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National Science Education Standards (1996)
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272 pages | 8.5 x 10.5 | PAPERBACK
ISBN 978-0-309-05326-6 | DOI 10.17226/4962
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National Committee on Science Education Standards and Assessment; National
Research Council
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National Science Education Standards
C H A P T E R
Science Teaching Standards
Science teaching is a complex activi-
ty that lies at the heart of the vision
of science education presented in
the Standards. The teaching stan-
dards provide criteria for making
ju d gm ents about progress toward
the vision; they describe what teachers of science at all grade levels should
understand and be able to do. ❚ To highlight the importance of teachers in
science edu c a ti on , these standards are presented first. However, to attain the
vision of science education described in the Standards, change is needed in
the en ti re system. Teachers are central to edu c a ti on , but they must not be
placed in the position of being solely responsible for reform. Teachers will
need to work within a co ll egial, organizational, and policy context that is
supportive of good science teaching. In ad d i ti on , s tu dents must accept and
share responsibility for their own learning.
3 S C I E N C E T E A C H I N G S TA N D A R D S 27
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

In the vision of science education portrayed change as described in the program and sys-
by the Standards, effective teachers of sci- tem standards. They must work within a
ence create an environment in which they framework that encourages their efforts.
and students work together as active learn- The changes required in the educational
ers. While students are engaged in learning s ys tem to support quality science teaching
about the natural world and the scientific are major on e s .E ach component of the sys-
principles needed to understand it, teachers tem will change at a different pace, and most
are working with their colleagues to expand changes will be incremental. Nonetheless,
their knowledge about science teaching. To changes in teaching must begin before all of
teach science as portrayed by the Standards, the systemic problems are solved.
teachers must have theoretical and practical
W H AT STUDENTS LEARN IS GREAT LY
knowledge and abilities about science, learn-
I N F LUENCED BY HOW T H EY ARE
ing, and science teaching.
TAU G H T. The decisions about content and
The standards for science teaching are
activities that teachers make, their interac-
grounded in five assumptions.
tions with students, the selection of assess-
■ The vision of science education
ments, the habits of mind that teacher
described by the Standards requires
changes throughout the entire system.
■ What students learn is greatly influ- Teachers must have theoretical and
enced by how they are taught. practical knowledge and abilities about
■ The actions of teachers are deeply
influenced by their perceptions of science, learning, and science teaching.
science as an enterprise and as a sub-
demonstrate and nurture among their stu-
ject to be taught and learned.
dents, and the attitudes conveyed wittingly
■ Student understanding is actively
and unwittingly all affect the knowledge,
constructed through individual and
understanding, abilities, and attitudes that
social processes.
students develop.
■ Actions of teachers are deeply influ-
enced by their understanding of and
THE ACTIONS OF T E ACHERS ARE
relationships with students.
D E E P LY INFLUENCED BY THEIR PE R-
THE VISION OF SCIENCE EDUCAT I O N CEPTIONS OF SCIENCE AS AN ENTER-
DESCRIBED BY THE STA N D A R D S PRISE AND AS A SUBJECT TO BE
R E QUIRES CHANGES T H RO U G H O U T TAUGHT AND LEARNED. All teachers of
THE ENTIRE SYS T E M . The educational science have implicit and explicit beliefs
system must act to sustain effective teach- about science, learning, and teaching.
ing. The routines, rewards, structures, and Teachers can be effective guides for students See Professional
expectations of the system must endorse the learning science only if they have the oppor- Development
vision of science teaching portrayed by the tunity to examine their own beliefs, as well Standard A
Standards. Teachers must be provided with as to develop an understanding of the tenets
resources, time, and opportunities to make on which the Standards are based.
28 3 S C I E N C E T E A C H I N G S TA N D A R D S
STUDENT UNDERSTANDING IS AC T I V E- teaching and with the vision of science edu-

LY CO N S T RUCTED T H ROUGH INDIVID- cation described in the Standards.
UAL AND SOCIAL PRO C E S S E S . In the The teaching standards begin with a focus
same way that scientists develop their on the long-term planning that teachers do.
knowledge and understanding as they seek The discussion then moves to facilitating
answers to questions about the natural learning, assessment, and the classroom envi-
world, students develop an understanding of ronment.Finally, the teaching standards
the natural world when they are actively address the teach er ’s role in the school com-
engaged in scientific inquiry—alone and munity. The standards are applicable at all
with others. grade levels, but the teaching at different grade
levels will be different to reflect the capabilities
ACTIONS OF TEACHERS ARE DEEPLY
and interests of students at different ages.
INFLUENCED BY THEIR UNDERSTAND-
Teachers across the country will find
ING OF AND RELATIONSHIPS WITH
some of their current practices reflected
See Teaching S T U D E N TS . The standards for science
Standard D teaching require building strong, sustained
rel a ti onships with students. These rel a ti on- A challenge to teachers of science is to
ships are grounded in knowl ed ge and
awareness of the similarities and differ-
balance and integrate immediate needs
ences in students’ backgrounds, experi- with the intentions of the yearlong
en ce s , and current views of s c i en ce . The
diversity of tod ay ’s student population and
framework of goals.
the com m i tm ent to science edu c a ti on for
below. They also will find criteria that sug-
all requires a firm belief that all students
gest new and different practi ce s . Because
can learn scien ce .
change takes time and takes place at the
local level, differences in indivi du a l s ,
The St a n d a rds s ch oo l s , and com mu n i ties will be reflected

in different pathways to reform, different
Dividing science teaching into separate rates of progress, and different em ph a s e s .
components oversimplifies a complex For example, a beginning teacher might
process; nevertheless, some division is focus on developing skills in managing the
required to manage the presentation of cri- learning environment rather than on long-
teria for good science teaching, accepting term planning, whereas a more experi-
that this leaves some overlap. In addition, enced group of teachers might work
the teaching standards cannot possibly together on new modes for assessing stu-
address all the understanding and abilities dent achievem en t . Deliberate movem en t
that masterful teachers display. Therefore, over time toward the vision of s c i en ce
the teaching standards focus on the qualities teaching de s c ri bed here is important if
that are most closely associated with science reform is to be pervasive and permanent.

T E ACHING STANDARD A: Teachers also change their plans based on

Teachers of science plan an the assessment and analysis of student
i n q u i ry-based science prog ra m achievement and the prior knowledge and
for their student s. In doing this, beliefs students have demonstrated. Thus,
te a c h e r s an inquiry might be extended because it
■ Develop a framework of yearlong and sparks the interest of students, an activity
short-term goals for students. might be added because a particular con-
■ Select science content and adapt and cept has not been understood, or more
design curricula to meet the interests, group work might be incorporated into the
knowledge, understanding, abilities, plan to encourage communication. A chal-
and experiences of students. lenge to teachers of science is to balance and
■ Select teaching and assessment strate- integrate immediate needs with the inten-
gies that support the development of tions of the yearlong framework of goals.
student understanding and nurture a During planning, goals are translated into See Program
community of science learners. a curriculum of specific topics, units,and Standard B
■ Work together as colleagues sequenced activities that help students make
within and across disciplines sense of their world and understand the
and grade levels. fundamental ideas of science. The content
standards,as well as state,district,and
D EV E LOP A FRA M EWORK OF Y E A R-
school frameworks, provide guides for
LONG AND SHORT-TERM GOALS FOR
teachers as they select specific science topics.
S T U D E N TS . All teachers know that plan-
Some frameworks allow teachers choices in
ning is a critical component of effective
determining topics, sequences, activities,
teaching. One important aspect of planning
and materials. Others mandate goals, objec-
is setting goals. In the vision of science edu-
tives, content, and materials. In either case,
cation described in the Standards, teachers
teachers examine the extent to which a cur-
of science take responsibility for setting
riculum includes inquiry and direct experi-
yearlong and short-term goals; in doing so,
mentation as methods for developing
they adapt school and district program
understanding. In planning and choosing
goals, as well as state and national g oals, to
curricula, teachers strive to balance breadth
the experiences and interests of their stu-
of topics with depth of understanding.
dents individually and as a group.
Once teachers have devised a framework SELECT SCIENCE CONTENT AND
of goals, plans remain flexible. Decisions are ADAPT AND DESIGN CURRICULA TO
visited and revisited in the light of experi- MEET THE INTERESTS ,K N OW L E D G E,
ence. Teaching for understanding requires U N D E R S TA N D I N G , A B I L I T I E S , A N D
responsiveness to students, so activities and E X PERIENCES OF STUDENTS . In deter-
strategies are continuously adapted and mining the specific science content and
refined to address topics arising from stu- activities that make up a curriculum, teach-
dent inquiries and experiences, as well as ers consider the students who will be lear n-
school, community, and national events. ing the science. Whether working with man-
dated content and activities, selecting from teaching and learning models relevant to
extant activities, or creating original activi- classroom science teaching. Knowing the
ties, teachers plan to meet the particular strengths and weaknesses of these models,
interests, knowledge, and skills of their stu- teachers examine the relationship between
dents and build on their questions and the science content and how that content is
See Program ideas. Such decisions rely heavily on a to be taught. Teachers of science integrate a
Standard E and teacher’s knowledge of students’ cognitive sound model of teaching and learning, a
System Standard E potential, developmental level, physical practical structure for the sequence of activ-
attributes, affective development, and moti- ities, and the content to be learned.
vation—and how they learn. Teachers are In qu i ry into aut h en tic qu e s ti ons gener-
aware of and understand common naive ated from student experi en ces is the central
concepts in science for given grade levels, as strategy for teaching scien ce . Teachers
well as the cultural and experiential back- focus inquiry predominantly on real phe-
ground of students and the effects these n om en a , in classrooms, outdoors, or in
have on learning. Teachers also consider laboratory set ti n gs , where students are
their own strengths and interests and take given inve s ti ga ti ons or guided toward fash-
into account available resources in the local ioning inve s ti ga ti ons that are demanding
environment. For example,in Cleveland, the but within their capabi l i ti e s .
study of Lake Erie, its pollution,and As more complex topics are addressed,
students cannot always return to basic phe-
Inquiry into authentic questions nomena for every conceptual understand-
ing. Nevertheless, teachers can take an
generated from student experiences is inquiry approach as they guide students in
the central strategy for teaching science. acquiring and interpreting information
from sources such as libraries, government
cleanup is an important part of a science documents, and computer databases—or as
curriculum,as is the study of earthquakes they gather information from experts from
in the Los Angeles area. Teachers can work industry, the community, and government.
with local personnel, such as those at Other teaching strategies rely on teachers,
science-rich centers (museums, industries, texts, and secondary sources—such as video,
universities, etc.), to plan for the use of film, and computer simulations. When sec-
exhibits and educational programs that ondary sources of scientific knowledge are
enhance the study of a particular topic. used,students need to be made aware of the
processes by which the knowledge presented
SELECT T E ACHING AND ASSESSMENT in these sources was acquired and to under-
S T RATEGIES T H AT SUPPORT T H E stand that the sources are authoritative and
D EV E LOPMENT OF STUDENT UNDER- accepted within the scientific community.
S TANDING AND NURTURE A CO M M U- Another dimension of planning relates to See Teaching
N I TY OF SCIENCE LEARNERS. Over the the organization of students. Science often is Standard E
years, educators have developed many a collaborative endeavor, and all science

depends on the ultimate sharing and debat- development of knowledge, understanding,

ing of ideas. When carefully guided by and abilities as students pursue their work
teachers to ensure full participation by all, throughout the academic year.
interactions among individuals and groups
WORK TOGETHER AS CO L L E AG U E S
in the classroom can be vital in deepening
WITHIN AND AC ROSS DISCIPLINES
the understanding of scientific concepts and
AND GRADE LEV E L S . Individual and
the nature of scientific endeavors. The size
co ll ective planning is a cornerstone of sci-
of a group depends on age, resources,and
ence teaching; it is a vehicle for profession-
the nature of the inquiry.
al support and growth. In the vision of sci-
Teachers of science must decide when and
ence edu c a ti on de s c ri bed in the Standards, See Program
for what purposes to use whole-class instruc-
many planning decisions are made by Standard F
ti on ,s m a ll - group collabora ti on , and individ-
groups of teachers at grade and building
ual work. For ex a m p l e ,i nve s ti ga ting simple
levels to construct coherent and articulated
electric circuits initially might best be
programs within and across grades.
explored individually. As students move
S ch ools must provide teachers with time
toward building complex circuits,small
and access to their colleagues and others
group interactions might be more effective to
who can serve as resources if co ll a borative
share ideas and materials, and a full-class dis-
planning is to occur.
cussion then might be used to verify experi-
ences and draw conclusions.
T E ACHING STANDARD B:
The plans of teachers provide opportuni-
Teachers of science guide and
ties for all students to learn science.
f a c i l i t ate learn i n g. In doing this,
Therefore, planning is heavily dependent on
te a c h e r s
the teacher’s awareness and understanding
■ Focus and support inquiries while
of the diverse abilities, interests, and cultural
interacting with students.
backgrounds of students in the classroom.
■ Orchestrate discourse among students
Planning also takes into account the social
about scientific ideas.
structure of the classroom and the chal-
■ Challenge students to accept and
lenges posed by diverse student groups.
share responsibility for their own
Effective planning includes sensitivity to
learning.
student views that might conflict with cur-
■ Recognize and respond to student
rent scientific knowledge and strategies that
diversity and encourage all students
help to support alternative ways of making
to participate fully in science learning.
sense of the world while developing the sci-
■ Encourage and model the skills of sci-
entific explanations.
entific inquiry, as well as the curiosity,
Teachers plan activities that they and the
openness to new ideas and data,and
students will use to assess the understanding
skepticism that characterize science.
and abilities that students hold when they
begin a learning activity. In addition, appro- Coordinating people, i de a s , materials, and
priate ways are designed to monitor the the science classroom environment are
difficult, con ti nual tasks. This standard secondary sources—including media, books,
focuses on the work that teachers do as and journals in a library.
they implement the plans of Standard A In successful science classrooms, teachers
in the classroom. and students collaborate in the pursuit of
Teachers of science constantly make deci- ideas, and students quite often initiate new
sions, such as when to change the direction activities related to an inquiry. Students for-
of a discussion,how to engage a particular mulate questions and devise ways to answer
them, they collect data and decide how to
At all stages of inquiry, represent it, they organize data to generate
teachers guide, focus, challenge, and knowledge,and they test the reliability of
the knowledge they have generated. As they
encourage student learning. proceed, students explain and justify their
student, when to let a student pursue a par- work to themselves and to one another,
ticular interest, and how to use an opportu- learn to cope with problems such as the lim-
nity to model scientific skills and attitudes. itations of equipment, and react to chal-
Teachers must struggle with the tension lenges posed by the teacher and by class-
between guiding students toward a set of mates. Students assess the efficacy of their
predetermined goals and allowing students efforts—they evaluate the data they have
to set and meet their own goals. Teachers collected, re-examining or collecting more if
face a similar tension between taking the necessary, and making statements about the
time to allow students to pursue an interest generalizability of their findings. They plan See Teaching
in greater depth and the need to move on to and make presentations to the rest of the Standard E
new areas to be studied. Furthermore, class about their work and accept and react
teachers constantly strike a balance among to the constructive criticism of others.
the demands of the understanding and abil- At all stages of inquiry, teachers guide,
ity to be acquired and the demands of stu- focus, ch a ll en ge , and en co u ra ge student
dent-centered developmental learning. The learning. Successful teachers are skilled
result of making these decisions is the observers of s tu dents, as well as knowl ed ge-
enacted curriculum—the planned curricu- able about science and how it is learn ed .
lum as it is modified and shaped by the Teachers match their actions to the particu-
interactions of students, teachers, materials, lar needs of the students, deciding when and
and daily life in the classroom. how to guide—when to demand more rigor-
ous grappling by the students, when to pro-
FOCUS AND SUPPORT INQU I R I E S . vide inform a ti on , when to provide particular
See Content Student inquiry in the science classroom tools, and when to connect students with
Standard A (all encompasses a range of activities. Some other sources.
grade levels) activities provide a basis for observation, In the science classroom envisioned by See Program
data collection, reflection, and analysis of the Standards, effective teachers continually Standard E and
firsthand events and phenomena. Other create opportunities that challenge students System Standard E
activities encourage the critical analysis of and promote inquiry by asking questions.

Ea rt h wo rm s earthworms from a biological supply house,

they would come with egg cases and baby
earthworms and the children would be able
Ms. F. is planning and teaching a unit that
to observe the adult earthworms, the egg
provides students with the opportunity to
understand the sci en ce in the K-4 Life Sci en ce cases, the young earthworms, and some of
Content Standard. She plans to do this the animal’s habits.
through inquiry. Of the many organisms she Before preparing a habitat for the earth-
might ch oo se to use, she selects an organism worms, students spent time outdoors closely
that is familiar to the students, one that they examining the environment where the
have observed in the schoolya rd . As a life-long
worms had been found. This fieldtrip was
learner, Ms. F. uses the resources in the com-
followed by a discussion about imp ortant
munity, a local museum, to increase her
knowl ed ge and help with her planning. She aspects of keeping earthworms in the class-
also uses the resources of the school—materials room: How would students create a place
available for sci en ce and media in the school for the earthworms that closely resembled
library. She models the habits and values of the natural setting? An earthworm from
sci en ce by the care provided to the animals. outside was settled into a large terrarium
Students write and draw their observations.
away from direct sun; black paper was
Developing communication skills in sci en ce
and in language arts reinforce one another. secured over the sides of the terrarium into
which the children had put soil, leaves, and
[This example highlights some elements of
grass.A week later the earthworms arrived
Teaching Standards A, B, D, and E;
Professional Development Standard C; K-4 from the supply company and were added
Content Standards A and C; Program to the habitat.
Standards B and D; and System Standard D.] Ms. F. had been thinking about what she
wanted the children to achieve and the
While studying a vacant lot near school, guidance she needed to give. She wanted the
several of Ms. F.’s third-grade students students to become familiar with the basic
became fascinated with earthworms. needs of the earthworms and how to care
Although she had never used earthworms in for them. It was important that the children
the science classroom before,and she knew develop a sense of responsibility toward liv-
she could use any of a number of small ani- ing things as well as enhance their skills of
mals to meet her goals, Ms. F. felt she could observation and recording. She also felt that
draw from her experience and knowledge this third grade class would be able to
working with other small animals in the design simple experiments that would help
classroom.She called the local museum of the students learn about some of the behav-
natural history to talk with personnel to be iors of the earthworms.
sure she knew enough about earthworms to In the first 2 weeks, the students began
care for them and to guide the children’s closely observing the earthworms and
explorations. She learned that it was rela- recording their habits. The students record-
tively easy to house earthworms over long ed what the earthworms looked like, how
periods. She was told that if she ordered the they moved, and what the students thought
the earthworms were doing. The students library. They had also removed several very
described color and shape; they weighed young (very small) earthworms from the
and measured the earthworms and kept a terrarium and were trying to decide how
large chart of the class data, which provoked they might keep track of the growth.
a discussion about variation. They observed Two groups were investigating what kind
and described how the earthworms moved of environment the earthworms liked best.
on a surface and in the soil. Questions and Both were struggling with several variables
ideas about the earthworms came up con- at once—moisture,light,and temperature.
tinually. Ms. F. recorded these thoughts on a Ms. F. planned to let groups struggle before
chart, but she kept the students focused on suggesting that students focus on one vari-
their descriptive work. Then Ms. F. turned able at a time. She hoped they might come
to what else the children might want to find to this idea on their own.
out about earthworms and how they might A fourth group was trying to decide what
go about doing so. Among the many ques- the earthworms liked to eat. The students
tions on the chart w ere: How do the earth- had been to the library twice and now were
worms have babies? Do they like to live in ready to test some foods.
some kinds of soil better than others? What The last two groups were working on set-
are those funny things on the top of the ting up an old ant farm with transparent
soil? Do they really like the dark? How do sides to house earthworms, because they
they go through the dirt? How big can an were interested in observing what the earth-
earthworm get? worms actually did in the soil and what
Ms. F. let all the questions flow in a dis- happened in different kinds of soil.
cussion, and then she asked the students to In their study of earthworms, Mrs. F.’s
divide into groups and to see if they could students learned about the basic needs of
come up with a question or topic that they animals,about some of the structures and
would like to explore. When the class recon- functions of one animal, some features of
ven ed , each group shared what they were animal behavior, and about life cycles. They
going to explore and how they might investi- also asked and answered questions and
gate the topic. The students en ga ged in lively communicated their understandings to one
discussion as they shared their proposed another. They observed the outdoors and
explora ti on s . Ms. F. then told the students used the library and a classroom well
that they should think about how they might equipped to teach science.
con du ct their inve s ti ga ti ons and that they
would share these ideas in the next class.
A week later, the investigations were well
under way. One group had chosen to inves-
tigate the life cycle of earthworms and had
found egg cases in the soil. While waiting
for baby earthworms to hatch, they had
checked books about earthworms out of the

Although open exploration is useful for stu- small and larger group interactions is to lis-
dents when they encounter new materials ten, encourage broad participation, and
and phenomena, teachers need to intervene judge how to guide discussion—determin-
to focus and challenge the students, or the ing ideas to follow, ideas to question, infor-
exploration might not lead to understand- mation to provide, and connections to
ing. Premature intervention deprives stu- make. In the hands of a skilled teacher, such
dents of the opportunity to confront prob- group work leads students to recognize the
lems and find solutions, but intervention expertise that different members of the
that occurs too late risks student frustration. group bring to each endeavor and the
Teachers also must decide when to challenge greater value of evidence and argument over
students to make sense of their experiences: personality and style.
At these points,students should be asked to
explain, clarify, and critically examine and CHALLENGE STUDENTS TO ACC E P T
assess their work. AND SHARE RESPONSIBILITY FOR
THEIR OWN LEARNING. Teachers make
O RC H E S T RATE DISCOURSE AMONG
it clear that each student must take respon-
S T U D E N TS ABOUT SCIENTIFIC IDEAS.
sibility for his or her work. The teacher also
An important stage of inquiry and of stu-
creates opportunities for students to take
dent science learning is the o ral and written
responsibility for their own learning, indi-
discourse that focuses the attention of stu-
vidually and as members of groups.
dents on how they know what they know
Teachers do so by supporting student ideas
and how their knowledge connects to larger
and questions and by encouraging students
ideas, other domains,and the world beyond
to pursue them. Teachers give individual
the classroom. Teachers directly support and
students active roles in the design and
guide this discourse in two ways: They
implementation of investigations, in the
require students to record their work—
preparation and presentation of student
teaching the necessary skills as ap propri-
work to their peers, and in student assess-
ate—and they promote many different
ment of their own work.
forms of communication (for example, spo-
ken, written, pictorial, graphic, mathemati-
cal, and electronic). R E COGNIZE AND RESPOND TO STU-
Using a collaborative group structure, DENT DIVERSITY AND ENCO U RAG E
teachers encourage interdependency among ALL STUDENTS TO PA RT I C I PATE FULLY
group members, assisting students to work IN SCIENCE LEARNING. In all aspects of
together in small groups so that all partici- science learning as envisioned by the
pate in sharing data and in developing Standards, skilled teachers recognize the
group reports. Teachers also give groups diversity in their classes and organize the
opportunities to make presentations of their classroom so that all students have the
work and to engage with their classmates in opportunity to participate fully. Teachers
explaining, clarifying, and justifying what monitor the participation of all students,
they have learned. The teacher’s role in these carefully determining, for instance,if all
members of a collaborative group are work- inquiry. Teachers who exhibit enthusiasm
ing with materials or if one student is mak- and interest and who speak to the power
ing all the decisions. This monitoring can be and beauty of scientific understanding
particularly important in classes of diverse instill in their students some of those same
students, where social issues of status and attitudes toward science. Teachers whose
authority can be a factor. actions demonstrate respect for differing
Teachers of science orchestrate their class- ideas, attitudes, and values support a dispo-
es so that all students have equal opportuni- sition fundamental to science and to science
ties to participate in learning activities. classrooms that also is important in many
Students with physical disabilities might everyday situations.
The ability of teachers to do all that is
Teachers who are enthusiastic, required by Standard B requires a sophisti-
cated set of judgments about science,stu-
interested, and who speak of the power dents, learning, and teaching. To develop
and beauty of scientific understanding these judgments, successful teachers must
have the opportunity to work with col-
instill in their students some of leagues to discuss, share, and increase their
those same attitudes. knowledge. They are also more likely to suc-
ceed if the fundamental beliefs about stu-
require modified equipment; students with dents and about learning are shared across
limited English ability might be encouraged their school community in all learning
to use their own language as well as English domains. Successful implementation of this
and to use forms of presenting data such as vision of science teaching and learning also
pictures and graphs that require less lan- requires that the school and district provide
guage proficiency; students with learning the necessary resources,including time, sci-
disabilities might need more time to com- ence materials, professional development
plete science activities. opportunities, appropriate numbers of stu-
dents per teacher, and appropriate sched-
E N CO U RAGE AND MODEL THE SKILLS
ules. For example, class periods must be
OF SCIENTIFIC INQU I RY, AS WELL AS
long enough to enable the type of inquiry
THE CURIOSITY, O PENNESS TO NEW
teaching described here to be achieved.
I D E A S , AND SKEPTICISM T H AT CHAR-
ACTERIZE SCIENCE. Implementing the
recommendations above requires a range of T E ACHING STANDARD C:
actions based on careful assessments of stu- Teachers of science engage in
dents, knowledge of science, and a reper- ongoing assessment of their
toire of science-teaching strategies. One teaching and of student learn i n g.
aspect of the teacher’s role is less tangible: In doing this, te a c h e r s
teachers are models for the students they ■ Use multiple methods and systemati-
teach.A teacher who engages in inquir y cally gather data about student
with students models the skills needed for understanding and ability.

■ Analyze assessment data to guide tasks that are also good learning experi en ce s .
teaching. These assessment tasks focus on important
■ Guide students in self-assessment. content and performance goals and provide
■ Use student data,observations of s tu dents with an opportunity to demonstrate
teaching, and interactions with col- their understanding and ability to con du ct
leagues to reflect on and improve science. Also, teachers use many strategies to
teaching practice. gather and interpret the large amount of
■ Use student data,observations of information about student understanding of
teaching, and interactions with col- science that is present in thoughtful instruc-
leagues to report student achieve- tional activities.
ment and opportunities to learn to Classroom assessments can take many
students, teachers, parents, policy forms. Teachers observe and listen to stu-
makers, and the general public. dents as they work individually and in
The word “assessment” is commonly equat- groups. They interview students and require
ed with testing, grading, and providing feed- formal performance tasks, investigative
back to students and parents. However, reports, written reports,pictorial work,
these are only some of the uses of assess- models,inventions,and other creative
ment data. Assessment of students and of expressions of understanding. They examine
teaching—formal and informal—provides portfolios of student work,as well as more
teachers with the data they need to make the traditional paper-and-pencil tests. Each
many decisions that are required to plan mode of assessment serves particular pur-
and conduct their teaching. Assessment data poses and particular students. Each has par-
also provide information for communicat- ticular strengths and weaknesses and is used
ing about student progress with individual to gather different kinds of information
students and with adults, including parents, about student understanding and ability.
other teachers, and administrators. The teacher of science chooses the form of
the assessment in relationship to the partic-
USE MULTIPLE METHODS AND SYS-
ular learning goals of the class and the expe-
T E M AT I CA L LY GATHER DATA ON STU-
riences of the students.
DENT UNDERSTANDING AND ABILITY.
During the ordinary operation of a class, ANALYZE ASSESSMENT DATA TO GUIDE See Assessment in
information about students’ understanding T E AC H I N G . Analysis of student assessment Science Education
of science is needed almost continuously. data provides teachers with knowl ed ge to in Chapter 5
Assessment tasks are not afterthoughts to meet the needs of each student. It gives them
instructional planning but are built into the indicators of each student’s current under-
design of the teaching. Because assessment standing, the nature of each student’s think-
information is a powerful tool for monitoring, and the origin of what each knows. This
ing the development of student understand- knowl ed ge leads to decisions about individ-
ing, modifying activities, and promoting stu- ual teacher-student interactions, to modifica-
dent self-reflection, the effective teacher of tions of learning activities to meet diverse
science carefully selects and uses assessment s tu dent needs and learning approach e s ,a n d
S c i e n ce Oly m p i a d ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: This assess-

ment activity provides the teacher with
information about student achievement.
This example illustrates the close relationship
That information can be used to assign
between teaching and assessment. The assess-
ment tasks are developmentally appropriate grades to students and to make promotion
for young children, including recognition of decisions. By involving the community, par-
students’ physicals skills and cognitive abili- ents, and older siblings in the assessment
ties. The titles in this e xample (e.g., “Science process, the activity increases the communi-
Content”) emphasize some important comp o- ty's understanding of and support for the
nents of the assessment process. As students
elementary school science program.
move from station to station displaying their
understanding and ability in science, mem- D ATA : Student records in science laboratory
bers of the community evaluate the students’ notebooks
science achievement and can observe that the
Teachers' observations of students
students have had the opportunity to learn
science. An Olympiad entails extensive plan- Community members' observa ti on s
ning, and even when the resources are com- of students
mon and readily available, it takes time to
CO N T E XT: Assessment activities of this
design and set up an Olympiad.
general form are appropriate as an end-of-
[This example highlights some elements of the-year activity for grades 1-4. The public
Teaching Standards A, C,and D; Assessment performance involves students engaging in
Standards A, B, C, and E; K-4 Content inquiry process skills at several stations
Standards A and B; Program Standards D located in and around the science class-
and F; and System Standards D and G.]
room. Parents, local business persons, com-
munity leaders, and faculty from higher
SCIENCE CO N T E N T: The K-4 Content education act as judges of student perfor-
Standard for Science as Inquiry sets the cri- mance. Benefits to the students and to the
terion that students should be able to use school and the science program, such as
simple equipment and tools to gather data. increased parental and community involve-
In this assessment exercise, four tasks use ment,are well worth the costs of the consid-
common materials to allow students to erable planning and organization on the
demonstrate their abilities. part of the teacher. Planning includes 1)
selecting appropriate tasks, 2) collecting
ASSESSMENT AC T I V I TY: Students make
necessary equipment, 3) making task cards,
and record observations.
4) checking the equipment, 5) obtaining
ASSESSMENT TY PE : Performance,pub- and training judges, and 6) preparing stu-
lic, authentic, individual. dents for public performance.

As s e s s m e nt Exe rc i s e :
S TATION A. Measuring Wind Speed S TATION C. Comparing Weights
a. Equipment a. Equipment
1. Small, battery-operated fan 1. Balance
2. Wind gauge 2. Collections of objects in bags
3. Table marked with a letter-by- (Teachers select objects that have
number grid irregular shapes and are made of
4. Task cards with directions materials of different densities so that
b. Task volume and mass are not correlated.)
1. Place the wind gauge at position D-4 3. Task card with directions
on the grid. b. Task
2. Place the fan at position G-6 facing 1. Arrange the objects in one bag in
the wind gauge. order of their weights.
3. Turn the fan on to medium speed. 2. Describe how you arranged the
4. Record the wind speed and direction objects.
in your laboratory notebook.
S TATION D. Measuring Volumes
S TATION B. Rolling Cylinders a. Equipment
a. Equipment 1. Graduated cylinder, calibrated in half
1. Four small clear plastic cylinders— cubic centimeters.
one filled with sand, one empty, one 2. Numbered stones of various colors,
1/4 filled with sand, and one 1/2 shapes, and sizes but small enough to
filled with sand fit into the cylinder.
2. Adjustable incline 3. Several containers marked A, B, C,
3. Strips of colored paper of various and D.
lengths 4. Task cards with directions
4. Task cards with directions b. Task 1
b. Task 1 1. Measure the volume of container A.
1. Roll each cylinder down the incline. 2. Record your measurement in your
2. Describe the motion of the cylinders laboratory notebook.
and their relation to each other. c. Task 2
c. Task 2 1. Measure the volume of the stone
1. Place the blue strip of paper at the marked 1.
bottom of the incline. 2. Record your measurement in your
2. Select one of the cylinders, and adjust laboratory notebook.
the angle of the incline so that the
cylinder consistently rolls just to the
end of the blue strip.
E VA LU AT I N G S T U D E N T P E R F O R M A N C E
Aspects of a student's performance and criteria for evaluation include:
PERFORMANCE INDICATOR EVIDENCE

Following directions Student follows the directions.
Measuring and recording data Measurements are reasonably accurate and include
correct units
Planning Student organizes the work: (1) observations of
the rolling cylinders are sequenced logically,
(2) student selects the cylinder with the most
predictable motion for Part 2 of the rolling-
cylinders task,(3) student records the weights of
the objects before attempting to order them in the
ordering-by-weight task.
Elegance of approach Student invents a sophisticated way of collecting,
recording, or reporting observations.
Evidence of reflection Student comments on observations in ways that
indicate that he/she is attempting to find patterns
and causal relationships.
Quality of observations Observations are appropriate to the task, complete,
accurate,and have some basis in experience or
scientific understanding.
Behavior in the face of adversity The student seeks help and does not panic if sand
or water is spilled or glassware is broken, but
proceeds to clean up, get replacements,and
continue the task.

to the design of learning activities that build USE STUDENT DATA ,O B S E RVAT I O N S
from student experi en ce ,c u l tu re , and prior OF T E AC H I N G , AND INTERAC T I O N S
understanding. WITH CO L L E AGUES TO REFLECT ON
AND IMPROVE T E ACHING PRAC T I C E.
See Inproving GUIDE STUDENTS IN SELF-ASSESS-
In the science education envisioned by the
Classroom Pratice MENT. Sk i ll ed teachers guide students to
Standards, teachers of science approach
in Chapter 5 understand the purposes for their own
their teaching in a spirit of inquiry—assess-
learning and to formulate self-assessment
ing, reflecting on,and learning from their
strategies. Teachers provide students with
own practice. They seek to understand
opportunities to develop their abilities to
which plans, decisions, and actions are
assess and reflect on their own scientific
effective in helping students and which are
accomplishments. This process provi de s
not. They ask and answer such questions as:
teachers with additional perspectives on stu-
“Why is this content important for this
dent learning, and it deepens each student’s
group of students at this stage of their
development? Why did I select these partic-
Skilled teachers guide students to ular learning activities? Did I choose good
understand the purposes for their examples? How do the activities tie in with
student needs and interests? How do they
own learning and to formulate build on what students already know? Do
self-assessment strategies. they evoke the level of reasoning that I
wanted? What evidence of effect on students
understanding of the content and its appli- do I expect?”
c a ti on s . The interactions of teachers and stu- As teachers engage in study and research
dents concerning eva lu a ti on criteria helps about their teaching, they gather data from
See Program
s tu dents understand the expectations for classroom and external assessments of stu-
Standard F
their work, as well as giving them experi en ce dent achievement, from peer observations
in applying standards of scientific practice to and supervisory evaluations, and from self-
their own and others’ scientific efforts. The questioning. They use self-reflection and
internalization of such standards is critical to discussion with peers to understand more
s tu dent achievement in scien ce . fully what is happening in the classroom
Involving students in the assessment and to explore strategies for improvement.
process does not diminish the responsibili- To engage in reflection on teaching, teachers
ties of the teacher—it increases them. It must have a structure that guides and
requires teachers to help students develop encourages it—a structure that provides
skills in self-reflection by building a learning opportunities to have formal and informal
environment where students review each dialogues about student learning and their
other’s work, offer sugge s ti on s , and ch a ll en ge science teaching practices in forums with
mistakes in inve s ti ga tive processes, faulty peers and others; opportunities to read and
reasoning, or poorly supported conclusions. discuss the research literature about science
content and pedagogy with other education ■ Create a setting for student work that
professionals; opportunities to design and is flexible and supportive of science
revise learning experiences that will help inquiry.
students to attain the desired learning; ■ Ensure a safe working environment.
opportunities to practice, observe, critique, ■ Make the available science tools,
and analyze effective teaching models and materials, media,and technological
the challenges of implementing exemplary resources accessible to students.
strategies; and opportunities to build the ■ Identify and use resources outside
skills of self-reflection as an ongoing process the school.
throughout each teacher’s professional life. ■ Engage students in designing the
learning environment.
USE STUDENT DATA ,O B S E RVAT I O N S
Time, space, and materials are critical com-
OF T E AC H I N G , AND INTERAC T I O N S
ponents of an effective science learning
WITH CO L L E AGUES TO REPORT STU-
environment that promotes sustained
DENT AC H I EVEMENT AND OPPORT U-
inquiry and understanding. Creating an
NITIES TO LEARN TO STUDENTS ,
adequate environment for science teaching
T E AC H E R S , PA R E N TS , POLICY MAKERS,
is a shared responsibility. Teachers lead the
AND THE GENERAL PUBLIC. Teachers
way in the design and use of resources, but
have the obligation to report student
school administrators,students, parents,
achievement data to many individuals and
agencies, including the students and their
parents, certification agencies, employers,
Teachers of science need regular,
policy makers, and taxpayers. Although adequate space for science.
reports might include grades, teachers
and community members must meet their
might also prepare profiles of student
responsibility to ensure that the resources
achievement. The opportunity that students
are available to be used. Developing a sched-
have had to learn science is also an essential
ule that allows time for science investiga-
component of reports on student achieve-
tions needs the cooperation of all in the
ment in science understanding and ability.
school; acquiring materials requires the
T E ACHING STANDARD D: appropriation of funds; maintaining scien-
Teachers of science design and tific equipment is the shared responsibility
manage learning env i ro n m e nt s of students and adults alike; and designing
t h at provide students with the appropriate use of the scientific institutions
t i m e, s p a ce, and re s o u rces need- and resources in the local community
ed for learning science. In doing requires the participation of the school and
t h i s, te a c h e r s those institutions and individuals.
See Program ■ Structure the time available so that This standard addresses the classroom
Standard D students are able to engage in use of time, space, and resources—the ways
and System extended investigations. in which teachers make decisions about
Standard D

how to design and manage them to create play their results. Teachers also provide stu-
the best possible opportunities for students dents with the opportunity to contribute their
to learn scien ce . ideas about use of space and furnishings.
STRUCTURE THE TIME AVAILABLE SO ENSURE A SAFE WORKING ENVIRO N- See Program
THAT STUDENTS ARE ABLE TO ENGAGE M E N T. Safety is a fundamental concern in Standard D
IN EXTENDED INVESTIGATIONS. Building all experimental science. Teachers of science
scientific understanding takes time on a must know and apply the necessary safety
daily basis and over the long term. Schools regulations in the storage, use,and care of
must restructure schedules so that teachers the materials used by students. They adhere
can use blocks of time, interdisciplinary to safety rules and guidelines that are estab-
strategies,and field experiences to give stu- lished by national organizations such as the
dents many opportunities to engage in seri- American Chemical Society and the Occu-
ous scientific investigation as an integral
part of their science learning. When consid-
ering how to structure available time, skilled
Effective science teaching depends
teachers realize that students need time to on the availability and organization
try out ideas, to make mistakes, to ponder,
of materials, equipment, media,
and to discuss with one another. Given a
See Program voice in scheduling, teachers plan for ade- and technology.
Standard F quate blocks of time for students to set up
scientific equipment and carry out experi- pational Safety and Health Administration,
ments, to go on field trips, or to reflect and as well as by local and state regulatory agen-
share with each other. Teachers make time cies. They work with the school and district
for students to work in varied groupings— to ensure implementation and use of safety
alone, in pairs,in small groups, as a whole guidelines for which they are responsible,
class—and on varied tasks, such as reading, such as the presence of safety equipment
conducting experiments, reflecting, writing, and an appropriate class size. Teachers also
and discussing. teach students how to engage safely in inves-
tigations inside and outside the classroom.
CREATE A SETTING FOR STUDENT
WORK THAT IS FLEXIBLE AND SUP- MAKE THE AVAILABLE SCIENCE TOOLS,
PORTIVE OF SCIENCE INQUIRY. The MATERIALS, MEDIA, AND T E C H N O LO G-
arrangement of available space and furnish- ICAL RESOURCES ACCESSIBLE TO STU-
ings in the classroom or laboratory influ en ce s D E N TS . Effective science teaching depends See Program
the nature of the learning that takes place. on the availability and organization of mate- Standard D and
Teachers of science need regular, adequate rials, equ i pm en t , media, and technology. An System Standard D
space for science. They plan the use of this effective science learning environment
space to allow students to work safely in requires a broad range of basic scientific
groups of various sizes at various tasks, to materials, as well as specific tools for partic-
maintain their work in progress, and to dis- ular topics and learning experi en ce s .
Teachers must be given the resources and and around the school can be used as a liv-
authority to select the most appropriate ing laboratory for the study of natural phe-
materials and to make decisions about wh en , nomena. Whether the school is located in a
where, and how to make them accessible.
Such decisions balance safety, proper use, The school sci en ce program must
and availability with the need for students to
participate actively in designing experiments,
extend beyond the walls of the school to
s el ecting tools, and constructing app a ra tu s , include the resources of the community.
all of which are critical to the developm en t
of an understanding of inquiry. densely populated urban area, a sprawling
It is also important for students to learn suburb, a small town, or a rural area, the
how to access scientific information from environment can and should be used as a
books, periodicals, videos, databases, elec- resource for science study. Working with
tronic communication,and people with others in their school and with the commu-
expert knowledge.Students are also taught nity, teachers build these resources into their
to evaluate and interpret the information work with students.
they have acquired through those resources.
E N G AGE STUDENTS IN DESIGNING T H E
Teachers provide the opportunity for stu-
LEARNING ENVIRO N M E N T. As part of
dents to use contemporary technology as
challenging students to take responsibility
they develop their scientific understanding.
for their learning, teachers involve them in
IDENTIFY AND USE RESOURCES OUT- the design and management of the learning
SIDE THE SCHOOL. The classroom is a environment. Even the youngest students
limited environment. The school science can and should participate in discussions
program must extend beyond the walls of and decisions about using time and space
the school to the resources of the communi- for work. With this sharing comes responsi-
ty. Our nation’s communities have many bility for care of space and resources. As stu-
specialists, including those in transporta- dents pursue their inquiries, they need
tion, health-care delivery, communications, access to resources and a voice in determin-
computer technologies, music, art, cooking, ing what is needed. The more independently
mechanics, and many other fields that have students can access what they need,the
scientific aspects. Specialists often are avail- more they can take responsibility for their
able as resources for classes and for individ- own work.Students are also invaluable in
ual students. Many communities have access identifying resources beyond the school.
to science centers and museums,as well as
to the science communities in higher educa- T E ACHING STANDARD E:
tion, national laboratories,and industry; Teachers of science develop co m-
these can contribute greatly to the under- munities of science learners that
standing of science and encourage students re f l e ct the inte l l e ctual rigor of sci-
to further their interests outside of school. e ntific inquiry and the at t i t u d e s
In addition,the physical environment in and social values co n d u c i ve

to science learn i n g. In doing this, DISPLAY AND DEMAND RESPECT FOR

te a c h e r s THE DIVERSE IDEAS, SKILLS, AND
■ Display and demand respect for the EXPERIENCES OF ALL STUDENTS.
diverse ideas, skills, and experiences Respect for the ideas, activities, and thinking
of all students. of all students is demonstrated by what
■ Enable students to have a significant teachers say and do, as well as by the flexibili-
voice in decisions about the content ty with which they respond to student inter-
and context of their work and require e s t s ,i de a s ,s trengths, and needs. Whether
students to take responsibility for ad ju s ting an activity to reflect the cultu ra l
the learning of all members of the background of particular students, provid-
community. ing resources for a small group to pursue an
■ Nurture collaboration among students. interest, or suggesting that an idea is valu-
■ Structure and facilitate ongoing for- able but cannot be pursued at the mom en t ,
mal and informal discussion based on teachers model what it means to respect
a shared understanding of rules of and value the views of others. Teachers
scientific discourse. teach respect explicitly by focusing on their
■ Model and emphasize the skills, atti- own and students’ positive interacti on s , as
tudes, and values of scientific inquiry. well as confronting disrespect, stereotyping,
and prejudice wh en ever it occurs in the
The focus of this standard is the social and
s ch ool environment.
intellectual environment that must be in
Science is a discipline in which creative See Content
place in the classroom if all students are to
and sometimes risky thought is important. Standards A & G
succeed in learning science and have the
New ideas and theories often are the result (all grade levels)
opportunity to develop the skills and dispo-
of creative leaps. For students to understand
See Teaching sitions for life-long learning. Elements of
this aspect of science and be willing to
Standard B other standards are brought together by this
express creative ideas, all of the members of
and Program standard to highlight the importance of the
the learning community must support and
Standard F community of learners and what effective
respect a diversity of experience, ideas,
teachers do to foster its development. A
thought, and expression. Teachers work with
community approach enhances learning: It
students to develop an environment in
helps to advance understanding, expand stu-
which students feel safe in expressing ideas.
dents’ capabilities for inve s ti ga ti on , en ri ch
the questions that guide inquiry, and aid stu- ENABLE STUDENTS TO HAVE A SIGNIFI-
dents in giving meaning to experi en ce s . CANT VOICE IN DECISIONS ABOUT THE
An assumption of the Standards is that all CONTENT AND CONTEXT OF THEIR
students should learn science through ful l WORK AND GIVE STUDENTS SIGNIFI-
participation and that all are capable of CANT RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE
making meaningful contributions in science LEARNING OF ALL MEMBERS OF THE
classes. The nature of the community in COMMUNITY. A community of science
which students learn science is critical to learners is one in which students develop a
making this assumption a reality. sense of purpose and the ability to assume
Ms.R. chose to introduce technology as

Musical part of the study of sound. That winter,
Instruments when the end of the sound study neared,

Ms. R. was ready with a new culminating
activity—making musical instruments. She
This example includes a description of teach-
ing and an assessment task, although the posed a question to the entire class: Having
assessment task is indistinguishable from the studied sound for almost 6 weeks, could
teaching activity. The example begins with the they design and make musical instruments
teachers at King School working as a team that would produce sounds for entertain-
involved in school reform. The team naturally
ment? Ms.R. had collected a variety of
builds on previous efforts; for example, the
technology unit is modified from an existing materials, which she now displayed on a
unit. Other indicators that King School is table, including boxes, tubes, string, wire,
working toward becoming a community of hooks, scrap wood, dowels, plastic, rubber,
learners is the availability of older students to fabric, and more. The students had been
help the younger students with tasks beyond
working in groups of four during the sound
their physical abilities and the decision for one
class to give a concert for another class. In her study, and Ms. R.asked them to gather into
planning, Ms. R. integrates the study of the those groups to think about the kinds of
science of sound with the technology of pro- instruments they would like to make. Ms.R.
ducing sound. Recognizing the different inter- asked the students to think particularly
ests and abilities of the students, Ms. R. allows
about what they knew about sound, what
students to work alone or in groups and plans
a mixture of whole-class discussions and work kind of sound they would like their instru-
time. She encourages the students in planning ments to make, and what kind of instru-
and communicating their designs. She impos- ment it would be. How would the sound be
es constraints on materials and time. produced? What would make the sound?
[This example highlights some elements of all She suggested they might want to look at
of the Teaching Standards; Assessment the materials she had brought in, but they
Standard A; K-4 Content Standards B, E, and
could think about other materials too.
F; and Program Standards A, D, and E.]
M s .R .s ent the students to work in their
The King School was reforming its sci- groups. Collaborative work had been the basis
ence curriculum. After considerable research of most of the science inquiry the students
into existing curriculum materials and had done; for this ph a s e ,M s . R. felt that the
much discussion, the team decided to build students should work together to discuss and
a technology piece into some of the current share ideas, but she suggested that each stu-
science studies. The third-grade teacher on dent might want to have an instrument at the
the team,Ms. R., said that she would like to end to play and to take home.
work with two or three of her colleagues on As the students began to talk in their
the third-grade science curriculum. They groups, Ms. R. added elements to the
selected three topics that they knew they activity. They would have only the
would be teaching the following year: life following 2 weeks to make their instru-
cycles, sound, and water. ments. Furthermore, any materials they

needed beyond what was in the boxes had wooden box that someone had added to the
to be materials that were readily available su pp ly table. In a few cases, the original
and inexpensive. design was abandon ed , and a new design
Ms. R. knew that planning was a chal- em er ged as the instrument took shape.
l en ge for these third graders. She moved At the end of the second week,Ms. R. set
among groups, listening and adding com- aside 2 days for the students to reflect on
m en t s . When she felt that discussions had what they had done individually and as a
gone as far as they could go, she asked class. On Friday, they were once again to
each group to draw a picture of the draw and write about their instruments.
instruments the children thought they Where groups had worked together on an
would like to make, write a short piece on instrument, one report was to be prepared.
how they thought they would make them, On the next Monday, each group was to
and make a list of the materials that they make a brief presentation of the instrument,
would need. Ms. R. made a list of what what it could do, how the design came to
was needed, noted which children and be, and what challenges had been faced. As a
which groups might profit from dis- final effort, the class could prepare a concert
cussing their ideas with one another, and for the other third grades.
suggested that the children think about In making the musical instruments, stu-
their task, co ll ect materials if they could, dents relied on the knowledge and under-
and come to school in the next week pre- standing developed while studying sound, as
pared to build their instru m en t s . well as the principles of design, to make an
Ms. R .i nvited several sixth graders to join instrument that produced sound.
the class during science time the fo ll owing The assessment task for the musical
wee k ,k n owing that the third grade students instruments follows. The titles emphasize
might need their help in working with the some important components of the assess-
materials. Some designs were simple and ment process.
easy to implement; e . g. , one group was mak-
SCIENCE CO N T E N T: The K-4 science
ing a rubber-band player by stretching dif-
content standard on science and technology
ferent widths and lengths of rubber bands
is supported by the idea that students
around a plastic ga ll on milk container with
should be able to communicate the purpose
the top cut off. Another group was making
of a design. The K-4 physical science stan-
drums of various sizes using some thick
dard is supported by the fundamental
cardboard tubes and pieces of thin rubber
understanding of the characteristics of
roofing material. For many, the designs
sound, a form of energy.
could not be translated into reality, and
much change and trial and error en su ed . ASSESSMENT AC T I V I TY: Students
One group planned to build a guitar and demonstrate the products of their design
designed a special shape for the sound box, work to their peers and reflect on what the
but after the glued sides of their original box project taught them about the nature of
collapsed twi ce , the group decided to use the sound and the process of design.
ASSESSMENT TY PE : This can be public, b. How like the instrument you wanted
group, or individual, embedded in teaching. to make is the one you actually made?
c. Why did you change your design?
ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: This activity
d. What tools and materials did you
assesses student progress toward under-
use to make your instrument?
standing the purpose and processes of
7. Explain why people make musical
design. The information will be used to plan
instruments.
the next design activity. The activity also
permits the teacher to gather data about EVALUATING STUDENT PERFORMANCE:
understanding of sound. Student understanding of sound will be
revealed by understanding that the sound is
D ATA : Observa ti ons of the student
produced in the instrument by the part of the
performances.
instrument that vibrates (moves rapidly back
CO N T E XT: Third-grade students have just and forth), that the pitch (how high or how
completed a design project. Their task is to low) can be changed by changing how rapidly
present the product of their work to their the vibrating part moves, and the loudness
peers and talk about what they learned can be changed by the force (how hard you
about sound and design as a result of doing p lu ck ,t a p, or blow the vibrating part) with
the project. This is a challenging task for which the vibrating part is set into motion.
third-grade students, and the teacher will An average student performance would
have to provide considerable guidance to include the ability to identify the source of the
the groups of students as they plan their vibration and ways to change either pitch or
presentations. The following directions pro- loudness in two directions (raise and lower
vide a framework that students can use to the pitch of the instrument or make the
plan their presentations. instrument louder and softer) or change the
pitch and loudness in one direction (make the
1. Play your instrument for the class. pitch higher and the sound louder). An exem-
2. Show the class the part of the instrument plary performance by a student would
that makes the sound. include not only the ability to identify the
3. Describe to the class the purpose (func- source of the vibration but also to change
tion) that other parts of the instrument pitch and loudness in both directions.
have. Student understanding of the nature of
4. Show the class how you can make the technology will be revealed by the students’
sound louder. ability to reflect on why people make musi-
5. Show the class how you can change the cal instruments—e.g., to improve the quali-
pitch (how high or how low the sound ty of life—as well as by their explanations of
is) of the sound. how they managed to make the instrument
6. Tell the class about how you made the despite the constraints faced—that is,the
instrument, including ability to articulate why the conceptualiza-
a. What kind of instrument did you tion and design turned out to be different
want to make? from the instrument actually made.

See Improving responsibility for their learning. Teachers MODEL AND EMPHASIZE THE SKILLS, See Content
Classroom give students the opportunity to participate ATTITUDES, AND VALUES OF SCIENTIFIC Standard A (all
Practice in the in setting goals, planning activities, assessing I N QU I RY. Certain attitudes, such as won- grade levels)
Assessment work,and designing the environment. In so der, curiosity, and respect toward nature are
Standards doing, they give students responsibility for a vital parts of the science learning communi-
significant part of their own learning, the ty. Those attitudes are reinforced when the
learning of the group, and the functioning adults in the community engage in their
of the community. own learning and when they share positive
attitudes toward science. Environments that
See Content N U RTURE CO L LA B O RATION AMONG
promote the development of appropriate
Standards A & G S T U D E N TS . Working collaboratively with
attitudes are supported by the school
(all grade levels) others not only enhances the understanding
administration and a local community that
of science,it also fosters the practice of
many of the skills, attitudes,and values that
E f fe ctive te a ch ers design many
characterize science. Effective teachers
design many of the activities for learning activities for group learning, not
science to require group work, not simply as simply as an exercise but as
an exercise, but as essential to the inquiry.
The teacher’s role is to structure the groups collaboration essential to inquiry.
and to teach students the skills that are
has taken responsibility for understanding
needed to work together.
the science program and supports students
S T RUCTURE AND FAC I L I TATE ONGO- and teachers in its implementation.
ING FORMAL AND INFORMAL DISCUS- Communities of learners do not em er ge
SION BASED ON A SHARED UNDER- spontaneously; they require careful support
S TANDING OF RULES OF SCIENTIFIC from skillful teachers. The development of a
D I S CO U R S E. A fundamental aspect of a community of learners is initiated on the
community of learners is communication. first day that a new group comes together,
Effective communication requires a founda- when the teacher begins to develop with stu-
tion of respect and trust among individuals. dents a vision of the class environment they
The ability to engage in the presentation of wish to form. This vision is communicated,
evidence, reasoned argument, and explana- discussed, and adapted so that all students
tion comes from practice. Teachers encour- come to share it and realize its value. Rules
age informal discussion and structure sci- of con du ct and expectations evolve as the
ence activities so that students are required community functions and takes shape over
to explain and justify their understanding, the weeks and months of the school year.
argue from data and defend their conclu- Some students will accommodate quickly;
sions, and critically assess and challenge the others will be more resistant because of the
scientific explanations of one another. responsibilities required or because of dis-
crepancies between their perceptions of
what they should be doing in school and
what is actually happening. The optimal typically in the hands of teachers. Any
environment for learning science is con- improvement of science education will
structed by students and teachers together. require that the structure and culture of
Doing so requires time, persistence, and skill schools change to support the collaboration
on everyone’s part. of the entire school staff with resources in
the community in planning, designing, and
T E ACHING STANDARD F: carrying out new practices for teaching and
Teachers of science act i ve ly partic- learning science.
ipate in the ongoing planning and Although individual teachers continually
development of the school science make adaptations in their classrooms, the
prog ra m . In doing this, teachers school itself must have a coherent program
■ Plan and develop the school science of science study for students. In the vision
program. described by the National Science Education
■ Participate in decisions concerning Standards, the teachers in the school and
the allocation of time and other school district have a major role in design-
resources to the science program. ing that program, working together across
■ Participate fully in planning and science disciplines and grade levels, as well
implementing professional growth as within levels. Teachers of science must
and development strategies for them- also work with their colleagues to coordi-
selves and their colleagues. nate and integrate the learning of science
understanding and abilities with learning in
See Teaching P LAN AND DEV E LOP THE SCHOOL SCI-
Standard E ENCE PRO G RA M . The teaching in indi- Although individual teachers
vidual science classrooms is part of a larger
system that includes the school, district,
continually make adaptations in
state, and nation. Although some teachers their classrooms, the school itself
might choose involvement at the district, must have a coherent program of
state,and national levels, all teachers have a
professional responsibility to be active in
science study for students.
some way as members of a science learning
other disciplines. Teachers working together
community at the school level, working
determine expectations for student learning,
with colleagues and others to improve and
as well as strategies for assessing, recording,
maintain a quality science program for all
and reporting student progress. They also
students. Many teachers already assume
work together to create a learning commu-
these responsibilities within their schools.
nity within the school.
However, they usually do so under difficult
circumstances. Time for such activities is PARTICIPATE IN DECISIONS CONCERNING
minimal, and involvement often requires THE ALLOCATION OF TIME AND OTHER
work after hours. Resources are likely to be RESOURCES TO THE SCIENCE PROGRAM. See Program
scarce as well. Furthermore, the authority to Time and other resources are critical ele- Standard D
plan and carry out necessary activities is not ments for effective science teaching.

Teachers of science need to have a signifi- ongoing professional development opportu-

cant role in the process by which decisions nities they need to enhance their skills in
are made concerning the allocation of time teaching science, as well as their abilities to
and resources to various subject areas. improve the science programs in their
However, to assume this responsibility, s ch oo l s .O f ten they employ the services of
schools and districts must provide teachers specialists in scien ce , children, learning, cur-
with the opportunity to be leaders. riculum,assessment, or other areas of inter-
est. In doing so, they must have the support
See Professional PARTICIPATE FULLY IN PLANNING AND
of their school districts.
Development IMPLEMENTING PROFESSIONAL GROWTH
Standard D AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES FOR
THEMSELVES AND THEIR COLLEAGUES.
Working as colleagues, teachers are responsi-
ble for designing and implementing the
CHANGING EMPHASES
The National Sci en ce Education Standards envision change thro u gh o ut the system.
The teaching standards encompass the fo ll owing changes in em ph a s e s :
LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON

Treating all students alike and responding to Understanding and responding to individual
the group as a whole student’s interests,strengths,experiences,and
needs
Rigidly following curriculum Selecting and adapting curriculum
Focusing on student acquisition of information Focusing on student understanding and use of
scientific knowledge, ideas,and inquiry
processes
Presenting scientific knowledge through lecture, Guiding students in active and extended
text,and demonstration scientific inquiry
Asking for recitation of acquired knowledge Providing opportunities for scientific
discussion and debate among students
Testing students for factual information at the Continuously assessing student understanding
end of the unit or chapter
Maintaining responsibility and authority Sharing responsibility for learning with
students
Supporting competition Supporting a classroom community with
cooperation,shared responsibility, and respect
Working alone Working with other teachers to enhance the
science program
Loucks-Horsley, S., J.G. Brooks,M.O. Carlson, P.

Re fe re n ces for Kuerbis, D.P. Marsh,M. Padilla,H. Pratt,and
K.L. Smith.1990. Developing and Supporting
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Learning, and Instructi on :E s s ays in Honor of Horwitz, D.P. Marsh,H. Pratt,K.R. Roy, and K.
Robert Glaser, L.B. Resnick, ed.:361-392. Worth. 1989. Developing and Supporting
Hi ll s d a l e ,N J :L awrence Erlbaum and Associates. Teachers for Elementary School Science
Brown,A.1994.The advancement of learning. Education. Andover, MA: The National Center
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Brown,A.L.,and J.C. Campione.1994. Guided Practice. Cambridge,MA:MIT Press.
discovery in a community of learners. In NBPTS (National Board for Professional Teaching
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and Classroom Practice,K. McGilly, ed.: 229-270. Standards for the Teaching Profession: Initial
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Learning in the Classroom. Cambridge,MA: Detroit,MI:NBPTS.
MIT Press. NCTM (Na ti onal Council of Teachers of
Carey, S.1985. Conceptual Change in Childhood. Ma t h em a ti c s ) .1 9 9 1 . Professional Standards for
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Advancement of S c i en ce . Press.
Cohen, D.K.,M.W. McLaughlin,and J.E. Talbert, NRC (Na ti onal Research Co u n c i l ) .1 9 8 7 .E du c a ti on
eds.1993. Teaching for Understanding: and Learning to Th i n k ,L . B. Resnick, ed.
Challenges for Policy and Practice. San Francisco: Washington, DC: Na ti onal Academy Press.
Jossey-Bass. Schoen, D. 1987.Educating the Reflective
Darling-Hammond,L.1992.Standards of Practice Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching
for Learner Centered Schools. New York: and Learning in the Professions. San Francisco:
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Associates.

observe
Learn
Change
Becoming an
e f fe ct i ve science
teacher is a
continuous process
that stretches across
the life of a teacher,
from his or her
u n d e rg ra d u ate years
to the end of a
p ro fessional ca re e r.

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Science Teaching Standards

Science teaching is a complex activi-

ty that lies at the heart of the vision

of science education presented in

the Standards. The teaching stan-

dards provide criteria for making

ju d gm ents about progress toward

understand and be able to do. ❚ To highlight the importance of teachers in

vision of science education described in the Standards, change is needed in

need to work within a co ll egial, organizational, and policy context that is

supportive of good science teaching. In ad d i ti on , s tu dents must accept and

share responsibility for their own learning.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

STUDENT UNDERSTANDING IS AC T I V E- teaching and with the vision of science edu-

The St a n d a rds s ch oo l s , and com mu n i ties will be reflected

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T E ACHING STANDARD A: Teachers also change their plans based on

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depends on the ultimate sharing and debat- development of knowledge, understanding,

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Ea rt h wo rm s earthworms from a biological supply house,

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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

S c i e n ce Oly m p i a d ASSESSMENT PURPOSE: This assess-

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Aspects of a student's performance and criteria for evaluation include:

PERFORMANCE INDICATOR EVIDENCE

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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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to science learn i n g. In doing this, DISPLAY AND DEMAND RESPECT FOR

Ms.R. chose to introduce technology as

Instruments when the end of the sound study neared,

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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Teachers of science need to have a signifi- ongoing professional development opportu-

LESS EMPHASIS ON MORE EMPHASIS ON

Loucks-Horsley, S., J.G. Brooks,M.O. Carlson, P.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

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