Reading Notes Week One

Ancient Greece, Pomeroy et al.

Introduction

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Odysseus was one of the most famous Greek heroes.

He travelled far and wide and so did the Greeks themselves.

They established colonies in Spain, Asia, Africa and the Black Sea.

Greece got started in the Bronze Age along with the Egyptians, Mesopotamians and others.

They learned metallurgy and writing from their neighbors.

Greek became the common language of much of the ancient world by the end of the Ancient Era.

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The Romans adopted quite a bit of Greek literature, mythology and religion.

Greek culture changed a lot between the time of the Iliad and Alexander, but the poems of Homer
remained core to ancient education.

Athens and Sparta considered themselves quite different from one another.

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But they were also quite similar in religion and outlook.

Slavery and war were commonplace and accepted.

Athletic competition was highly respected.

The Greek legacy is quite alive in western and Islamic societies.

The Peloponnesian War was a major trauma for Greek civilization.

Alexander drew the rest of the world into the Hellenic orbit and challenged what it meant to be Greek
and what the role of the polis was.

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There are new discoveries for Archaeology that expand our knowledge, and historians are trying to
learn more about the lives and roles of women and slaves.

Our sources are basically physical remains and the stories that the Greeks wrote about themselves.

Most of the material record is under ground.

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The soil of Greece is not friendly for preserving ancient artifacts.

Clay and gold and silver are fairly well-preserved in the ground.

Clay pots served many purposes.

Because styles changed over time, you can use the shape of a vessel to date it.

Sometimes datable objects form Egypt are found in a trove and help to establish dates more firmly.

You can also use Carbon 14 and other techniques to establish dates of found objects.

Most of the written texts are written in the ancient Greek alphabet adopted from the Phoenicians.

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Papyrus was the most common medium for written texts.

Slaves did the copying of texts.

In the time of the Alexandrian scholars a canon of authoritative or important texts was being identified.

Texts were preserved in the dry Egyptian desert as well as in inscriptions and other sources.

Almost all of the canonical texts were written by wealthy men from the upper classes. Even the histories
are colored by the values and understanding of the authors themselves.

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Periods:

Neolithic 7000-3000 BC

Bronze Age: Early 3000-2100 BC

Middle 2100-1600 BC

Late 1600-1200 BC

Dark Age/Iron Age: 1200-700 BC

Archaic Period: 700-480 BC

Classical Period: 480-323 BC

Hellenistic Period: 323-30 BC

The seas were the highways for the Greeks.

Travel meant travel by ship.

Greeks were people who spoke Greek.

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The Greeks on the foreign shores began to make contact with other cultures.

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In war or in peace, the Greeks were almost always in contact with foreign cultures and powers.

The Greeks were politically organized into city states.

The city state included the city itself, often walled, and its surrounding territory.

The poleis valued their independence and were often at war with one another.

Warring city states were often at the mercy of larger imperial states.

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The Greek city-states had their own constitutions and the Greeks debated the virtues of various political
models.

Many of the city-states joined federations or alliance groups run by a hegemon. These were called
ethnoi, or nations.

Such leagues existed even in the Archaic period.

The Leagues were governed by councils of their membership.

The Greeks were a recognizable cultural people but were politically completely divided and often at war
with one another.

Chapter One: Early Greece and the Bronze Age

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There is archaeological evidence from Greece that goes back 40,000 years. This was the Paleolithic era.

About 12,000 years ago the European glaciers began to melt.

By 8000 BC, agriculture had been established in parts of Greece.

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Ritual burials are recorded.

The Parian Marble contains a brief history of Greece:

Cecrops is identified as a king of Athens and some archons are also named.

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Other fragmentary statements.

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The development of plantable crops began in Anatolia in around 8000 BC; in China in 6800 BC and
Mesoamerica around 4000 BC.

The Greeks were closer to the fertile crescent and so obtained the technology of farming and animal
husbandry before the rest of the Europeans did.

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Sources for Early Greek history are not written documents.

The sources that are reliable are archaeological. The stories are largely mythological and are not
especially useful.

About 75 percent of Greece is mountains and the soil is not uniformly fertile.

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Overland travel was difficult.

Travel by sea was much easier, especially to the islands.

The Greeks had few natural resources and had to trade for copper and tin.

Wood was originally abundant but was harvested away. The valleys were fairly fertile if there was
enough rainfall.

Droughts and torrents were perennial dangers to farming.

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Grain, grapes and oil are the Mediterranean triad.

There are oddly enough not a whole lot of fish in the Mediterranean, and meat was a minor source of
nutrition for most people.

Goats and sheep grazed in the hillsides and manured the fallow land.

Oxen were used to pull ploughs.

Horses were for the wealthy and pulled their chariots.

80 percent f the people were engaged in agriculture for the whole of antiquity.

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Agriculture requires people to settle into groups and to establish villages.

The first villages were in the north and on the well-watered plain of Thessaly.

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By 5500 BC the village of Sesklo may have had 1,500 inhabitants.

Hunting and foraging continued alongside farming.

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The arts of weaving and pottery-making appear.

The smaller villages would have been egalitarian, at least among the male inhabitants. Later, lager towns
would evolve a head man.

Greece keeps up with the rest of Asia for a while, but then, around 4000 BC, Iraq develops political and
military institutions that far outstrip those of all others.

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Irrigation and other water management produces huge crops and corresponding population growth.

In 3000 BC the Sumerian city of Uruk covered 500 acres.

These cities were ruled by royal families and priestly and military elites.

Slavery was also instituted.

The Greeks never used religion as a tool of social control.

The making of copper and bronze dates back to the 6 th Millennium BC.

Only the rich could afford bronze tools and weapons.

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The city of Lerna on the Bay of Argos illustrates the role of bronze in Greek history.

Once it got into bronze, its houses became larges and it built protective walls.

The elite in the cities would eventually exert political control over the surrounding countryside as well.

Around 2250 BC, almost all of the cities in the Aegean were destroyed.

This may have been the result of invasions, and there is archaeological evidence of such change.

This was also when the first Greek-speakers entered the Greek territories.

They spoke an Indo-European language.

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Were they Aryans as the 19th century German historians liked to believe?

They were no, but they were certainly warriors.

Zeus was their primary deity, and controlled the weather.

The Indo-European languages almost totally displaced the earlier languages. No on is really sure why.
Political dominance is considered a possibility.

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Contacts with the Greek Islands and Crete took place.

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Heinrich Schliemann was instrumental in discovering the Aegean Civilization of the late 2 nd Millennium
BC.

He dug up Troy and Mycenae in the 1870s.

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Sir Arthur Evans excavated Knossos in 1900 and its palace civilization.

Crete covers 3,400 square miles and is one of the largest islands in the Aegean.

It was first settled in 7000 by Neolithic farmers.

By 2100 BC it started to boom.

The palace of Knossos was built in 2000 BC.

Other palaces were built in other areas and each was the center of a city-state polity.

The palaces were really residences, workshops, store-rooms and ritual centers.

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Knossos was finally destroyed in 1375 BC.

Agricultural products were stored in the palace and then distributed by the political authorities.

The grain supplies made the palace elite rich ad funded the crafts people and artisans attached to the
palaces.

Crete became the crossroads of trade in the Aegean, linking Egypt, Greece, Anatolia and the Levant.

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The Cretans adopt Linear A and then Linear B.

Minoan art owed much to ancient Egypt.

Minoan art does not feature the kings, but scenes from nature.

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Minoan art and the Linear A alphabet were exported to the Cyclades.

Evans thought that Knossos was ruled by a priest-king, as was Egypt.

But it may just have been a hegemonic family with other powerful families in smaller palaces (villas) in
the game as well.

The Minoans had slaves, but no one knows how many.

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The role of the gods was to ensure favorable weather and conditions for the crops.

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The Minoans performed necessary sacrifices to their gods, including, possibly, human.

Ritual objects include the images of bulls, goats, birds and snakes.

The lead god was actually a goddess who was attended by mostly female acolytes.

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The ruling elites no doubt claimed special relationships with the gods.

Around 2000 BC the Cretans began trading with the mainland Greeks.

The Greeks adopted the whole Minoan system of kingship as well as its system of writing.

By 1450, Greeks were living in the Cretan palaces.

Schliemann discovered shaft graves in Mycenae dating from about 1700 to 1500 BC.

The later graves contain pottery but not nearly as much gold as the later ones do.

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All of this treasure came from outside of Greece.

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The kings in Mycenae established their rule and then grew their wealth through control of the trading
systems.

Then, the Mycenaean kings began to built tholos or beehive tombs.

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Most of them were thoroughly plundered in the past, but the intact tombs contained rich treasures.

By 1450, the Mycenaeans who has established colonies in Asia Minor, had taken over Crete and
established Linear B.

The Mycenaeans had adopted the Minoan Linear A, but then adapted it to express Greek words and that
became Linear B, which they then brought back to Crete.

In Linear B, the symbols represent syllables and are not quite alphabetical.

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The new Mycenaean kings probably acted pretty much the same way that the old Minoan kings had.

In 1375, Knossos was burned and looted and Crete did not make a comeback after that.

Mycenaean civilization peaked around 1400-1200 BC,

It was sort of peripheral to the big games in the Middle East and Egypt, which was probably to their
advantage.

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Mycenaean places closely resembled Minoan palaces.

But they were smaller and not as well-built.

The Mycenaean palaces were usually situated on hills with thick defensive walls.

The Mycenaean kings were less secure than the Minoan kings had been (f they really were kings).

The megaron was the ceremonial center of the palace and was used for feasts, rituals, receptions, and
councils.

It would later be the model for temple architecture.

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No single city ruled the others and warfare and competition was commonplace.

In the 1300s the Mycenaeans trades far and wide to Sardinia, Sicily, Egypt and Macedonia.

The Hittites may have considered the king of Mycenae a peer or near-peer.

Nestor was the king of Pylos in the Iliad.

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Linear B tablets show that the dominion of Pylos covered about 1,250 square miles and 200 or so
villages.

The king appointed provincial governors.

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The wanax was the king and the lawagetas was the war leader – maybe.

We don’t know how land was allocated or it the farmers really felt that they were being exploited by the
central administration.

Some officials may have received land grants. Other land seems to have been collectively owned.

Fancy tombs were reserved for the social elite.

The elites did not really have their own palaces, just better furniture and more of it in slightly larger
quarters.

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The slaves were no doubt seriously oppressed, but no one knows how many of them there were.

The product of the land had to support the whole economy.

So, the central authorities were very concerned to keep track of what was going on in the countryside
and how much produce was being produced.

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Workshops turned out goods for domestic consumption and for export.

Carpenters, masons, armorers, gold-smiths, leather-makers, perfume-makers and other crafts are
identified.

The Mycenaeans exported olive oil, wine, hides, leather, textiles, pottery and possibly timber. Also,
luxury goods made of copper, ivory, bronze, gold and silver, amber, dyes and spices.

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Gift exchange was an important way to acquire luxury goods.

The outlying areas were probably not meticulously managed by the palace as long as they sent in their
taxes on time.

There is no evidence of Mycenaean religion before 1600 BC.

At that point they adopt the cult imagery of the Minoans wholesale.

The Mother Goddess was completely adopted into the Mycenaean pantheon.

There were a large number of male and female gods, although the Mycenaeans did not represent their
male gods figuratively I large numbers.

Zeus, Hera and Poseidon are named along with most of the other major Olympians – even Dionysius.

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The names of the major Olympians come from Indo-European roots.

The wanax was not a god, nor did he have a major cult role. He did, however, encourage the belief that
the gods were on his side.

The wanax was primarily a warrior king.

The palace directed all military operations.

The kings might ware bronze plate armor and a helmet made of boars’ tusks.

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The Chariot was also a prestige weapon.

It was used either to convey the hero to the battlefield, or as a platform for archery.

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In Greece they did not seem to represent the backbone of the army and may have been used to
communicated the fact that the Greek wanax was just as good as a Hittite king or Egyptian Pharaoh.

They remained status symbols for centuries after they had ceased to have any military function.

Right around 1200 BC, the Mycenaean palaces were all destroyed by fires.

Many villages were concurrently destroyed.

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By the end of the 12th Century BC, the palace civilization was gone.

Even Athens, which was not burned, barely hung on.

The Hittites suffered a similar fate, as did much of the rest of the Mediterranean.

The Achaeans may have been the Sea Peoples that ravaged Egypt and who destroyed Troy, but the
identification is uncertain.

No one knows who destroyed the palace civilization or why.

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It may have been invaders, earthquakes, droughts, or other disasters, or a combination of all.

Homer Book 1

It is about the wrath of Achilles. He and Agamemnon fight because Agamemnon won’t release the
daughter of Chryses, although offered a rich ransom. Chryses calls upon Apollo for revenge, which
Apollo delivers happily. A seer tells Agamemnon and the other Greeks that they cannot end the plague
sent by Apollo without returning the daughter of Chryses without any ransom. Agamemnon agrees but
only if he gets compensation. Achilles tells him to eat his vegetables and Agamemnon answers that he
will take Briseis from him. Achilles considers murdering Agamemnon, but Hera and Athena intervene.

Achilles agrees to back down, but not before insulting Agamemnon and sitting out the rest of the war.

Nestor tries to get Agamemnon to relent.

Agamemnon will not have it. He thinks that Achilles is way out of line.

Achilles refuse to be treated like a nobody.

Agamemnon then outfitted a ship to return Chryseis home with the hecatomb.

He sends his minions to fetch Briseis from the tent of Achilles.

Achilles allows them to complete their task, but warns that he will not fight the Trojans again.

He complains to his mother Thetis that he has been given a short life but one without honor either.

He reminds his mother that she enjoys special favor from Zeus because she did not try to bind him
when the other gods did.

Achilles wants her to persuade Zeus to make life hard for the Achaeans until Agamemnon comes to his
senses.

Meanwhile, Odysseus returns Chryseis to her father and carries out the required sacrifice.

We learn how a major sacrifice was conducted.

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Thetis approaches Zeus and explains to him the problems that beset Achilles.

Zeus is reluctant to help because Hera will be cross with him. But he does agree. He tilts his head in an
irrevocable gesture.

Hera catches him out, but he refuses to explain what he is about.

But Hera guesses the truth that Zeus has agreed to help the Trojans.

Hephaistos persuades Hera not to remain in a state of strife with Zeus.

Book 18: 478-616

A description of the shield of Achilles.

It has the earth and sky and the constellations.

A marriage scene. But in the midst of it is a quarrel over the blood price of a man who had been killed.

The two men then make their cases in public.

There was also a besieging army outside that was planning an attack.

The city organized its defenders as well. They were planning to ambush the enemy while their wives and
children watched from the city’s ramparts.

There is a battle in which grim Death revels herself.

He depicts plowmen at work.

He also shows people reaping the crops in the precinct of the king.

He also shows a vineyard.

Youths and maidens bore the grapes to the pressing areas.

There was also a herd of oxen.

But lions were killing a bellowing bull. The herdsmen set dogs on the lions but it was too late.

There was a flock of sheep.

There were dancing youths and maidens.

The Ocean River surrounded the scenes.

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Book 22

Apollo has tricked Achilles into chasing him. He points this out once the Trojans were safely back behind
their walls.

Achilles believes that he has been robbed of honor and tells Apollo that he would punish him if he could.

Hector is guarding the gate and Priam warns him not to duel with Achilles because Achilles is the
stronger.

Priam notes that Achilles has already killed many of his sons or sold them into slavery.

Priam does not want to meet a shameful death and be devoured by dogs.

His mother pleads with him to find safety as well.

Hector knows that if he goes into the city, he will be mocked as a coward. Polydamas will begin the
chorus of infamy.

He realizes that he has brought his ruin upon himself.

He thinks maybe he should s just offer to give Helen back and end the war.

Hector stays outside and Achilles chases him around the city walls.

Zeus is sorry to see hector being chased around the city, because he had made many good sacrifices to
Zeus.

He calls the Olympians together to consider whether to save Hector.

Athena says that the other gods will not approve Zeus trying to deliver a man from his fate.

Achilles won’t allow ay of the Greeks to throw missiles at Hector and deprive him of his glory.

Zeus weighs the warriors in the balance and it is hector’s death day. Apollo abandons Hector and Athena
comes to encourage Achilles.

She also disguises herself as Deiphobos and tricks Hector into giving up his flight and making a stand.

Hector stops running and addresses Achilles.

Hector offers to give Achilles body back to the Greeks if he wins. But Achilles refuses to make this
agreement because he is too enraged.

Achilles tosses his spear and misses but Athena retrieves it for him.

Hector thinks that maybe it could be his day after all.

Hector throws his spear and hits the shield of Achilles. He calls on Deiphobos for another spear but
Deiphobos is not there.

Hector realizes that his time has come now.

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He draws his sword to attack.

Hector is wearing the armor of Patrokles.

Achilles notes the weak spot.

Achilles spears Hector in the neck and taunts him for thinking he could kill Patrokles without fear of
revenge.

Hector pleads with Achilles to accept the ransom for his body. Achilles refuses and insults Hector.

Hector realizes that entreaty is vain and reminds Achilles that Apollo and Paris will do him in at the
Skaiian gate.

Achilles strips the body and the other Greeks come to taunt hector.

Achilles resolves to hold a funeral for Patrocles and meanwhile he drags the body of Hector around the
walls of Troy.

Hecuba is totally undone.

Priam wants to go in person to the Achaeans to get the body back.

Andromache comes out of her chambers to see the abuse of her husband’s body.

Their son she realizes no longer has any rank or station without his father to protects him.

Book 23

Back at the camp, Achilles tells Patrocles that he has fulfilled his revenge on Hector and will kill 12 other
Trojan youths. He will let the dogs eat his body raw.

Achilles demands a pyre be built by Agamemnon.

The ghost of Patrocles demands a funeral so he can pass into the house of Hades.

He also wants to be buried alongside Achilles once Achilles is killed.

The pyre is assembled and the Myrmidons escort the body.

They cover the body with locks of their own hair.

They sacrifice animals and wrap the body of Patrocles in the fat.

They put jars of honey and olive oil beside him.

Achilles kills two dogs and 12 Trojans and places their bodies on the pyre.

Achilles wanted the dogs to eat hector but Aphrodite kept them away. She also anoints his body with oil
so that his flesh cannot be corrupted.

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The pyre will not light until Achilles makes an entreaty to the gods Boreas and Zephyros.

Iris brings Achilles’ prayers to the wind gods.

Then the fire caught and made a mighty blaze.

Achilles wants Agamemnon to bury him and Patrocles together.

They extinguish the pyre with wine.

Then they held athletic contests.

Achilles does not participate in the games because he would win if he did.

Nestor gives Antilochus some advice on how to win the chariot race.

Diomedes is reduced to teas when he loses his whip and the chariot race.

But Athene got it back for him.

Ajax and Idomeneus make a wager on the race and Idomeneus berates Ajax for being stupid.

Achilles keeps their quarrel from getting out of hand.

Achilles wants to give the second prize to Eumelos, the son of Admetos, who dragged his wrecked
chariot across the line.

But Antilochus protested and told Achilles that he would be very angry if he took his prize away from
him.

Achilles agrees with Antilochus.

Menelaos protests that Antilochus cheated and wants to have his prize for himself.

Antilochus appeases Menelaos because he acknowledges that he is greater and confesses that he
cheated a bit because of his youth.

Menelaos is appeased and gives the mare back to Antilochus.

Achilles also gives a prize to Nestor because his fighting days are over. Nestor accepts it quite gleefully.

Nestor tells boring stories about his glory days.

Then there was a boxing match and a wrestling match.

Then a foot race.

Odysseus gets Athena to help him beat Ajax.

Antilochus takes last place but speaks well of Achilles who gives him extra gold for his good manners.

Diomedes and Ajax fight a blood duel for the armor of Sarpedon whom Patrocles had killed.

Then an iron-tossing contest and an archery contest.

Apollo helps his favorite to win.

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