveness of a discounted interest rate. The
interest rate was also calculated on a flat-rate basis. This meant that interest was
payable on the full loan amount for the whole mortgage term, regardless of how
much capital had been repaid. The judge called this a harsh, unremitting and evil term.
Unsurprisingly, this term was also held to be unfair under the Regulations.
Note that unlike UTCCR 1999, the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 has no application to
mortgages of land.
10.2.2 Redemption free from conditions/collateral advantage

A mortgage may contain terms which give the mortgagee some advantages in
addition to their security. A common example is ‘tied’ public houses, which may only
sell the products of a particular brewery. As long as such collateral advantages are
neither unconscionable nor in restraint of trade, they are enforceable if designed
to cease with redemption. Where they are designed to persist beyond redemption,
the position is less clear, but the courts have shown an increasing willingness to
uphold such advantages as independent of or collateral to the mortgage agreement
(Kreglinger), as long as they do not render the right of redemption illusory. This again
reflects the freedom of contract approach to commercial mortgages. Permanent
fetters remain invalid: Noakes v Rice [1902] AC 24. If the court, however, finds that the
mortgage and the advantage form part of the same transaction, it may construe the
agreement as in substance more than a mere mortgage and therefore not affected by
the equitable rule that redemption should be free from conditions.
Restraint of trade
Any interference with a person’s freedom to trade can be struck down by English
courts as against public policy (Nordenfelt v Maxim Nordenfelt Guns [1894] AC 535), or by
competition law. The doctrine of restraint of trade applies to mortgages. It is based on
the public interest and it has principally been used in this context to attack tie clauses
(i.e. terms in the mortgage of a petrol station, for example, or a public house, requiring
the mortgagor to purchase part or all of their stock from the mortgagee): Esso
Petroleum Co Ltd v Harper’s Garage (Stourport) Ltd [1968] AC 269 and Alec Lobb (Garages)
Ltd v Total Oil Great Britain Ltd [1985] 1 WLR 173. You should make notes on these cases,
listing the considerations which the courts have taken into account in determining
whether a particular ‘tie’ is reasonable and in the public interest.
10.2.3 Oppressive and unconscionable terms

Historically, equity could intervene in oppressive contractual bargains. The courts
have a general equitable jurisdiction to strike down terms in a mortgage that tend to
operate in an oppressive or unconscionable manner. The courts have rarely exercised
this jurisdiction in recent years and would, it seems, only be prepared to exercise
it where one of the parties had imposed objectionable terms on the other in a
morally reprehensible manner (for example, by exploiting their dominant bargaining
position). The courts appear reluctant to intervene in commercial agreements where
the parties have equal bargaining power. Certainly it is not sufficient that the term
is unreasonable or that one of the parties has struck a hard bargain: see Cityland and
Property (Holdings) Ltd v Dabrah [1968] Ch 166, Multiservice Bookbinding Ltd v Marden
[1979] Ch 84 and Alex Lobb (Garages) Ltd v Total Oil Great Britain Ltd. You should make
notes on each of these cases.
In Multiservice Bookbinding Ltd v Marden, for example, it was held that the term
might have been unreasonable but it was not oppressive or unconscionable. An
objectionable term will only be struck out if it is ‘imposed in a morally reprehensible
manner…which affects [the mortgagee’s] conscience’.
In Paragon Finance PLC v Pender [2005] EWCA Civ 760 the Court of Appeal held that,
although C’s power to vary interest rates for the mortgage was subject to an implied
term that it would not be exercised improperly or capriciously, this did not prevent
the lender from raising interest rates above those of competitors for genuine
commercial reasons. The rates actually charged were not grossly exorbitant.
Statutory provisions
The area of unfair or unconscionable terms has been increasingly subject to statutory
control. For second mortgages or buy-to-let mortgages by CCA 1974 (as amended by
CCA 2006), the courts have a power to re-open unfair credit relationships so as to do
justice between the parties. In determining whether a particular credit relationship
is unfair, the courts are required to have regard to certain factors set out in the Act. A
credit relationship is unfair if it is unfair to the debtor because of one or more of the
following:
u any terms of the agreement or of any related agreement
u the way in which the creditor has exercised or enforced any of their rights under
the agreement or any related agreement
u any other thing done (or not done) by or on behalf of the creditor (either before or
after the making of the agreement or any related agreement).
CCA 1974 (as amended) applies to mortgages where one party is an individual. CCA
2006 has given courts far broader scope in finding agreements to be unfair than was
the case under CCA 1974. No detailed knowledge of the Act is required for this module.
For first mortgages of residential properties, created after 31 October 2004, which are
owner occupied, the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 will prevent excessive
charges, considering the prevailing market when the mortgage was created.
Activity 10.3
Make notes on and compare these cases: Re Petrol Filling Station, Vauxhall Bridge
Road (1969) 20 P&CR 1, Biggs v Hoddinott [1898] 2 Ch 307, Noakes v Rice [1902] AC 24,
Bradley v Carritt [1903] AC 253, G&C Kreglinger v New Patagonia Meat & Cold Storage
Co Ltd [1914] AC 25.
Do you think that Bradley v Carritt and Kreglinger are distinguishable?
Activity 10.4
What sort of considerations would the courts take into account in determining
whether a particular tie was reasonable and in the public interest?
Activity 10.5
Compare Cityland & Property Holdings Ltd v Dabrah [1968] Ch 166 and Multiservice
Bookbinding Ltd v Marden [1979] Ch 84.
a. What are the reasons for the opposite results in the two cases?
b. If there is no disparity of bargaining power as between mortgagor and

mortgagee, would the courts strike down a term imposing an unusually high
rate of interest?
1. What is the equity of redemption and what is its significance?
2. Give an example of a case where there has been a clog on the equity of
redemption.
3. In what circumstances will a collateral advantage be unenforceable?
Summary
Where the terms of a mortgage are unduly oppressive and the mortgage is not
a commercial one, courts may intervene and prevent the enforcement of an
objectionable term, though they rarely do so.
Rights of the mortgagor
The mortgage is a contract: creating a proprietary right

that can be legal s.1(2)(c) LPA 1925.
To be legal: To be equitable:
• Unregistered land: ss.85 LPA 1925. • Over an equitable interest: s.53(1)(c) LPA 1925.
• Registered land, pre-LRA 2002 as unregistered land. • Intend to create an equitable mortgage: s.53(1)(a)
• Registered land post-LRA 2002: s.85 LPA 1925 LPA 1925.
and s.23(1)(a) LRA 2002 requiring registration • Failed creation of legal mortgage but must meet:
under s.27(2)(f) LRA 2002. s.2 LP(MP)A 1989.
• Registered land post-LRA 2002 and no s.27 LRA 2002
registration.
Equitable right to redeem Removal of collateral advantage Removal of unconscionable terms

Any postponement must While balancing freedom of Common law principle if term
not make the right illusory. contract the advantage must is not just unreasonable but
cease with redemption. oppressive.
Statutory provisions also protect.
10.3 Rights of the mortgagee
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 11 ‘The law of mortgages’: Section 11.10 ‘The rights of the
mortgagee under a legal mortgage’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 23 ‘The remedies of mortgages’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 25 ‘Mortgages’: Section 4.B ‘Rights and remedies of the

mortgagee’.
The mortgagee may, of course, sue for any money due, but it is more important to
consider the ways in which they can enforce their security. If they wish to recover
their capital and put an end to the whole mortgage transaction, they may either
sell the land or foreclose. On the other hand, if they wish to preserve the mortgage
but to intercept the rents and profits from the mortgaged land, they may enter into
possession or appoint a receiver. You are not expected to know details of possession
and foreclosure procedures. In practice the mortgagee’s power of sale provides their
most important and usual remedy.
10.3.1 Debt action

Remember that a mortgage is a contract at heart. If a debt is not repaid then the money
can be recovered. However, there are certain procedures to balance the rights of the
lender to recover and the rights of the mortgagor to have their property rights protected.
Before a debt action can begin the mortgagee must ensure that the legal date of
redemption (the date when the contract said the mortgagor could repay their debt)
has passed. Historically it could be neither before nor after this date. Now this date
is usually set at between one and six months from entering into the mortgage.
Equity has made this legal date less important for the repayment of debt but it is still
important for triggering certain rights of the mortgagee.
This remedy is of little practical use since a mortgagor who has failed to make
payments is unlikely to be in a financial position to pay on this action, which is also
subject to limitation of actions rules: s.20 LA 1980 (see West Bromwich Building Society v
Wilkinson [2005] UKHL 44). So other remedies are available for the mortgagee.
Power of sale
Where a mortgage is made by deed, the mortgagee has a statutory power of sale
which is exercisable out of court. While the power arises when the mortgage money
becomes due (s.101 LPA 1925), it is not exercisable until at least one of three conditions
has been fulfilled (s.103 LPA 1925), which concern default by the mortgagor. These are:
u default in complying with a notice to repay any of the mortgage money for three
months
u interest remaining unpaid for two months after it becomes due (the usual ground)
u breach of some other condition of the mortgage (see Ladsky v TSB Bank (1997) 74
P&CR 372, disrepair).
The power is exercised by the mortgagee entering into a contract to sell as in Lord Waring
v London and Manchester Assurance Co Ltd [1935] Ch 10 and though the mortgagee is not
a trustee of their power of sale and has a wide discretion regarding the organisation of
the sale, they are under a duty to act in good faith and to take reasonable care to obtain
the true market value. Consider Cuckmere Brick Co Ltd v Mutual Finance Ltd [1971] Ch 949
where the mortgagee was held to have been negligent by failing to publicise the terms
of planning permission granted over the land fully, accurately and in good time. The
mortgagee is not, however, obliged to spend money or take other positive steps (by, for
instance, applying for planning permission) to increase the value of the land or to achieve
a higher sale price: Silven Properties Ltd v Royal Bank of Scotland [2003] EWCA Civ 1409.
It is often said that the mortgagee can choose their own time for a sale and that they
need not attempt first to sell by public auction before selling by private contract. (Are
they under a duty, though, to take reasonable care in reaching decisions on these
matters?) The sale must be a true sale, not a ‘sale’ by the mortgagee to themselves,
and even if there is no rule that a mortgagee cannot sell to a company in which they
have an interest, a court will need to satisfy itself that such a sale is bona fide and
that the mortgagee has taken reasonable steps to obtain the best price reasonably
obtainable at the time: see Tse Kwong Lam v Wong Chit Sen [1983] 1 WLR 1349. Where the
mortgagee sells, their duty is to achieve the best price reasonably obtainable at that
time. The mortgagee is, however, entitled to choose the most convenient time for
sale, even though by waiting the mortgagee may have achieved a better price: Meftah
v Lloyds TSB Bank plc [2001] 2 All ER (Comm) 741.
A mortgagor may apply for an order to be allowed to control the sale under s.91(2)
LPA 1925; and a mortgagee’s objection to sale can be overridden by a court in
circumstances such as those in Palk v Mortgages Service Funding plc [1993] Ch 330 (CA).
This statutory provision, which gives the court an unfettered discretion to prevent
‘manifest unfairness’ to either party, allows the mortgagor’s needs both financial
(Palk) and social (Polonski v Lloyds Bank Mortgages Ltd [1998] 1 FCR 282) to be taken into
account. It may also be possible for there to be a postponement of possession under
s.36 to allow the mortgagor to stay put to control a sale where they are best placed to
get the highest price: Target Home Loans v Clothier [1994] 1 All ER 439. However, there is
no general principle that the mortgagor can control a sale simply because they are in
negative equity: Cheltenham & Gloucester v Krausz [1997] 1 WLR 1558.
On a sale the mortgagee sells free from all interests except mortgages prior to their
own. In particular, they sell the mortgagor’s legal title. They have no need to overreach
interests to which they already have priority – because they already have priority.
Thus, the purchaser takes the whole interest vested in the mortgagor subject to prior
mortgages but free from all interests to which the mortgage has priority (such as
equitable interests behind a trust) which are overreached. The mortgagee is a trustee of
the proceeds of sale which they are required to apply in a certain order (s.105 LPA 1925).
Right of foreclosure
Foreclosure is a judicial procedure and a foreclosure order operates to vest the
mortgagor’s fee simple or leasehold reversion in the mortgagee subject to prior
mortgages (ss.88(2) and 89(2) LPA 1925). However, at the request of anyone interested,
the court may order a sale (s.91(2) LPA 1925), a provision which serves to protect the
interests of the mortgagor and subsequent mortgagees and accounts, in part, for
the relative infrequency of foreclosure orders today. Foreclosure is so rare that it is
practically non-existent as a remedy in this jurisdiction, and the Law Commission (Law
Com 204) has recommended its abolition and replacement with a more broadly based
mortgagee’s power of sale.
Right to possession
As a legal mortgagee has a term of years vested in them, they may go into possession
as soon as the mortgage is made or ‘before the ink is dry on the mortgage’, as it was
vividly expressed in Four-Maids Ltd v Dudley Marshall (Properties) Ltd [1957] Ch 317 unless
they have contracted out of the right, either expressly or by implication. The courts
are slow to imply a term excluding the common law right, since even though the
mortgagor has been guilty of no default it is only in this way that the mortgagee can
ensure that the mortgaged property is being properly managed and the value of the
security preserved (Western Bank Ltd v Schindler [1977] Ch 1).
In practice it is uncommon for a mortgagee to seek possession except as a preliminary

to the exercise of his power of sale, and in part this is due to his duty to account strictly
to the mortgagor for any rents and profits which he receives and ‘on the footing of
wilful default’ for all that he ought to have received. See White v City of London Brewery
Co (1889) 42 Ch D 137.
Of course there is less risk in taking possession where the property is already let to
a tenant; in such a case a mortgagee takes possession by directing the tenant to
pay their rent to the mortgagee instead of to the mortgagor. While the court has
an inherent jurisdiction to stay possession proceedings, it will only exercise it when
there is a reasonable prospect of the mortgagor paying off the mortgage or otherwise
satisfying the mortgagee within a short time: see Birmingham Citizens Permanent
Building Society v Caunt [1962] Ch 883 and Mobil Oil Co Ltd v Rawlinson (1982) 43 P&CR 221.
Mortgagees are said to be subject to a duty to use their right to possession bona fide
and reasonably to enforce their security for payment of what they are owed. However,
the contours of the duty, if not its justification, are open to question as its use is not
well represented in the law reports (see Quennell v Maltby [1979] 1 WLR 318, at 322H
(Lord Denning) and 324 (Lord Templeman); The Co-operative Bank plc v Phillips [2014]
EWHC 2862 (Ch); and Cukurova Finance International Ltd v Alfa Telecom Turkey Ltd [2013]
UKPC 2, at [73].
The courts’ power to stay possession proceedings is the only protection for
commercial mortgagors. However, statute (s.36 Administration of Justice Act 1970 and
s.8 Administration of Justice Act 1973) has intervened to protect the mortgagor of a
dwelling-house by giving the court powers to adjourn possession proceedings or to
postpone the giving up of possession for such period as the court thinks reasonable.
The court must be satisfied that the mortgagor is likely to be able within a reasonable
time to pay any sums due under the mortgage or to remedy some other default.
Moreover, the court’s powers are exercisable even in the absence of arrears or default:
Western Bank Ltd v Schindler.
Some cases show great sympathy towards domestic borrowers. In Cheltenham

& Gloucester BS v Norgan [1996] 1 WLR 343, the Court of Appeal allowed the whole
remaining term of the mortgage, 13 years, for the mortgagor to clear the arrears,
stating that although cases had treated two years as a ‘normal’ period to clear arrears,
there is no particular length of time which is a ‘reasonable period’ within which arrears
must be paid under the wording of s.36.
Activity 10.6
Is it possible to support Lord Denning’s statement in Quennell v Maltby [1979] 1 WLR
318 that ‘...in modern times equity can step in so as to prevent a mortgagee, or a
transferee from him, from getting possession of a house contrary to the justice of
the case’? Explain.
The common law right to possession was examined in great detail by the Court
of Appeal in Ropaigealach v Barclays Bank plc [2000] QB 263. Note that where the
mortgagee does not apply for a court order, choosing to use the common law
possession rules instead, the court has no power to suspend proceedings since s.36
does not apply. Of course, where the mortgage relates to domestic premises and the
mortgagor is in occupation and objects to possession, in effect, criminal law requires
court proceedings to be taken by the mortgagee in order to get possession: s.6(1)
Criminal Law Act 1977. Likewise, and controversially, s.36 is unavailable where the
mortgagee validly exercises their power of sale so as to overreach the mortgagor’s
equity of redemption without taking possession: Horsham Properties Group Ltd v Clark
[2008] EWHC 2327 (Ch). Fortunately, it seems sidestepping the statutory jurisdiction
in this way, although not incompatible with human rights’ provisions, is unlikely to
happen often in practice.
Power to appoint a receiver

The mortgagee has a statutory power to appoint a receiver. This power arises and
becomes exercisable in the same circumstances as his power of sale, and is useful if
the mortgagee wishes neither to realise his security nor to enter into possession of the
mortgaged property. The receiver, who is deemed to be the agent of the mortgagor,
is under a duty to manage the property and to receive all income derived from the
property.
Summary
A mortgagee has powers to sell, foreclose or take possession of the land mortgaged.
Rules and general fairness principles govern the circumstances in which each of these
rights may legitimately be exercised, and protection of domestic borrowers is much
stronger than that for commercial mortgagors. Registration requirements must be
followed in order to ensure priority for a mortgage over other secured debts.
Rights of the mortgagee
Mortgagee bound by interests which would bind a purchaser:

• Unregistered land: legal with title deeds first priority.
• Puisne mortgage – entry as C(i) land charge.
• Equitable – entry as C(iii) land charge.
• Prior to the registration of later mortgages registered land must now be entered under s.27 LRA 2002.
• Priority by date of entry not date of creation s.48 LRA 2002.
• Non-registration under s.27 LRA 2002 means only equitable and priority by date of creation.
Sue on a debt Possession Sale

• Mortgage is a debt and • Legal right as soon as created. • Arises under s.101 LPA 1925.
this is always available. • Equity can prevent exercise of • Exercisable under s.103 LPA 1925.
the right. Dwellings s.36 AJA 1970. • Proceeds distributed under
• Statutory power to postpone s.105 LPA 1925.
possession proceedings/orders: • Cannot purchase themselves
dwellings only. or via agent.
• Possession attracts duties for • Must obtain ‘fair and true’
upkeep and account. market value.
Appoint receiver
• Section 91 LPA 1925: court can
• Arises under s.101 LPA 1925.
order sale; available where there is
• Exercisable under Foreclosure
• Rarely used. no deed attracting s.101 LPA 1925.
s.103 LPA 1925.
• Proceeds distributed under • Vests property in mortgagee
s.109 LPA 1925. free from mortgagor.
1. When and how does a mortgagee have the power to sell the mortgaged
property?
2. How are domestic mortgagors protected when they fall into arrears?
Question 1
Croesus, a businessman, wishes to borrow £50,000 to improve the cash-flow in his
business and to pay off his gambling debts. He can offer, by way of security, land on
which he has a 12-year lease, which is non-renewable. His bank refuses to lend him
the money, but Isaac, an entrepreneur, lends him £50,000 on a mortgage of the
lease. The mortgage contains the following terms:
a. Interest to be payable quarterly at a rate 5 per cent above that charged by the
Building Societies Association.
b. The loan to be repaid over a period of six years, in equal quarterly instalments.
Each payment is to be adjusted by reference to the value of the pound against
the American dollar.
c. Croesus to obtain all the supplies of paper that he needs for his business from
Paperco Ltd, a company wholly owned by Isaac.
Croesus wishes to know whether all the above terms are enforceable. Advise him.
Question 2
Mr and Mrs Jay purchased a cottage for £180,000. Mrs Jay paid the deposit of
£20,000 from her savings and the remaining £160,000 was raised on the security of
a mortgage with the Barset Bank. The cottage was registered in the sole name of Mr
Jay and he was solely responsible for the mortgage repayments. Recently Mr Jay lost
his job and has started to default on the mortgage payments. However, he hopes to
find another job soon.
The Jays would like to know (i) whether the bank will be able to obtain possession
of the cottage, (ii) whether they will be able to prevent the bank from selling until
the housing market recovers, (iii) whether they can compel the bank to sell by
auction, and (iv) how, if the cottage were sold, the proceeds of the sale would be
distributed. Advise the Jays.
Question 3
‘The law relating to the creation of legal and equitable mortgages of land is
complex, confusing and in urgent need of reform.’
Discuss with reference to both registered and unregistered land.
Question 1
The first three words are very important, since Croesus is an individual but there is also
a commercial character to the bargain. You should consider whether each of the terms
is void or enforceable. Will Croesus be protected by the Consumer Credit Act 1974?
Has the right to redeem been validly postponed? Is there a collateral advantage or
restraint of trade? Is the interest rate oppressive or extortionate?
Question 2
Note that this is not simply a question on the court’s exercise of discretion under
TLATA 1996; you need to focus on the priority issue and consider the rights and duties
of mortgagees in appropriate detail. Assuming that Mrs Jay’s contribution to the
purchase price of the cottage gives rise to a resulting trust in her favour, the question
arises whether the bank takes free from or subject to her beneficial interest. On the
basis of Abbey National Building Society v Cann [1991] 1 AC 56 it is likely that the bank
takes free (even if Mrs Jay happened to be in actual occupation at the time of the
completion of the mortgage), either because she has impliedly authorised the bank to
take priority or because there is no scintilla temporis (Latin = a tiny bit of time) between
the conveyance and the mortgage. On point (i) a good answer would discuss the
provisions of the Administration of Justice Acts protecting the mortgagors of dwelling-
houses. On (ii) and (iii) you should consider, in the light of the case law, the extent to
which a mortgagee is free to sell the mortgaged property when and how they like.
Assuming that the power of sale has become exercisable, what are the duties of the
mortgagee? The answer to (iv) depends on the question of priority. If the bank takes
free from Mrs Jay’s interest, the proceeds will go first towards paying the sums due
under the mortgage and the residue will be divided between the Jays in proportion to
their shares.
Question 3
The key issue in this question is the creation of mortgages and it is important that
you do not write a ‘here is all I know’ answer. You should examine critically the LPA
1925 provisions (ss.85–87) regarding the creation of legal mortgages of freehold
and leasehold land. (What is the difference between the two methods of creating
a legal mortgage? What is the difference between a mortgage and a charge? Is
there a case for abolishing the mortgage by demise, as has been done by s.23 LRA
2002?) You should also examine the variety of ways in which an equitable mortgage/
charge may arise and be protected today and you should consider whether there is
any justification for retaining these various forms. Reference could be made to Law
Commission proposals for reform of this area of law.

1. A problem question examining whether there are clogs and fetters on the
mortgage contract.
2. A problem question relating to repossession or sale under a mortgage contract.
3. Any combination of the above.

4. An essay enquiring into the suitability of the law on mortgages in the modern
property market, protecting the rights of occupants, allowing you to cover any
or all of the first three categories.
Quick quiz
Question 1
What are the statutory provisions which regulate the creation of a legal mortgage
in freehold registered land?
a. Section 27 LRA 2002.
b. Section 23 LRA 2002 with entry under s.27 LRA 2002 and a notice under s.32 LRA
2002.
c. Section 1 LP(MP)A 1989.
Question 2
Paul buys Greenacre and then takes a mortgage with CBS Bank, which is registered.
He later takes a mortgage with ABC Bank, which is registered and then later a
further mortgage with TBS Bank. Paul has not paid the mortgages and ABC Bank
seeks to sell Greenacre. Which statement is correct?
a. On sale ABC would need to repay CBS Bank first, then cost of sales before
repaying their own money. They do not have to repay TBS Bank as this was
registered after their mortgage.
b. On sale ABC would take their money first under s.105 LPA 1925 then pay the rest
of the money (if any) to Paul.
c. On sale ABC would need to repay both CBS and TBS Bank before taking their
money.
Question 3
ABC Bank entered into an agreement to mortgage Whiteacre. The mortgage has not
been paid and they want to sell Whiteacre to regain their money. Which is correct?
a. They can apply for an order for sale under s.101 LPA 1925.
b. They can apply for an order for sale under ss.101/103 LPA 1925.
c. They can apply for an order for sale under s.14 TLATA 1996.
Question 4
The court may strike out a clause of a mortgage for being oppressive or
unconscionable. Which of the following are considerations that a court will take
into account?
a. The bargaining power of the parties.
b. The reasonableness of the clause.
c. The experience of the mortgagor.
Question 5
Which of the following statements are correct in relation to the obligations of the
mortgagee in selling mortgaged property?
a. Once ss.101/103 LPA 1925 are satisfied the mortgagee can sell the property
whenever they wish.
b. The mortgagee must wait until there is a good market to get the best price for
the mortgaged property.
c. The mortgagee can buy the property themselves if they give the best price.

11 Adverse possession
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
11.1 Unregistered land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.2 Registered land with 12 years’ adverse possession before

13 October 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
11.3 Registered land under the Land Registration Act 2002 . . . . . . . . . 185
11.4 Unregistered land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Quick quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Introduction
Often referred to as ‘squatter’s rights’ (a squatter is a person unlawfully occupying land
(which may include buildings)), adverse possession of land is a much misunderstood,
though highly topical, subject. At its most basic, the principle is that long use of
land without the permission of the ‘paper owner’ can result in rights over that land
for the squatter. The basis of title to land is possession and this principle has long
been reflected in the Limitation Acts, whose broad policy has been that those who
‘sleep upon’ their claims should not be assisted to recover their property. Limitation
operates negatively so as to bar a claim to the land and it may bar one person but
not another; titles are relative. It does not create a title in somebody; it prevents
somebody from enforcing his title. A person can lose their rights in land by failing to
evict a trespasser. An adverse possessor may, by virtue of their long possession, be
entitled to claim a legal estate in fee simple absolute, becoming the ‘owner’ of the
land, simply because nobody else can claim a better right than the paper owner whose
title is now extinguished. (For registered land see below.) The governing statute used
to be the Limitation Act 1980 (LA 1980). The Land Registration Act 2002 (LRA 2002)
radically changed the rules for adverse possession so that it is no longer a real threat
to landowners in registered land. It is thus currently necessary to distinguish three
separate sets of legal rules of adverse possession, that is, those applying in:
u unregistered land
u registered land where the cumulative period of continuous adverse possession

amounted to at least 12 years on 13 October 2003
u registered land where the cumulative period of continuous adverse possession did
not exceed 12 years on 13 October 2003.
It is very important to be able to compare and contrast the rules applicable to each of
the three situations above.
With the enactment of s.144 Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act
2012, it has become a crime to enter a residential premises as a trespasser, knowing
you are a trespasser and with the intention of living there. This is meant to provide
residential owners with the assistance of the police to remove squatters, although
whether they will take on such a role with any great enthusiasm, particularly when
confronted by an occupier purporting to be in legal possession and providing
documentary evidence that may or may not be legitimate, is open to doubt. In any
event, the criminal character of the possession does not disable the possessor from
relying on the adverse possession rules discussed in the sections below: R (on the
application of Best) v Chief Land Registrar [2015] EWCA Civ 17.
Learning outcomes
u explain the nature of adverse possession
u describe how the limitation period is computed
u distinguish the effect of lapse of time in the case of unregistered land from its
effect under LRA 1925 and LRA 2002
u apply the rules of adverse possession to situations where the relevant facts occur
under each of the three legal regimes
u evaluate the effects of LRA 2002 on both unregistered and registered land in
relation to adverse possession.
Property law 11 Adverse possession page 179
11.1 Unregistered land
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 12 ‘Adverse possession’.
Further reading
¢ Bogusz and Sexton, Chapter 15 ‘Adverse possession and the Limitation Acts’:
Sections 15.1 ‘How is adverse possession established? The rules common to
unregistered and registered land’ and 15.2 ‘Adverse possession and unregistered
land’.
¢ Smith, Chapter 7 ‘Original acquisition of property interests’: Section 2 ‘Adverse

possession’.
¢ Dockray, M. ‘Why do we need adverse possession?’ [1985] Conv 272.
11.1.1 Limitation period

Section 15(1) LA 1980 provided that no action shall be brought by any person to recover
any land after the expiration of 12 years from the date on which the right of action
accrued to him or, if it first accrued to some person through whom he claims (e.g.
the person who sold him the land), to that person. So the period is generally 12 years
and it may be established by a continuous series of adverse possessors of land (see
11.1.2 below). The period may be extended in case of disability (e.g. where the paper
owner is a child or lacks mental capacity) and the commencement of the period may
be postponed in the case of fraud, concealment or mistake by the person trying to
establish adverse rights in the land. These rules are fairly straightforward; note, in
particular, the effects of supervening and successive disabilities. Moreover, time which
has begun to run is stopped, either when the owner asserts his right or when his right is
admitted by the adverse possessor (e.g. by a signed acknowledgement in writing). After
the period of 12 years, the paper owner’s title will be extinguished (s.17 LA 1980).
11.1.2 Accrual of right of action

No right of action can accrue unless the land is in adverse possession, though the date
at which this accrual occurs varies according to the nature of the interest which the
stranger seeks to bar. In other words, the date on which an adverse possessor can
begin building up towards 12 years’ possession in order to claim a right to the land
depends upon whether the person they have dispossessed is a freehold owner or a
tenant, and whether the land was held on trust.
Two elements are needed to establish adverse possession:
1. factual possession
2. the intention to possess.
Time runs against a person in present possession of land from the moment adverse
possession is taken by another (i.e. from the moment that they have been dispossessed
by another or from the moment that they have discontinued their possession, such
discontinuance being followed by the taking of possession by another – but there must
not be a gap between the periods of adverse possession). Possession of land is ‘adverse’
if the land is possessed without the permission or licence of the paper owner. The owner
can therefore stop possession from being adverse by unilaterally giving the squatter
an occupational licence that the squatter neither accepts nor rejects it: BP Properties v
Buckler [1987] EWCA Civ 2. Accordingly, neither a licensee nor a tenant at will can be in
adverse possession since they are in possession with the owner’s consent, and time will
only begin to run in their favour after the licence or tenancy has been determined: JA Pye
(Oxford) v Graham [2002] UKHL 30. However, in Rashid v Nasrullah [2018] EWCA Civ 2685,
the Court of Appeal (overruling an earlier contrary approach in Parshall v Hackney [2013]
EWCA Civ 240) decided there is nothing in Pye to prevent the possibility of a registered
proprietor being in adverse possession of land falling within their registered title but
which is also within another registered or unregistered title.
Where a paper owner has been dispossessed by a chain of adverse possessors, the
paper owner’s title will still be barred once a cumulative period of 12 years has elapsed,
provided the adverse possession was continuous and irrespective of whether the
subsequent squatters dispossessed the former adverse possessor or took possession
consensually. Each adverse possessor has a legal possessory title which can be
defended against subsequent squatters, sold, gifted or passed on death in the same
way as a paper title. So it is important to note that the possession may begin with
one squatter and this time in possession can, against the owner, be added to the
time in possession of a successor (Mount Carmel Investments Ltd v Peter Thurlow Ltd
[1988] 1 WLR 1078). After a total of 12 years’ continuous adverse possession, the paper
owner’s title will be time barred. An adverse possessor who has consensually passed
his interest to a subsequent squatter has no claim against his successor but an adverse
possessor who has been dispossessed by a subsequent squatter has, like the paper
owner, 12 years from the dispossession to assert his claim against anyone subsequently
in possession of the land.
What is possession?
Consider whether there has been a discontinuance of possession where the owner
of a piece of land for which they have no immediate use leaves it unoccupied, and a
stranger enters into possession of it. Does the position depend on whether the paper
owner intends to use the land for a specific purpose in the future? How specific should
the purpose be? How firm is the intention? Is the stranger’s knowledge or ignorance of
the intention relevant?
Activity 11.1
Consider the differing findings of the courts in: Leigh v Jack (1879) 5 Ex D 264, Wallis’s
Cayton Bay Holiday Camp Ltd v Shell-Mex and BP Ltd [1975] QB 94 and Treloar v Nute
[1976] 1 WLR 1295.
Which facts or behaviour of the adverse possessor were material in each of these
three cases?
Buckinghamshire County Council v Moran [1990] Ch 623 makes it clear that where land
has been acquired or retained by the paper owner for a specific future purpose, there
is no rule of law that they cannot be dispossessed by acts of trespass that are not
inconsistent with that purpose.
In addition to discontinuance of possession on the part of the paper owner, it must be

shown that the stranger has entered into possession (i.e. that they are in possession
in fact and that they have the necessary intention to possess. The terms ‘actual
possession’ and ‘factual possession’ in practice mean the same thing, though the
courts tend to use them in slightly different contexts). Factual possession implies
some degree of physical control over the land. While trivial or occasional or equivocal
acts will not amount to proof of possession, much depends on the circumstances
of each case, including the nature of the land and the manner in which land of that
nature is commonly used.
The fact of possession must be accompanied by an intention to possess on the part

of the stranger, and the courts have tended to insist on unequivocal evidence of such
an intention as well as on the need for the stranger to show that they made their
intention sufficiently clear ‘so that the owner, if present at the land, would clearly
appreciate that the claimant is not merely a persistent trespasser, but is actually
seeking to dispossess him’. See Powell v McFarlane (1979) 38 P&CR 452.
Commonly, the presence of intention will be derived by implication from the evidence
of the very acts relied upon to establish the control needed for a successful finding
of factual possession, especially where that evidence is unequivocal, and there is no
evidence that the owner had a contrary intention: Pye (Lord Hutton [76]). In this way,
the squatter’s intention is assessed objectively. It will normally not depend upon
them giving direct evidence of their subjective intention – which may either be seen
to be self-serving or prove damaging (Bolton MBC v Musa Ali Qasmi (1998) 77 P&CR 36).
Such evidence may, however, be relevant where the acts of users are not sufficiently
unequivocal to give rise to proof of intention (Malik v Malik 2019] EWHC 1843 (Ch)).
In Pye, the House of Lords conducted a useful and detailed review of the relevant
cases on what constitutes intention to possess (animus possidendi) and stated that the
squatter must show intention to exclude the paper owner and the rest of the world
from the land to the extent that is reasonably practicable and so far as the law allows.
The intentions of the paper owner are irrelevant. Indeed, in Pye, it made no difference
that the adverse possessor admitted that he would have paid for the land had he
been asked, since possession can be adverse until a request for payment is actually
made (per Lord Browne-Wilkinson). It is not the intention to own but the intention to
possess that the courts seek to identify. It must be remembered that the facts of each
case are crucial to assessing whether the required intention to possess is present. For
example, in Batt v Adams [2001] 2 EGLR 92, fencing to keep in animals did not show
intention to exclude others and so could not found adverse possession. The facts fell
on the wrong side of the borderline established in Treloar v Nute [1976] 1 WLR 1295. But
the motive for fencing is not necessarily conclusive: see, for example, Hounslow LBC v
Minchinton (1997) 74 P&CR 221; and Chambers v London Borough of Havering [2011] EWCA
Civ 1576 at [37]–[40] (Etherton LJ) and [65] (Lewison LJ).
Activity 11.2
Do these requirements not make it very difficult for a person to extinguish an
owner’s title by virtue of adverse possession? How would a person demonstrate
both factual possession and intention to possess?
Activity 11.3
Summarise the relevant facts of JA Pye (Oxford) Ltd v Graham [2002] UKHL 30 and
answer the following questions about the case:
a. What was the cause of the disagreement between the Court of Appeal and the
House of Lords?
b. What reservations did the judges in the House of Lords express about their
decision in favour of the squatters? (Hint: see Lord Bingham’s speech.)
c. How did the House of Lords deal with the human rights issue of ‘interference
with the right to enjoyment of property’?
d. This case concerned the adverse possession of a piece of open land. To what
extent do the rules differ when the land concerned is a building?
Other cases have shed further light on what is meant by factual possession and/or
intention:
u In Lambeth London Borough Council v Archangel [2002] 1 P&CR 18, the Court of Appeal
found in favour of a performance poet who had acknowledged the local authority’s
title to the land. It was stated that padlocking a front door is a clear demonstration
of possession.
u In Battersea Freehold & Leasehold Co Ltd v Wandsworth London Borough Council [2002]
2 EGLR 75, the occupier of a bombed-out pub site allowed neighbouring tenants
to have keys to the site. It was held that allowing access for others showed that he
lacked the intention to hold exclusive possession for himself.
u Simpson v Fergus (2000) 79 P&CR 398 clarifies that acts of exclusion of the paper
owner are required; a declaration of intention, however clear, will not alone
amount to possession.
u In Purbrick v Hackney London Borough Council [2003] EWHC 1871 (Ch), Neuberger
J upheld the claimant’s contention that he had been in adverse possession of a
burnt-out shell of a building.
u In Heaney v Kirkby [2015] UKUT 178 (TCC), creating hardstanding for parking on a
roadside verge, along with various gardening activities such as laying topsoil and
planting a flower border, constituted sufficient possession. Occasional vehicular
use by others did not matter, nor was it necessary or reasonable for the land to be
enclosed.
u In Thorpe v Frank [2019] EWCA Civ 150, the Court of Appeal found that, by altering
the level of, and repaving (but without enclosing), a small triangular piece of the
forecourt to a semi-detached bungalow, the claimant showed a sufficient degree
of control that amounted to adverse possession. The land formed part of an open-
plan estate and was subject to covenants restricting fencing.
u In King v The Incumbent of the Benefice of Newburn in the Diocese of Newcastle [2019]
UKUT 176 (LC), the Upper Tribunal held that title to the burial vault had not been
acquired by adverse possession, the claimant having never entered it nor sought
to exclude its owners. Locking the church doors (the only means of access to the
vault) was not enough.
Future interests, settlements and trusts for sale

The rules under LA 1980 are fairly straightforward. Note the alternative periods
available to a person entitled in remainder or reversion when adverse possession is
taken.
Leaseholds
It is relatively easy to use the rules of adverse possession to dispossess a tenant,
but not so easy to acquire a good title against the landlord. If a stranger enters into
adverse possession of land which is held on a lease, time will begin to run against the
tenant from that moment, but it does not begin to run against the reversioner (the
landlord) until the lease has expired. Note also that where a tenant encroaches on
adjoining land, there is a presumption that they have done so for the benefit of their
landlord. See Smirk v Lyndale Developments Ltd [1975] Ch 317.
Effect of lapse of time

The expiration of the limitation period does not operate as a ‘Parliamentary
Conveyance’ (i.e. it does not transfer the paper owner’s title to the adverse possessor,
at least in the case of unregistered land). It merely extinguishes the latter’s claim
(s.17 Limitation Act 1980); the adverse possessor gains a legal estate in their own
right. The adverse possessor is bound by burdens that bind the land (e.g. restrictive
covenants) but if the land is leasehold, they are not liable on the covenants under the
lease. Moreover, where they bar a tenant for years (i.e. a leaseholder), they are not in
the same position as an assignee of the lease and cannot be sued after the expiration
of the lease for breaches of covenant committed while they were in possession of
the land, though they may be forced during the term of the lease to perform the
covenants by threat of forfeiture. The freeholder may evict the adverse possessor once
the lease has determined (e.g. after the tenant has surrendered their tenancy to the
freeholder). See Fairweather v St Marylebone Property Co Ltd [1963] AC 510, Tichborne v
Weir [1891–94] All ER Rep 449 and Taylor v Twinberrow [1930] 2 KB 16 (determination by
merger).
Permissive occupation, payment and acknowledgement

u Acts done by permission of the paper owner do not exclude them from the
land and so cannot contribute to an adverse possession claim, even where
that permission is an informal licence (implied licence). However, it must be
remembered that a licence will not be implied automatically where the owner
contemplates a future use that is compatible with that of the squatter. Although
that ‘heresy’ (based on Leigh v Jack) is clearly abolished by para.8(4) Schedule 1 LA
1980 (see Pye), that does not rule out the potential for the implication of a licence
if the specific facts justify it (see Colin Dawson Windows Ltd v King’s Lynn & West
Norfolk BC [2005] EWCA Civ 9 – allowing the claimant to go into possession during
negotiations to buy land). But there are few cases of successful defences by paper
owners based on an implied licence.
u Payment for land is an admission that the recipient has rights over the land
concerned. But ceasing to make payments can start adverse possession.
u Acknowledgement of the paper owner’s title by other means will prevent adverse
possession, not only by the acknowledger but also by their successors, but only
when made in writing.
Activity 11.4
How might acknowledgement of the paper owner’s title be made?
Summary
In unregistered land, the key issue for adverse possession is whether the claimant has
completed an uninterrupted period of 12 years’ use of the land, in a manner which
demonstrates both factual possession and the intention to possess, excluding all others.
The adverse possessor must not acknowledge the title of the paper owner, and will be
bound by pre-existing rights in the land. The adverse possessor’s title is a new one, not
that of the previous owner. Where the land adversely possessed is subject to a lease, the
claimant must have a separate 12-year period of possession against the freeholder after
the lease has expired or otherwise come to an end. Voluntary registration of the land
under LRA 2002 will almost always defeat the squatter’s claim (see Section 11.3).
11.2 Registered land with 12 years’ adverse possession before

13 October 2003
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 12 ‘Adverse possession’: Sections 12.1–12.3.
Mechanics of the old (pre-LRA 2002) scheme

In the case of registered land before LRA 2002 came into force (13 October 2003),
lapse of time did not extinguish the owner’s title. After 12 years’ adverse possession,
the registered proprietor remained on the register but the squatter had an overriding
interest, which they could protect on the register. Under LRA 1925, the registered
title was held on statutory trust for the squatter (s.75(1)). A squatter could apply for
registration of their title after the 12-year period (s.75 LRA 1925), making a statutory
declaration and producing supporting evidence. The Land Registry gave the squatter a
new possessory title, treating their application as a first registration, although subject
to any interests in the land that had not been extinguished by the adverse possession
(e.g. restrictive covenants). For example, see Central London Commercial Estates v Kato
Kagaku [1998] 4 All ER 948: a squatter of a car park (Kato) had completed the 12-year
period but had not yet been registered. The tenant surrendered his registered title to
the head lease of the car park to the freeholder but this was ineffective because Kato
had adverse possession of the land and so had an overriding interest under s.70(1)(f)
of the ‘old’ LRA 1925. Because squatting on registered land is fundamentally different
from its unregistered equivalent, the squatter was entitled to be placed in the position
previously held by the proprietor. Following criticisms by the Law Commission (Law
Com 254) that imposing a statutory trust introduced confusion and unnecessary
complexity, it was abolished and replaced by the mechanics of the new scheme (see
below).
In Markfield Investments v Evans [2001] 1 WLR 1321 the court considered what sort
of action stops time running (i.e. prevents a squatter from gaining any more time
towards their 12-year target for adverse possession). It was held that bringing an action
for possession will not by itself stop time running; the action must be carried through
to completion before it has any such effect.
Leases
The position of leases in LRA 1925-scheme registered land was very different to that
in unregistered land. In registered land, adverse possession did not destroy a title
but caused it to be transferred to the squatter. Where an adverse possessor barred
a tenant for years of registered land and subsequently obtained registration as
proprietor of the leasehold interest, no subsequent ‘surrender’ of the ousted tenant’s
lease could enable the freeholder to evict them.
Compare Spectrum Investment Co v Holmes [1981] 1 WLR 221, where the tenant was
the registered proprietor of a 99-year lease. A ‘subtenant’ remained in occupation
without paying rent from 1951–1968, and thus became registered as the proprietor
of the leasehold title. A ‘surrender’ by the tenant was ineffective because it was not
a registered disposition. Registration of the squatter’s title gave all the powers of
disposition of land to the registered proprietor (squatter) alone and so stripped all
powers from an ex-proprietor (the tenant), who had lost his place on the register.
See Fairweather v St Marylebone Property Co Ltd [1963] AC 510. Spectrum was further
extended in Central London Commercial Estates v Kato Kaguki [1998] 4 All ER 948 (above).
A tenant could secure title against their landlord by continuing in possession of the
land after the end of the term without paying any further rent: Williams v Jones [2002]
EWCA Civ 1097.
11.2.1 Adverse possession and human rights

In JA Pye (Oxford Ltd) v Graham [2001] EWCA Civ 117, the Court of Appeal considered
whether the gaining of land by adverse possession violates the human property
rights of the dispossessed owner of the land. It was decided that removal of title
by limitation defines the terms on which ownership is allowed by the English legal
system, and so is neither an interference with nor a deprivation of the owner’s
possession of the land. The court conceded an interference with the paper owner’s
right of access to a court under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights,
but considered the interference justifiable in view of the time limits involved.
This issue was subsequently considered by the European Court of Human Rights. In
JA Pye (Oxford) Ltd v United Kingdom (2006) 43 EHRR 3, the court of first instance found
that the deprivation of registered title to land under LA 1980 and LRA 1925 was a
breach of Article 1 of the First Protocol of the European Convention on Human Rights.
The court based its decision on the lack of compensation and the lack of procedural
safeguards for the registered title holder. The United Kingdom government appealed
successfully to the Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights. The Grand
Chamber held that there was no violation of the Convention: JA Pye (Oxford) Ltd v
United Kingdom (2008) 46 EHRR 45.
In Ofulue v Bossert [2008] EWCA Civ 7, the Court of Appeal confirmed that the law
of adverse possession does not violate human rights and that the decision of the
Grand Chamber in Pye should be followed unless there were ‘very good reasons’ for
departing from it. Thus, it appears that the doctrine of adverse possession does not
violate human rights.
See further the comment by Oliver Radley-Gardner in (2007) 5 Web JCLI, and that by
Kerridge and Brierley in (2007) Conv 552–58.
Summary
In registered land under the LRA 1925 scheme, adverse possession for 12 years caused a
transfer of the title from the registered proprietor to the claimant. A squatter who had
not yet been registered as proprietor had an overriding interest even if they did not
protect their rights on the register. The difference in relation to adverse possession of
land subject to a lease should be noted: in registered land, when adverse possession
is successful against a tenant, the lease is transferred to the squatter. Since LRA 2002’s
transitional provisions have now expired, a squatter who had accrued 12 years’ adverse
possession before 13 October 2003 will only be able to enforce their rights if they have
entered a notice on the register or are in actual occupation. They can of course apply
for registration as proprietor under LRA 2002 (see below).
Further reading
¢ Dray, S. ‘Whose land is it anyway? Title by adverse possession’ (2002) 7(3) L&T
Review 42–44.
11.3 Registered land under the Land Registration Act 2002
Core text
¢ Dixon, Chapter 12 ‘Adverse possession’: Section 12.4 ‘Adverse possession under
the Land Registration Act 2002’.
Further reading
¢ Cobb, N. and L. Fox ‘Living outside the system? The im(morality) of urban
squatting after the Land Registration Act 2002’ (2007) 27 LS 236.
¢ Dixon, M. ‘The reform of property law and the Land Registration Act 2002: a risk
assessment’ (2003) Conv 136–56.
11.3.1 The nature of adverse possession under LRA 2002

LRA 2002 makes it much more difficult for an adverse possession claim to succeed in
registered land. The main changes are as follows:
u adverse possession cannot be taken over from an earlier squatter, except where
one is the successor of the other, having bought or inherited the land (para.11
Schedule 6 – which also allows a squatter who leaves the land to add up a period of
possession by another squatter where they returned immediately after that other
squatter leaves)
u the period of adverse possession before registration can be sought is reduced to 10

years
u where a mortgage charges a registered estate there is no period of limitation

in relation to redemption; this is a major change in the law (s.96(2) LRA 2002). A
lender in possession will never bar the borrower (see Chapter 10)
u adverse possession of trust land cannot succeed unless the interest of each
beneficiary is in possession.
The three cases where adverse possession is likely to succeed against the registered
proprietor objection are: estoppel, independent entitlement to estate and boundary
disputes. In each case the squatter acquires an independent fee simple estate and is
entitled to be registered as proprietor.
Estoppel
Under para.5(2) Schedule 6 LRA 2002 an adverse possessor can insist on registration
where it would be unconscionable for the registered proprietor to dispossess them
(this is a relatively straightforward restatement of the principle of proprietary estoppel
– see Chapter 7).
Independent right to estate

If the squatter separately has a proprietary claim to the land (e.g. where they have
agreed to buy it and have taken occupation) they will be entitled to seek registration
(para.5(3) Schedule 6 LRA 2002).
It should be noted that, where either this or the previous condition (estoppel) exists,
the squatter’s claim rests on some separate, independent legal basis rather than
on adverse possession. In ‘Updating the Land Registration Act 2002’ (Law Com 308,
2018) the Law Commission took the preliminary view ([17.33]–[17.44]) that using these
adverse possession provisions in LRA 2002 to determine the merits of other claims to
land might be ‘practically useful’ but it was ‘conceptually unsatisfactory’. However,
after conducting its consultation exercise, the Law Commission decided against
recommending reform of these two exceptional categories.
Boundary disputes
The ‘boundary exception’ differs from the previous two conditions in being related
to traditional ideas of adverse possession and in being of far greater significance. It is
surprisingly common for houses and fences to be built slightly outside their theoretical
boundaries. Land Registry plans only give a general boundary line; the details are
fixed by the buildings and enclosures on the land itself. An adverse possessor will be
registered as proprietor of any such strip of land (para.5(4) Schedule 6) if:
u they own land adjacent to that for which their own application is made
u the exact line of the boundary has not been determined
u the applicant has held adverse possession for a period of at least 10 years, ending at
the date of the application
u throughout that period the applicant or their predecessor in title reasonably

believed that the land belonged to them (or was at least unsure who the owner
was), and
u the estate to which the application relates was registered more than a year before
the application.
What has to be considered is whether the applicant’s belief is reasonable. It is their

knowledge that matters, not that of an agent (such as solicitors or surveyors) that
might be imputed to them as applicant: IAM Group v Chowdrey [2012] EWCA Civ 505.
The fact that the registered owner has challenged the squatter’s entitlement may not
disturb the reasonableness of the squatter’s belief. The requirement that the period of
reasonable belief is to last for 10 years and end on the date of the application has given
rise to controversy and differing judicial and academic interpretations. Currently, the
prevailing view (Arden LJ) is that reasonable belief of ownership need not continue
right up to the time of the squatter’s application for registration, provided it existed
until a short time before the application was made: Zarb v Parry [2011] EWCA 1306.
But what is a short time? The exception is limited in its scope. It only applies to true
boundary disputes where the whole of the land, or a substantial part of it, is adjacent
to the squatter’s land: Dowse v Bradford Metropolitan District Council [2020] UKUT 202
(LC).
How adverse possession operates under LRA 2002

Part 9 LRA 2002 achieves the Law Commission’s aim that ‘adverse possession of an estate
in land will never of itself bar the registered proprietor’s title’ ( Law Com 271, 2001).
Possession, for whatever length of time, will not automatically extinguish a title (s.96(3)
LRA 2002). A person who has been in adverse possession for 10 years can apply to be
registered as proprietor (para.1(1)–(3) Schedule 6). He will normally be in possession at
the time of his application. On receipt the registrar will notify the registered proprietor,
who is likely to object within the three-month period for this (para.3(2) Schedule 6).
The proprietor of any registered charge or any superior title, and any person who
has registered a right to receive notice, will also be notified and be able to object
(para.2 Schedule 6). If no objections are lodged, the adverse possessor is entitled to be
registered as the new proprietor of the relevant title. If objections are lodged and the
adverse possessor’s application is rejected (because none of the exceptional grounds in
para.5(2)–(4) set out above applies) but the applicant remains in adverse possession for
a further two years, the applicant can make a further application to be registered. On
receipt of this second application the Registrar must register the adverse possessor as
the new proprietor of the relevant title. The adverse possessor will take the title subject
to all existing priorities but free of any registered charge.
There was no transitional provision for existing squatters unless they had acquired
full rights through their 12 years’ possession before 13 October 2013. So a squatter
with 11 years and 364 days’ possession by that date is governed entirely by the new
scheme and is unlikely to secure registration. However, they will have an overriding
interest if they are in actual occupation. Adverse possession has a residual role as a
perfector of title in the three exceptional situations or where, for example, a proprietor
disappears. Adverse possession weakens the ‘mirror’ quality of the register and the
changes put in place by LRA 2002 thus support the conclusiveness of registration.
Voluntary registration of title defeats a squatter in a cost-effective manner since it is
not necessary for the land to have been registered throughout the 10-year period for
the mechanisms of the new scheme to apply.
1. What were the main differences introduced to adverse possession by LRA 2002?
2. Why must you be very careful with dates when answering problem questions on
this topic?
3. How can an adverse possessor’s claim be defeated in (a) unregistered title land
and (b) registered title land?
4. What has the impact of human rights law been on adverse possession claims?
Summary
The changes introduced to registered land by Part 9 LRA 2002 have had a major effect
on adverse possession. Outside the three exceptional sets of circumstances (estoppel,
independent entitlement and boundary disputes) it is only where the paper owner
and all others with rights in the land do not object in time after notification that
adverse possession claims succeed. The register is thus becoming a more perfect
mirror of the interests in the land.
However, a counter-argument may be that there is no encouragement of an adverse

possessor to notify the registrar of their occupation. So the register may not reflect the
de facto occupation and control of land.
11.4 Unregistered land

Unregistered land is unaffected by the changes and, once 12 years’ adverse possession
is established (s.15 LA 1980), the paper owner’s title is extinguished (s.17 LA 1980). The
adverse possessor can apply to be registered, possessory title will be given and then
absolute title can be applied for once the possessory title has been registered for 12
years (s.62(4) and (5) LRA 2002).
Further reading
¢ ‘The Land Registry changes’ (2003) 24(4) Property Law Bulletin Supplement, i–iv.
¢ Law Commission Report, ‘Land registration for the twenty-first century’ (2001)
Law Com 271.
Question 1
‘The law of adverse possession had been in desperate need of reform for many
decades. The changes effected by the Land Registration Act 2002 were a timely
response to this need.’
Critically analyse the current law of adverse possession with reference to the above
statement.
Question 2
In 1990, when Tim, a homeless person, noticed that a large shed on Blackacre
had been empty for some time, he decided to occupy it and make it his home. He
mended the windows and the roof and brought in a few pieces of furniture. In 1991
he started growing vegetables on a patch of land outside the shed and fenced in
the patch to keep out rabbits. In 1993 Lisa, Tim’s girlfriend, joined him in the shed.
Adam, the registered owner of Blackacre, was hoping to get planning permission to
pull down the shed and build a bungalow in its place, but for the moment he had
no objection to Tim staying there. Tim continued to live in the shed until his death
in 2000. In 2002 Adam sold Blackacre to Saul. In 2021 Saul decided to develop the
site and wrote to Lisa asking her to leave. She ignored the letter and now Saul has
brought an action for possession.
Advise Lisa.
Question 1
In order to answer this question you need to demonstrate an understanding of the
current legal position regarding adverse possession, including its complexities while
there are still three sets of rules in operation. Intention to possess, factual possession
and the applicable limitation periods for each set of rules should be examined. Key
cases should be discussed including Pye v Graham, Central London Commercial Estates,
Markfield Investments, BP Properties, Moran. The changes introduced by LRA 2002 should
be explained. A good answer would also look at the human rights aspects of adverse
possession, where there have been many relevant cases, including two visits for Pye to
the European Court of Human Rights, with opposite results.
Question 2
The first issue is: when did time start running in favour of Tim? When was Tim in factual
possession of the land claimed with the necessary intention to possess? What was the
relevance of Adam’s plans for the land? Powell v McFarlane, Bucks CC v Moran and Pye v
Graham are among the more important cases to be considered in this context. Other
issues to be covered are the effect of Tim’s death, the effect of the sale of Blackacre
and the effect of Saul’s letter. If Lisa could show 12 years’ adverse possession before LRA
2002 came into operation, Saul’s action would fail. If not, she would have to rely on the
provisions set out in Schedule 6 LRA 2002. Both possibilities are worth discussing.

Within the scope of this chapter, there are three principal areas for assessment:
1. An essay asking you to discuss the desirability of adverse possession and
whether it constitutes an unfair interference with the property rights of
freeholders.
2. The effect of the decision in Pye v Graham on the law on adverse possession (as
discussed in Dixon’s textbook).
3. A problem question asking you to consider the availability of adverse possession

on a set of facts under the law on unregistered land, the law before LRA 2002
came into effect, and the law at present (post-2002).
Quick quiz
Question 1
What is the relevant statute for acquiring title by possession before October 2003?
a. Limitation Act 1980.
b. Law of Property Act 1925.
c. Land Registration Act 2002.
Question 2
What are the two elements of adverse possession?
a. Use contrary to the paper owner and actual possession.
b. Factual possession and the intention to possess.
c. Factual possession and the intention to own.
Question 3
What is the relevant time period for adverse possession before 2003?
a. 10 years.
b. 12 years.
c. 15 years.
Question 4
What happens to the paper owner’s title in unregistered land when 12 years of
adverse possession is complete?
a. The paper owner’s title is extinguished.
b. The paper owner holds the land on trust for the adverse possessor.
c. The paper owner retains title until the adverse possessor registers their interest.
Question 5
What happens to the paper owner’s title in registered land when 12 years of adverse
possession is complete?
a. If the relevant time period ends before October 2003, the paper owner holds
the title on trust for the adverse possessor; if the time period ends after October
2003, there is no change to legal title.
b. The paper owner’s title is extinguished.
c. The paper owner retains title until the adverse possessor registers their interest.

Notes
Feedback to activities
Contents
Using feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Using feedback
Feedback is designed to help you judge how well you have answered the activities in
the text. It will show you whether you have understood the question and chosen the
correct solutions.
Do not look at the feedback until you have answered the questions. To do so
beforehand would be pointless, and even counter-productive. Doing the activities
helps you to learn. Checking the feedback helps you learn more. Remember that
‘doing’ activities teaches you more than reading does.
You should reflect on what the feedback tells you, and note down your thoughts.
Property Law Feedback to Activities page 193
Chapter 3
Activity 3.1
It may be relevant that in Strand Securities the person claiming overriding status was
not in actual occupation and his daughter (who was living in the house) was not acting
as his agent, whereas Chhokar concerned the interest of a wife who was only away
from the house because she was in hospital giving birth at that time.
Activity 3.2
a. Those under a constructive trust, not her matrimonial rights, since the latter were
excluded by statute from s.70(1)(g) protection.
No feedback provided for parts (b)–(d).
Activity 3.3
A land transfer was made expressly subject to an interest which should have been, but
was not, entered as a minor interest on the register. Held: the purchaser was bound by
the interest because of his express undertaking to uphold it. This appears contrary to
the entire logic of the LRAs. See the discussion of this issue by the Court of Appeal in
Chaudhary v Yavuz [2011] EWCA Civ 1314.
Activity 3.4
Activity 3.5
a. Although use of the term ‘granted’ signifies that a deed has been used, the
easement will only be legal once it has been substantively registered under s.27(2)
(d) LRA 2002. If that had occurred, Samantha would obviously be bound but if it
had not been substantively registered it is equitable and will only bind Samantha if
protected by means of a notice under ss.32–39 LRA 2002.
b. A restrictive covenant is not substantively registrable but can be protected by

means of a notice under ss.32–39 LRA 2002.
c. Eloise’s interest is not substantively registrable, nor is it protectable by means

of a notice (see s.33(a) LRA 2002). However, she could have entered a restriction
under ss.40–47 LRA 2002 ensuring no dealings with the legal title occur unless
overreaching takes place. As a purchaser will always take free of an overreachable
interest by complying with overreaching, this is the limit of what Eloise could have
done to protect her interest. On the facts, no such restriction has been imposed
as Samantha was able to purchase the property from Paul even though he was a
single trustee (and thus the purchase monies could not have been paid to at least
two trustees). In these circumstances Eloise’s interest will not bind Samantha
unless she has an overriding interest by means of her discoverable occupation
under para.2 Schedule 3 LRA 2002.
d. Tamara’s licence is not a property interest but if you use the diagram correctly you
will still get the right answer as the interest is not substantively registrable, not
protectable, not overreachable and not overriding.
e. An option is a form of estate contract and can be protected by means of a notice.
f. As for the changed facts:
u This is (on our reading of Midland Bank v Green) still valuable consideration so it
should make no difference.
u The peppercorn, unlike the £10, is nominal consideration which is excluded

from the definition of valuable consideration under s.132 LRA 2002 so
Samantha would be bound.
u Samantha has provided no consideration and so she is bound.

u Provided the purchase monies were paid to both Paul and Gordon, Eloise’s
beneficial interest will have been overreached whether or not she is in
discoverable occupation under para.2 Schedule 3 LRA 2002. However,
overreaching would have no effect on Bethany’s easement or Saskia’s
restrictive covenant as these equitable interests are specifically excluded from
the effect of overreaching under s.2(3) LPA 1925. Thus, whether or not these
interests bind Samantha will continue to be determined, as detailed above.
Chapter 5
Activity 5.1
Activity 5.2
See Harris v Goddard [1983] 1 WLR 1203 and Burgess v Rawnsley [1975] Ch 429. A written
notice indicating that a joint tenant wishes to end the joint tenancy immediately will
sever; is this requirement satisfied by either of the letters? Or, informal negotiations
indicating a common intention that the joint tenancy should be regarded as severed
would be effective; can such an agreement be inferred on the present facts? A sale
would of course have severed the joint tenancy.
Activity 5.3
Activity 5.4
Chapter 6
Activity 6.1
(a) is a licence by implication
(b) may have a contractual, statutory or implied licence depending on the form of
agreement between the landlord and the inhabitants of the premises
(c) may have a contractual licence or a tenancy depending upon whether he has
exclusive possession
(d), (e) and (f) probably have bare licences by implication or expressly
(g) can argue either an equity in her favour under the doctrine of proprietary estoppel,
or an interest behind a resulting or constructive trust
(a), (b), (d), (e) and (f) will not grant any right to occupy the premises or to use them as
one’s own.
Activity 6.2
Activity 6.3
a. A combination of: rejecting tired historical principles, vindication of the
contractual rights of the licensee; and the maxim that a right must have a
corresponding remedy.
b. Laws J stressed that the respondents, had they already been in possession of the
land, could have obtained an order to evict the trespassers, and so he thought it
illogical to deny them such a remedy.
Activity 6.4
Activity 6.5
As freeholder Anne is able to grant Paul a lease; it is for a fixed term and with exclusive
possession and rent. This satisfies the elements set out in Street v Mountford [1985] AC
809. As the lease is over seven years it requires a deed (s.52 LPA 1925) which satisfies
the requirements of s.1 LP(MP)A 1989. It would also need to be substantively registered
(s.27 LRA 2002). It is unclear if there is a deed; if there is, it has not been registered on
the facts given, so cannot take effect in law. As Paul is paying rent it may be a periodic
lease, based on the payment of rent, for each quarter. If so this would be a valid legal
lease under s.54 LPA 1925 and would be binding on a purchaser as an overriding
interest (para.1 Schedule 3). However, the periodic tenancy can be ended by notice by
either party and would not protect Paul.
If the writing satisfies s.2 LP(MP)A 1989 then this may be an equitable lease.
An equitable lease is an interest in the land, which (when coupled with actual
occupation) will be overriding under para.2 Schedule 3 LRA 2002.
Activity 6.6
A few statutory rights only apply to tenants of legal leases and sometimes there are
different registration requirements.
Activity 6.7
Activity 6.8
(c) In spite of the reasons why the landlord was adamant that he wanted to forfeit
the lease, the fact that he had sent a rent demand for a future rent instalment was
held by the Court of Appeal to be a waiver. It made no difference that Woolgar
still believed that forfeiture was going ahead; the test is one of the ‘reasonable
onlooker’, who always thinks that rent demands are waivers of breach.
Activity 6.9
The distinction is not always easy to make in practice, since it is possible to phrase the
same covenant both positively and negatively – ‘I promise not to alter the building’ is
in essence the same as ‘I promise to keep the building in the same condition’. But it is
generally accepted that breaches of positive covenants are remediable; the tenant can
simply do what he or she was supposed to do. With negative covenants, what has been
done cannot usually be undone (e.g. with a covenant not to sub-let the premises, or
not to run an immoral business on the premises, the damage had already been done
by breach). There are, however, inconsistent cases on this point: see the controversial
decision in Savva v Houssein (1996) 73 C&PR 150, where all breaches of negative
covenant outside the Scala House principle were thought to be capable of remedy.
The most recent Court of Appeal case addressing this issue – Akici v LR Butlin Ltd [2005]
EWCA Civ 1296 – endorsed the general approach in Savva v Houssein.
Activity 6.10
a. He needs to look closely at the terms of the lease first to check for an express
notice provision. Is it a periodic tenancy or a fixed term lease? If a periodic tenancy
(probably monthly since that is the frequency of payment), then he needs to give
one month’s notice; if a fixed term tenancy, then the notice period in the contract
will apply. If it had been a yearly periodic tenancy then he would have had to give
six months’ notice.
b. If the tenancy had been for eight years, then he had better hope that there is an
express notice provision or a breach by the tenant!
Activity 6.11
Equitable leases are within ss.141 and 142 and so benefits and burdens pass with the
reversion. But until LTCA 1995, burdens did not pass from one equitable tenant to
another. This means that the assignee from a tenant could sue the lessor but cannot be
sued by him. Or could it be argued that the fusion of law and equity in the Judicature
Acts has eliminated the distinction between legal and equitable leases? See Boyer v
Warbey [1953] 1 QB 234. Note that for post-1995 leases, LTCA 1995 applies to all leases,
legal or equitable.
Chapter 7
Activity 7.1
You should not need feedback for part (a).
b. Lord Denning also used the doctrine of mutual benefit and burden in easements as
a justification for the decision.
c. Hint: see Habermann v Koehler (1997) 73 P&CR 515. Note that although this case was
heard by the Court of Appeal, they remitted it for a new trial, where the judge then
held that the licensee’s right to remain in the property did bind the purchaser for
value.
Activity 7.2
Activity 7.3
Chapter 8
Activity 8.1
Consider: would this be an easement, or would it be an assertion of a greater right over
the land? An easement must not be equivalent to exclusive use of the land.
Activity 8.2
The landowner could draft a restrictive covenant preventing the purchaser from
building on the land, or restricting the manner in which he could do so. It would
benefit his retained land and burden the land sold. He would have to make sure that
the restrictive covenant would bind later purchasers of the land, and so would need to
comply with the rules of Tulk v Moxhay.
Activity 8.3
It appears that the parking right is capable of being an easement, satisfying (i), (ii)
and (iii) of the Re Ellenborough criteria, but limitations have been imposed on such
easements by cases including Copeland v Greenhalf [1952] Ch 488 and London and
Blenheim Estates Ltd v Ladbroke Retail Parks Ltd [1994] 1 WLR 31. In the latter case it was
held that the right to park on land and to cross it with shopping trolleys can be an
easement, but successful cases are rare because of problems with the Re Ellenborough
requirement (iv). Batchelor v Marlow [2001] EWCA Civ 1051 parking easements: no
easement can exist if the true owner is excluded from his land or his ownership
has become illusory. More recently, in Central Midlands Estates Ltd v Leicester Dyers
(Unreported) (Ch D), although it was left open by the court whether an easement of
parking was capable of existing, it was pointed out that since parking on land prevents
the owner from using it, an easement of parking can only potentially arise where
the land affected is big enough to accommodate other cars or uses of the owner.
The House of Lords in Moncrieff, although deciding on a Scottish case, did state that
it was making points which also applied to English law and upheld an easement of
parking, but you should note that the facts of that case are extremely unusual: there
was nowhere else where anybody could park. Lord Scott noted, particularly in relation
to English law, that there would be a limit to the extent that a servitude or easement
could oust or exclude an owner from his land but that the limit was not crossed in
this case. The right of parking was not such as would oust an owner from his land as
he could still park anywhere on the land, subject merely to the right of the dominant
owner to park there also.
Activity 8.4
a. See Saeed v Plustrade; is it definite enough, or at the whim of the servient owner?
b. Is this too close to exclusive possession to be an easement?
c. See Re Ellenborough Park.
d. Exclusive possession would appear to be a problem here.
e. This looks like an easement, as long as the amount of use does not amount to a
claim for possession; if it is the latter, then the rules of adverse possession will
apply – see Chapter 11.
f. See Wong v Beaumont.
Activity 8.5
In Wong the ventilation was necessary even if that had not been vital to the common
intention of the parties. It seems to have been important to the decision that there
was no other way of giving effect to the common intention. Note that the Wong
decision is argued partly on necessity and partly on common intention.
Activity 8.6
a. Because, according to the Court of Appeal, the right to use a hallway was not
‘necessary for the reasonable or convenient enjoyment’ of the annexe building.
b. The Court held that he had an implied easement to use the hallway on the basis of
s.62.
c. He should have revoked the permission he had given to the tenant to use his other
land.
Activity 8.7
Chapter 9
Activity 9.1
a. In Crest Nicholson Residential (South) Ltd v McAllister [2004] EWCA Civ 410, the
Court of Appeal held that annexation was only possible where the instrument
containing the covenant defines the dominant land in such a way that that land
is easily ascertainable. The question in each case is whether ‘the land intended to
be benefited can be identified (from a description, plan or other reference in the
[instrument] itself, but aided, if necessary, by external evidence to identify the land
so described, depicted or otherwise referred to)’.
b. It would annex the benefit to the dominant land if the court followed Federated
Homes and found that the dominant land could be identified by looking at all the
circumstances.
c. The trial judge in Federated Homes thought so, but the Court of Appeal chose to
use s.78 instead: note why. However, in Kumar v Dunning [1989] QB 193, Browne-
Wilkinson V-C expressed the view that the benefit of a covenant could not pass
under s.62 LPA 1925 unless the covenant was annexed to the dominant tenement.
Activity 9.2
The covenant is enforceable between the original parties, but since it is a positive
covenant its burden will not bind third parties unless it fits one of the exceptions. The
benefit can pass to third parties. Under the doctrine of mutual benefit and burden,
the purchaser may be bound by the covenant to maintain the wall, since they derive a
benefit from it: see Halsall v Brizell. If the purchaser was expected to pay the entire cost
then the covenant would not be enforceable: consider Tito v Waddell (No 2).
Activity 9.3
The objections are (a) that the buyers did not contract for the covenant and so should
not be bound by it, and (b) that it is a personal obligation rather than a proprietary
one.
Activity 9.4
No feedback is provided for parts (a) and (b).
c. It appears that the case created a new principle and that Lord Cottenham invented
a new equitable interest. There are a few prior cases but Tulk is the first to extend
principles of leasehold covenants to those between freeholders, and to use an
analogy with the easement to light.
d. Because the others were positive in nature, and the injunction granted was a
negative injunction.
e. There are several reasons: conscience, since a buyer with notice has his conscience
affected; unjust enrichment, since breaking covenants would allow unfair profits
to covenantors; proprietary rights, since the buyer of land subject to a covenant is
simply being prevented from exercising a ‘right’ he has never acquired (see Lord
Templeman in Rhone v Stephens).
Chapter 10
Activity 10.1
a. Many academics consider that the real reason for invalidity of the option in
Jarrah must be its technical inconsistency with the right to redeem, since it was a
commercial transaction with free negotiations and the payment of a fair price for
the option. Lord Macnaghten stated at p.327:
The directors of a trading company in search of financial assistance are certainly in a

very different position from that of an impecunious landowner in the toils of a crafty
money-lender.
Thus, if such inconsistency had not occurred, there might not have been a problem
with the option.
b. In Reeve, the option was seen as a separate agreement from the mortgage
agreement.
c. No feedback provided.
Activity 10.2
The cases do appear to conflict, but in Santley, the postponement was designed
to secure the future obligation of tenant to pay a share of profits to the lender; a
legitimate commercial interest for the lender was thus being protected. In general,
the important factors to think about are the comparative status of the parties in each
case and the title involved (leasehold or freehold).
Activity 10.3
Activity 10.4
Activity 10.5
a. Although the bargains favour the lender hugely in both cases, the borrowers
were very different. In Cityland the mortgagor was a domestic borrower and the
mortgage had terms which were harsh in themselves, plus the mortgagor was
young and inexperienced, threatened with losing his home and acted in a hurry.
In Multiservice, it was clearly a commercial agreement without inequality of
bargaining power.
b. Where the parties are equal, the imposition of a very high rate of interest is
probably enforceable; even when one party is an individual a very high interest
rate may not be extortionate – see Davies v Directloans Ltd (Davies and Hedley-Cheney
v Directloans Ltd) [1986] 1 WLR 823.
Activity 10.6
Lord Denning MR was asserting a general right in equity to ensure that possession was
only being obtained by the mortgagee as a prelude to a genuine enforcement of the
mortgage, and that ‘A mortgagee will be restrained from getting possession except
when it is sought bona fide and reasonably for the purpose of enforcing the security and
then only subject to such conditions as the court thinks fit to impose’ (at 571). But in fact
equity did not interfere with common law possession proceedings before the Judicature
Act 1873 and so there is no equity to prevent a lender taking possession. Notwithstanding
this criticism, Lord Denning MR’s approach has been endorsed and applied in subsequent
cases: Albany Home Loans Ltd v Massey [1997] 2 All ER 609; Cukurova Finance International
Ltd v Alfa Telecom Turkey Ltd (Nos 3 to 5) [2013] UKPC 2, 20, 25.
Chapter 11
Activity 11.1
Activity 11.2
As you will see from the cases, this depends very much on the precise facts and what
the court infers from those facts. In JA Pye (Oxford) Ltd v Graham [2002] UKHL 30 there
was a great deal of disagreement among the judges as to the meaning of ‘intention
to possess’, and the effect of future plans of the paper owner for the land. Twenty-five
hectares of prime building land in Berkshire were granted via adverse possession to a
farmer making hay on it while the development company owner struggled to obtain
planning permission. This case is arguably the highpoint of adverse possession and
came ironically just before the latter was curtailed severely by LRA 2002.
Activity 11.3
Activity 11.4
An acknowledgement of the paper owner’s title might be made by: payment of rent;
an offer to buy the property (Ofulue v Bossert [2009] UKHL 16); signing a petition
opposing a sale by a local authority landlord (Lambeth LBC v Bigden [2001] 33 HLR 43,
Court of Appeal).

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What are the main reforms discussed in the document?

What are the main reforms discussed in the document?

What are the two forms of co-ownership discussed?

What are the two forms of co-ownership discussed?

Property law

u Lucinda Pattison, LLB (Hons), PgCertHE, PgDipLP, Senior Lecturer, University of

u Claire de Than, BA (Hons), LLM, Professor of Law.

Published by: University of London

© University of London 2021

2 The 1925 reforms and unregistered land law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

4 Settlements, trusts for sale and trusts of land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6 Landlord and tenant: the law of leases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

7 Proprietary estoppel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

8 Easements and profits à prendre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

9 Freehold covenants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

11 Adverse possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Feedback to activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Courses in which this module is offered

Notional study time

MODULE PURPOSE AND OVERVIEW

LEARNING OUTCOMES: KNOWLEDGE

LEARNING OUTCOMES: SKILLS

4. Articulate well-argued solutions to complex legal problems, referencing relevant

5. Evaluate legal and ethical issues arising in topics of particular contemporary

6. Use appropriate legal terminology specific to property law.

BENCHMARK FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

c. Ownership of land. Settlements. Co-ownership of land. Trusts of land under the

e. Licences. Bare licences. Contractual licences, their revocability and enforceability

f. Easements. Characteristics, extinguishment and extent. Creation of express and

LEARNING AND TEACHING

The Laws Virtual Learning Environment

u a module page with news and updates;

u a complete version of the module guides;

u past examination papers and reports;

The Online Library

u the professional legal databases LexisLibrary and Westlaw;

u cases and up-to-date statutes;

u key academic law journals;

u links to important websites.

¢ Dixon, M. Modern land law. (Abingdon: Routledge, 2021) 12th edition

Summative assessment is through a three hour and fifteen minute unseen

¢ Core statutes on property law 2021–22 (Palgrave Macmillan).

1.1 Studying property law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2 A suggested approach to study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 The examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.5 Some basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

The structure of this module guide

1.1 Studying property law

1.1.1 A coherent but complex subject

Property law requires us to understand that ‘property’ is a relationship between

Impact of the Human Rights Act 1998

Four key questions

1. Is the title to the land registered or unregistered? (Even though it is important

2. What interests may exist in the relevant land?

3. Is each of the possible interests legal or equitable?

1.1.2 Outline structure of this module guide

The guide contains the following chapters:

Chapter 2 The 1925 reforms and unregistered land law

Chapter 3 Registration of title

Chapter 6 Landlord and tenant: the law of leases