Ruth Sordilla

BSED SOCSTUD II

PORTFOLIO
Pre-Final Notes

COURSE TITLE: WORLD

HISTORY 1

ANCIENT GREECE 1900–133 B.C.

SECTION 1 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS IN

GREECE

SECTION 2 THE GREEK CITY-STATES

SECTION 3 CLASSICAL GREECE

SECTION 4 THE CULTURE OF CLASSICAL

GREECE

SECTION 5 ALEXANDER AND THE

HELLENISTIC ERA
 and Ionian Seas make up the eastern,
southern, and western borders of Greece. Its
location on a peninsula gives Greece a long
seacoast dotted by bays and inlets that
provided many harbors. Although Greece is
SECTION 1: EARLY small, it has an 8,500 mile (13,700 km)
coastline. In fact, no part of the Greek
CIVILIZATIONS IN GREECE mainland is more than 60 miles (100 km)
from a body of water. The ancient Greeks
also lived on a number of islands to the west,
south, and east of the Greek mainland
Surrounded by water, it was no accident that
THE IMPACT OF GEOGRAPHY the Greeks became seafarers. They sailed out
into the Aegean Sea, the Mediterranean Sea,
and the Black Sea,making contact with the
Mountains outside world. Later they established several
colonies that spread Greek civilization.
Two peninsulas make up much of the Greek
landmass. The Isthmus of Corinth connects
the Peloponnese peninsula to the mainland.
Minoans and Mycenaeans
About 80 percent of Greece is mountainous.
Olympus is the highest peak in the Pindus
Mountains, which divide the mainland.
Minoan Civilization
Much of Greece consists of small plains and
river valleys surrounded by high mountain Arthur Evans, the English archaeologist who
ranges from 8,000 to 10,000 feet (2,438 to first discovered the civilization, named it
3,048 m) high. These mountains isolated after Minos, the legendary king of Crete,
Greeks from one another, causing different because some of its structures were similar
Greek communities to develop their own to the labyrinth that King Minos was said to
ways of life.Over a period of time, these have built. At the beginning of the twentieth
communities became fiercely independent. century, Evans discovered an enormous
It is probable that the small size of these palace complex on Crete at Knossos
independent communities encouraged (NAH•suhs). The remains of this complex
people to participate in political affairs. On revealed a rich culture, with Knossos as the
the other hand, the rivalry between the center of a far-ranging sea empire based on
communities led to warfare that devastated trade. The ships of the Minoans took them
Greek society. to Egypt as well as southern Greece.

Mycenae: The First Greek

Seas
State
The sea also influenced the evolution of
Greek society. The Aegean, Mediterranean, The term Mycenaean comes from Mycenae
(my•SEE•nee), a fortified site on the Greek shores of Asia Minor, a strip of territory that
mainland that was first discovered by the came to be called Ionia (or Ionian Greece), in
German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann. modern-day Turkey.
Mycenae was one center in a Mycenaean
Greek civilization that flourished between
1600 b.c. and 1100 b.c. The Mycenaean
Greeks were part of the Indo-European
family of peoples who spread into Europe
and Asia. One of these groups entered
Greece around 1900 b.c.and gradually gained
control of the Greek mainland. Mycenaean
civilization, which reached its high point
between 1400 b.c. and 1200 b.c., was made
up of powerful
monarchies. Each resided in a fortified
palace center. Like Mycenae, these centers
were built on hills and surrounded by
gigantic stone walls. The monarchies in these
various centers of power probably formed a
loose alliance of independent states. While
the royal families lived within the walls of
these complexes, the civilian populations
lived scattered outside the walls. Among the
noticeable features of these Mycenaean
centers were the tombs where members of
the royal families were buried. Known as
tholos tombs, they were built into hillsides.
An entryway led into a circular tomb
chamber constructed of cut stone blocks in a
domed shape that resembled a beehive. The
Mycenaeans were, above all, a warrior
people who prided themselves on their
heroic deeds in battle. Mycenaean wall
murals often show war and hunting scenes,
the natural occupations of a warrior
aristocracy.

CHANGES OF THE DARK AGE

During the Dark Age, many Greeks left the

mainland and sailed across the Aegean Sea
to various islands. Many went to the western
 smaller, consisting of only a few hundred to
SECTION 2: THE several thousand people.

GREEK CITY-
Community of the City-State
STATES
The polis was, above all, a community of
people who shared a common identity and
common goals. As a community, the polis
consisted of citizens with political rights
Polis: The Center of Greek (adult males), citizens with no political rights
(women and children), and noncitizens
Life including agricultural laborers, slaves, and
resident aliens).Citizens had rights, but these
By 750 b.c., the city-state—or what the rights were coupled with responsibilities.
Greeks called a polis-became the central The Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that
focus of Greek life. Our word politics is a citizen did not belong just to himself or
derived from the Greek word polis. In a herself: “We must rather regard every citizen
physical sense, the polis was a town, a city, as belonging to the state.” However, the
or even a village, along with its surrounding loyalty that citizens had to their city-states
countryside. The town, city, or village served had a negative side. City-states distrusted
as the center of the polis where people could one another, and the division of Greece into
meet for political, social, and religious fiercely patriotic, independent units helped
activities. to bring about its ruin.As the polis
developed, so too did a new military system.
In earlier times, nobles on horseback fought
Organization of the City-State wars in Greece. These aristocrats, who were
large landowners, also dominated the
The main gathering place in the polis was political life of their city-states. By 700 b.c.,
usually a hill. At the top of the hill was a however, the military system was based on
fortified area called an acropolis. The hoplites, who were heavily armed infantry
acropolis served as a place of refuge during soldiers, or foot soldiers. Each carried a
an attack and sometimes came to be a round shield, a short sword, and a thrusting
religious center on which temples and public spear about 9 feet (2.7 m) long. Hoplites
buildings were built. Below the acropolis was went into battle as a unit, marching shoulder
an agora, an open area that served as a place to shoulder in a rectangular formation
where people could assemble and as a known as a phalanx. This close formation
market. created a wall of shields to protect the
hoplites. As long as they kept their order, it
City-states varied greatly in size, from a few was difficult for enemies to harm them.
square miles to a few hundred square miles.
They also varied in population. Athens had a
population of more than 300,000 by the fifth GREEK EXPANSION
century b.c., but most city-states were much
 and sixth centuries b.c. Tyrants were not
necessarily oppressive or wicked, as our
Greek Colonies word tyrant implies. Greek tyrantswere
rulers who seized power by force from the
Across the Mediterranean, new Greek aristocrats. They were unique in Greek
colonies were established along the history, and in fact, the Greeks did not have a
coastlines of southern Italy, southern France, word for them: the Greek term tyrannos was
eastern Spain, and northern Africa west of developed from another language, probably
Egypt. At the same time, to the north the one from Asia Minor.
Greeks set up colonies in Thrace, where they
sought good farmland to grow grains. The
Greeks also settled along the shores of the
Black Sea, setting up cities on the Hellespont
and the Bosporus straits. The most notable
TWO RIVAL CITY-STATES
of these cities was
Byzantium(buh•ZAN•shuhm), the site of
what later became Constantinople and is
Sparta
now Istanbul. In establishing these colonies,
the Greeks spread their culture and political Like other Greek city-states, Spartaneeded
ideas throughout the more land. Instead of starting new colonies,
Mediterranean.Securing control of the straits as some states did, the Spartans conquered
and waterways between the Mediterranean the neighboring Laconians. Later, beginning
and Black Seas also gave the Greeks great around 730 b.c., the Spartans undertook the
economic advantages. Colonization in these conquest of neighboring Messenia despite
prime port locations led to increased trade its larger size and population.After their
and industry. The Greeks on the mainland conquest, the Messenians and Laconians
exported pottery, wine, and olive oil. In became serfs and were made to work for the
return, they received grains and metals from Spartans. These captured people were
the west and fish, timber, wheat, metals, and known as helots, a name derived from a
slaves from the Black Sea region.The Greek word for “capture.” To ensure control
expansion of trade and industry created a over the conquered helots, the Spartans
new group of wealthy individuals in many of made a conscious decision to create a
the Greek city-states. These men wanted military state.
political power, but found it difficult to gain
because of the power of the ruling
aristocrats. The landowners would not Athens
willingly give up their political power to the
newly rich merchants. By 700 b.c., Athens had become a unified
polis on the peninsula of Attica. Early Athens
was ruled by a king. By the seventh century
Tyranny in the City-States b.c., however, Athens had become an
oligarchy under the control of its aristocrats.
The creation of this new group of rich men These aristocrats owned the best land and
fostered the rise of tyrants in the seventh controlled political life. The assembly of all
the citizens had few powers.Near the end of
the seventh century b.c., Athens faced
political turmoil because of serious economic
problems. Many Athenian farmers were sold
into slavery when they were unable to repay
their debts to their aristocratic neighbors.
Over and over, there were cries to cancel the
debts and give land to the poor.

SECTION 3 : Classical
Greece

As the Greeks spread throughout the

Mediterranean, they came in contact with
the Persian Empire to the east. The Ionian
Greek cities in western Asia Minor had fallen
to the Persian Empire by the mid-sixth
century b.c. In 499 b.c., an unsuccessful
revolt by the Ionian cities—assisted by the
Athenian navy—led the Persian ruler. Darius
to seek revenge. It is said that Darius ordered
one of his slaves to say to him at every meal,
“Sire, remember the Athenians.”In 490 b.c.,
the Persians landed on the plain of
Marathon, only 26 miles (42 km) from
Athens. There, an outnumbered Athenian
army attacked and defeated the Persians
decisively. The Persians returned to Asia. from the island of Delos to Athens on the
According to legend, news of Persia’s defeat mainland. By controlling the Delian League,
was brought by an Athenian runner named Athens had created an empire.Under
Pheidippides, who raced from Marathon to Pericles, a dominant figure in Athenian
Athens. With his last breath, he announced, politics between 461 and 429 b.c., Athens
“Victory, we win,” before dropping dead. expanded its empire abroad while
Today’s marathon race is based on this democracy flourished at home. This period
heroic story. Although the Battle of of classical Athenian and Greek history,
Marathon was a minor defeat to the which historians have called the Age of
Persians, to the Athenians it proved that the Pericles, saw the height of Athenian power
Persians could be beaten and gave them new and brilliance.
confidence in their city-state.

After Darius died in 486 b.c., Xerxes The Age of Pericles

(ZUHRK•seez) became the new Persian
monarch. Xerxes vowed revenge and By creating a direct democracy, Pericles
planned to invade Greece. In preparation for expanded the involvement of Athenians in
the attack, some of the Greek states formed their democracy. In such a system, every
a defensive league under the Spartans. The male citizen participates directly in
Athenians, however, followed a new military government decision making through mass
policy insisted on by Themistocles, one of meetings. In Athens, every male citizen
the Athenian leaders, and built a navy. By participated in the governing assembly and
the time the Persians invaded in 480 b.c., the voted on all major issues. Every ten days the
Athenian had a fleet of about 200 vessels assembly met on a hillside east of the
Acropolis. The assembly passed all laws,
elected public officials, and made decisions
concerning war and foreign policy. Anyone
attending the assembly could speak, but
The Athenian Empire usually only respected leaders did so.
Pericles made it possible for poor citizens to
After the defeat of the Persians, Athens took take part in public affairs by paying
over the leadership of the entire Greek officeholders. A large body of city officials
world. In 478 b.c., the Athenians formed a ran the government on a daily basis. Ten
defensive alliance against the Persians officials, or generals, directed policy. The
known as the Delian League. Its main generals could be reelected, so individual
headquarters was on the island of leaders could play an important political
Delos.However, its chief officials, including role.Athenians devised the practice of
the treasurers and commanders of the fleet, ostracism to protect against ambitious
were Athenian. Under Athenian leadership, politicians. On a pottery fragment (ostrakon),
the Delian League pursued the attack against members of the assembly could write the
the Persian Empire, eventually liberating name of a person they considered harmful. A
virtually all of the Greek states in the Aegean person named by at least 6,000 members
from Persian control. In 454 b.c., the was banned from the city for 10 years.Under
Athenians moved the treasury of the league Pericles, Athens became the center of Greek
culture. Since the Persian Wars had
destroyed much of the city,Pericles began a
massive rebuildingprogram with new
temples and statues that signified the
THE GREAT PELOPONNESIAN
greatness of Athens. Art, architecture, and
philosophy flourished. Pericles proudly
WAR
called Athens the “school of Greece.”
The Great Peloponnesian War weakened the
major Greek states and ruined any possibility
Daily Life in Classical Athens of cooperation among them. During the next
66 years, Sparta, Athens, and Thebes (a new
By the fifth century b.c., Athens had the Greek power) struggled to dominate Greek
largest population of the Greek city-states. affairs. In continuing their petty wars, the
Before the plague in 430 b.c., there were Greeks ignored the growing power of
about 150,000 citizens living in Athens. Macedonia to their north. This oversight
About 43,000 of them were adult males with would cost them their freedom.
political power. Most residents of Athens
were not citizens. Foreigners living in Athens,
who numbered about 35,000, received the
protection of the laws. They were also
subject to some of the responsibilities of
citizens—military service and the funding of
festivals. Slaves numbered around 100,000.
Slavery was common in the ancient world.
Most people in Athens—except the very
poor—owned at least one slave. The
very wealthy might own large numbers.
Those who did usually employed them in
industry. Most often, slaves worked in the
fields or in the home as cooks and maids.
Some slaves were owned by the state and
worked on public construction projects.

Economy and Society

The Athenian economy was largely based on

farming and trade. Athenians grew grains,
vegetables, and fruit for local use. Grapes
and olive trees were cultivated for wine and
olive oil, which were used locally and also
exported. Athenians raised sheep and goats
for wool, milk, and dairy products.
 wisdom and crafts; Apollo, god of the sun
and poetry; Artemis, the sister of Apollo,
who was goddess of the moon and of the
hunt; Ares, god of war; Aphrodite, goddess
of love; and Poseidon, brother of Zeus and
god of the seas and earthquakes. Greek
religion did not have a body of doctrine, nor
did it focus on morality. The spirits of most
people, regardless of what they had done in
life, went to a gloomy underworld ruled by
the god Hades. Because the Greeks wanted
the gods to look favorably upon their
activities, rituals became important. Rituals
are ceremonies or rites. Greek religious
rituals involved prayers often combined with
gifts to the gods based on the principle “I
give so that you [the gods] will give [in
return].”Festivals also developed as a way to
honor the gods and goddesses. Certain
festivals were held at special locations, such
as those dedicated to the worship of Zeus at
SECTION 4: The Culture of Olympia or to Apollo at Delphi.

Classical Greece Numerous events, including athletic games,

took place in honor of the gods at the Greek
festivals. The first such games were held at
the Olympic festival in 776 b.c.The Greeks
also had a great desire to learn the will of
Greek Religion the gods. To do so, they made use of the
oracle, a sacred shrine where a god or
Greek religion was fundamental to Greek goddess revealed the future through a priest
society and is remembered today for the or priestess. The most famous was the oracle
Olympic Games and Greek drama, which of Apollo at Delphi, located on the side
were part of religious festivals. Religion of Mount Parnassus overlooking the Gulf of
affected every aspect of Greek life. Greeks Corinth.
considered religion necessary to the well-
being of the state. Temples dedicated to gods
and goddesses were the major buildings in
Classical Greek Arts and
Greek cities.Homer described the gods
worshiped in the Greek religion. Twelve chief
Literature
gods and goddesses were thought to live on
Olympus,the highest mountain in Greece.
Among the twelve were Zeus, the chief god The arts of the Western world have been
and father of the gods; Athena, goddess of largely dominated by the standards set by
the Greeks of the classical period. Classical classical style. Lifelike statues of the male
Greek art was concerned with expressing nude, the favorite subject of Greek sculptors,
eternal ideals. The subject matter of this art showed relaxed attitudes. Their faces were
was the human being, presented as an selfassured, their bodies smooth and
object of great beauty. The classic style, with muscled.Classical Greek sculptors did not
its ideals of reason, moderation, balance, seek to achieve realism, however, but rather
and harmony in all things, was meant to a standard of ideal beauty. Polyclitus
civilize the emotions. (pah•lih•KLY•tuhs), a fifth-century sculptor,
wrote down systematic rules for proportions
that he illustrated in a work known as the
Doryphoros. His theory maintained that the
use of ideal proportions, based on
Architecture and Sculpture mathematical ratios found in nature, could
produce an ideal human form.
In architecture, the most important form was
the temple, dedicated to a god or goddess.
At the center of Greek temples were walled Drama
rooms that housed both the statues of
deities and treasuries in which gifts to the Drama as we know it in Western culture was
gods and goddesses were safeguarded. created by the Greeks. Plays were presented
These central rooms were surrounded by a in outdoor theaters as part of religious
screen of columns that made Greek temples festivals. The first Greek dramas were
open structures rather than closed ones. The tragedies, which were presented in a trilogy
columns were originally made of wood. In —a set of three plays—built around a
the fifth century b.c., marble began to be common theme. The only complete trilogy
used.Some of the finest examples of Greek we possess today, called the Oresteia,was
classical architecture were built in Athens in composed by Aeschylus. This set of three
the fifth century b.c. The most famous plays relates the fate of Agamemnon, a hero
building on the Acropolis, the Parthenon is in the Trojan War, and his family after his
regarded as the greatest example of the return from the war. In the plays, evil acts
classical Greek temple. It was built between are shown to breed evil acts and suffering. In
447 b.c. and 432 b.c. Dedicated to Athena, the end, however, reason triumphs over the
the patron goddess of Athens, the Parthenon forces of evil.Sophocles was another great
was an expression of Athenians’ pride in Athenian playwright. His most famous play
their city-state. Indeed, it was dedicated not was Oedipus Rex. In this play, the oracle of
only to Athena but also to the glory of
Athens and the Athenians. The Parthenon Apollo accurately foretells that Oedipus
will kill his own father and marry his mother.
shows the principles of classical architecture: Despite all attempts to prevent this, Oedipus
the search for calmness, clarity, and freedom does commit these tragic acts.A third
from unnecessary detail. The Parthenon outstanding Athenian dramatist, Euripides,
today is a revered ruin. It was damaged by tried to create more realistic characters. His
an explosion in 1687 and has been partially plots became more complex and showed a
restored.Greek sculpture also developed a greater interest in reallife situations.
Euripides was controversial. He questioned the Macedonians, as barbarians. They were
traditional values. He portrayed war as a rural people of farmers and agricultural
brutal and barbaric and expressed deep laborers, organized into groups, not in city-
compassion for the women. states like the Greeks. Although they spoke a
dialect of Greek, they had not been involved
in the rivalries of Greek city-states—their
leaders focused mostly on defending their
The Writing of History northern borders. By the end of the fifth
century b.c., however, Macedonia emerged
In the Western world, the Greeks were the as a powerful kingdom.
first people to present history as a systematic
analysis of past events.
Herodotus(hih•RAH•duh•tuhs) wrote
Philip and Alexander
History of the Persian Wars, often seen as
the first real history in Western civilization. In 359 b.c., Philip II came to the throne. He
Its central theme is the conflict between the built a powerful army and turned Macedonia
Greeks and the Persians, which Herodotus into the chief power of the Greek world.
viewed as a struggle between Greek freedom Philip was soon drawn into Greek affairs. A
and Persian despotism. Herodotus traveled great admirer of Greek culture, he longed to
widely and questioned many people as a unite all of Greece under Macedonia.Fearing
means of obtaining his information. He was a Philip, the Athenians allied with a number of
master storyteller. Many historians today other Greek states and fought the
consider Thucydides (thoo•SIH•duh•deez) Macedonians at the Battle of Chaeronea
the greatest historian of the ancient world. (kehr•uh•NEE•uh), near Thebes, in 338 b.c.
Thucydides was an Athenian general who The Macedonian army crushed the
fought in the Great Peloponnesian War and Greeks.Philip quickly gained control of all
later wrote its history. Unlike Herodotus, Greece, bringing an end to the freedom of
Thucydides saw war and politics as the the Greek city-states. He insisted that the
activities of human beings, not gods. He Greek states form a league and then
examined the Peloponnesian War clearly and cooperate with him in a war against Persia.
fairly, placing much emphasis on accuracy. Before Philip could undertake his invasion of
Asia, however, he was assassinated, leaving
the task to his son Alexander.
Alexander the Great was only 20 when he
became king of Macedonia. Philip had
carefully prepared his son for kingship. By
Section 5 Alexander and taking Alexander along with him on military
campaigns, Philip taught Alexander the
the Hellenistic Era basics of military leadership. After his
father’s death, Alexander moved quickly to
fulfill his father’s dream—the invasion of the
Persian Empire. He was motivated by the
desire for glory and empire but also by the
The Greeks viewed their northern neighbors, desire to avenge the Persian burning of
Athens in 480 b.c. quantities of gold and silver into their
economies.Alexander’s successors tried to
imitate him, using force and claims of divine
rule to create military monarchies. Although
Alexander’s Conquests mainland Greeks remained committed to the
ideals of the city-state, the creation of the
Alexander was taking a chance in attacking monarchies became part of Alexander’s
the Persian Empire. Although weakened, it political legacy.
was still a strong state in the spring of 334
b.c. when Alexander entered Asia Minor
with an army of some 37,000 men, both
Macedonians and Greeks. The cavalry, which
would play an important role as a striking
force, numbered about 5,000.By the next
The Hellenistic Era
year, Alexander had freed the Ionian Greek
cities of western Asia Minor from the Alexander created a new age, the Hellenistic
Persians and defeated a large Persian army Era. The word Hellenistic comes from a
at Issus. He then turned south. By the winter Greek word meaning “to imitate Greeks.” It
of 332 b.c., Alexander had Syria, Palestine, is an appropriate way to describe an age that
and Egypt under his control. He built saw the expansion of the Greek language
Alexandria as the Greek capital of Egypt. It and ideas to the non-Greek world of
became and remains today one of the most Southwest Asia and beyond.
important cities in both Egypt and the
Mediterranean world. It was also the first of
a series of cities named after him.
Hellenistic Kingdoms

The united empire that Alexander created by

his conquests fell apart soon after his death
as the most important Macedonian generals
Alexander’s Legacy engaged in a struggle for power. By 300 b.c.,
any hope of unity was dead. Eventually, four
Alexander’s extraordinary success is Hellenistic kingdoms emerged as the
explained by his leadership and military successors to Alexander: Macedonia, Syria in
skills. He was a master of strategy and the east, the kingdom of Pergamum in
tactics, able to fight in all terrains and western Asia Minor, and Egypt. All were
against all kinds of opponents. Brave and eventually conquered by the
even reckless, he risked his own life, an Romans.Alexander the Great had planned to
example that inspired his soldiers to follow fuse Macedonians, Greeks, and Persians in
him. Alexander sought to imitate Achilles, his new empire by using Persians as officials
the hero of Homer’s Iliad. He kept a copy of and encouraging his soldiers to marry native
the Iliad—and a dagger—under his women. The Hellenistic monarchs who
pillow.Alexander created an enormous succeeded him, however, relied only on
legacy. He extended Greek and Macedonian Greeks and Macedonians to form the new
rule over a vast area, which brought large ruling class. Even those from eastern regions
who did advance to important government There was also a museum that welcomed
posts had learned Greek, for all government scholarly research. Pergamum, the most
business was transacted in Greek. The Greek important city in Asia Minor, also became a
ruling class was determined to maintain its leading cultural center. As a result,
position.In his conquests, Alexander had Pergamum also attracted both scholars and
created a series of new cities and military artists. The library at Pergamum was second
settlements. Hellenistic kings did likewise. only to Alexandria’s library.The founding of
These new population centers varied in size new cities and the rebuilding of old ones
from military settlements of only a few presented many opportunities for Greek
hundred men to cities with thousands of architects and
people. Alexandria, which Alexander had Lsculptors. Hellenistic kings were very willing
founded in Egypt, was the largest city in the to spend their money to beautify the cities
Mediterranean region by the first century within their states. The buildings
b.c. characteristic of the Greek homeland—
Hellenistic rulers encouraged a spread of baths, theaters, and temples—lined the
Greek colonists to Southwest Asia. Greeks streets of these cities.
(and Macedonians) provided not only new
recruits for the army but also a pool of Both Hellenistic kings and rich citizens
civilian administrators and workers. patronized sculptors. Thousands of statues
Architects, engineers, dramatists, and actors were erected in towns and cities all over the
were all in demand in the new Greek cities. Hellenistic world. Hellenistic sculptors
The Greek cities of the Hellenistic Era spread maintained the technical skill of the classical
Greek culture to Southwest and Central Asia period, but they moved away from the
—as far, in fact, as modern Afghanistan and idealism of earlier classicism to a more
India. emotional and realistic art. This is especially
evident in the numerous statues of old
women and little children.
Hellenistic Arts and
Literature
Science and Philosophy
The Hellenistic Era was a period of
considerable cultural accomplishment in The Hellenistic Age witnessed considerable
many areas, especially science and advances in the sciences. Astronomy and
philosophy. These achievements occurred mathematics were two areas of progress.
throughout the Hellenistic world. Certain One astronomer, Aristarchus
centers, however—especially the great (ar•uh•STAHR•kuhs) of Samos, developed
Hellenistic city of Alexandria—stood out. the theory that the sun is at the center of the
Alexandria became home to poets, writers, universe while the Earth rotates around the
philosophers, and scientists—scholars of all sun in a circular orbit. The prevailing view, in
kinds.The library in Alexandria became the contrast, held that Earth was at the center of
largest in ancient times, with more than the universe. The new theory was not widely
500,000 scrolls. The library encouraged the accepted at the time. Eratosthenes
careful study of literature and language. (ehr•uh•TAHS•thuh•neez) was another
important astronomer. He determined that
Earth was round and calculated Earth’s
circumference at 24,675 miles (39,702 km),
an estimate that was within 185 miles (298
km) of the actual figure. The mathematician
Euclid wrote the Elements, a textbook on
plane geometry. This work has been used up
to modern times.