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BOOK: MATHEMATICS
FOR THE LIBERAL ARTS

(LUMEN)
Book: Mathematics for the Liberal Arts
(Lumen)
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This text was compiled on 08/10/2022

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2: Mathematics for the Liberal Arts
2.1: Course Overview
2.2: Table of Contents
2.3: Sample Syllabus
3: Faculty Resources
3.1: Assessments
4: Module 1- General Problem Solving

4.1: Module 1 Overview
4.2: Discuss- Introduce Yourself to the Class
4.3: Problem Solving
4.4: Test Page
4.5: Supplemental Videos
4.6: Optional Discussion Boards
4.7: Discuss- Problem Solving Application
4.8: Discuss- Math Editor Practice (Blackboard)
4.9: Problem Solving Exercises
5: Growth Models
5.1: Linear (Algebraic) Growth
5.2: Exponential (Geometric) Growth
5.3: Solve Exponentials for Time- Logarithms
5.4: Logistic Growth
5.5: Exercises
6: Module 2- Geometry
6.2: Perimeter and Area
6.3: Triangles
6.4: Volume
6.5: Surface Area
6.6: Graph Theory
6.8: Topology, Tiling, and Non-Euclidean Geometry
6.9: Discuss- Application of Geometry
7: Finance
7.1: Simple Interest
7.2: Compound Interest
7.3: Annuities
7.4: Payout Annuities
7.5: Loans
1
7.6: Remaining Loan Balance
7.7: Which Equation to Use?
7.8: Solving for Time
7.9: Exercises
8: Topic F- Using a Calculator

8.1: F1.01 Beginning and Example 3
8.2: F1.02- Examples 4-5
8.3: F1.03- Example 6
8.4: F1.04- Exercises
9: Describing Data
9.1: Presenting Categorical Data Graphically
9.2: Presenting Quantitative Data Graphically
9.3: Measures of Central Tendency
9.4: Measures of Variation
9.5: Exercises
10: Sets
10.1: Basics
10.2: Union, Intersection, and Complement
10.3: Venn Diagrams
10.4: Cardinality
10.5: Exercises
11: Statistics
11.1: Module Overview
11.2: Populations and Samples
11.3: Categorizing Data
11.4: Sampling Methods
11.5: How to Mess Things Up Before You Start
11.6: Experiments
11.7: Describing Data
11.8: Understanding Normal Distribution
11.9: The Empirical Rule
11.10: Z-Scores
11.12: Regression and Correlation
11.13: Exercises
12: Module 3- Set Theory

12.2: Set Theory
12.4: Verbal, Roster, and Set-Builder Notation for a Set
12.5: Consider a Set
2
12.6: Helpful Links
12.7: Discuss- Application of Set Theory
13: Module 4- Logic

13.2: Logic
13.3: Truth Tables and Analyzing Arguments- Examples
13.4: Truth Tables- Conjunction and Disjunction
13.5: Truth Tables- Implication
13.6: Analyzing Arguments with Truth Tables
13.7: Negating “all,” “some,” or “no” statements
13.8: Discuss- Truth Table Practice
13.9: Discuss- Logic Application
14: Module 5- Numeration Systems

14.2: Numeration
14.4: Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal
14.5: Discuss- Numeration Application
15: Module 6- Consumer Math

15.2: Consumer Math
15.4: Average Daily Balance
15.5: How an Amortization Schedule is Calculated
15.6: Discuss- Consumer Math Application
15.7: Discuss- Final Reflection
16: Topic G- Linear Equations – Algebra and Spreadsheets

16.1: G1.01- Intro and Slope
16.2: G1.02- Intercepts and Example 3
16.3: G1.03- Examples 4-7
16.4: G1.04- Examples 8-14
16.5: G1.05- Exploring by Graphing Part I
16.6: G1.06- Exploring by Graphing Part II
16.7: G1.07- Section 4
16.8: G1.08- Exercises
17: Topic K- Finance

17.1: K1.01- Simple and Compound Interest
17.2: K1.02- Savings Plans
17.3: K1.03- Installment Loans
17.4: K1.04- Exercises
3
18: Topic L- Automated Fitting of Models, Comparative Goodness of Fit, and Outliers
18.1: L1.02- Section 1
18.2: L1.03- Section 2
18.3: L1.04- Section 3
18.4: L1.05- Section 4
18.5: L1.06- Section 5
18.6: L1.07- Section 6
18.7: L1.08- Section 7
18.8: L1.09- Section 8
18.9: L1.10- Exercises
18.10: L1.01- Overview
19: Topic M- Power Functions and Using Logarithmic Graphs

19.1: M1.01- Introduction
19.2: M1.02- Power Models Part I
19.3: M1.03- Power Models Part II
19.4: M1.04- Why We Use Logarithms
19.5: M1.05- Finding Logarithms
19.6: M1.06- Logarithmic Graphs Part I
19.7: M1.07- Logarithmic Graphs Part II
19.8: M1.08- Exercises
20: Topic H- Linear Formulas – Word Problems

20.1: H1.01- Overview
20.2: H1.02- Example 1
20.3: H1.03- Example 2
20.4: H1.04- Example 3
20.5: H1.05- Example 3 Alternative Method
20.6: H1.06- Example 4
20.7: H1.07- Interpreting the Slope and Intercept
20.8: H1.08- Exercises
21: Topic I- Linear and Quadratic Models

21.1: I1.01- Overview
21.2: I1.02- Section 1
21.3: I1.03- Section 2
21.4: I1.04- Section 3 Part 1
21.6: I1.06- Section 4
21.9: I1.09- Section 6
21.10: I1.10- Section 7
21.11: I1.11- Section 8
21.12: I1.12- Exercises
4
22: Topic J- Exponential Models and Model Comparison Techniques
22.1: J1.01- Overview
22.2: J1.02- Section 1 Part 1
22.7: J1.07- Section 2 Example 6
22.8: J1.08- Section 3
22.11: J1.11- Exercises
23: Topic C- Communicating Precision of Approximate Numbers

23.1: C1.01 Overview
23.2: C1.02- Reporting
23.3: C1.03- Rounding
23.4: C1.04- Precision
23.5: C1.05- Interval Part 1
23.9: C1.09- Exercises
24: Topic E- Using a Spreadsheet

24.1: E1.11- Exercises
24.2: E1.01- Overview
24.3: E1.02- Section 2 Part 1
24.6: E1.05- Graphs Part 1
24.8: E1.07- Section 4
24.9: E1.08- Section 5
25: Topic O- Combining Modeling Formulas

25.1: O.01- Overview
25.2: O.02- Section 1 Part 1
25.4: O.04- Section 2
25.5: O.05- Section 3
25.6: O.06- Section 4
5
26: Topic N- Additional Useful Modeling Formulas
26.1: N1.01- Overview
26.2: N1.02- Section 1
26.3: N1.03- Section 2 Part 1
26.8: N1.08- Section 4
26.9: N1.09- Section 5
26.10: N1.10- Exercises
27: Topic B- Solving Equations, Evaluating Expressions, and Checking Your Work
27.1: B1.01- Introduction
27.2: B1.02- Section 1
27.3: B1.03- Section 2
27.4: B1.04- Section 3
27.5: B1.05- Section 4
27.6: B1.06- Exercises
28: Topic D- Formulas—Computing and Graphing

28.1: D1.01- Introduction
28.2: D1.02- Examples 2–5
28.3: D1.03- Examples 6–9
28.4: D1.04- Examples 10–11
28.5: D1.05- Exercises
Index
Glossary
Book: Mathematics for the Liberal Arts (Lumen) is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
6
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
2: Mathematics for the Liberal Arts
2.3: Sample Syllabus
2: Mathematics for the Liberal Arts is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Course Overview
This course was originally developed for the Open Course Library project. The text used is Math in Society, edited by David
Lippman, Pierce College Ft Steilacoom. Development of this book was supported, in part, by the Transition Math Project and the
Open Course Library Project. Topics covered in the course include problem solving, voting theory, graph theory, growth models,
finance, data collection and description, and probability. Student learning outcomes include:
1. Describe how mathematics can contribute to the solution of problems in the natural world or human society.
2. Employ critical thinking skills, drawing upon prior knowledge when possible, to analyze and explore new and unfamiliar
problems
3. Form and communicate generalizations of patterns discovered through individual or group investigations.
4. Solve problems using algorithms or formulas
5. Model and solve problems using graphical methods
6. Communicate methods of solutions and solutions to problems for the clarity of the receiver.
7. Analyze and interpret data, including calculating numerical summaries and creating graphical representations, to propose
possible implications
8. Identify multicultural perspectives of, or multicultural contributions to, at least one mathematical topic studied
Course Access
The course materials and on-line homework sets are housed in MyOpenMath. You can access the course as a guest student to see
how the course is set up and view the online homework system. Should you choose to use this course, MyOpenMath can be
integrated into your school’s LMS for ease of access.
Requesting an Instructor Account in MyOpenMath

If you would like to use MyOpenMath in your classroom, you can request an instructor account through the MyOpenMath
homepage. Select “request an instructor account” at the bottom of the page. Give us a couple days to verify that you are an
instructor at an accredited institution. MyOpenMath generates an automated email when your account is verified, but sometimes it
will end up in your junk email or won’t make it through the filters set by your institution. To avoid this, you can check your junk
folder or ask your institution to let mail from do-not-reply@myopenmath.com through.
If you already have an instructor account in MyOpenMath, you can view the instructor version of the course.
2.1: Course Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
2.1.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/51581
Contents
Problem Solving
Extension: Taxes
Voting Theory
Weighted Voting
Apportionment
Fair Division
Graph Theory
Scheduling
Growth Models
Finance
Statistics
Describing Data
Probability
Sets
Historical Counting Systems
Fractals
Cryptography
Solutions to Selected Exercises
2.2: Table of Contents is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Welcome to the Mathematics Library. This Living Library is a principal hub of the LibreTexts project, which is a multi-institutional
collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher
learning. The LibreTexts approach is highly collaborative where an Open Access textbook environment is under constant revision
by students, faculty, and outside experts to supplant conventional paper-based books.
Home is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/51583
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
3: Faculty Resources
3.1: Assessments
3: Faculty Resources is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
3.1 https://math.libretexts.org/@go/page/51554
3.1: Assessments
Homework Sets, Exercises, Quizzes, and Written Assignments for this course are all located in MyOpenMath.
Requesting an Instructor Account in MyOpenMath
If you would like to use MyOpenMath in your classroom, you can request an instructor account through the MyOpenMath
homepage. Select “request an instructor account” at the bottom of the page. Give us a couple days to verify that you are an
instructor at an accredited institution. MyOpenMath generates an automated email when your account is verified, but sometimes it
will end up in your junk email or won’t make it through the filters set by your institution. To avoid this, you can check your junk
folder or ask your institution to let mail from do-not-reply@myopenmath.com through.
If you already have an instructor account in MyOpenMath, you can view the instructor version of the course.
CC licensed content, Original
Mathematics for the Liberal Arts I. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College.
Located at: http://eli.nvcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution
3.1: Assessments is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
4: Module 1- General Problem Solving
4.4: Test Page
4: Module 1- General Problem Solving is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
What You’ll Learn To Do: Solve problems involving percents, geometry, and estimation.
Learning Objectives
Solve problems involving percents, proportions, and rates.
Solve problems using basic geometry.
Use problem solving and estimation techniques.
Learning Activities
See daily handout April 10 (Day 23)
Reading Assignments and Videos

Read: Problem Solving
Watch: Supplemental Videos
Homework Assignments: See daily handout April 10 (Day 23)
Public domain content
Image of Finger. Authored by: geralt. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/finger-touch-hand-structure-769300/. License:
Public Domain: No Known Copyright
4.1: Module 1 Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Go to the Introduction forum. Click on the Create Thread button to post your introduction. Include your first and last name in
the Subject line. Within your posting, please be sure to include the following information:
Your interests including what you like to do outside of class.
Why you are taking this class and what you hope to gain out of taking this class this semester.
What your most successful mathematical experience in or out of class has been.
Respond to the introductions of at least two classmates. Your responses should be substantive. That is, they should contain more
than just a “Hello.”
This assignment is required and worth up to 20 points.
4.2: Discuss- Introduce Yourself to the Class is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
In previous math courses, you’ve no doubt run into the infamous “word problems.” Unfortunately, these problems rarely resemble
the type of problems we actually encounter in everyday life. In math books, you usually are told exactly which formula or
procedure to use, and are given exactly the information you need to answer the question. In real life, problem solving requires
identifying an appropriate formula or procedure, and determining what information you will need (and won’t need) to answer the
question.
In this chapter, we will review several basic but powerful algebraic ideas: percents, rates, and proportions. We will then focus on
the problem solving process, and explore how to use these ideas to solve problems where we don’t have perfect information.
Percents
In the 2004 vice-presidential debates, Edwards’s claimed that US forces have suffered “90% of the coalition casualties” in Iraq.
Cheney disputed this, saying that in fact Iraqi security forces and coalition allies “have taken almost 50 percent” of the casualties.[1]
Who is correct? How can we make sense of these numbers?
Percent literally means “per 100,” or “parts per hundred.” When we write 40%, this is equivalent to the fraction
\displaystyle\frac{40}{100}\\ or the decimal 0.40. Notice that 80 out of 200 and 10 out of 25 are also 40%, since
\displaystyle\frac{80}{200}=\frac{10}{25}=\frac{40}{100}\\.
Example 1
243 people out of 400 state that they like dogs. What percent is this?
Solution
\displaystyle\frac{243}{400}=0.6075=\frac{60.75}{100}\\ . This is 60.75%.
Notice that the percent can be found from the equivalent decimal by moving the decimal point two places to the right.
Example 2
Write each as a percent:
1. \displaystyle\frac{1}{4}\\
2. 0.02
3. 2.35
Solutions
1. \displaystyle\frac{1}{4}=0.25\\ = 25%
2. 0.02 = 2%
3. 2.35 = 235%
Percents
If we have a part that is some percent of a whole, then , or equivalently,
\displaystyle\text{percent}=\frac{\text{part}}{\text{whole}}\\
\text{part}\cdot\text{whole}=\text{percent}\\.
To do the calculations, we write the percent as a decimal.
Example 3
The sales tax in a town is 9.4%. How much tax will you pay on a $140 purchase?
Solution
Here, $140 is the whole, and we want to find 9.4% of $140. We start by writing the percent as a decimal by moving the decimal
point two places to the left (which is equivalent to dividing by 100). We can then compute: tax = 0.094(140) = $13.16 in tax.
Example 4
In the news, you hear “tuition is expected to increase by 7% next year.” If tuition this year was $1200 per quarter, what will it be
next year?
Solution
The tuition next year will be the current tuition plus an additional 7%, so it will be 107% of this year’s tuition: $1200(1.07) =
$1284.
Alternatively, we could have first calculated 7% of $1200: $1200(0.07) = $84.
Notice this is not the expected tuition for next year (we could only wish). Instead, this is the expected increase, so to calculate the
expected tuition, we’ll need to add this change to the previous year’s tuition: $1200 + $84 = $1284.
Try It Now
A TV originally priced at $799 is on sale for 30% off. There is then a 9.2% sales tax. Find the price after including the discount and
sales tax.
Example 5
The value of a car dropped from $7400 to $6800 over the last year. What percent decrease is this?
Solution
To compute the percent change, we first need to find the dollar value change: $6800 – $7400 = –$600. Often we will take the
absolute value of this amount, which is called the absolute change: |–600| = 600.
Since we are computing the decrease relative to the starting value, we compute this percent out of $7400:
\displaystyle\frac{600}{7400}=0.081= 8.1% decrease. This is called a relative change.
Absolute and Relative Change

Given two quantities,
Absolute change = \displaystyle|\text{ending quantity}-\text{starting quantity}|
Relative change: \displaystyle\frac{\text{absolute change}}{\text{starting quantity}}
Absolute change has the same units as the original quantity.

Relative change gives a percent change.
The starting quantity is called the base of the percent change.
The base of a percent is very important. For example, while Nixon was president, it was argued that marijuana was a “gateway”
drug, claiming that 80% of marijuana smokers went on to use harder drugs like cocaine. The problem is, this isn’t true. The true
claim is that 80% of harder drug users first smoked marijuana. The difference is one of base: 80% of marijuana smokers using hard
drugs, vs. 80% of hard drug users having smoked marijuana. These numbers are not equivalent. As it turns out, only one in 2,400
marijuana users actually go on to use harder drugs.[2]
Example 6
There are about 75 QFC supermarkets in the United States. Albertsons has about 215 stores. Compare the size of the two
companies.
Solution
When we make comparisons, we must ask first whether an absolute or relative comparison. The absolute difference is 215 – 75 =
140. From this, we could say “Albertsons has 140 more stores than QFC.” However, if you wrote this in an article or paper, that
number does not mean much. The relative difference may be more meaningful. There are two different relative changes we could
calculate, depending on which store we use as the base:
Using QFC as the base, \displaystyle\frac{140}{75}=1.867\\ .
This tells us Albertsons is 186.7% larger than QFC.
Using Albertsons as the base, \displaystyle\frac{140}{215}=0.651\\ .
This tells us QFC is 65.1% smaller than Albertsons.
Notice both of these are showing percent differences. We could also calculate the size of Albertsons relative to QFC:
\displaystyle\frac{215}{75}=2.867\\, which tells us Albertsons is 2.867 times the size of QFC. Likewise, we could calculate the size of QFC
relative to Albertsons: \displaystyle\frac{75}{215}=0.349\\ , which tells us that QFC is 34.9% of the size of Albertsons.
Example 7
Suppose a stock drops in value by 60% one week, then increases in value the next week by 75%. Is the value higher or lower than
where it started?
Solution
To answer this question, suppose the value started at $100. After one week, the value dropped by 60%: $100 – $100(0.60) = $100 –
$60 = $40.
In the next week, notice that base of the percent has changed to the new value, $40. Computing the 75% increase: $40 + $40(0.75)
= $40 + $30 = $70.
In the end, the stock is still $30 lower, or \displaystyle\frac{\$30}{100} = 30% lower, valued than it started.
Try It Now
The US federal debt at the end of 2001 was $5.77 trillion, and grew to $6.20 trillion by the end of 2002. At the end of 2005 it was
$7.91 trillion, and grew to $8.45 trillion by the end of 2006.[3] Calculate the absolute and relative increase for 2001–2002 and
2005–2006. Which year saw a larger increase in federal debt?
Example 8
A Seattle Times article on high school graduation rates reported “The number of schools graduating 60 percent or fewer students in
four years—sometimes referred to as “dropout factories”—decreased by 17 during that time period. The number of kids attending
schools with such low graduation rates was cut in half.”
1. Is the “decrease by 17” number a useful comparison?
2. Considering the last sentence, can we conclude that the number of “dropout factories” was originally 34?
Solution
1. This number is hard to evaluate, since we have no basis for judging whether this is a larger or small change. If the number of
“dropout factories” dropped from 20 to 3, that’d be a very significant change, but if the number dropped from 217 to 200, that’d
be less of an improvement.
2. The last sentence provides relative change, which helps put the first sentence in perspective. We can estimate that the number of
“dropout factories” was probably previously around 34. However, it’s possible that students simply moved schools rather than
the school improving, so that estimate might not be fully accurate.
Example 9
In the 2004 vice-presidential debates, Edwards’s claimed that US forces have suffered “90% of the coalition casualties” in Iraq.
Cheney disputed this, saying that in fact Iraqi security forces and coalition allies “have taken almost 50 percent” of the casualties.
Who is correct?
Solution
Without more information, it is hard for us to judge who is correct, but we can easily conclude that these two percents are talking
about different things, so one does not necessarily contradict the other. Edward’s claim was a percent with coalition forces as the
base of the percent, while Cheney’s claim was a percent with both coalition and Iraqi security forces as the base of the percent. It
turns out both statistics are in fact fairly accurate.
Try It Now
In the 2012 presidential elections, one candidate argued that “the president’s plan will cut $716 billion from Medicare, leading to
fewer services for seniors,” while the other candidate rebuts that “our plan does not cut current spending and actually expands
benefits for seniors, while implementing cost saving measures.” Are these claims in conflict, in agreement, or not comparable
because they’re talking about different things?
We’ll wrap up our review of percents with a couple cautions. First, when talking about a change of quantities that are already
measured in percents, we have to be careful in how we describe the change.
Example 10
A politician’s support increases from 40% of voters to 50% of voters. Describe the change.
Solution
We could describe this using an absolute change: |50\%-40\%|=10\%. Notice that since the original quantities were percents, this change
also has the units of percent. In this case, it is best to describe this as an increase of 10 percentage points.
In contrast, we could compute the percent change: \displaystyle\frac{10\%}{40\%}=0.25=25\% increase. This is the relative change, and we’d say
the politician’s support has increased by 25%.
Lastly, a caution against averaging percents.
Example 11
A basketball player scores on 40% of 2-point field goal attempts, and on 30% of 3-point of field goal attempts. Find the player’s
overall field goal percentage.
Solution
It is very tempting to average these values, and claim the overall average is 35%, but this is likely not correct, since most players
make many more 2-point attempts than 3-point attempts. We don’t actually have enough information to answer the question.
Suppose the player attempted 200 2-point field goals and 100 3-point field goals. Then they made 200(0.40) = 80 2-point shots and
100(0.30) = 30 3-point shots. Overall, they made 110 shots out of 300, for a \displaystyle\frac{110}{300}=0.367=36.7\%\\ overall field goal
percentage.
Proportions and Rates

If you wanted to power the city of Seattle using wind power, how many windmills would you need to install? Questions like these
can be answered using rates and proportions.
Rates
A rate is the ratio (fraction) of two quantities.
A unit rate is a rate with a denominator of one.
Example 12
Your car can drive 300 miles on a tank of 15 gallons. Express this as a rate.
Solution
Expressed as a rate, \displaystyle\frac{300\text{ miles}}{15\text{ gallons}}\\. We can divide to find a unit rate: ,
\displaystyle\frac{20\text{ miles}}{1\text{ gallon}}\\
which we could also write as \displaystyle{20}\frac{\text{miles}}{\text{gallon}}\\, or just 20 miles per gallon.
Proportion Equation
A proportion equation is an equation showing the equivalence of two rates or ratios.
Example 13
Solve the proportion \displaystyle\frac{5}{3}=\frac{x}{6}\\ for the unknown value x.
Solution
This proportion is asking us to find a fraction with denominator 6 that is equivalent to the fraction \displaystyle\frac{5}{3}\\. We can solve
this by multiplying both sides of the equation by 6, giving \displaystyle{x}=\frac{5}{3}\cdot6=10\\.
Example 14
A map scale indicates that ½ inch on the map corresponds with 3 real miles. How many miles apart are two cities that are
\displaystyle{2}\frac{1}{4}\\ inches apart on the map?
Solution
We can set up a proportion by setting equal two \displaystyle\frac{\text{map inches}}{\text{real miles}}\\ rates, and introducing a variable, x, to
represent the unknown quantity—the mile distance between the cities.
\displaystyle\frac{\frac{1}{2}\text{map inch}}{3\text{ miles}}=\frac{2\frac{1}{4}\text{map inches}}{x\text{ miles}}\\ Multiply both sides by x and rewriting the mixed number
\displaystyle\frac{\frac{1}{2}}{3}\cdot{x}=\frac{9}{4}\\ Multiply both sides by 3
\displaystyle\frac{1}{2}x=\frac{27}{4}\\ Multiply both sides by 2 (or divide by ½)
\displaystyle{x}=\frac{27}{2}=13\frac{1}{2}\text{ miles}\\
Many proportion problems can also be solved using dimensional analysis, the process of multiplying a quantity by rates to change
the units.
Example 15
Your car can drive 300 miles on a tank of 15 gallons. How far can it drive on 40 gallons?
Solution
We could certainly answer this question using a proportion: \displaystyle\frac{300\text{ miles}}{15\text{ gallons}}=\frac{x\text{ miles}}{40\text{ gallons}}\\ .
However, we earlier found that 300 miles on 15 gallons gives a rate of 20 miles per gallon. If we multiply the given 40 gallon
quantity by this rate, the gallons unit “cancels” and we’re left with a number of miles:
\displaystyle40\text{ gallons}\cdot\frac{20\text{ miles}}{\text{gallon}}=\frac{40\text{ gallons}}{1}\cdot\frac{20\text{ miles}}{\text{gallons}}=800\text{ miles}\\
Notice if instead we were asked “how many gallons are needed to drive 50 miles?” we could answer this question by inverting the
20 mile per gallon rate so that the miles unit cancels and we’re left with gallons:
\displaystyle{50}\text{ miles}\cdot\frac{1\text{ gallon}}{20\text{ miles}}=\frac{50\text{ miles}}{1}\cdot\frac{1\text{ gallon}}{20\text{ miles}}=\frac{50\text{ gallons}}{20}=2.5\text{ gallons}\\
Dimensional analysis can also be used to do unit conversions. Here are some unit conversions for reference.
Unit Conversions
Length
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
1 mile = 5,280 feet
1000 millimeters (mm) = 1 meter (m) 100 centimeters (cm) = 1 meter
1000 meters (m) = 1 kilometer (km) 2.54 centimeters (cm) = 1 inch
Weight and Mass
1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz) 1 ton = 2000 pounds
1000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g) 1000 grams = 1kilogram (kg)
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds (on earth)
Capacity
1 cup = 8 fluid ounces (fl oz)[4] 1 pint = 2 cups
1 quart = 2 pints = 4 cups 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 16 cups
1000 milliliters (ml) = 1 liter (L)
Example 16
A bicycle is traveling at 15 miles per hour. How many feet will it cover in 20 seconds?
Solution
To answer this question, we need to convert 20 seconds into feet. If we know the speed of the bicycle in feet per second, this
question would be simpler. Since we don’t, we will need to do additional unit conversions. We will need to know that 5280 ft = 1
mile. We might start by converting the 20 seconds into hours:
\displaystyle{20}\text{ seconds}\cdot\frac{1\text{ minute}}{60\text{ seconds}}\cdot\frac{1\text{ hour}}{60\text{ minutes}}=\frac{1}{180}\text{ hour}\\
Now we can multiply by the 15 miles/hr

\displaystyle\frac{1}{180}\text{ hour}\cdot\frac{15\text{ miles}}{1\text{ hour}}=\frac{1}{12}\text{ mile}\\
Now we can convert to feet

\displaystyle\frac{1}{12}\text{ mile}\cdot\frac{5280\text{ feet}}{1\text{ mile}}=440\text{ feet}\\
We could have also done this entire calculation in one long set of products:
\displaystyle20\text{ seconds}\cdot\frac{1\text{ minute}}{60\text{ seconds}}\cdot\frac{1\text{ hour}}{60\text{ minutes}}=\frac{15\text{ miles}}{1\text{ miles}}=\frac{5280\text{ feet}}{1\text{ mile}}=\frac{1}
{180}\text{ hour}\\
Try It Now
A 1000 foot spool of bare 12-gauge copper wire weighs 19.8 pounds. How much will 18 inches of the wire weigh, in ounces?
Notice that with the miles per gallon example, if we double the miles driven, we double the gas used. Likewise, with the map
distance example, if the map distance doubles, the real-life distance doubles. This is a key feature of proportional relationships, and
one we must confirm before assuming two things are related proportionally.
Example 17
Suppose you’re tiling the floor of a 10 ft by 10 ft room, and find that 100 tiles will be needed. How many tiles will be needed to tile
the floor of a 20 ft by 20 ft room?
Solution
In this case, while the width the room has doubled, the area has quadrupled. Since the number of tiles needed corresponds with the
area of the floor, not the width, 400 tiles will be needed. We could find this using a proportion based on the areas of the rooms:
\displaystyle\frac{100\text{ tiles}}{100\text{ft}^2}=\frac{n\text{ tiles}}{400\text{ft}^2}\\
Other quantities just don’t scale proportionally at all.
Example 18
Suppose a small company spends $1000 on an advertising campaign, and gains 100 new customers from it. How many new
customers should they expect if they spend $10,000?
Solution
While it is tempting to say that they will gain 1000 new customers, it is likely that additional advertising will be less effective than
the initial advertising. For example, if the company is a hot tub store, there are likely only a fixed number of people interested in
buying a hot tub, so there might not even be 1000 people in the town who would be potential customers.
Sometimes when working with rates, proportions, and percents, the process can be made more challenging by the magnitude of the
numbers involved. Sometimes, large numbers are just difficult to comprehend.
Example 19
Compare the 2010 U.S. military budget of $683.7 billion to other quantities.
Solution
Here we have a very large number, about $683,700,000,000 written out. Of course, imagining a billion dollars is very difficult, so it
can help to compare it to other quantities.
If that amount of money was used to pay the salaries of the 1.4 million Walmart employees in the U.S., each would earn over
$488,000.
There are about 300 million people in the U.S. The military budget is about $2,200 per person.
If you were to put $683.7 billion in $100 bills, and count out 1 per second, it would take 216 years to finish counting it.
Example 20
Compare the electricity consumption per capita in China to the rate in Japan.
Solution
To address this question, we will first need data. From the CIA[5] website we can find the electricity consumption in 2011 for China
was 4,693,000,000,000 KWH (kilowatt-hours), or 4.693 trillion KWH, while the consumption for Japan was 859,700,000,000, or
859.7 billion KWH. To find the rate per capita (per person), we will also need the population of the two countries. From the World
Bank,[6] we can find the population of China is 1,344,130,000, or 1.344 billion, and the population of Japan is 127,817,277, or
127.8 million.
Computing the consumption per capita for each country:
China: \displaystyle\frac{4,693,000,000,000\text{KWH}}{1,344,130,000\text{ people}}\\ ≈ 3491.5 KWH per person
Japan: \displaystyle\frac{859,700,000,000\text{KWH}}{127,817,277\text{ people}}\\ ≈ 6726 KWH per person
While China uses more than 5 times the electricity of Japan overall, because the population of Japan is so much smaller, it turns out
Japan uses almost twice the electricity per person compared to China.
Geometry
Geometric shapes, as well as area and volumes, can often be important in problem solving.
Example 21
You are curious how tall a tree is, but don’t have any way to climb it. Describe a method for determining the height.
Solution
There are several approaches we could take. We’ll use one based on triangles, which requires that it’s a sunny day. Suppose the tree
is casting a shadow, say 15 ft long. I can then have a friend help me measure my own shadow. Suppose I am 6 ft tall, and cast a 1.5
ft shadow. Since the triangle formed by the tree and its shadow has the same angles as the triangle formed by me and my shadow,
these triangles are called similar triangles and their sides will scale proportionally. In other words, the ratio of height to width will
be the same in both triangles. Using this, we can find the height of the tree, which we’ll denote by h:
\displaystyle\frac{6\text{ft tall}}{1.5\text{ft shadow}}=\frac{h\text{ft tall}}{15\text{ft shadow}}\\
Multiplying both sides by 15, we get h = 60. The tree is about 60 ft tall.
It may be helpful to recall some formulas for areas and volumes of a few basic shapes.
Areas
Rectangle
Area: L · W
Perimeter: 2L + 2W
Circle
Radius: r
Area: πr2
Circumference: 2πr
Volumes
Rectangular Box
Volume: L·W·H
Cylinder
Volume: πr2H
Example 22
If a 12 inch diameter pizza requires 10 ounces of dough, how much dough is needed for a 16 inch pizza?
Solution
To answer this question, we need to consider how the weight of the dough will scale. The weight will be based on the volume of
the dough. However, since both pizzas will be about the same thickness, the weight will scale with the area of the top of the pizza.
We can find the area of each pizza using the formula for area of a circle, A=\pi{r}^2\\:
A 12″ pizza has radius 6 inches, so the area will be \pi6^2\\ = about 113 square inches.
A 16″ pizza has radius 8 inches, so the area will be \pi8^2\\ = about 201 square inches.
Notice that if both pizzas were 1 inch thick, the volumes would be 113 in3 and 201 in3 respectively, which are at the same ratio as
the areas. As mentioned earlier, since the thickness is the same for both pizzas, we can safely ignore it.
We can now set up a proportion to find the weight of the dough for a 16″ pizza:
\displaystyle\frac{10\text{ ounces}}{113\text{in}^2}=\frac{x\text{ ounces}}{201\text{in}^2}\\
Multiply both sides by 201

\displaystyle{x}=201\cdot\frac{10}{113}\\ = about 17.8 ounces of dough for a 16″ pizza.
It is interesting to note that while the diameter is \displaystyle\frac{16}{12}\\ = 1.33 times larger, the dough required, which scales with area,
is 1.332 = 1.78 times larger.
Example 23
A company makes regular and jumbo marshmallows. The regular marshmallow has 25 calories. How many calories will the jumbo
marshmallow have?
Solution
We would expect the calories to scale with volume. Since the marshmallows have cylindrical shapes, we can use that formula to
find the volume. From the grid in the image, we can estimate the radius and height of each marshmallow.
The regular marshmallow appears to have a diameter of about 3.5 units, giving a radius of 1.75 units, and a height of about 3.5
units. The volume is about π(1.75)2(3.5) = 33.7 units3.
The jumbo marshmallow appears to have a diameter of about 5.5 units, giving a radius of 2.75 units, and a height of about 5 units.
The volume is about π(2.75)2(5) = 118.8 units3.
We could now set up a proportion, or use rates. The regular marshmallow has 25 calories for 33.7 cubic units of volume. The
jumbo marshmallow will have:
\displaystyle{118.8}\text{ units}^3\cdot\frac{25\text{ calories}}{33.7\text{ units}^3}=88.1\text{ calories}\\
It is interesting to note that while the diameter and height are about 1.5 times larger for the jumbo marshmallow, the volume and
calories are about 1.53 = 3.375 times larger.
Try It Now
A website says that you’ll need 48 fifty-pound bags of sand to fill a sandbox that measure 8ft by 8ft by 1ft. How many bags would
you need for a sandbox 6ft by 4ft by 1ft?
Problem Solving and Estimating

Finally, we will bring together the mathematical tools we’ve reviewed, and use them to approach more complex problems. In many
problems, it is tempting to take the given information, plug it into whatever formulas you have handy, and hope that the result is
what you were supposed to find. Chances are, this approach has served you well in other math classes.
This approach does not work well with real life problems. Instead, problem solving is best approached by first starting at the end:
identifying exactly what you are looking for. From there, you then work backwards, asking “what information and procedures will I
need to find this?” Very few interesting questions can be answered in one mathematical step; often times you will need to chain
together a solution pathway, a series of steps that will allow you to answer the question.
Problem Solving Process

1. Identify the question you’re trying to answer.
2. Work backwards, identifying the information you will need and the relationships you will use to answer that question.
3. Continue working backwards, creating a solution pathway.
4. If you are missing necessary information, look it up or estimate it. If you have unnecessary information, ignore it.
5. Solve the problem, following your solution pathway.
In most problems we work, we will be approximating a solution, because we will not have perfect information. We will begin with
a few examples where we will be able to approximate the solution using basic knowledge from our lives.
Example 24
How many times does your heart beat in a year?
Solution
This question is asking for the rate of heart beats per year. Since a year is a long time to measure heart beats for, if we knew the rate
of heart beats per minute, we could scale that quantity up to a year. So the information we need to answer this question is heart
beats per minute. This is something you can easily measure by counting your pulse while watching a clock for a minute.
Suppose you count 80 beats in a minute. To convert this beats per year:
\displaystyle\frac{80\text{ beats}}{1\text{ minute}}\cdot\frac{60\text{ minutes}}{1\text{ hour}}\cdot\frac{24\text{ hours}}{1\text{ day}}\cdot\frac{365\text{ days}}{1\text{ year}}=42,048,000\text{ beats per
year}\\
Example 25
How thick is a single sheet of paper? How much does it weigh?
Solution
While you might have a sheet of paper handy, trying to measure it would be tricky. Instead we might imagine a stack of paper, and
then scale the thickness and weight to a single sheet. If you’ve ever bought paper for a printer or copier, you probably bought a
ream, which contains 500 sheets. We could estimate that a ream of paper is about 2 inches thick and weighs about 5 pounds.
Scaling these down,
\displaystyle\frac{2\text{ inches}}{\text{ream}}\cdot\frac{1\text{ ream}}{500\text{ pages}}=0.004\text{ inches per sheet}\\
\displaystyle\frac{5\text{ pounds}}{\text{ream}}\cdot\frac{1\text{ ream}}{500\text{ pages}}=0.01\text{ pounds per sheet, or }=0.16\text{ ounces per sheet.}\\
Example 26
A recipe for zucchini muffins states that it yields 12 muffins, with 250 calories per muffin. You instead decide to make mini-
muffins, and the recipe yields 20 muffins. If you eat 4, how many calories will you consume?
Solution
There are several possible solution pathways to answer this question. We will explore one.
To answer the question of how many calories 4 mini-muffins will contain, we would want to know the number of calories in each
mini-muffin. To find the calories in each mini-muffin, we could first find the total calories for the entire recipe, then divide it by the
number of mini-muffins produced. To find the total calories for the recipe, we could multiply the calories per standard muffin by
the number per muffin. Notice that this produces a multi-step solution pathway. It is often easier to solve a problem in small steps,
rather than trying to find a way to jump directly from the given information to the solution.
We can now execute our plan:
\displaystyle{12}\text{ muffins}\cdot\frac{250\text{ calories}}{\text{muffin}}=3000\text{ calories for the whole recipe}\\
\displaystyle\frac{3000\text{ calories}}{20\text{ mini-muffins}}=\text{ gives }150\text{ calories per mini-muffin}\\
\displaystyle4\text{ mini-muffins}\cdot\frac{150\text{ calories}}{\text{mini-muffin}}=\text{totals }600\text{ calories consumed.}\\
Example 27
You need to replace the boards on your deck. About how much will the materials cost?
Solution
There are two approaches we could take to this problem: 1) estimate the number of boards we will need and find the cost per board,
or 2) estimate the area of the deck and find the approximate cost per square foot for deck boards. We will take the latter approach.
For this solution pathway, we will be able to answer the question if we know the cost per square foot for decking boards and the
square footage of the deck. To find the cost per square foot for decking boards, we could compute the area of a single board, and
divide it into the cost for that board. We can compute the square footage of the deck using geometric formulas. So first we need
information: the dimensions of the deck, and the cost and dimensions of a single deck board.
Suppose that measuring the deck, it is rectangular, measuring 16 ft by 24 ft, for a total area of 384 ft2.
From a visit to the local home store, you find that an 8 foot by 4 inch cedar deck board costs about $7.50. The area of this board,
doing the necessary conversion from inches to feet, is:
\displaystyle{8}\text{ feet}\cdot4\text{ inches}\cdot\frac{1\text{ foot}}{12\text{ inches}}=2.667\text{ft}^2{.}\\ The cost per square foot is then
\displaystyle\frac{\$7.50}{2.667\text{ft}^2}=\$2.8125\text{ per ft}^2{.}\\
This will allow us to estimate the material cost for the whole 384 ft2 deck
\displaystyle\$384\text{ft}^2\cdot\frac{\$2.8125}{\text{ft}^2}=\$1080\text{ total cost.}\\
Of course, this cost estimate assumes that there is no waste, which is rarely the case. It is common to add at least 10% to the cost
estimate to account for waste.
Example 28
Is it worth buying a Hyundai Sonata hybrid instead the regular Hyundai Sonata?
Solution
To make this decision, we must first decide what our basis for comparison will be. For the purposes of this example, we’ll focus on
fuel and purchase costs, but environmental impacts and maintenance costs are other factors a buyer might consider.
It might be interesting to compare the cost of gas to run both cars for a year. To determine this, we will need to know the miles per
gallon both cars get, as well as the number of miles we expect to drive in a year. From that information, we can find the number of
gallons required from a year. Using the price of gas per gallon, we can find the running cost.
From Hyundai’s website, the 2013 Sonata will get 24 miles per gallon (mpg) in the city, and 35 mpg on the highway. The hybrid
will get 35 mpg in the city, and 40 mpg on the highway.
An average driver drives about 12,000 miles a year. Suppose that you expect to drive about 75% of that in the city, so 9,000 city
miles a year, and 3,000 highway miles a year.
We can then find the number of gallons each car would require for the year.
Sonata: \displaystyle{9000}\text{ city miles}\cdot\frac{1\text{ gallon}}{24\text{ city miles}}+3000\text{ highway miles}\cdot\frac{1\text{ gallon}}{35\text{ highway miles}}=460.7\text{ gallons}
Hybrid: \displaystyle{9000}\text{ city miles}\cdot\frac{1\text{ gallon}}{35\text{ city miles}}+3000\text{ highway miles}\cdot\frac{1\text{ gallon}}{40\text{ highway miles}}=332.1\text{ gallons}
If gas in your area averages about $3.50 per gallon, we can use that to find the running cost:
Sonata: \displaystyle{460.7}\text{ gallons}\cdot\frac{\$3.50}{\text{gallon}}=\$1612.45\\
Hybrid: \displaystyle{332.1}\text{ gallons}\cdot\frac{\$3.50}{\text{gallon}}=\$1162.35\\
The hybrid will save $450.10 a year. The gas costs for the hybrid are about \displaystyle\frac{\$450.10}{\$1612.45}\\ = 0.279 = 27.9% lower than
the costs for the standard Sonata.
While both the absolute and relative comparisons are useful here, they still make it hard to answer the original question, since “is it
worth it” implies there is some tradeoff for the gas savings. Indeed, the hybrid Sonata costs about $25,850, compared to the base
model for the regular Sonata, at $20,895.
To better answer the “is it worth it” question, we might explore how long it will take the gas savings to make up for the additional
initial cost. The hybrid costs $4965 more. With gas savings of $451.10 a year, it will take about 11 years for the gas savings to
make up for the higher initial costs.
We can conclude that if you expect to own the car 11 years, the hybrid is indeed worth it. If you plan to own the car for less than 11
years, it may still be worth it, since the resale value of the hybrid may be higher, or for other non-monetary reasons. This is a case
where math can help guide your decision, but it can’t make it for you.
Try It Now
If traveling from Seattle, WA to Spokane WA for a three-day conference, does it make more sense to drive or fly?
1. http://www.factcheck.org/cheney_edwards_mangle_facts.html ↵
2. http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/LiesDamnedLiesAndStatistics ↵
3. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/budget/fy2013/assets/hist07z1.xls ↵
4. Fluid ounces are a capacity measurement for liquids. 1 fluid ounce ≈ 1 ounce (weight) for water only. ↵
5. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2042rank.html ↵
6. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL ↵
CC licensed content, Shared previously
Problem Solving. Authored by: David Lippman. Located at: http://www.opentextbookstore.com/mathinsociety/. Project:
Math in Society. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
4.3: Problem Solving is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
4.4: Test Page
Topic A. Solving Equations and Evaluating Expressions
Objectives:
1. Use additional resources to practice algebra, as needed.
2. Learn to check answers in some way other than looking “in the back of the book.”
3. Use the distributive property and other properties to simplify algebraic expressions and check your work.
4. Solve and simplify linear equations and check solutions of equations by plugging them back in.
5. Solve equations with variables in the denominator and check solutions by plugging them in.
6. Solve equations of those two types with multiple variables for one variable, resulting in a formula for that one variable.
7. Evaluate variable expressions when given the value of each variable, using the correct order of operations.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Overview
The prerequisite for these materials includes mastery of basic math skills and some algebra, as needed to achieve “college-level” on
Texas’ THEA test. Many students who have learned math at this level forget it easily, so this review section of some algebra is
provided. Some students in the class will go through this material quickly and others will need to go much more slowly and do
more review work. Additional optional practice problems are provided on the course web pages. The next few topics in the do not
use this algebra, so it isn’t necessary to master everything in this topic immediately. It is necessary to master it before moving into
Topic G (Linear Equations) and later.
A major difference between this course and most other math courses involves “checking your answer by looking in the back of the
book.” In standard algebra classes, students practice quite a lot of similar problems and are expected to check many of the answers
by looking in the back of the book. When we use mathematics in applications in the real world, there is no “back of the book.” In
this course, we will learn methods for independently checking our results to see if they are correct, or at least reasonable, without
having to rely on answers that someone else gives us. Most students find this awkward at first, but when they persist in practicing
the checking methods, develop more confidence in using mathematics and in their problem-solving skills. There are not easy
checking methods for all the techniques covered here, so some answers are provided. Generally, however, for particular topic, if
you are expected to check your answer by an independent method, an answer key is not provided.
Section 1. Use the distributive property and other properties to simplify expressions and check your work.
Distributive Property:
For any real numbers a, b, and c: a(b + c) = ab + ac.
For any real numbers a, b, and c: a(b – c) = ab – ac
The fact that two expressions are equal means that they are equal for any values of the variable. So you can check by taking a few
values for the variable and making sure that those do make the two sides equal. Usually we don’t use the values 0 or 1 or 2 as the
value for the variable, because that’s too simple. Also it’s best to avoid numbers that already appear in the problem.
Example 1. Simplify .
Partial Check: Use

Solution:
Partial Check: Use

Solution:
Partial Check: Use

Solution:
Partial Check: Use

Solution:
Caution: Checking your work on problems like these is not completely satisfactory, because students who make a mistake in the
original solution often make a corresponding mistake in the checking process. So the fact that it checks does not provide complete
confidence that the solution is correct. But it’s still a good idea to check because you’ll catch most of your mistakes.
For links to material with additional examples and explanations, see the course web page.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Section 2. Solving and simplifying linear equations and checking the result.
To solve equations, write a simpler equivalent equation using the following rules. Keep writing simpler equivalent equations until
you have simplified it enough that one side has the variable alone and the other has a number. That gives the solution.
1. Add or subtract the same number or expression to both sides of the equation.
2. Multiply or divide both sides of the equation by the same nonzero number or expression.
You can check the solution to an equation by plugging the number into the original equation and seeing if the resulting statement is
true.
For additional explanation and examples, see the course web page for links. These include links to instructional materials and a
link to an equation solver, where you can enter any equation and have it find the solution. You can use that to check your work on
as many problems as you have the time and energy to work.
Example 1. Solve .
Solution: Check:
Example 2. Find a formula for y (that is, solve for y in terms of x):
Discussion: This is more complicated than a problem like Example 1. However, it uses exactly the same techniques. Problems
like this arise when we begin to investigate graphing lines. Probably you have done problems like these in a previous algebra
course, but maybe you haven’t done many of them. We will practice many problems like these in the first few weeks of the
course. Don’t practice these until you can do problems like Example 1 fairly easily.
Solution: Check by plugging in the answer for y:
Example 3. Solve
Discussion: This is basically like Example 1, except that the coefficients are decimals and the variable is t rather than x. In your
previous algebra classes, you may not have done much work with decimal numbers, but we will use them often in this class. We
will practice many problems like these in the first few weeks of the course. Don’t practice these until you can do problems like
Example 1 fairly easily.
Solution: Check:
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Section 3. Solving equations with variables in the denominator.
Example 1: Solve
Discussion: Sometimes students learn to solve problems like this one by “cross-multiplying.” That is correct. However, most
math teachers prefer to think of solving this by multiplying both sides by the same thing – in this case the product of the two
denominators. The result is the same. Both methods are shown below.
Solution:
Solution Alternate Solution Method: Check:
Method: Multiply by common
Cross- denominator
multiply:
Here, the two sides aren’t exactly equal. But that isn’t surprising, because we rounded the
final answer to the original problem, so we don’t expect the two sides here to be exactly
equal.
Notice that the quotient, which is the final answer, didn’t come out even, so I had to round off. I chose to round off to four decimal
places. We’ll talk more specifically about how exactly answers should be given later in the course. For now, when you have to
round in the final computation, always keep at least three decimal places. That will ensure that your checking will produce answers
close enough that you can recognize them as being essentially the same, so your checking is useful.
Example 2: Solve
Discussion: Here the variable isn’t in the denominator, but this illustrates that the basic principle of multiplying both sides by the
same non-zero expression works here too.
Solution:
Solution Method: Alternate Solution Method: Multiply by common denominator Check:

Cross-multiply:
Example 3: Solve
Solution Method: Solution Method: Multiply by common denominator Check:

Cross-multiply:
Example 4: Find a formula for h (that is, solve for h.) .

Cross-multiply:
Substitute
Example 5: Find a formula for d (that is, solve for d.) .

Cross-multiply:
Substitute for d on the right.
Section 4. Evaluate variable expressions when given the value of each variable, using the correct order of operations.
Recall these rules about order of operations. Do them in this order.

1. All operations inside symbols of grouping (parentheses) from the inside out.
2. All operations of exponents or roots.
3. All multiplications and divisions, in order from left to right.
4. All additions and subtractions, in order from left to right.
The best method I know is to write the expression first with the variable, then with parentheses in place of the variable, and then
with the values inserted into the parentheses.
Then you can remove any of those parentheses that aren’t needed to keep the negative numbers clear and to keep the products of
two numbers clear.
Then, begin to evaluate the expression according to the order of operations, doing one operation per step.
For problems in this course, the most important of these rules are to do exponents first and then to do multiplications/divisions
before additions/subtractions.
Example 1. Evaluate when .
Solution:
Notice that the 7 here is in parentheses, but it is not an OPERATION in parentheses, so there is no need to think about that first
rule in the order of operations.
Discussion: Later in the course, some students frequently do problems like this incorrectly because they do the addition before the
multiplication. It is important to learn this rule well.
Example 2: Evaluate when .

Solution:
Discussion: Later in the course, some students have trouble remembering not to do the multiplication of 9 times 2 here first. Many
of our formulas will include exponents such as this, so it is important to learn this rule well.
Checking your work: When evaluating expressions, the only clear method to check your work is to simply re-work it. That’s not
completely satisfactory because if you have a mistake in understanding, you’re likely to make it both times.
However, in this course, most of the times we will evaluate an expression, it is in the context of a larger problem for which there is
a good method of checking available.
Exercises.
After you work each of these problems, use some method of checking your answer and show that check right beside your solution.
Don’t forget to prepare and fill out the homework cover sheet as you do the problems.
Part I.
1. Simplify Part II.
2. Simplify 1. Solve
3. Simplify 2. Solve
4. Simplify 3. Simplify
5. Solve 4. Simplify
6. Find a formula for y (that is, solve for y in terms of x): 5. Solve
7. Solve 6. Solve
8. Solve 7. Solve
9. Solve 8. Solve
10. Solve 9. Find a formula for y (that is, solve for y):
11. : Find a formula for h (that is, solve for h.) . 10. Find a formula for y (that is, solve for y):
12. Find a formula for d (that is, solve for d.) . 11. Find a formula for k (that is, solve for k.) .
13. Evaluate when 12. Find a formula for m (that is, solve for m.) .
14. Evaluate when 13. Evaluate where
14. Evaluate where
4.4: Test Page is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
This YouTube playlist contains several videos that supplement the reading on Problem Solving.
You are not required to watch all of these videos, but I recommend watching the videos for any concepts you may be struggling
with.
Image of Check Mark. Authored by: ClkerFreeVectorImages. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/check-mark-checklist-action-
check-304375/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
4.5: Supplemental Videos is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
There are two optional Discussion Boards in this course:
Go to Discussion Board > Open Discussion to ask questions, answer questions, post current event examples, or contribute
insights related to the reading. You can also use this forum to form study groups. You will use this board throughout the
duration course. It is not specific to this module.
Go to Discussion Board > Problem Solving Homework Discussion to discuss issues you are having with the homework or to
help your classmates with their questions. There will be a different homework discussion board for each module. They are
specific to each module.
Comments Orange. Authored by: ClkerFreeVectorImages. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/speech-bubbles-comments-
orange-303206/. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
4.6: Optional Discussion Boards is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Pick a unique real problem and try to solve it using the general problem solving strategies from this module. Present the problem
and the solution to the rest of the class. View the problems posted by your classmates and respond to at least two. Read the General
Problem Solving Strategies Application Directions for detailed directions.
Create a new thread in the Problem-Solving Application forum in the Discussion Board to complete this assignment.
Grading Criteria Points

Possible
The problem: 5
Is it a real-life problem?
Is it challenging, not trivial?
Is it a unique problem instead of a copy of a classmate’s posting?
The strategies: 5
Are one or more general problem solving strategies used?
Are the strategies correctly identified?
The presentation: 4
Is the problem explained well?
Are the problem solving strategies explained well?
Are the appropriate terms used?
Your responses: 6
Did you post at least two responses?
Did you explain how the examples helped you better understand the math in this module?
Did you ask questions for clarification or make suggestions on how to change or improve the original application
posting or any other follow-up postings?

4.7: Discuss- Problem Solving Application is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
You will need to become familiar with the use of the Math Editor in Blackboard. You may choose to use the Math Editor for some
of your exam questions.
Use the Math Editor Practice forum in the Discussion Board to complete this assignment. Click on the Create Thread button to
begin a new thread.
With this assignment, you will accomplish two things:
Practice using the math editor in Blackboard. Click here for instructions: BlackboardMathEditor.doc
Troubleshooting the Math Editor: Upgrading JAVA
Practice presenting a problem
Let n = your age + number of the month of your birth. Determine the nth hexagonal number using the formula
\displaystyle{H}_n=\frac{n(4n-2)}{2}\\
Post your entire solution, including the original formula, in the discussion board using the math editor. Be sure to use proper
fraction notation. Do not use / to represent the fraction bar. For example, if you are 25 and you were born in April, then n = 25 + 4
= 29 and the 29th hexagonal number is
\displaystyle{H}_{29}=\frac{29((4\times29)-2)}{2}=\frac{29(116-2)}{2}=\frac{29(114)}{2}=1653\\

You are strongly encouraged to review & repeat this practice exercise before taking each of the exams, but no extra points
will be awarded.

4.8: Discuss- Math Editor Practice (Blackboard) is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Exercises
1. Out of 230 racers who started the marathon, 212 completed the race, 14 gave up, and 4 were disqualified. What percentage did
not complete the marathon?
2. Patrick left an $8 tip on a $50 restaurant bill. What percent tip is that?
3. Ireland has a 23% VAT (value-added tax, similar to a sales tax). How much will the VAT be on a purchase of a €250 item?
4. Employees in 2012 paid 4.2% of their gross wages towards social security (FICA tax), while employers paid another 6.2%.
How much will someone earning $45,000 a year pay towards social security out of their gross wages?
5. A project on Kickstarter.com was aiming to raise $15,000 for a precision coffee press. They ended up with 714 supporters,
raising 557% of their goal. How much did they raise?
6. Another project on Kickstarter for an iPad stylus raised 1,253% of their goal, raising a total of $313,490 from 7,511 supporters.
What was their original goal?
7. The population of a town increased from 3,250 in 2008 to 4,300 in 2010. Find the absolute and relative (percent) increase.
8. The number of CDs sold in 2010 was 114 million, down from 147 million the previous year[6]. Find the absolute and relative
(percent) decrease.
9. A company wants to decrease their energy use by 15%.

1. If their electric bill is currently $2,200 a month, what will their bill be if they’re successful?
2. If their next bill is $1,700 a month, were they successful? Why or why not?
10. A store is hoping an advertising campaign will increase their number of customers by 30%. They currently have about 80
customers a day.
1. How many customers will they have if their campaign is successful?
2. If they increase to 120 customers a day, were they successful? Why or why not?
11. An article reports “attendance dropped 6% this year, to 300.” What was the attendance before the drop?
12. An article reports “sales have grown by 30% this year, to $200 million.” What were sales before the growth?
13. The Walden University had 47,456 students in 2010, while Kaplan University had 77,966 students. Complete the following
statements:
1. Kaplan’s enrollment was ___% larger than Walden’s.
2. Walden’s enrollment was ___% smaller than Kaplan’s.
3. Walden’s enrollment was ___% of Kaplan’s.
14. In the 2012 Olympics, Usain Bolt ran the 100m dash in 9.63 seconds. Jim Hines won the 1968 Olympic gold with a time of
9.95 seconds.
1. Bolt’s time was ___% faster than Hines’.
2. Hine’ time was ___% slower than Bolt’s.
3. Hine’ time was ___% of Bolt’s.
15. A store has clearance items that have been marked down by 60%. They are having a sale, advertising an additional 30% off
clearance items. What percent of the original price do you end up paying?
16. Which is better: having a stock that goes up 30% on Monday than drops 30% on Tuesday, or a stock that drops 30% on Monday
and goes up 30% on Tuesday? In each case, what is the net percent gain or loss?
17. Are these two claims equivalent, in conflict, or not comparable because they’re talking about different things?
16. “16.3% of Americans are without health insurance”[7]
17. “only 55.9% of adults receive employer provided health insurance”[8]
1. “We mark up the wholesale price by 33% to come up with the retail price”
2. “The store has a 25% profit margin”
1. “Every year since 1950, the number of American children gunned down has doubled.”
2. “The number of child gunshot deaths has doubled from 1950 to 1994.”
20. Are these two claims equivalent, in conflict, or not comparable because they’re talking about different things?[9]
1. “75 percent of the federal health care law’s taxes would be paid by those earning less than $120,000 a year”
2. “76 percent of those who would pay the penalty [health care law’s taxes] for not having insurance in 2016 would earn under
$120,000”
1. “The school levy is only a 0.1% increase of the property tax rate.”
2. “This new levy is a 12% tax hike, raising our total rate to $9.33 per $1000 of value.”
22. Are the values compared in this statement comparable or not comparable? “Guns have murdered more Americans here at home
in recent years than have died on the battlefields of Iraq and Afghanistan. In support of the two wars, more than 6,500 American
soldiers have lost their lives. During the same period, however, guns have been used to murder about 100,000 people on
American soil”[10]
23. A high school currently has a 30% dropout rate. They’ve been tasked to decrease that rate by 20%. Find the equivalent
percentage point drop.
24. A politician’s support grew from 42% by 3 percentage points to 45%. What percent (relative) change is this?
25. Marcy has a 70% average in her class going into the final exam. She says “I need to get a 100% on this final so I can raise my
score to 85%.” Is she correct?
26. Suppose you have one quart of water/juice mix that is 50% juice, and you add 2 quarts of juice. What percent juice is the final
mix?
27. Find a unit rate: You bought 10 pounds of potatoes for $4.
28. Find a unit rate: Joel ran 1500 meters in 4 minutes, 45 seconds.
29. Solve: .
30. Solve: .
31. A crepe recipe calls for 2 eggs, 1 cup of flour, and 1 cup of milk. How much flour would you need if you use 5 eggs?
32. An 8ft length of 4 inch wide crown molding costs $14. How much will it cost to buy 40ft of crown molding?
33. Four 3-megawatt wind turbines can supply enough electricity to power 3000 homes. How many turbines would be required to
power 55,000 homes?
34. A highway had a landslide, where 3,000 cubic yards of material fell on the road, requiring 200 dump truck loads to clear. On
another highway, a slide left 40,000 cubic yards on the road. How many dump truck loads would be needed to clear this slide?
35. Convert 8 feet to inches.
36. Convert 6 kilograms to grams.
37. A wire costs $2 per meter. How much will 3 kilometers of wire cost?
38. Sugar contains 15 calories per teaspoon. How many calories are in 1 cup of sugar?
39. A car is driving at 100 kilometers per hour. How far does it travel in 2 seconds?
40. A chain weighs 10 pounds per foot. How many ounces will 4 inches weigh?
41. The table below gives data on three movies. Gross earnings is the amount of money the movie brings in. Compare the net
earnings (money made after expenses) for the three movies.[11]
Movie Release Budget Gross
Date earnings
Saw 10/29/2004 $1,200,000 $103,096,345
Titanic 12/19/1997 $200,000,000 $1,842,879,955
Jurassic 6/11/1993 $63,000,000 $923,863,984

Park
42. For the movies in the previous problem, which provided the best return on investment?
43. The population of the U.S. is about 309,975,000, covering a land area of 3,717,000 square miles. The population of India is
about 1,184,639,000, covering a land area of 1,269,000 square miles. Compare the population densities of the two countries.
44. The GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of China was $5,739 billion in 2010, and the GDP of Sweden was $435 billion. The
population of China is about 1,347 million, while the population of Sweden is about 9.5 million. Compare the GDP per capita
of the two countries.
45. In June 2012, Twitter was reporting 400 million tweets per day. Each tweet can consist of up to 140 characters (letter, numbers,
etc.). Create a comparison to help understand the amount of tweets in a year by imagining each character was a drop of water
and comparing to filling something up.
46. The photo sharing site Flickr had 2.7 billion photos in June 2012. Create a comparison to understand this number by assuming
each picture is about 2 megabytes in size, and comparing to the data stored on other media like DVDs, iPods, or flash drives.
47. Your chocolate milk mix says to use 4 scoops of mix for 2 cups of milk. After pouring in the milk, you start adding the mix, but
get distracted and accidentally put in 5 scoops of mix. How can you adjust the mix if:
1. There is still room in the cup?
2. The cup is already full?
48. A recipe for sabayon calls for 2 egg yolks, 3 tablespoons of sugar, and ¼ cup of white wine. After cracking the eggs, you start
measuring the sugar, but accidentally put in 4 tablespoons of sugar. How can you compensate?
49. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill resulted in 4.9 million barrels of oil spilling into the Gulf of Mexico. Each barrel of oil can be
processed into about 19 gallons of gasoline. How many cars could this have fueled for a year? Assume an average car gets 20
miles to the gallon, and drives about 12,000 miles in a year.
50. The store is selling lemons at 2 for $1. Each yields about 2 tablespoons of juice. How much will it cost to buy enough lemons to
make a 9-inch lemon pie requiring ½ cup of lemon juice?
51. A piece of paper can be made into a cylinder in two ways: by joining the short sides together, or by joining the long sides
together[12]. Which cylinder would hold more? How much more?
52. Which of these glasses contains more liquid? How much more?
In the next 4 questions, estimate the values by making reasonable approximations for unknown values, or by doing
some research to find reasonable values.
53. Estimate how many gallons of water you drink in a year.
54. Estimate how many times you blink in a day.
55. How much does the water in a 6-person hot tub weigh?
56. How many gallons of paint would be needed to paint a two-story house 40 ft long and 30 ft wide?
57. During the landing of the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity, it was reported that the signal from the rover would take 14
minutes to reach earth. Radio signals travel at the speed of light, about 186,000 miles per second. How far was Mars from Earth
when Curiosity landed?
58. It is estimated that a driver takes, on average, 1.5 seconds from seeing an obstacle to reacting by applying the brake or
swerving. How far will a car traveling at 60 miles per hour travel (in feet) before the driver reacts to an obstacle?
59. The flash of lightning travels at the speed of light, which is about 186,000 miles per second. The sound of lightning (thunder)
travels at the speed of sound, which is about 750 miles per hour.
1. If you see a flash of lightning, then hear the thunder 4 seconds later, how far away is the lightning?
2. Now let’s generalize that result. Suppose it takes n seconds to hear the thunder after a flash of lightning. How far away is the
lightning, in terms of n?
60. Sound travels about 750 miles per hour. If you stand in a parking lot near a building and sound a horn, you will hear an echo.
1. Suppose it takes about ½ a second to hear the echo. How far away is the building[13]?
2. Now let’s generalize that result. Suppose it takes n seconds to hear the echo. How far away is the building, in terms of n?
61. It takes an air pump 5 minutes to fill a twin sized air mattress (39 by 8.75 by 75 inches). How long will it take to fill a queen
sized mattress (60 by 8.75 by 80 inches)?
62. It takes your garden hose 20 seconds to fill your 2-gallon watering can. How long will it take to fill
63. An inflatable pool measuring 3 feet wide, 8 feet long, and 1 foot deep.[14]
64. A circular inflatable pool 13 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep.[15]
63. You want to put a 2″ thick layer of topsoil for a new 20’x30′ garden. The dirt store sells by the cubic yards. How many cubic
yards will you need to order?
64. A box of Jell-O costs $0.50, and makes 2 cups. How much would it cost to fill a swimming pool 4 feet deep, 8 feet wide, and 12
feet long with Jell-O? (1 cubic foot is about 7.5 gallons)
65. You read online that a 15 ft by 20 ft brick patio would cost about $2,275 to have professionally installed. Estimate the cost of
having a 18 by 22 ft brick patio installed.
66. I was at the store, and saw two sizes of avocados being sold. The regular size sold for $0.88 each, while the jumbo ones sold for
$1.68 each. Which is the better deal?
67. The grocery store has bulk pecans on sale, which is great since you’re planning on making 10 pecan pies for a wedding. Your
recipe calls for 1¾ cups pecans per pie. However, in the bulk section there’s only a scale available, not a measuring cup. You
run over to the baking aisle and find a bag of pecans, and look at the nutrition label to gather some info. How many pounds of
pecans should you buy?
68. Soda is often sold in 20 ounce bottles. The nutrition label for one of these bottles is shown to the right. A packet of sugar (the
kind they have at restaurants for your coffee or tea) typically contain 4 grams of sugar in the U.S. Drinking a 20 oz soda is
equivalent to eating how many packets of sugar?[16]
For the next set of questions, first identify the information you need to answer the question, and then turn to the end
of the section to find that information. The details may be imprecise; answer the question the best you can with the
provided information. Be sure to justify your decision.
69. You’re planning on making 6 meatloafs for a party. You go to the store to buy breadcrumbs, and see they are sold by the
canister. How many canisters do you need to buy?
70. Your friend wants to cover their car in bottle caps, like in this picture.[17] How many bottle caps are you going to need?
71. You need to buy some chicken for dinner tonight. You found an ad showing that the store across town has it on sale for $2.99 a
pound, which is cheaper than your usual neighborhood store, which sells it for $3.79 a pound. Is it worth the extra drive?
72. I have an old gas furnace, and am considering replacing it with a new, high efficiency model. Is upgrading worth it?
73. Janine is considering buying a water filter and a reusable water bottle rather than buying bottled water. Will doing so save her
money?
74. Marcus is considering going car-free to save money and be more environmentally friendly. Is this financially a good decision?
For the next set of problems, research or make educated estimates for any unknown quantities needed to answer the
question.
75. You want to travel from Tacoma, WA to Chico, CA for a wedding. Compare the costs and time involved with driving, flying,
and taking a train. Assume that if you fly or take the train you’ll need to rent a car while you’re there. Which option is best?
76. You want to paint the walls of a 6ft by 9ft storage room that has one door and one window. You want to put on two coats of
paint. How many gallons and/or quarts of paint should you buy to paint the room as cheaply as possible?
77. A restaurant in New York tiled their floor with pennies[18]. Just for the materials, is this more expensive than using a more
traditional material like ceramic tiles? If each penny has to be laid by hand, estimate how long it would take to lay the pennies
for a 12ft by 10ft room. Considering material and labor costs, are pennies a cost-effective replacement for ceramic tiles?
78. You are considering taking up part of your back yard and turning it into a vegetable garden, to grow broccoli, tomatoes, and
zucchini. Will doing so save you money, or cost you more than buying vegetables from the store?
79. Barry is trying to decide whether to keep his 1993 Honda Civic with 140,000 miles, or trade it in for a used 2008 Honda Civic.
Consider gas, maintenance, and insurance costs in helping him make a decision.
80. Some people claim it costs more to eat vegetarian, while some claim it costs less. Examine your own grocery habits, and
compare your current costs to the costs of switching your diet (from omnivore to vegetarian or vice versa as appropriate).
Which diet is more cost effective based on your eating habits?
Info for the breadcrumbs question
How much breadcrumbs does the recipe call for?

It calls for 1½ cups of breadcrumbs.
How many meatloaves does the recipe make?
It makes 1 meatloaf.
How many servings does that recipe make?
It says it serves 8.
How big is the canister?
It is cylindrical, 3.5 inches across and
7 inches tall.
What is the net weight of the contents of 1 canister?
15 ounces.
How much does a cup of breadcrumbs weigh?
I’m not sure, but maybe something from the nutritional label will help.
How much does a canister cost? $2.39
Info for bottle cap car

What kind of car is that?
A 1993 Honda Accord.
How big is that car / what are the dimensions? Here is some details from MSN autos:
Weight: 2800lb Length: 185.2 in Width: 67.1 in Height: 55.2 in
How much of the car was covered with caps?
Everything but the windows and the underside.
How big is a bottle cap?
Caps are 1 inch in diameter.
Info for chicken problem
How much chicken will you be buying?
Four pounds
How far are the two stores?
My neighborhood store is 2.2 miles away, and takes about 7 minutes. The store across town is 8.9 miles away, and takes about 25
minutes.
What kind of mileage does your car get?
It averages about 24 miles per gallon in the city.
How many gallons does your car hold?
About 14 gallons
How much is gas?
About $3.69/gallon right now.
Info for furnace problem
How efficient is the current furnace?
It is a 60% efficient furnace.
How efficient is the new furnace?
It is 94% efficient.
What is your gas bill?
Here is the history for 2 years:
How much do you pay for gas?

There is $10.34 base charge, plus $0.39097 per Therm for a delivery charge, and $0.65195 per Therm for cost of gas.
How much gas do you use?
Here is the history for 2 years:
How much does the new furnace cost?
It will cost $7,450.
How long do you plan to live in the house?
Probably at least 15 years.
Info for water filter problem

How much water does Janine drink in a day?
She normally drinks 3 bottles a day, each 16.9 ounces.
How much does a bottle of water cost?
She buys 24-packs of 16.9 ounce bottles for $3.99.
How much does a reusable water bottle cost?
About $10.
How long does a reusable water bottle last?
Basically forever (or until you lose it).
How much does a water filter cost? How much water will they filter?
A faucet-mounted filter costs about $28. Refill filters cost about $33 for a 3-pack. The box says each filter will filter up to 100
gallons (378 liters)
A water filter pitcher costs about $22. Refill filters cost about $20 for a 4-pack. The box says each filter lasts for 40 gallons or 2
months
An under-sink filter costs $130. Refill filters cost about $60 each. The filter lasts for 500 gallons.
Info for car-free problem

Where does Marcus currently drive? He:
Drives to work 5 days a week, located 4 miles from his house.
Drives to the store twice a week, located 7 miles from his house.
Drives to other locations on average 5 days a week, with locations ranging from 1 mile to 20 miles.
Drives to his parent’s house 80 miles away once a month.
How will he get to these locations without a car?
For work, he can walk when it’s sunny and he gets up early enough. Otherwise he can take a bus, which takes about 20 minutes
For the store, he can take a bus, which takes about 35 minutes.
Some of the other locations he can bus to. Sometimes he’ll be able to get a friend to pick him up. A few locations he is able to
walk to. A couple locations are hard to get to by bus, but there is a ZipCar (short term car rental) location within a few blocks.
He’ll need to get a ZipCar to visit his parents.
How much does gas cost?
About $3.69/gallon.
How much does he pay for insurance and maintenance?
He pays $95/month for insurance.
He pays $30 every 3 months for an oil change, and has averaged about $300/year for other maintenance costs.
How much is he paying for the car?
He’s paying $220/month on his car loan right now, and has 3 years left on the loan.
If he sold the car, he’d be able to make enough to pay off the loan.
If he keeps the car, he’s planning on trading the car in for a newer model in a couple years.
What mileage does his car get?
About 26 miles per gallon on average.
How much does a bus ride cost?
$2.50 per trip, or $90 for an unlimited monthly pass.
How much does a ZipCar rental cost?
The “occasional driving plan”: $25 application fee and $60 annual fee, with no monthly commitment. Monday-Thursday the
cost is $8/hour, or $72 per day. Friday-Sunday the cost is $8/hour or $78/day. Gas, insurance, and 180 miles are included in the
cost. Additional miles are $0.45/mile.
The “extra value plan”: Same as above, but with a $50 monthly commitment, getting you a 10% discount on the usage costs.
Extension: Taxes
Governments collect taxes to pay for the services they provide. In the United States, federal income taxes help fund the military, the
environmental protection agency, and thousands of other programs. Property taxes help fund schools. Gasoline taxes help pay for
road improvements. While very few people enjoy paying taxes, they are necessary to pay for the services we all depend upon.
Taxes can be computed in a variety of ways, but are typically computed as a percentage of a sale, of one’s income, or of one’s
assets.
Example 1
The sales tax rate in a city is 9.3%. How much sales tax will you pay on a $140 purchase?
The sales tax will be 9.3% of $140. To compute this, we multiply $140 by the percent written as a decimal: $140(0.093) = $13.02.
When taxes are not given as a fixed percentage rate, sometimes it is necessary to calculate the effective rate.
Effective rate
The effective tax rate is the equivalent percent rate of the tax paid out of the dollar amount the tax is based on.
Example 2
Joan paid $3,200 in property taxes on her house valued at $215,000 last year. What is the effective tax rate?
We can compute the equivalent percentage: 3200/215000 = 0.01488, or about 1.49% effective rate.
Taxes are often referred to as progressive, regressive, or flat.
Tax categories
A flat tax, or proportional tax, charges a constant percentage rate.
A progressive tax increases the percent rate as the base amount increases.
A regressive tax decreases the percent rate as the base amount increases.
Example 3
The United States federal income tax on earned wages is an example of a progressive tax. People with a higher wage income pay a
higher percent tax on their income.
For a single person in 2011, adjusted gross income (income after deductions) under $8,500 was taxed at 10%. Income over $8,500
but under $34,500 was taxed at 15%.
A person earning $10,000 would pay 10% on the portion of their income under $8,500, and 15% on the income over $8,500, so
they’d pay:
8500(0.10) = 850 10% of $8500
1500(0.15) = 225 15% of the remaining $1500 of income
Total tax: = $1075
The effective tax rate paid is 1075/10000 = 10.75%
A person earning $30,000 would also pay 10% on the portion of their income under $8,500, and 15% on the income over $8,500,
so they’d pay:
8500(0.10) = 850 10% of $8500
21500(0.15) = 3225 15% of the remaining $21500 of income
Total tax: = $4075
The effective tax rate paid is 4075/30000 = 13.58%.
Notice that the effective rate has increased with income, showing this is a progressive tax.
Example 4
A gasoline tax is a flat tax when considered in terms of consumption, a tax of, say, $0.30 per gallon is proportional to the amount of
gasoline purchased. Someone buying 10 gallons of gas at $4 a gallon would pay $3 in tax, which is $3/$40 = 7.5%. Someone
buying 30 gallons of gas at $4 a gallon would pay $9 in tax, which is $9/$120 = 7.5%, the same effective rate.
However, in terms of income, a gasoline tax is often considered a regressive tax. It is likely that someone earning $30,000 a year
and someone earning $60,000 a year will drive about the same amount. If both pay $60 in gasoline taxes over a year, the person
earning $30,000 has paid 0.2% of their income, while the person earning $60,000 has paid 0.1% of their income in gas taxes.
Try it Now 1
A sales tax is a fixed percentage tax on a person’s purchases. Is this a flat, progressive, or regressive tax?
Try it Now Answers

1. While sales tax is a flat percentage rate, it is often considered a regressive tax for the same reasons as the gasoline tax.
Income Taxation
Many people have proposed various revisions to the income tax collection in the United States. Some, for example, have claimed
that a flat tax would be fairer. Others call for revisions to how different types of income are taxed, since currently investment
income is taxed at a different rate than wage income.
The following two projects will allow you to explore some of these ideas and draw your own conclusions.
Project 1: Flat tax, Modified Flat Tax, and Progressive Tax.
Imagine the country is made up of 100 households. The federal government needs to collect $800,000 in income taxes to be able to
function. The population consists of 6 groups:
Group A: 20 households that earn $12,000 each

Group B: 20 households that earn $29,000 each
Group C: 20 households that earn $50,000 each
Group D: 20 households that earn $79,000 each
Group E: 15 households that earn $129,000 each
Group F: 5 households that earn $295,000 each
This scenario is roughly proportional to the actual United States population and tax needs. We are going to determine new income
tax rates.
The first proposal we’ll consider is a flat tax – one where every income group is taxed at the same percentage tax rate.
1) Determine the total income for the population (all 100 people together)
2) Determine what flat tax rate would be necessary to collect enough money.
The second proposal we’ll consider is a modified flat-tax plan, where everyone only pays taxes on any income over $20,000. So,
everyone in group A will pay no taxes. Everyone in group B will pay taxes only on $9,000.
3) Determine the total taxable income for the whole population
4) Determine what flat tax rate would be necessary to collect enough money in this modified system
5) Complete this table for both the plans
Flat Tax Plan Modified Flat Tax Plan
Group Income Income tax Income after taxes Income tax per Income after
per per household household taxes
household
A $12,000
B $29,000
C $50,000
D $79,000
E $129,000
F $295,000
The third proposal we’ll consider is a progressive tax, where lower income groups are taxed at a lower percent rate, and higher
income groups are taxed at a higher percent rate. For simplicity, we’re going to assume that a household is taxed at the same rate on
all their income.
6) Set progressive tax rates for each income group to bring in enough money. There is no one right answer here – just make sure
you bring in enough money!
Group Income Tax rate Income tax Total tax Income after taxes
per (%) per household collected for all per household
household households
A $12,000
B $29,000
C $50,000
D $79,000
E $129,000
F $295,000
This better total to

$800,000
7) Discretionary income is the income people have left over after paying for necessities like rent, food, transportation, etc. The cost
of basic expenses does increase with income, since housing and car costs are higher, however usually not proportionally. For each
income group, estimate their essential expenses, and calculate their discretionary income. Then compute the effective tax rate for
each plan relative to discretionary income rather than income.
Group Income Discretionary Effective Effective Effective
per Income rate, flat rate, rate,
household (estimated) modified progressive
A $12,000
B $29,000
C $50,000
D $79,000
E $129,000
F $295,000
8) Which plan seems the most fair to you? Which plan seems the least fair to you? Why?
Project 2: Calculating Taxes.

Visit www.irs.gov, and download the most recent version of forms 1040, and schedules A, B, C, and D.
Scenario 1: Calculate the taxes for someone who earned $60,000 in standard wage income (W-2 income), has no dependents, and
takes the standard deduction.
Scenario 2: Calculate the taxes for someone who earned $20,000 in standard wage income, $40,000 in qualified dividends, has no
dependents, and takes the standard deduction. (Qualified dividends are earnings on certain investments such as stocks.)
Scenario 3: Calculate the taxes for someone who earned $60,000 in small business income, has no dependents, and takes the
standard deduction.
Based on these three scenarios, what are your impressions of how the income tax system treats these different forms of income
(wage, dividends, and business income)?
Scenario 4: To get a more realistic sense for calculating taxes, you’ll need to consider itemized deductions. Calculate the income
taxes for someone with the income and expenses listed below.
Married with 2 children, filing jointly

Wage income: $50,000 combined
Paid sales tax in Washington State
Property taxes paid: $3200
Home mortgage interest paid: $4800
Charitable gifts: $1200
[1] http://www.factcheck.org/cheney_edwards_mangle_facts.html
[2] http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/LiesDamnedLiesAndStatistics
[3] http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/defa...s/hist07z1.xls
[4] https://www.cia.gov/library/publicat.../2042rank.html
[5] http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL
[6] http://www.cnn.com/2010/SHOWBIZ/Musi...les/index.html
[7] http://www.cnn.com/2012/06/27/politi...are/index.html
[8] http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0712/78134.html
[9] http://factcheck.org/2012/07/twistin...th-care-taxes/
[10] http://www.northjersey.com/news/opin...tml?c=y&page=2
[11] http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/records/budgets.php
[12] http://vimeo.com/42501010
[13] http://vimeo.com/40377128
[14] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DIkwefReHZc
[15] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9SABH7Yg9M
[16] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62JMfv0tf3Q
[17] Photo credit: http://www.flickr.com/photos/swayze/, CC-BY
[18] http://www.notcot.com/archives/2009/...-of-pennie.php
4.9: Problem Solving Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
5: Growth Models
5.5: Exercises
5: Growth Models is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Marco is a collector of antique soda bottles. His collection currently contains 437 bottles. Every year, he budgets
enough money to buy 32 new bottles. Can we determine how many bottles he will have in 5 years, and how long it will
Page ID
take for his collection to reach 1000 bottles?
51594
While both of these questions you could probably solve without an equation or formal mathematics, we are going to
formalize our approach to this problem to provide a means to answer more complicated questions.
Suppose that Pn represents the number, or population, of bottles Marco has after n years. So P0 would represent the number of
bottles now, P1 would represent the number of bottles after 1 year, P2 would represent the number of bottles after 2 years, and so
on. We could describe how Marco’s bottle collection is changing using:
P0 = 437
Pn = Pn-1 + 32
This is called a recursive relationship. A recursive relationship is a formula which relates the next value in a sequence to the
previous values. Here, the number of bottles in year n can be found by adding 32 to the number of bottles in the previous year, Pn-
1. Using this relationship, we could calculate:
P1 = P0 + 32 = 437 + 32 = 469
P2 = P1 + 32 = 469 + 32 = 501
P3 = P2 + 32 = 501 + 32 = 533
P4 = P3 + 32 = 533 + 32 = 565
P5 = P4 + 32 = 565 + 32 = 597
We have answered the question of how many bottles Marco will have in 5 years. However, solving how long it will take for his
collection to reach 1000 bottles would require a lot more calculations.
While recursive relationships are excellent for describing simply and cleanly how a quantity is changing, they are not convenient
for making predictions or solving problems that stretch far into the future. For that, a closed or explicit form for the relationship is
preferred. An explicit equation allows us to calculate Pn directly, without needing to know Pn-1. While you may already be able
to guess the explicit equation, let us derive it from the recursive formula. We can do so by selectively not simplifying as we go:
P1 = 437 + 32 = 437 + 1(32)
P2 = P1 + 32 = 437 + 32 + 32 = 437 + 2(32)
P3 = P2 + 32 = (437 + 2(32)) + 32 = 437 + 3(32)
P4 = P3 + 32 = (437 + 3(32)) + 32 = 437 + 4(32)
You can probably see the pattern now, and generalize that
Pn = 437 + n(32) = 437 + 32n
Using this equation, we can calculate how many bottles he’ll have after 5 years:
P5 = 437 + 32(5) = 437 + 160 = 597
We can now also solve for when the collection will reach 1000 bottles by substituting in 1000 for Pn and solving for n
1000 = 437 + 32n
563 = 32n
n = 563/32 = 17.59
So Marco will reach 1000 bottles in 18 years.
In the previous example, Marco’s collection grew by the same number of bottles every year. This constant change is the defining
characteristic of linear growth. Plotting the values we calculated for Marco’s collection, we can see the values form a straight line,
the shape of linear growth.
Linear Growth
If a quantity starts at size P0 and grows by d every time period, then the quantity after n time periods can be determined using
either of these relations:
Recursive form:
Pn = Pn-1 + d
Explicit form:
Pn = P0 + d n
In this equation, d represents the common difference – the amount that the population changes each time n increases by 1
Connection to prior learning – slope and intercept

You may recognize the common difference, d, in our linear equation as slope. In fact, the entire explicit equation should look
familiar – it is the same linear equation you learned in algebra, probably stated as y = mx + b.
In the standard algebraic equation y = mx + b, b was the y-intercept, or the y value when x was zero. In the form of the equation
we’re using, we are using P0 to represent that initial amount.
In the y = mx + b equation, recall that m was the slope. You might remember this as “rise over run”, or the change in y divided by
the change in x. Either way, it represents the same thing as the common difference, d, we are using – the amount the output Pn
changes when the input n increases by 1.
The equations y = mx + b and Pn = P0 + d n mean the same thing and can be used the same ways, we’re just writing it somewhat
differently.
Example 1
The population of elk in a national forest was measured to be 12,000 in 2003, and was measured again to be 15,000 in 2007. If the
population continues to grow linearly at this rate, what will the elk population be in 2014?
To begin, we need to define how we’re going to measure n. Remember that P0 is the population when n = 0, so we probably don’t
want to literally use the year 0. Since we already know the population in 2003, let us define n = 0 to be the year 2003. Then
P0 = 12,000.
Next we need to find d. Remember d is the growth per time period, in this case growth per year. Between the two measurements,
the population grew by 15,000-12,000 = 3,000, but it took 2007-2003 = 4 years to grow that much. To find the growth per year, we
can divide: 3000 elk / 4 years = 750 elk in 1 year.
Alternatively, you can use the slope formula from algebra to determine the common difference, noting that the population is the
output of the formula, and time is the input.
d=slope=\frac{\text{changeinoutput}}{\text{changeininput}}=\frac{15,000-12,000}{2007-2003}=\frac{3000}{4}=750
We can now write our equation in whichever form is preferred.

Recursive form:
P0 = 12,000
Pn = Pn-1 + 750
Explicit form:
Pn = 12,000 + 750n
To answer the question, we need to first note that the year 2014 will be n = 11, since 2014 is 11 years after 2003. The explicit form
will be easier to use for this calculation:
P11 = 12,000 + 750(11) = 20,250 elk
Example 2
Gasoline consumption in the US has been increasing steadily. Consumption data from 1992 to 2004 is shown below[1]. Find a
model for this data, and use it to predict consumption in 2016. If the trend continues, when will consumption reach 200 billion
gallons?
Year ’92 ’93 ’94 ’95 ’96 ’97 ’98 ’99 ’00 ’01 ’02 ’03 ’04
Consumption (billion of 110 111 113 116 118 119 123 125 126 128 131 133 136
gallons)
Plotting this data, it appears to have an approximately linear relationship:
While there are more advanced statistical techniques that can be used to find an equation to model the data, to get an idea of what is
happening, we can find an equation by using two pieces of the data – perhaps the data from 1993 and 2003.
Letting n = 0 correspond with 1993 would give P0 = 111 billion gallons.
To find d, we need to know how much the gas consumption increased each year, on average. From 1993 to 2003 the gas
consumption increased from 111 billion gallons to 133 billion gallons, a total change of 133 – 111 = 22 billion gallons, over 10
years. This gives us an average change of 22 billion gallons / 10 year = 2.2 billion gallons per year.
Equivalently,
billion gallons per year
d=slope=\frac{\text{changeinoutput}}{\text{changeininput}}=\frac{133-111}{10-0}=\frac{22}{10}=2.2
We can now write our equation in whichever form is preferred.

Recursive form:
P0 = 111
Pn = Pn-1 + 2.2
Explicit form:
Pn = 111 + 2.2n
Calculating values using the explicit form and plotting them with the original data shows how well our model fits the data.
We can now use our model to make predictions about the future, assuming that the previous trend continues unchanged. To predict
the gasoline consumption in 2016:
n = 23 (2016 – 1993 = 23 years later)
P23 = 111 + 2.2(23) = 161.6
Our model predicts that the US will consume 161.6 billion gallons of gasoline in 2016 if the current trend continues.
To find when the consumption will reach 200 billion gallons, we would set Pn = 200, and solve for n:
Pn = 200 Replace Pn with our model
111 + 2.2n = 200 Subtract 111 from both sides
2.2n = 89 Divide both sides by 2.2
n = 40.4545
This tells us that consumption will reach 200 billion about 40 years after 1993, which would be in the year 2033.
Example 3
The cost, in dollars, of a gym membership for n months can be described by the explicit equation Pn = 70 + 30n. What does this
equation tell us?
The value for P0 in this equation is 70, so the initial starting cost is $70. This tells us that there must be an initiation or start-up fee
of $70 to join the gym.
The value for d in the equation is 30, so the cost increases by $30 each month. This tells us that the monthly membership fee for the
gym is $30 a month.
Try it Now 1
The number of stay-at-home fathers in Canada has been growing steadily[2]. While the trend is not perfectly linear, it is fairly
linear. Use the data from 1976 and 2010 to find an explicit formula for the number of stay-at-home fathers, then use it to predict the
number if 2020.
When good models go bad

When using mathematical models to predict future behavior, it is important to keep in mind that very few trends will continue
indefinitely.
Example 4
Suppose a four year old boy is currently 39 inches tall, and you are told to expect him to grow 2.5 inches a year.
We can set up a growth model, with n = 0 corresponding to 4 years old.
Recursive form:
P0 = 39
Pn = Pn-1 + 2.5
Explicit form:
Pn = 39 + 2.5n
So at 6 years old, we would expect him to be
P2 = 39 + 2.5(2) = 44 inches tall
Any mathematical model will break down eventually. Certainly, we shouldn’t expect this boy to continue to grow at the same rate
all his life. If he did, at age 50 he would be
P46 = 39 + 2.5(46) = 154 inches tall = 12.8 feet tall!
When using any mathematical model, we have to consider which inputs are reasonable to use. Whenever we extrapolate, or make
predictions into the future, we are assuming the model will continue to be valid.
1. http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/2005/html/table_04_10.html ↵
2. http://www.fira.ca/article.php?id=140 ↵
Math in Society. Authored by: Open Textbook Store, Transition Math Project, and the Open Course Library. Located at:
http://www.opentextbookstore.com/mathinsociety/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
5.1: Linear (Algebraic) Growth is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Suppose that every year, only 10% of the fish in a lake have surviving offspring. If there were 100 fish in the lake last year, there
would now be 110 fish. If there were 1000 fish in the lake last year, there would now be 1100 fish. Absent any inhibiting factors,
populations of people and animals tend to grow by a percent of the existing population each year.
Suppose our lake began with 1000 fish, and 10% of the fish have surviving offspring each year. Since we start with 1000 fish, P0 =
1000. How do we calculate P1? The new population will be the old population, plus an additional 10%. Symbolically:
P1 = P0 + 0.10P0
Notice this could be condensed to a shorter form by factoring:
P1 = P0 + 0.10P0 = 1P0 + 0.10P0 = (1+ 0.10)P0 = 1.10P0
While 10% is the growth rate, 1.10 is the growth multiplier. Notice that 1.10 can be thought of as “the original 100% plus an
additional 10%”
For our fish population,
P1 = 1.10(1000) = 1100
We could then calculate the population in later years:
P2 = 1.10P1 = 1.10(1100) = 1210
P3 = 1.10P2 = 1.10(1210) = 1331
Notice that in the first year, the population grew by 100 fish, in the second year, the population grew by 110 fish, and in the third
year the population grew by 121 fish.
While there is a constant percentage growth, the actual increase in number of fish is increasing each year.
Graphing these values we see that this growth doesn’t quite appear linear.
To get a better picture of how this percentage-based growth affects things, we need an explicit form, so we can quickly calculate
values further out in the future.
Like we did for the linear model, we will start building from the recursive equation:
P1 = 1.10P0 = 1.10(1000)
P2 = 1.10P1 = 1.10(1.10(1000)) = 1.102(1000)
P3 = 1.10P2 = 1.10(1.102(1000)) = 1.103(1000)
P4 = 1.10P3 = 1.10(1.103(1000)) = 1.104(1000)
Observing a pattern, we can generalize the explicit form to be:
Pn = 1.10n(1000), or equivalently, Pn = 1000(1.10n)
From this, we can quickly calculate the number of fish in 10, 20, or 30 years:
P10 = 1.1010(1000) = 2594
P20 = 1.1020(1000) = 6727
P30 = 1.1030(1000) = 17449
Adding these values to our graph reveals a shape that is definitely not linear. If our fish population had been growing linearly, by
100 fish each year, the population would have only reached 4000 in 30 years compared to almost 18000 with this percent-based
growth, called exponential growth.
In exponential growth, the population grows proportional to the size of the population, so as the population gets larger, the same
percent growth will yield a larger numeric growth.
Exponential Growth
If a quantity starts at size P0 and grows by R% (written as a decimal, r) every time period, then the quantity after n time periods can
be determined using either of these relations:
Recursive form:
Pn = (1+r) Pn-1
Explicit form:
Pn = (1+r)nP0 or equivalently, Pn = P0 (1+r)n
We call r the growth rate.
The term (1+r) is called the growth multiplier, or common ratio.
Example 5
Between 2007 and 2008, Olympia, WA grew almost 3% to a population of 245 thousand people. If this growth rate was to
continue, what would the population of Olympia be in 2014?
As we did before, we first need to define what year will correspond to n = 0. Since we know the population in 2008, it would make
sense to have 2008 correspond to n = 0, so P0 = 245,000. The year 2014 would then be n = 6.
We know the growth rate is 3%, giving r = 0.03.
Using the explicit form:
P6 = (1+0.03)6 (245,000) = 1.19405(245,000) = 292,542.25
The model predicts that in 2014, Olympia would have a population of about 293 thousand people.
Evaluating exponents on the calculator
To evaluate expressions like (1.03)6, it will be easier to use a calculator than multiply 1.03 by itself six times. Most scientific
calculators have a button for exponents. It is typically either labeled like:
^ , yx , or xy .
To evaluate 1.036 we’d type 1.03 ^ 6, or 1.03 yx 6. Try it out – you should get an answer around 1.1940523.
Try it Now 2
India is the second most populous country in the world, with a population in 2008 of about 1.14 billion people. The population is
growing by about 1.34% each year. If this trend continues, what will India’s population grow to by 2020?
Example 6
A friend is using the equation Pn = 4600(1.072)n to predict the annual tuition at a local college. She says the formula is based on
years after 2010. What does this equation tell us?
In the equation, P0 = 4600, which is the starting value of the tuition when n = 0. This tells us that the tuition in 2010 was $4,600.
The growth multiplier is 1.072, so the growth rate is 0.072, or 7.2%. This tells us that the tuition is expected to grow by 7.2% each
year.
Putting this together, we could say that the tuition in 2010 was $4,600, and is expected to grow by 7.2% each year.
Example 7
In 1990, the residential energy use in the US was responsible for 962 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions. By the year
2000, that number had risen to 1182 million metric tons[1]. If the emissions grow exponentially and continue at the same rate, what
will the emissions grow to by 2050?
Similar to before, we will correspond n = 0 with 1990, as that is the year for the first piece of data we have. That will make P0 =
962 (million metric tons of CO2). In this problem, we are not given the growth rate, but instead are given that P10 = 1182.
When n = 10, the explicit equation looks like:
P10 = (1+r)10 P0
We know the value for P0, so we can put that into the equation:
P10 = (1+r)10 962
We also know that P10 = 1182, so substituting that in, we get
1182 = (1+r)10 962
We can now solve this equation for the growth rate, r. Start by dividing by 962.
\frac{1182}{962}={{(1+r)}^{10}} Take the 10th root of both sides
\sqrt[10]{\frac{1182}{962}}=1+r Subtract 1 from both sides
r=\sqrt[10]{\frac{1182}{962}}-1=0.0208 = 2.08%
So if the emissions are growing exponentially, they are growing by about 2.08% per year. We can now predict the emissions in
2050 by finding P60
P60 = (1+0.0208)60 962 = 3308.4 million metric tons of CO2 in 2050
Rounding
As a note on rounding, notice that if we had rounded the growth rate to 2.1%, our calculation for the emissions in 2050 would have
been 3347. Rounding to 2% would have changed our result to 3156. A very small difference in the growth rates gets magnified
greatly in exponential growth. For this reason, it is recommended to round the growth rate as little as possible.
If you need to round, keep at least three significant digits – numbers after any leading zeros. So 0.4162 could be reasonably
rounded to 0.416. A growth rate of 0.001027 could be reasonably rounded to 0.00103.
Evaluating roots on the calculator

In the previous example, we had to calculate the 10th root of a number. This is different than taking the basic square root, √. Many
scientific calculators have a button for general roots. It is typically labeled like:
\sqrt[n]{{}} , \sqrt[x]{{}} , or \sqrt[y]{x}
To evaluate the 3rd root of 8, for example, we’d either type 3 \sqrt[x]{{}} 8, or 8 \sqrt[x]{{}} 3, depending on the calculator. Try it on
yours to see which to use – you should get an answer of 2.
If your calculator does not have a general root button, all is not lost. You can instead use the property of exponents which states that
. So, to compute the 3rd root of 8, you could use your calculator’s exponent key to evaluate . To do this, type:
8 yx ( 1 ÷ 3 )
The parentheses tell the calculator to divide 1/3 before doing the exponent.
Try it Now 3
The number of users on a social networking site was 45 thousand in February when they officially went public, and grew to 60
thousand by October. If the site is growing exponentially, and growth continues at the same rate, how many users should then
expect two years after they went public?
Example 8
Looking back at the last example, for the sake of comparison, what would the carbon emissions be in 2050 if emissions grow
linearly at the same rate?
Again we will get n = 0 correspond with 1990, giving P0 = 962. To find d, we could take the same approach as earlier, noting that
the emissions increased by 220 million metric tons in 10 years, giving a common difference of 22 million metric tons each year.
Alternatively, we could use an approach similar to that which we used to find the exponential equation. When n = 10, the explicit
linear equation looks like:
P10 = P0 + 10d
We know the value for P0, so we can put that into the equation:
P10 = 962 + 10d
Since we know that P10 = 1182, substituting that in we get
1182 = 962 + 10d
We can now solve this equation for the common difference, d.
1182 – 962 = 10d
220 = 10d
d = 22
This tells us that if the emissions are changing linearly, they are growing by 22 million metric tons each year. Predicting the
emissions in 2050,
P60 = 962 + 22(60) = 2282 million metric tons.
You will notice that this number is substantially smaller than the prediction from the exponential growth model. Calculating and
plotting more values helps illustrate the differences.
So how do we know which growth model to use when working with data? There are two approaches which should be used together
whenever possible:
1) Find more than two pieces of data. Plot the values, and look for a trend. Does the data appear to be changing like a line, or do
the values appear to be curving upwards?
2) Consider the factors contributing to the data. Are they things you would expect to change linearly or exponentially? For
example, in the case of carbon emissions, we could expect that, absent other factors, they would be tied closely to population
values, which tend to change exponentially.
1. http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggrpt/carbon.html ↵
5.2: Exponential (Geometric) Growth is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Earlier, we found that since Olympia, WA had a population of 245 thousand in 2008 and had been growing at 3% per year, the
population could be modeled by the equation
Pn = (1+0.03)n (245,000), or equivalently, Pn = 245,000(1.03)n.
Using this equation, we were able to predict the population in the future.
Suppose we wanted to know when the population of Olympia would reach 400 thousand. Since we are looking for the year n
when the population will be 400 thousand, we would need to solve the equation
400,000 = 245,000(1.03)n dividing both sides by 245,000 gives

1.6327 = 1.03n
One approach to this problem would be to create a table of values, or to use technology to draw a graph to estimate the solution.
From the graph, we can estimate that the solution will be around 16 to 17 years after 2008 (2024 to 2025). This is pretty good, but
we’d really like to have an algebraic tool to answer this question. To do that, we need to introduce a new function that will undo
exponentials, similar to how a square root undoes a square. For exponentials, the function we need is called a logarithm. It is the
inverse of the exponential, meaning it undoes the exponential. While there is a whole family of logarithms with different bases, we
will focus on the common log, which is based on the exponential 10x.
Common Logarithm
The common logarithm, written log(x), undoes the exponential 10x
This means that log(10x) = x, and likewise 10log(x) = x
This also means the statement 10a = b is equivalent to the statement log(b) = a
log(x) is read as “log of x”, and means “the logarithm of the value x”. It is important to note that this is not multiplication – the log
doesn’t mean anything by itself, just like √ doesn’t mean anything by itself; it has to be applied to a number.
Example 9
Evaluate each of the following
a) log(100) b) log(1000) c) log(10000) d) log(1/100) e) log(1)
a) log(100) can be written as log(102). Since the log undoes the exponential, log(102) = 2
b) log(1000) = log(103) = 3
c) log(10000) = log(104) = 4
d) Recall that
. \log\left(\frac{1}{100}\right)=\log\left({{10}^{-2}}\right)=-2
e) Recall that x0 = 1. log(1) = log(100) = 0
It is helpful to note that from the first three parts of the previous example that the number we’re taking the log of has to get 10
times bigger for the log to increase in value by 1.
Of course, most numbers cannot be written as a nice simple power of 10. For those numbers, we can evaluate the log using a
scientific calculator with a log button.
Example 10
Evaluate log(300)
Using a calculator, log(300) is approximately 2.477121
With an equation, just like we can add a number to both sides, multiply both sides by a number, or square both sides, we can also
take the logarithm of both sides of the equation and end up with an equivalent equation. This will allow us to solve some simple
equations.
Example 11
a) Solve 10x = 1000 b) Solve 10x = 3 c) Solve 2(10x) = 8
a) Taking the log of both sides gives log(10x) = log(1000)
Since the log undoes the exponential, log(10x) = x. Similarly log(1000) = log(103) = 3.
The equation simplifies then to x = 3.
b) Taking the log of both sides gives log(10x) = log(3).
On the left side, log(10x) = x, so x = log(3). We can approximate this value with a calculator. x ≈ 0.477
c) Here we would first want to isolate the exponential by dividing both sides of the equation by 2, giving
10x = 4.
Now we can take the log of both sides, giving log(10x) = log(4), which simplifies to
x = log(4) ≈ 0.602
This approach allows us to solve exponential equations with powers of 10, but what about problems like 2 = 1.03n from earlier,
which have a base of 1.03? For that, we need the exponent property for logs.
Properties of Logs: Exponent Property
\log\left({{A}^{r}}\right)=r\log\left(A\right)
To show why this is true, we offer a proof.

Since the logarithm and exponential undo each other, {{10}^{\logA}}=A .
So
Utilizing the exponential rule that states
,
So then \log\left({{A}^{r}}\right)=\log\left({{10}^{r\logA}}\right)
Again utilizing the property that the log undoes the exponential on the right side yields the result
\log\left({{A}^{r}}\right)=r\logA
Example 12
Rewrite log(25) using the exponent property for logs
log(25) = log(52) = 2log(5)
This property will finally allow us to answer our original question.
Solving exponential equations with logarithms

1. Isolate the exponential. In other words, get it by itself on one side of the equation. This usually involves dividing by a number
multiplying it.
2. Take the log of both sides of the equation.
3. Use the exponent property of logs to rewrite the exponential with the variable exponent multiplying the logarithm.
4. Divide as needed to solve for the variable.
Example 13
If Olympia is growing according to the equation, Pn = 245(1.03)n, where n is years after 2008, and the population is measured in
thousands. Find when the population will be 400 thousand.
We need to solve the equation

400 = 245(1.03)n Begin by dividing both sides by 245 to isolate the exponential
1.633 = 1.03n Now take the log of both sides
log(1.633) = log(1.03n) Use the exponent property of logs on the right side
log(1.633)= n log(1.03) Now we can divide by log(1.03)
\frac{\log(1.633)}{\log(1.03)}=n We can approximate this value on a calculator
n ≈ 16.591
Alternatively, after applying the exponent property of logs on the right side, we could have evaluated the logarithms to decimal
approximations and completed our calculations using those approximations, as you’ll see in the next example. While the final
answer may come out slightly differently, as long as we keep enough significant values during calculation, our answer will be close
enough for most purposes.
Example 14
Polluted water is passed through a series of filters. Each filter removes 90% of the remaining impurities from the water. If you have
10 million particles of pollutant per gallon originally, how many filters would the water need to be passed through to reduce the
pollutant to 500 particles per gallon?
In this problem, our “population” is the number of particles of pollutant per gallon. The initial pollutant is 10 million particles per
gallon, so P0 = 10,000,000. Instead of changing with time, the pollutant changes with the number of filters, so n will represent the
number of filters the water passes through.
Also, since the amount of pollutant is decreasing with each filter instead of increasing, our “growth” rate will be negative,
indicating that the population is decreasing instead of increasing, so r = -0.90.
We can then write the explicit equation for the pollutant:

Pn = 10,000,000(1 – 0.90)n = 10,000,000(0.10)n
To solve the question of how many filters are needed to lower the pollutant to 500 particles per gallon, we can set Pn equal to 500,
and solve for n.
500 = 10,000,000(0.10)n Divide both sides by 10,000,000

0.00005 = 0.10n Take the log of both sides
log(0.00005) = log(0.10n) Use the exponent property of logs on the right side
log(0.00005) = n log(0.10) Evaluate the logarithms to a decimal approximation
-4.301 = n (-1) Divide by -1, the value multiplying n
4.301 = n
It would take about 4.301 filters. Of course, since we probably can’t install 0.3 filters, we would need to use 5 filters to bring the
pollutant below the desired level.
Try it Now 4
India had a population in 2008 of about 1.14 billion people. The population is growing by about 1.34% each year. If this trend
continues, when will India’s population reach 1.2 billion?
5.3: Solve Exponentials for Time- Logarithms is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
In our basic exponential growth scenario, we had a recursive equation of the form
Pn = Pn-1 + r Pn-1
In a confined environment, however, the growth rate may not remain constant. In a lake, for example, there is some maximum
sustainable population of fish, also called a carrying capacity.
Carrying Capacity
The carrying capacity, or maximum sustainable population, is the largest population that an environment can support.
For our fish, the carrying capacity is the largest population that the resources in the lake can sustain. If the population in the lake is
far below the carrying capacity, then we would expect the population to grow essentially exponentially. However, as the population
approaches the carrying capacity, there will be a scarcity of food and space available, and the growth rate will decrease. If the
population exceeds the carrying capacity, there won’t be enough resources to sustain all the fish and there will be a negative growth
rate, causing the population to decrease back to the carrying capacity.
If the carrying capacity was 5000, the growth rate might vary something like that in the graph shown. Note that this is a linear
equation with intercept at 0.1 and slope -\frac{0.1}{5000}, so we could write an equation for this adjusted growth rate as:
radjusted = 0.1-\frac{0.1}{5000}P=0.1\left(1-\frac{P}{5000}\right)
Substituting this in to our original exponential growth model for r gives

Logistic Growth
If a population is growing in a constrained environment with carrying capacity K, and absent constraint would grow exponentially
with growth rate r, then the population behavior can be described by the logistic growth model:
Unlike linear and exponential growth, logistic growth behaves differently if the populations grow steadily throughout the year or if
they have one breeding time per year. The recursive formula provided above models generational growth, where there is one
breeding time per year (or, at least a finite number); there is no explicit formula for this type of logistic growth.
Example 15
A forest is currently home to a population of 200 rabbits. The forest is estimated to be able to sustain a population of 2000 rabbits.
Absent any restrictions, the rabbits would grow by 50% per year. Predict the future population using the logistic growth model.
Modeling this with a logistic growth model, r = 0.50, K = 2000, and P0 = 200. Calculating the next year:
{{P}_{1}}={{P}_{0}}+0.50\left(1-\frac{{{P}_{0}}}{2000}\right){{P}_{0}}=200+0.50\left(1-\frac{200}{2000}\right)200=290
We can use this to calculate the following year:

{{P}_{2}}={{P}_{1}}+0.50\left(1-\frac{{{P}_{1}}}{2000}\right){{P}_{1}}=290+0.50\left(1-\frac{290}{2000}\right)290\approx414
A calculator was used to compute several more values:
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pn 200 290 414 578 784 1022 1272 1503 1690 1821 1902
Plotting these values, we can see that the population starts to increase faster and the graph curves upwards during the first few
years, like exponential growth, but then the growth slows down as the population approaches the carrying capacity.
Example 16
On an island that can support a population of 1000 lizards, there is currently a population of 600. These lizards have a lot of
offspring and not a lot of natural predators, so have very high growth rate, around 150%. Calculating out the next couple
generations:
Interestingly, even though the factor that limits the growth rate slowed the growth a lot, the population still overshot the carrying
capacity. We would expect the population to decline the next year.
Calculating out a few more years and plotting the results, we see the population wavers above and below the carrying capacity, but
eventually settles down, leaving a steady population near the carrying capacity.
Try it Now 5
A field currently contains 20 mint plants. Absent constraints, the number of plants would increase by 70% each year, but the field
can only support a maximum population of 300 plants. Use the logistic model to predict the population in the next three years.
Example 17
On a neighboring island to the one from the previous example, there is another population of lizards, but the growth rate is even
higher – about 205%.
Calculating out several generations and plotting the results, we get a surprise: the population seems to be oscillating between two
values, a pattern called a 2-cycle.
While it would be tempting to treat this only as a strange side effect of mathematics, this has actually been observed in nature.
Researchers from the University of California observed a stable 2-cycle in a lizard population in California.[1]
Taking this even further, we get more and more extreme behaviors as the growth rate increases higher. It is possible to get stable
4-cycles, 8-cycles, and higher. Quickly, though, the behavior approaches chaos (remember the movie Jurassic Park?).
Try it Now Answers

1. Letting n = 0 correspond with 1976, then P0 = 20,610.
From 1976 to 2010 the number of stay-at-home fathers increased by
53,555 – 20,610 = 32,945
This happened over 34 years, giving a common different d of 32,945 / 34 = 969.
Pn = 20,610 + 969n
Predicting for 2020, we use n = 44
P44 = 20,610 + 969(44) = 63,246 stay-at-home fathers in 2020.
2. Using n = 0 corresponding with 2008,
P12 = (1+0.0134)12 (1.14) = about 1.337 billion people in 2020
3. Here we will measure n in months rather than years, with n = 0 corresponding to the February when they went public. This gives
P0 = 45 thousand. October is 8 months later, so P8 = 60.
P8 = (1+r)8 P0
60 = (1+r)8 45
\frac{60}{45}={{(1+r)}^{8}}
\sqrt[8]{\frac{60}{45}}=1+r
r=\sqrt[8]{\frac{60}{45}}-1=0.0366 , or 3.66%
The general explicit equation is Pn = (1.0366)n 45
Predicting 24 months (2 years) after they went public:
P24 = (1.0366)24 45 = 106.63 thousand users.
4. 1.14(1.0134)n = 1.2. n = 3.853, which is during 2011
5. {{P}_{1}}={{P}_{0}}+0.70\left(1-\frac{{{P}_{0}}}{300}\right){{P}_{0}}=20+0.70\left(1-\frac{20}{300}\right)20=33
P2 = 54
P3 = 85
1. http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Populations2.html ↵
5.4: Logistic Growth is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
5.5: Exercises
Skills
1. Marko currently has 20 tulips in his yard. Each year he plants 5 more.
a. Write a recursive formula for the number of tulips Marko has
b. Write an explicit formula for the number of tulips Marko has
2. Pam is a Disc Jockey. Every week she buys 3 new albums to keep her collection current. She currently owns 450 albums.
a. Write a recursive formula for the number of albums Pam has
b. Write an explicit formula for the number of albums Pam has
3. A store’s sales (in thousands of dollars) grow according to the recursive rule Pn=Pn-1 + 15, with initial population P0=40.
a. Calculate P1 and P2
b. Find an explicit formula for Pn
c. Use your formula to predict the store’s sales in 10 years
d. When will the store’s sales exceed $100,000?
4. The number of houses in a town has been growing according to the recursive rule Pn=Pn-1 + 30, with initial population
P0=200.
a. Calculate P1 and P2
b. Find an explicit formula for Pn
c. Use your formula to predict the number of houses in 10 years
d. When will the number of houses reach 400 houses?
5. A population of beetles is growing according to a linear growth model. The initial population (week 0) was P0=3, and the
population after 8 weeks is P8=67.
a. Find an explicit formula for the beetle population in week n
b. After how many weeks will the beetle population reach 187?
6. The number of streetlights in a town is growing linearly. Four months ago (n = 0) there were 130 lights. Now (n = 4) there
are 146 lights. If this trend continues,
a. Find an explicit formula for the number of lights in month n
b. How many months will it take to reach 200 lights?
7. Tacoma’s population in 2000 was about 200 thousand, and had been growing by about 9% each year.
a. Write a recursive formula for the population of Tacoma
b. Write an explicit formula for the population of Tacoma
c. If this trend continues, what will Tacoma’s population be in 2016?
d. When does this model predict Tacoma’s population to exceed 400 thousand?
8. Portland’s population in 2007 was about 568 thousand, and had been growing by about 1.1% each year.
a. Write a recursive formula for the population of Portland
b. Write an explicit formula for the population of Portland
c. If this trend continues, what will Portland’s population be in 2016?
d. If this trend continues, when will Portland’s population reach 700 thousand?
9. Diseases tend to spread according to the exponential growth model. In the early days of AIDS, the growth rate was around
190%. In 1983, about 1700 people in the U.S. died of AIDS. If the trend had continued unchecked, how many people would
have died from AIDS in 2005?
10. The population of the world in 1987 was 5 billion and the annual growth rate was estimated at 2 percent per year. Assuming
that the world population follows an exponential growth model, find the projected world population in 2015.
11. A bacteria culture is started with 300 bacteria. After 4 hours, the population has grown to 500 bacteria. If the population grows
exponentially,
a. Write a recursive formula for the number of bacteria
b. Write an explicit formula for the number of bacteria
c. If this trend continues, how many bacteria will there be in 1 day?
d. How long does it take for the culture to triple in size?
12. A native wolf species has been reintroduced into a national forest. Originally 200 wolves were transplanted. After 3 years, the
population had grown to 270 wolves. If the population grows exponentially,
a. Write a recursive formula for the number of wolves
b. Write an explicit formula for the number of wolves
c. If this trend continues, how many wolves will there be in 10 years?
d. If this trend continues, how long will it take the population to grow to 1000 wolves?
13. One hundred trout are seeded into a lake. Absent constraint, their population will grow by 70% a year. The lake can sustain
a maximum of 2000 trout. Using the logistic growth model,
a. Write a recursive formula for the number of trout
b. Calculate the number of trout after 1 year and after 2 years.
14. Ten blackberry plants started growing in my yard. Absent constraint, blackberries will spread by 200% a month. My yard can
only sustain about 50 plants. Using the logistic growth model,
a. Write a recursive formula for the number of blackberry plants in my yard
b. Calculate the number of plants after 1, 2, and 3 months
15. In 1968, the U.S. minimum wage was $1.60 per hour. In 1976, the minimum wage was $2.30 per hour. Assume the minimum
wage grows according to an exponential model where n represents the time in years after 1960.
a. Find an explicit formula for the minimum wage.
b. What does the model predict for the minimum wage in 1960?
c. If the minimum wage was $5.15 in 1996, is this above, below or equal to what the model predicts?
Concepts
16. The population of a small town can be described by the equation Pn = 4000 + 70n, where n is the number of years after 2005.
Explain in words what this equation tells us about how the population is changing.
17. The population of a small town can be described by the equation Pn = 4000(1.04)n, where n is the number of years after 2005.
Explain in words what this equation tells us about how the population is changing.
Exploration
Most of the examples in the text examined growing quantities, but linear and exponential equations can also describe decreasing
quantities, as the next few problems will explore.
18. A new truck costs $32,000. The car’s value will depreciate over time, which means it will lose value. For tax purposes,
depreciation is usually calculated linearly. If the truck is worth $24,500 after three years, write an explicit formula for the value
of the car after n years.
19. Inflation causes things to cost more, and for our money to buy less (hence your grandparents saying, “In my day, you could buy
a cup of coffee for a nickel”). Suppose inflation decreases the value of money by 5% each year. In other words, if you have $1
this year, next year it will only buy you $0.95 worth of stuff. How much will $100 buy you in 20 years?
20. Suppose that you have a bowl of 500 M&M candies, and each day you eat ¼ of the candies you have. Is the number of candies
left changing linearly or exponentially? Write an equation to model the number of candies left after n days.
21. A warm object in a cooler room will decrease in temperature exponentially, approaching the room temperature according to the
formula where Tn is the temperature after n minutes, r is the rate at which temperature is changing, a is a constant, and Tr is the
temperature of the room. Forensic investigators can use this to predict the time of death of a homicide victim. Suppose that
when a body was discovered (n = 0) it was 85 degrees. After 20 minutes, the temperature was measured again to be 80 degrees.
The body was in a 70 degree room.
a. Use the given information with the formula provided to find a formula for the temperature of the body.
b. When did the victim die, if the body started at 98.6 degrees?
22. Recursive equations can be very handy for modeling complicated situations for which explicit equations would be hard to
interpret. As an example, consider a lake in which 2000 fish currently reside. The fish population grows by 10% each year, but
every year 100 fish are harvested from the lake by people fishing.
a. Write a recursive equation for the number of fish in the lake after n years.
b. Calculate the population after 1 and 2 years. Does the population appear to be increasing or decreasing?
c. What is the maximum number of fish that could be harvested each year without causing the fish population to decrease in
the long run?
23. The number of Starbucks stores grew after first opened. The number of stores from 1990-2007, as reported on their corporate
website[1], is shown below.
a. Carefully plot the data. Does is appear to be changing linearly or exponentially?
b. Try finding an equation to model the data by picking two points to work from. How well does the equation model the data?
c. Try using an equation of the form , where k is a constant, to model the data. This type of model is called a Power model.
Compare your results to the results from part b. Note: to use this model, you will need to have 1990 correspond with n = 1
rather than n = 0.
Year Number of Starbucks stores Year Number of Starbucks stores
1990 84 1999 2498
1991 116 2000 3501
1992 165 2001 4709
1993 272 2002 5886
1994 425 2003 7225
1995 677 2004 8569
1996 1015 2005 10241
1997 1412 2006 12440
1998 1886 2007 15756
24. Thomas Malthus was an economist who put forth the principle that population grows based on an exponential growth model,
while food and resources grow based on a linear growth model. Based on this, Malthus predicted that eventually demand for
food and resources would out outgrow supply, with doom-and-gloom consequences. Do some research about Malthus to answer
these questions.
a. What societal changes did Malthus propose to avoid the doom-and-gloom outcome he was predicting?
b. Why do you think his predictions did not occur?
c. What are the similarities and differences between Malthus’s theory and the logistic growth model?
1. http://www.starbucks.com/aboutus/Company_Timeline.pdf retrieved May 2009 ↵

5.5: Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
6: Module 2- Geometry
6.3: Triangles
6.4: Volume
6.5: Surface Area
6.6: Graph Theory
6: Module 2- Geometry is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
What You’ll Learn To Do: Understand and use geometry to solve problems.
Learning Objectives
Apply formulas to solve perimeter, area, surface area, and volume problems.
Solve problems using similar triangles and the Pythagorean Theorem.
Distinguish Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry.
Describe the study of topology and its importance.
Describe the study of networks and its importance.
Recognize and create tilings.
Recognize when geometry is applicable to real-life situations, solve real-life problems, and communicate real-life problems and
solutions to others.
Learning Activities
The learning activities for this module include:

Reading Assignments
Read: Perimeter and Area
Read: Triangles
Read: Volume
Read: Surface Area
Read: Graph Theory
Watch: Graph Theory Videos
Read: Topology, Tiling, Non-Euclidean Geometry
Homework Assignments
Submit: Perimeter and Area (12 points)
Submit: Triangles (4 points)
Submit: Surface Area and Volume (14 points)
Submit: Graph Theory (2 points)
Submit: Topology, Tiling, and Non-Euclidean Geometry (7 points)
Discuss: Application of Geometry (20 points)
Complete: Exam 1
Perimeter
Perimeter is a one-dimensional measurement that is taken around the outside of a closed geometric shape. Let’s start our
discussion of the concept of perimeter with an example.
Guided Example
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Joseph does not own a car so must ride the bus or walk everywhere he goes. On Mondays, he must get to school, to work, and back
home again. His route is pictured in figure 1.
The obvious question to ask in this situation is, “how many miles does Joseph travel on Mondays”? To compute, we each distance:
3 + 6 + 6 = 15.
Joseph travels 15 miles on Mondays.
Another way to work with this situation is to draw a shape that represents Joseph’s travel route and is labeled with the distance
from one spot to another.
Notice that the shape made by Joseph’s route is that of a closed geometric figure with three sides (a triangle) (see figure 2). What
we can ask about this shape is, “what is the perimeter of the triangle”?
Perimeter means “distance around a closed figure or shape” and to compute we add each length: 3 + 6 + 6 = 15
Our conclusion is the same as above: Joseph travels 15 miles on Mondays.
However, what we did was model the situation with a geometric shape and then apply a specific geometric concept (perimeter) to
computer how far Joseph traveled.
Notes on Perimeter
Perimeter is a one-dimensional measurement that represents the distance around a closed geometric figure or shape (no gaps).
To find perimeter, add the lengths of each side of the shape.
If there are units, include units in your final result. Units will always be of single dimension (i.e. feet, inches, yards, centimeters,
etc…)
To compute perimeter, our shapes must be closed. Figure 3 shows the difference between a closed figure and an open figure.
Figure 3.
Example 1
Find the perimeter for each of the shapes below.
1. Add the lengths of each side.
2. Sometimes you have to make assumptions if lengths are not labeled.
Solutions
1. 12 units
2. 40 feet
Example 2
How do we find the perimeter of this more complicated shape?
Solution
Just keep adding those side lengths. 6 + 7 + 4 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 2 = 34 units
If you look closely at the shapes in the previous examples, you might notice some ways to write each perimeter as a more explicit
formula. See if the results from what we have done so far match the formulas below.
Shape Perimeter
Triangle with side lengths, a, b, c: P=a+b+c\\
Square with side length a: P=a+a+a+a\\
P=4a\\
Rectangle with side lengths a, b: P=a+b+a+b\\
P=a+a+b+b\\
P=2a+2b\\
Circumference
You may realize that we have not yet discussed the distance around a very important geometric shape: a circle! The distance around
a circle has a special name called the circumference. To find the circumference of a circle, we use this formula: C = 2πr
Figure 4.
In this formula, π is pronounced “pi,” and is defined as the circumference of a circle divided by its diameter: \displaystyle\pi=\frac{C}{d}\\ .
We usually replace π with the approximation 3.14. The letter r represents the radius of the circle.
Let’s see where the formula for circumference comes from. Figure 4 shows a generic circle with radius r.
Notes about C = 2πr

Remember that in the formula, when computing the circumference C = 2πr, we multiply as follows usually substituting 3.14 in
place of π:
C = 2 × 3.14 × r
Often, the use of ( ) will help make the different parts of the formula easier to see:
C = (2)×(3.14)×(r)
Origins of C = 2πr
As mentioned earlier, the special number π is defined as the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter. We can write this in
equation form as: \displaystyle\frac{C}{d}=\pi\\
We know from our previous work that to identify the unknown, C, we can move d to the other side of the equation by writing C =
πd. The diameter is all the way across the circle’s middle so the diameter is twice the radius. We can update C in terms of the radius
as C = π(2r). With a little final rearranging of the order our parts are written in, we can say that C = 2πr.
Let’s use the formula to find the circumference of a few circles.
Example 3
Find the circumference of each of the following circles. Leave your answers first in exact form and then in rounded form (to the
hundredths place). (Note that when a radius is given, its value is centered above a radius segment. When a diameter is given, its
value is centered above a diameter segment.)
1.
2.
Solutions
1. Exact 8π in; rounded from exact answer 25.13 in; rounded using 3.14 for π 25.12 in
2. Exact 12.44π m; rounded from exact answer 39.08 m; rounded using 3.14 for π 39.06 m
Exact Form vs. Rounded Form

π is a number in exact form. It is not rounded.
3.14 is a rounded form approximation for π
Why does it matter which form we use? It matters because when we round, we introduce error into our final result. For this class,
that error is usually acceptable. However, you will find in other subjects such as physics or chemistry, that level of accuracy is a
concept of great importance. Let’s see an example of the difference in forms.
Example 4
The radius of the moon is about 1079 miles. What is the circumference? Let’s solve this using both the exact form and the rounded
form:
Exact Solution
C=2\pi{r}= 2\pi(1079)=2158\pi\\
To round from the exact solution, use the π button on your calculator to get
2158\pi\approx6779.56\\
Rounded Solution
C=2\pi{r}= 2(3.14)(1079)\approx6776.12\\
Notice that our final results are different. That difference is the error created by using 3.14 as an initial approximation for π. When
doing homework and tests, read the directions carefully on each problem to see which form to use.
Example 5
Find the circumference or perimeter given in each described situation below. Include a drawing of the shape with the included
information. Use the examples to help determine what shapes to draw. Show all work. As in the examples, if units are included then
units should be present in your final result. Round to tenths unless indicated otherwise.
1. Find the perimeter of a square with side length 2.17 feet.
2. Find the perimeter of a rectangle with sides of length 4.2 and 3.8.
3. Find the perimeter of a triangle with sides of length 2, 5, 7.
4. Find the circumference of a circle with radius 6 inches. Present answer in exact form and also compute using 3.14 for π. Present
rounded form to the nearest tenth.
5. Find the circumference of a circle with diameter 14.8 inches. Present answer in exact form and also compute using 3.14 for π.
Present rounded form to the nearest tenth.
Solutions
1. 8.68 feet
2. 16
3. 14
4. Exact 12π in, Rounded 37.7 in
5. Exact 14.8π in, Rounded 46.5 in
Example 6
Finding the Distance around Non-Standard Shapes
The basic formulas for perimeter of straight-line shapes and the circumference of a circle will help us find the distance around more
complicated figures. Find the distance around the following shape. Round final answer to tenths and use 3.14 for π.
Solution
34.7 in
Example 7
Applications of Perimeter and Circumference
Our knowledge of basic geometric shapes can be applied to solve “real-life” problems.
Wally wants to add a fence to the back of his house to make some room for his children to play safely (see diagram below). He
began measuring his yard but got distracted and forgot to finish measuring before he went to the store. If he remembers that the
back wall of his house is 15 yards long, does he have enough information to buy the fencing he needs? If so, how many feet should
he buy?
Solution
81 feet
Area
Let’s take another look at Wally’s backyard from Example 7 in order to introduce the next concept: area.
Guided Example
Wally successfully fenced his yard but now wants to add some landscaping and create a grassy area as shown below.
He heads down to the local lawn store and finds out that in order to determine how much sod he needs, he must figure out the
square footage of the area he wants to add grass to. On his way home, he realizes that if he divides the grassy area into sections that
are 1 foot by 1 foot and then counts them, he can determine the square footage. Here is the information Wally drew up when he got
home.
Wally correctly determined the area of the rectangular grassy section to be 30 square feet.
Notes on Area
Area is a two-dimensional measurement that represents the amount of space inside a two-dimensional shape.
To find the area, count the number of unit squares inside the shape.
If there are units, include units in your final result. Units will always be two-dimensional (i.e. square feet, square yards, square
miles, etc…)
Example 8
Find the area for each of the shapes below.
1. Remember to count the unit squares inside the shape.
2. Is there a pattern here that would make our work easier?
Example 9
How do we find the area for shapes that are more complicated? Break up the areas into shapes that we recognize and add the area
values together.
If you look closely at the shapes in the previous examples, you might notice some ways to write each area as a more explicit
formula. See if the results from what we have done so far match the formulas below.
Shape Area
Square with side length a A=a\cdot{a}\\

A=a^2\\
Rectangle with side lengths a, b A=a\cdot{b}\\
(You will also see this as A=\text{length}\cdot\text{width}\\ )
The area formulas for the shapes below are more complicated to derive so the formulas are listed for you in the table.
Shape Shape
Triangle with height h and base b Circle with radius r
\displaystyle{A}=\frac{1}{2}bh=\frac{bh}{2}\\ A=\pi{r}^2\\
Read as “one-half base times height” Read as “pi times radius squared”
Note that h is the straight-line distance from top of the triangle directly to the other side.
The small box next to h indicates this. In math terms the box indicates a 90º (right) angle.
If your triangle is as pictured at left, then the

height is drawn and measured outside the
triangle.
The area formula is the same.
Example 10
Find the area for each described situation. Create a drawing of the shape with the included information. Show all work. As in the
examples, if units are included then units should be present in your final result. Use 3.14 for π and round answers to tenths as
needed.
1. Find the area of a rectangle whose length is 12.9 meters and height is one-third that amount.
2. Find the area of a triangle with base \displaystyle{24}\frac{1}{2}\\ inches and height 7 inches.
3. Find the area of a circle with radius \displaystyle{2}\frac{1}{3}\\ inches. Present answer in exact form and also compute rounded form
using 3.14 for π. Present rounded form to the nearest tenth.
Solutions
1. 55.5 m2 or 55.5 square meters (rounded)
2. 85.8 in2 or 85.8 square inches (rounded)
3. Exact 49/9 π in2, Rounded 17.1 in2
Example 11
Find the area given each described situation. Include a drawing of the shape with the included information. Show all work. As in
the examples, if units are included then units should be present in your final result. Round answers to tenths unless otherwise
indicated.
1. Find the area of a square with side length 4.2 feet.
2. Find the area of a rectangle with sides of length 4.2 and 3.8.
3. Find the area of a triangle with height 7 inches and base 12 inches.
4. Find the area of a circle with radius 6 inches. Present answer in exact form and also compute using 3.14 for π. Present rounded
form to the nearest tenth.
Solutions
1. 17.64 ft2 or 17.64 square feet
2. 16.0
3. 42 in2 or 42 square inches
4. Exact 36π in2 or 36π square inches, Rounded using 3.14 for π 113.0 in2 or 113.0 square inches
Example 12
Finding the Area of Non-Standard Shapes
The basic formulas for area will help us find the area of more complicated figures. This is the same problem we found the
perimeter for earlier. Find the area of the given shape. Compute using 3.14 for π and round to the nearest tenth.
Solution
Rounded using 3.14 for π 25.9 in2
Example 13
Applications of Area and Perimeter
We can combine our knowledge of area/perimeter to solve problems such as this one.
Wally is still fixing up his house and has a flooring project to complete. He wants to buy enough bamboo flooring to cover the floor
space in rooms A, C and hallway B and enough bamboo edging for baseboards in all the spaces as well. How many square feet of
flooring and how many feet of baseboards should he buy?
Solution
256 ft2 flooring, 108 ft edging
Basic Arithmetic Student Workbook. Authored by: Donna Gaudet, Amy Volpe, and Jenifer Bohart. Provided by: Scottsdale
Community College. Located at: https://sccmath.wordpress.com/. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
6.2: Perimeter and Area is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
6.3: Triangles
Similar Triangles
Let’s begin our discussion of similar triangles with an example.
Guided Example
Mary was out in the yard one day and had her two daughters with her. She was doing some renovations and wanted to know how
tall the house was. She noticed a shadow 3 feet long when her daughter was standing 12 feet from the house and used it to set up
figure 1.
Figure 1.
We can take that drawing and separate the two triangles as follows allowing us to focus on the numbers and the shapes.
These triangles are what are called similar triangles. They have the same angles and sides in proportion to each other. We can use
that information to determine the height of the house as seen in figure 2.
Figure 2.
To determine the height of the house, we set up the following proportion:
\displaystyle\frac{x}{15}=\frac{5}{3}\\
Then, we solve for the unknown x by using cross products as we have done before:
\displaystyle{x}=\frac{5\times{15}}{3}=\frac{75}{3}=25\\
Therefore, we can conclude that the house is 25 feet high.
Example 1
Use the Similar Triangles process to determine the length of the missing side. Set up the proportions in as many ways as possible
and show the results are all the same.
Solution
15 units
Example 2
Use the similar triangles process to determine the length of the missing sides. You may need to redraw your triangles to set up the
proportions correctly.
Solution
x = 27.7 (rounded), y = 16.2 (rounded)
Example 3
Given the similar triangles below, find the missing lengths. Round to tenths as needed. Feel free to redraw the triangles so you can
see the proportional sides.
Solution
21.3 (rounded)
Example 4
Applications of Similar Triangles
Mary (from the application that started this topic), decides to use what she knows about the height of the roof to measure the height
of her second daughter. If her second daughter casts a shadow that is 1.5 feet long when she is 13.5 feet from the house, what is the
height of the second daughter? Draw an accurate diagram and use similar triangles to solve.
Solution
2.5 ft
Square Roots
Before we get to our last topic in this lesson—the Pythagorean Theorem,—we need to know a little bit about square roots.
The square root of a number is that number which, when multiplied times itself, gives the original number. On your calculator,
look for \sqrt\text{ }\\ to compute square roots. \sqrt{16}=4\\ because 4 × 4 = 16
A perfect square is a number whose square root is a whole number. The square root of a non-perfect square is a decimal value.
\sqrt{16}\\ is a perfect square. \sqrt{19}\\ is not a perfect square.
To obtain a decimal value for non-perfect square roots on your calculator, you may need to change the settings under your
MODE button. Check your owner’s manual for help if needed. \sqrt{19}=4.36\\ (rounded to hundredths)
Example 5
Find the square root of each of the following. Round to two decimal places if needed. Indicate those that are perfect squares and
explain why.
1. \sqrt{169}\\
2. \sqrt{31}\\
3. \sqrt{9}\\
Solutions
1. 13 (perfect square)
2. 5.57 (not a perfect square)
Example 6
Find the square root of each of the following. Round to two decimal places if needed. Indicate those that are perfect squares and
explain why.
1. \sqrt{225}\\
2. \sqrt{17}\\
3. \sqrt{324}\\
Solutions
2. 4.12 (not a perfect square)
The Pythagorean Theorem

The mathematician Pythagoras proved the Pythagorean theorem. The theorem states that given any right triangle with sides a, b,
and c as below, the following relationship is always true: a2 + b2 = c2 a2 + b2 = c2

Notes about the Pythagorean theorem:
The triangle must be a right triangle (contains a 90º angle).
The side c is called the hypotenuse and always sits across from the right angle.
The lengths a and b are interchangeable in the theorem, but c cannot be interchanged with a or b. In other words, the location of
c is very important and cannot be changed.
Example 7
Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the missing sides length for the triangle given below. Round to the tenths place.
Solution
13.9 (rounded)
Example 8
Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the missing sides length for the triangle given below. Round to the tenths place.
Solution
16.9 m (rounded)
Example 9
Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the missing sides length for the triangle given below. Round to hundredths.
Solution
57.58 ft (rounded)
Example 10
Applications of the Pythagorean Theorem
In NBA Basketball, the width of the free-throw line is 12 feet.[1] A player stands at one exact corner of the free throw line (Player
1) and wants to throw a pass to his open teammate across the lane and close to the basket (Player 2). If his other teammate (Player 3
—heavily guarded) is directly down the lane from him 16 feet, how far is his pass to the open teammate? Fill in the diagram below
and use it to help you solve the problem.
Solution
20 ft
1. http://www.sportsknowhow.com ↵
6.3: Triangles is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
6.4: Volume
Let’s revisit our friend Wally from “Area and Perimeter” and use another aspect of his yard to introduce the concept of volume.
Wally is a swimmer and wants to install a lap pool in his backyard. Because he has some extra space, he is going to build a pool
that is 25 yards long, 2 yards wide, and 2 yards deep. How many cubic yards of water must be used to fill the pool (assuming right
to the top).
Much as we did with area (counting unit squares), with volume we will be counting unit cubes. What is the volume of a unit cube?
Let’s look at figure 1:
Finding the Volume of a Cube
Figure 1. Volume = 1 yd × 1yd ×

yd = 1 cubic yard
The shape at left is a cube (all sides are equal length). In particular, because all sides are of length 1, this cube is called a unit cube.
We know the area of the base from our previous work (1 yd × 1 yd or 1 square yard). We are going to take that area and extend it
vertically through a height of 1 yard so our volume becomes
Volume = 1 yd × 1yd × yd = 1 cubic yard
How does this help Wally? Well, if he can count the number of unit cubes in his pool, he can determine the volume of water needed
to fill the pool.
Guided Example
Filling Wally’s Pool
Figure 2. Volume = Length × Width × Height or V = LWH

If we fill the pool with unit cubes, we can fill 25 unit cubes along the length, 2 along the width and 2 along the height. That would
give us 25 × 2 × 2 = 100 unit cubes or:
Volume = 25 yd × 2 yd × 2 yd = 100 cubic yd
Explicit formulas for the types of rectangular solids used in the previous section are as follows:
Shape Volume
Cub of side length L V=L\times{L}\times{L}\\

V=L^3\\
Box with sides of length L, W, H V=L\times{W}\times{H}\\
Notes on Volume
Volume is a three-dimensional measurement that represents the amount of space inside a closed three-dimensional shape.
To find volume, count the number of unit cubes inside a given shape.
If there are units, include units in your final result. Units will always be three-dimensional (i.e. cubic feet, cubic yards, cubic
miles, etc…)
Example 1
Find the volume of each shape below.
1.
2. A box with sides of length 2 ft, 3 ft, \displaystyle{2}\frac{1}{2}\\ ft.
Solutions
1. 64 in3
2. 15 ft3
Volume of A Circular Cylinder
Figure 3.
Can we use what we know about the area of a circle to formulate the volume of a can (also called a cylinder)? Take a look at figure
3.
The base circle is shaded. If we take the area of that circle (A = A = πr2) and extend it up through the height h, then our volume for
the can would be:
V = πr2h.
Example 2
Find the volume of the cylinder shown below.
Solution
432π cm3
Volume of Other Shapes

The chart below shows the volumes of some other basic geometric shapes.
Shape Volume
Sphere \displaystyle{V}=\frac{4}{3}\pi{r}^3\\
Shape Volume
Cone \displaystyle{V}=\frac{1}{3}\pi{r}^2h\\
Pyramid \displaystyle{V}=\frac{1}{3}LWH\\
Example 3
Find the volume of a sphere with radius 5 meters.
Solution
\displaystyle\frac{500}{3}\pi\text{ cm}^3\\
Example 4
Determine the volume of each of the following. Include a drawing of the shape with the included information. Show all work. As in
the examples, if units are included then units should be present in your final result. Use 3.14 for π and round answers to tenths
as needed.
1. Find the volume of a cube with side 3.25 meters.
2. Find the volume of a box with sides of length 4 feet by \displaystyle{2}\frac{1}{2}\\ feet by 6 feet.
3. Find the volume of a can with radius 4.62 cm and height 10 cm.
4. Find the volume of a sphere with diameter 12 yards.
Solution
1. 34.3 m3 or 34.3 cubic meters
2. 60 ft3 or 60 cubic feet
3. 670.2 cm3 or 670.2 cubic centimeters
4. 904.3 yd3 or 904.3 cubic yards
Example 5
Applications of Volume
If you drank sodas from 5 cans each of diameter 4 inches and height 5 inches, how many cubic inches of soda did you drink? Use
3.14 for π and round to tenths.
Solution
314.0 in3 (rounded)
Angles
Angles, often measured in degrees, measure the amount of rotation or “arc” between intersecting line segments. We need to have
some sense of what an angle is before moving on to the next topic. See some examples and terminology below.
This angle measures 30º

This angle measure is less than 90º
Angles less than 90º are called acute angles
Angles that measure exactly 90º are called right angles
The small box in the angle corner denotes a right angle

This angle measure is more than 90º
Angles that measure more than 90º but less 180º than are called obtuse angles

Angles that measure exactly 180º are called straight angles

6.4: Volume is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
6.5: Surface Area
Learning Objectives
Understand nets.
Use nets to represent prisms.
Find the surface area of a prism.
Find the surface area of cylinders.
Find the surface area of a sphere.
Nets
One final way to represent a solid is to use a net. If you cut out a net you can fold it into a model of a figure. Nets can also be used
to analyze a single solid. Here is an example of a net for a cube.
There is more than one way to make a net for a single figure.
However, not all arrangements will create a cube.
Example 1
What kind of figure does the net create? Draw the figure.
The net creates a box-shaped rectangular prism as shown below.
Example 2
What kind of net can you draw to represent the figure shown? Draw the net.
A net for the prism is shown. Other nets are possible.
Review Exercises
Draw a net for each of the following:
1.
2.
Answers
1.
2.
Prisms
A prism is a three-dimensional figure with a pair of parallel and congruent ends, or bases. The sides of a prism are parallelograms.
Prisms are identified by their bases.
Surface Area of a Prism Using Nets

The prisms above are right prisms. In a right prism, the lateral sides are perpendicular to the bases of prism. Compare a right prism
to an oblique prism, in which sides and bases are not perpendicular.
Two postulates that apply to area are the Area Congruence Postulate and the Area Addition Postulate.
Area Congruence Postulate: If two polygons (or plane figures) are congruent, then their areas are congruent.
Area Addition Postulate: The surface area of a three-dimensional figure is the sum of the areas of all of its non-overlapping parts.
You can use a net and the Area Addition Postulate to find the surface area of a right prism.
From the net, you can see that that the surface area of the entire prism equals the sum of the figures that make up the net:
Total surface area = area A + area B + area C + area D + area E + area F
Using the formula for the area of a rectangle, you can see that the area of rectangle A is:
A=l·w
A = 10 · 5 = 50 square units
Similarly, the areas of the other rectangles are inserted back into the equation above.
Total surface area = area A + area B + area C + area D + area E + area F
Total surface area = (10 · 5) + (10 · 3) + (10 · 5) + (10 · 3) + (5 · 3) + (5 · 3)
Total surface area = 50 + 30 + 50 + 30 + 15 + 15
Total surface area = 190 square units
Example 3
Use a net to find the surface area of the prism.
The area of the net is equal to the surface area of the figure. To find the area of the triangle, we use the formula:
\displaystyle{A}=\frac{1}{2}hb\\ where h is the height of the triangle and b is its base.
Note that triangles A and E are congruent so we can multiply the area of triangle A by 2.
\displaystyle\text{area}=\text{area }A+\text{area }B+\text{area }C+\text{area }D+\text{area }E\\
\displaystyle\text{ }=2(\text{area }A)+\text{area }B+\text{area }C+\text{area }D\\
\displaystyle\text{ }=2[\frac{1}{2}(9\cdot{12})]+(6\cdot9)+(6\cdot12)+(6\cdot12)\\
\displaystyle\text{ }=108+54+72+90=324\\
Thus, the surface area is 324 square units.
Review Exercises
For each of the following find the surface are a using the method of nets and the perimeter
1.
2.
3. The base of a prism is a right triangle whose legs are 3 and 4 and show height is 20. What is the total area of the prism?
4. A right hexagonal prism is 24 inches tall and has bases that are regular hexagons measuring 8 inches on a side. What is the total
surface area?
5. What is the volume of the prism in problem #4?
In the following questions, a barn is shaped like a pentagonal prism with dimensions shown in feet:
1. How many square feet (excluding the roof) are there on the surface of the barn to be painted?
2. If a gallon of paint covers 250 square feet, how many gallons of paint are needed to paint the barn?
3. A cardboard box is a perfect cube with an edge measuring 17 inches. How many cubic feet can it hold?
4. A swimming pool is 16 feet wide, 32 feet long and is uniformly 4 feet deep. How many cubic feet of water can it hold?
5. A cereal box has length 25 cm, width 9 cm and height 30 cm. How much cereal can it hold?
Answers
Nets and perimeter:
1. 40.5 in2
2. 838 cm2
3. 252 square units
4. 1484.6 square units
5. 3990.7 cubic inches
The barn:
1. 2450 square feet
2. 10 gallons of paint
3. 2.85 cubic feet (be careful here. The units in the problem are given in inches but the question asks for feet.)
4. 2048 cubic feet
5. 6750 cm3
Cylinders
A cylinder is a three-dimensional figure with a pair of parallel and congruent circular ends, or bases. A cylinder has a single
curved side that forms a rectangle when laid out flat.
As with prisms, cylinders can be right or oblique. The side of a right cylinder is perpendicular to its circular bases. The side of an
oblique cylinder is not perpendicular to its bases.
Surface Area of a Cylinder Using Nets

You can deconstruct a cylinder into a net.
The area of each base is given by the area of a circle:

A=\pi{r}^2\\
A=\pi(5)^2\\
A=25\pi\\
A\approx(25)(3.14)=78.5\\
The area of the rectangular lateral area L is given by the product of a width and height. The height is given as 24. You can see that
the width of the area is equal to the circumference of the circular base.
To find the width, imagine taking a can-like cylinder apart with a scissors. When you cut the lateral area, you see that it is equal to
the circumference of the can’s top. The circumference of a circle is given by C = 2πr, the lateral area, L, is
L=2{\pi}rh\\
L=2{\pi}(5)(24)\\
L=240\pi\\
L\approx(240)(3.14)=753.6\\
Now we can find the area of the entire cylinder using A = (area of two bases) + (area of lateral side).
A=2(75.36)+753.6\\
A=904.32\\
You can see that the formula we used to find the total surface area can be used for any right cylinder.
Area of a Right Cylinder: The surface area of a right cylinder, with radius and height h is given by A = 2B + L, where B is the area
of each base of the cylinder and L is the lateral area of the cylinder.
Example 4
Use a net to find the surface area of the cylinder.
First draw and label a net for the figure.
Calculate the area of each base.
A=\pi{r}^2\\
A=\pi(8)^2\\
A=64\pi\\
A\approx(64)(3.14)=200.96\\
Calculate L.
L=2{\pi}rh\\
L=2{\pi}(8)(9)\\
L=144\pi\\
L\approx(144)(3.14)=452.16\\
Find the area of the entire cylinder.

A=2(200.96)+452.16\\
A=854.08\\
Thus, the total surface area is approximately 854.08 square units
Surface Area of a Cylinder Using a Formula

You have seen how to use nets to find the total surface area of a cylinder. The postulate can be broken down to create a general
formula for all right cylinders.
A = 2B + L
Notice that the base, B, of any cylinder is: B = πr2

The lateral area, L, for any cylinder is:
L=\text{width of lateral area}\cdot\text{height of cylinder}\\
L=\text{circumference of base}\cdot\text{height of cylinder}\\
L=2\pi{r}\cdot{h}\\
Putting the two equations together we get:

Factoring out a from the equation gives:
The Surface Area of a Right Cylinder: A right cylinder with radius r and height h can be expressed as:
A = 2πr2 + 2πrh
or:
A = 2πr(r + h)
You can use the formulas to find the area of any right cylinder.
Example 5
Use the formula to find the surface area of the cylinder.
Write the formula and substitute in the values and solve.
A=2(\pi{r}^2)+2\pi{rh}\\
A=2(3.14)(15)(15)+2(3.14)(15)(48)\\
A=1413+4521.6\\
A=5934.6\text{ square inches}\\
Example 6
Find the surface area of the cylinder.
Write the formula and substitute in the values and solve.

A=2\pi{r}(r+h)\\
A=2(3.14)(0.75)[0.75+6]\\
A=31.7925\text{ square inches}\\
Example 7
Find the height of a cylinder that has radius 4cm and surface area of 226.08 sq cm.
Write the formula with the given information and solve for h.
A=2\pi{r}(r+h)\\
226.08=2(3.14)(4)[4+h]\\
226.08=25.12[4+h]\\
226.08=100.48+25.12h\\
5=h\\
Spheres
A sphere is a three-dimensional figure that has the shape of a ball.
Spheres can be characterized in three ways.
A sphere is the set of all points that lie a fixed distance r from a single center point O.
A sphere is the surface that results when a circle is rotated about any of its diameters.
Surface Area of a Sphere

You can infer the formula for the surface area of a sphere by taking measurements of spheres and cylinders. Here we show a sphere
with a radius of 3 and a right cylinder with both a radius and a height of 3 and express the area in terms of π.
Now try a larger pair, expressing the surface area in decimal form.
Look at a third pair.
Is it a coincidence that a sphere and a cylinder whose radius and height are equal to the radius of the sphere have the exact same
surface area? Not at all! In fact, the ancient Greeks used a method that showed that the following formula can be used to find the
surface area of any sphere (or any cylinder in which ).
The Surface Area of a Sphere is given by: A = 4πr2
Example 8
Find the surface area of a sphere with a radius of 14 feet.
Use the formula.
A=4\pi{r}^2\\
A=4\pi(14)^2\\
A=4\pi(196)\\
A=784\pi\\
2461.76\text{ square feet using }3.14\text{ for }\pi\\
Example 9
Find the surface area of the following figure in terms of π.
The figure is made of one half sphere or hemisphere, and one cylinder without its top.
A(\text{half sphere})=\frac{1}{2}A(\text{sphere})\\
A(\text{half sphere})=\frac{1}{2}\cdot4\pi{r}^2\\
A(\text{half sphere})=2\pi(576)\\
A(\text{half sphere})=1152\pi\text{ square cm}\\
Now find the area of the cylinder without its top.

A(\text{topless cylinder})=A(\text{cylinder})-A(\text{top})\\
A(\text{topless cylinder})=2(\pi{r}^2)+2\pi{rh}-\pi{r}^2\\
A(\text{topless cylinder})=\pi{r}^2+2\pi{rh}\\
A(\text{topless cylinder})=\pi(576)+2\pi(24)(50)\\
A(\text{topless cylinder})=2976\pi\text{ square cm}\\
Thus, the total surface area is 1152\pi+2976\pi=4128\pi\\
Review Exercises
1. Find the radius of the sphere that has a volume of 335 cm3.
2. Determine the surface area and volume of this shape:
3. The radius of a sphere is 4. Find its volume and total surface area.
4. A sphere has a radius of 5. A right cylinder, having the same radius has the same volume. Find the height and total surface area
of the cylinder.
5. Sphere: volume = 296 cm3. Find the Diameter.
6. Sphere: surface area is 179 in2. Find the Radius.
7. Tennis balls with a diameter of 3.5 inches are sold in cans of three. The can is a cylinder. Assume the balls touch the can on the
sides, top and bottom. What is the volume of the space not occupied by the tennis balls?
8. A sphere has surface area of 36π in2. Find its volume.
9. A giant scoop, operated by a crane, is in the shape of a hemisphere of radius = 21 inches. The scoop is filled with melted hot
steel. When the steel is poured into a cylindrical storage tank that has a radius of 28 inches, the melted steel will rise to a height
of how many inches?
Answers
Note that these problems use π not 3.14.

1. 1. Radius = 4.31 cm
2. Surface area = 706.86 cm2
Volume = 1767.15 cm3
3. Volume = 268.08 units3
Surface area = 201.06 units2
4. Height = 20/3 units total surface area = 366.52 units2
5. Diameter = 8.27cm
6. Radius = 3.77 inches
7. Volume of cylinder = 32.16π in3 volume of tennis balls = 21.44π in3
Volume of space not occupied by tennis balls = 33.68 in3
8. Volume = 113.10 in3
9. Height of molten steel in cylinder will be 7.88 inches
Surface Area. Provided by: CK-12 Foundation. Located at: http://www.ck12.org/. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-
NonCommercial
6.5: Surface Area is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
6.6: Graph Theory
In the modern world, planning efficient routes is essential for business and industry, with applications as varied as product
distribution, laying new fiber optic lines for broadband internet, and suggesting new friends within social network websites like
Facebook.
This field of mathematics started nearly 300 years ago as a look into a mathematical puzzle (we’ll look at it in a bit). The field has
exploded in importance in the last century, both because of the growing complexity of business in a global economy and because of
the computational power that computers have provided us.
Drawing Graphs
Example 1
Here is a portion of a housing development from Missoula, Montana. As part of her job, the development’s lawn inspector has to
walk down every street in the development making sure homeowners’ landscaping conforms to the community requirements.
Naturally, she wants to minimize the amount of walking she has to do. Is it possible for her to walk down every street in this
development without having to do any backtracking? While you might be able to answer that question just by looking at the picture
for a while, it would be ideal to be able to answer the question for any picture regardless of its complexity.
To do that, we first need to simplify the picture into a form that is easier to work with. We can do that by drawing a simple line for
each street. Where streets intersect, we will place a dot.
This type of simplified picture is called a graph.
Graphs, Vertices, and Edges

A graph consists of a set of dots, called vertices, and a set of edges connecting pairs of vertices.
While we drew our original graph to correspond with the picture we had, there is nothing particularly important about the layout
when we analyze a graph. Both of the graphs below are equivalent to the one drawn above.
You probably already noticed that we are using the term graph differently than you may have used the term in the past to describe
the graph of a mathematical function.
Example 2
Back in the 18th century in the Prussian city of Königsberg, a river ran through the city and
seven bridges crossed the forks of the river. The river and the bridges are highlighted in the picture to the right.[1]
As a weekend amusement, townsfolk would see if they could find a route that would take them across every bridge once and return
them to where they started.
Leonard Euler (pronounced OY-lur), one of the most prolific mathematicians ever, looked at this problem in 1735, laying the
foundation for graph theory as a field in mathematics. To analyze this problem, Euler introduced edges representing the bridges:
Since the size of each land mass it is not relevant to the question of bridge crossings, each can be shrunk down to a vertex
representing the location:
Notice that in this graph there are two edges connecting the north bank and island, corresponding to the two bridges in the original
drawing. Depending upon the interpretation of edges and vertices appropriate to a scenario, it is entirely possible and reasonable to
have more than one edge connecting two vertices.
While we haven’t answered the actual question yet of whether or not there is a route which crosses every bridge once and returns to
the starting location, the graph provides the foundation for exploring this question.
Definitions
While we loosely defined some terminology earlier, we now will try to be more specific.
Vertex
A vertex is a dot in the graph that could represent an intersection of streets, a land mass, or a general location, like “work” or
“school”. Vertices are often connected by edges. Note that vertices only occur when a dot is explicitly placed, not whenever two
edges cross. Imagine a freeway overpass—the freeway and side street cross, but it is not possible to change from the side street to
the freeway at that point, so there is no intersection and no vertex would be placed.
Edges
Edges connect pairs of vertices. An edge can represent a physical connection between locations, like a street, or simply that a route
connecting the two locations exists, like an airline flight.
Loop
A loop is a special type of edge that connects a vertex to itself. Loops are not used much in street network graphs.
Degree of a vertex
The degree of a vertex is the number of edges meeting at that vertex. It is possible for a vertex to have a degree of zero or larger.
Degree 0 Degree 1 Degree 2 Degree 3 Degree 4
Path
A path is a sequence of vertices using the edges. Usually we are interested in a path between two vertices. For example, a path from
vertex A to vertex M is shown below. It is one of many possible paths in this graph.
Circuit
A circuit is a path that begins and ends at the same vertex. A circuit starting and ending at vertex A is shown below.
Connected
A graph is connected if there is a path from any vertex to any other vertex. Every graph drawn so far has been connected. The
graph below is disconnected; there is no way to get from the vertices on the left to the vertices on the right.
Weights
Depending upon the problem being solved, sometimes weights are assigned to the edges. The weights could represent the distance
between two locations, the travel time, or the travel cost. It is important to note that the distance between vertices in a graph does
not necessarily correspond to the weight of an edge.
Euler Circuits and the Chinese Postman Problem

In the first section, we created a graph of the Königsberg bridges and asked whether it was possible to walk across every bridge
once. Because Euler first studied this question, these types of paths are named after him.
Euler Path
An Euler path is a path that uses every edge in a graph with no repeats. Being a path, it does not have to return to the starting
vertex.
Example 3
In the graph shown below, there are several Euler paths. One such path is CABDCB. The path is shown in arrows to the right, with
the order of edges numbered.
Euler Circuit
An Euler circuit is a circuit that uses every edge in a graph with no repeats. Being a circuit, it must start and end at the same
vertex.
Example 4
The graph below has several possible Euler circuits. Here’s a couple, starting and ending at vertex A: ADEACEFCBA and
AECABCFEDA. The second is shown in arrows.
Look back at the example used for Euler paths—does that graph have an Euler circuit? A few tries will tell you no; that graph does
not have an Euler circuit. When we were working with shortest paths, we were interested in the optimal path. With Euler paths and
circuits, we’re primarily interested in whether an Euler path or circuit exists.
Why do we care if an Euler circuit exists? Think back to our housing development lawn inspector from the beginning of the
chapter. The lawn inspector is interested in walking as little as possible. The ideal situation would be a circuit that covers every
street with no repeats. That’s an Euler circuit! Luckily, Euler solved the question of whether or not an Euler path or circuit will
exist.
Euler’s Path and Circuit Theorems

A graph will contain an Euler path if it contains at most two vertices of odd degree.
A graph will contain an Euler circuit if all vertices have even degree
Example 5
In the graph below, vertices A and C have degree 4, since there are 4 edges leading into each vertex. B is degree 2, D is degree 3,
and E is degree 1. This graph contains two vertices with odd degree (D and E) and three vertices with even degree (A, B, and C), so
Euler’s theorems tell us this graph has an Euler path, but not an Euler circuit.
Example 6
Is there an Euler circuit on the housing development lawn inspector graph we created earlier in the chapter? All the highlighted
vertices have odd degree. Since there are more than two vertices with odd degree, there are no Euler paths or Euler circuits on this
graph. Unfortunately our lawn inspector will need to do some backtracking.
Example 7
When it snows in the same housing development, the snowplow has to plow both sides of every street. For simplicity, we’ll assume
the plow is out early enough that it can ignore traffic laws and drive down either side of the street in either direction. This can be
visualized in the graph by drawing two edges for each street, representing the two sides of the street.
Notice that every vertex in this graph has even degree, so this graph does have an Euler circuit.
1. Bogdan Giuşcă. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Konigsberg_bridges.png↵

Graph Theory. Authored by: David Lippman. Located at: http://www.opentextbookstore.com/mathinsociety/. Project: Math
in Society. License: CC BY: Attribution
Pleasant View housing development. Authored by: Sam Beebe. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/5kTroZ. License: CC BY:
Attribution
6.6: Graph Theory is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
This YouTube playlist contains several videos that supplement the reading on Graph Theory.
with.
Topology
Topology is a branch of mathematics studying spaces, in which “connectiveness” of objects is a main focus. Robert Bruner has
written a more detailed description: “What is Topology?”
For this course, we will determine whether two objects are topologically equivalent by comparing their genus, or number of holes.
Please read and work through the lesson starting from page 1. Be sure to click the link at the bottom right hand corner of each page
to get to the next page in the sequence (there are five pages in total). On the last page, you’ll find topics that can be used in
the Application of Geometry Discussion Board.
This is a link to a deformation, showing how a coffee mug can be transformed into a donut; thus they are topologically equivalent.
Tiling
Please read through the following three pages for a mini-lesson on tiling:
What is a Tiling?
Tilings with Just a Few Shapes
Monomorphic and K-Morphic Tilings
6.8: Topology, Tiling, and Non-Euclidean Geometry is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
Pick a real problem and try to solve it using the geometry you learned in this module. Present the problem and the solution to the
rest of the class. View the problems posted by your classmates and respond to at least two. Read the Geometry Application
Directions for detailed directions.
Use the Geometry Application forum in the Discussion Board to complete this assignment.

Possible
The problem: 5
The strategies: 5
The presentation: 4
Your responses: 6

6.9: Discuss- Application of Geometry is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
7: Finance
7.3: Annuities
7.5: Loans
7.9: Exercises
7: Finance is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Discussing interest starts with the principal, or amount your account starts with. This could be a starting investment, or the starting
amount of a loan. Interest, in its most simple form, is calculated as a percent of the principal. For example, if you borrowed $100
from a friend and agree to repay it with 5% interest, then the amount of interest you would pay would just be 5% of 100:
$100(0.05) = $5. The total amount you would repay would be $105, the original principal plus the interest.
Simple One-time Interest
\begin{align}&;;I={{P}_{0}}r\\&;;A={{P}_{0}}+I={{P}_{0}}+{{P}_{0}}r={{P}_{0}}(1+r)\\\end{align}
I is the interest
A is the end amount: principal plus interest
P0 is the principal (starting amount)
r is the interest rate (in decimal form. Example: 5% = 0.05)
Example 1
A friend asks to borrow $300 and agrees to repay it in 30 days with 3% interest. How much interest will you earn?
P0 = $300 the principal
r = 0.03 3% rate
I = $300(0.03) = $9. You will earn $9 interest.
One-time simple interest is only common for extremely short-term loans. For longer term loans, it is common for interest to be paid
on a daily, monthly, quarterly, or annual basis. In that case, interest would be earned regularly. For example, bonds are essentially a
loan made to the bond issuer (a company or government) by you, the bond holder. In return for the loan, the issuer agrees to pay
interest, often annually. Bonds have a maturity date, at which time the issuer pays back the original bond value.
Example 2
Suppose your city is building a new park, and issues bonds to raise the money to build it. You obtain a $1,000 bond that pays 5%
interest annually that matures in 5 years. How much interest will you earn?
Each year, you would earn 5% interest: $1000(0.05) = $50 in interest. So over the course of five years, you would earn a total of
$250 in interest. When the bond matures, you would receive back the $1,000 you originally paid, leaving you with a total of
$1,250.
We can generalize this idea of simple interest over time.
Simple Interest over Time
\begin{align}&I={{P}_{0}}rt\\&A={{P}_{0}}+I={{P}_{0}}+{{P}_{0}}rt={{P}_{0}}(1+rt)\\\end{align}
I is the interest
r is the interest rate in decimal form
t is time
The units of measurement (years, months, etc.) for the time should match the time period for the interest rate.
APR – Annual Percentage Rate
Interest rates are usually given as an annual percentage rate (APR) – the total interest that will be paid in the year. If the interest
is paid in smaller time increments, the APR will be divided up.
For example, a 6% APR paid monthly would be divided into twelve 0.5% payments.
A 4% annual rate paid quarterly would be divided into four 1% payments.
Example 3
Treasury Notes (T-notes) are bonds issued by the federal government to cover its expenses. Suppose you obtain a $1,000 T-note
with a 4% annual rate, paid semi-annually, with a maturity in 4 years. How much interest will you earn?
Since interest is being paid semi-annually (twice a year), the 4% interest will be divided into two 2% payments.
r = 0.02 2% rate per half-year
t=8 4 years = 8 half-years
I = $1000(0.02)(8) = $160. You will earn $160 interest total over the four years.
Try it Now 1
A loan company charges $30 interest for a one month loan of $500. Find the annual interest rate they are charging.
7.1: Simple Interest is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
With simple interest, we were assuming that we pocketed the interest when we received it. In a standard bank account, any interest
we earn is automatically added to our balance, and we earn interest on that interest in future years. This reinvestment of interest is
called compounding.
Suppose that we deposit $1000 in a bank account offering 3% interest, compounded monthly. How will our money grow?
The 3% interest is an annual percentage rate (APR) – the total interest to be paid during the year. Since interest is being paid
monthly, each month, we will earn \frac{3%}{12}= 0.25% per month.
In the first month,
P0 = $1000
r = 0.0025 (0.25%)
I = $1000 (0.0025) = $2.50
A = $1000 + $2.50 = $1002.50
In the first month, we will earn $2.50 in interest, raising our account balance to $1002.50.
In the second month,
P0 = $1002.50
I = $1002.50 (0.0025) = $2.51 (rounded)
A = $1002.50 + $2.51 = $1005.01
Notice that in the second month we earned more interest than we did in the first month. This is because we earned interest not only
on the original $1000 we deposited, but we also earned interest on the $2.50 of interest we earned the first month. This is the key
advantage that compounding of interest gives us.
Calculating out a few more months:
Month Starting balance Interest earned Ending Balance
1 1000.00 2.50 1002.50
2 1002.50 2.51 1005.01
3 1005.01 2.51 1007.52
4 1007.52 2.52 1010.04
5 1010.04 2.53 1012.57
6 1012.57 2.53 1015.10
7 1015.10 2.54 1017.64
8 1017.64 2.54 1020.18
9 1020.18 2.55 1022.73
10 1022.73 2.56 1025.29
11 1025.29 2.56 1027.85
12 1027.85 2.57 1030.42
To find an equation to represent this, if Pm represents the amount of money after m months, then we could write the recursive
equation:
P0 = $1000
Pm = (1+0.0025)Pm-1
You probably recognize this as the recursive form of exponential growth. If not, we could go through the steps to build an explicit
equation for the growth:
P0 = $1000
P1 = 1.0025P0 = 1.0025 (1000)
P2 = 1.0025P1 = 1.0025 (1.0025 (1000)) = 1.0025 2(1000)
P3 = 1.0025P2 = 1.0025 (1.00252(1000)) = 1.00253(1000)
P4 = 1.0025P3 = 1.0025 (1.00253(1000)) = 1.00254(1000)
Observing a pattern, we could conclude
Pm = (1.0025)m($1000)
Notice that the $1000 in the equation was P0, the starting amount. We found 1.0025 by adding one to the growth rate divided by
12, since we were compounding 12 times per year.
Generalizing our result, we could write
In this formula:
m is the number of compounding periods (months in our example)
r is the annual interest rate
k is the number of compounds per year.
While this formula works fine, it is more common to use a formula that involves the number of years, rather than the number of
compounding periods. If N is the number of years, then m = N k. Making this change gives us the standard formula for compound
interest.
Compound Interest
P_{N}=P_{0}\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)^{Nk}
PN is the balance in the account after N years.

P0 is the starting balance of the account (also called initial deposit, or principal)
r is the annual interest rate in decimal form
k is the number of compounding periods in one year.
If the compounding is done annually (once a year), k = 1.
If the compounding is done quarterly, k = 4.
If the compounding is done monthly, k = 12.
If the compounding is done daily, k = 365.
The most important thing to remember about using this formula is that it assumes that we put money in the account once and let it
sit there earning interest.
Example 4
A certificate of deposit (CD) is a savings instrument that many banks offer. It usually gives a higher interest rate, but you cannot
access your investment for a specified length of time. Suppose you deposit $3000 in a CD paying 6% interest, compounded
monthly. How much will you have in the account after 20 years?
In this example,
P0 = $3000 the initial deposit
r = 0.06 6% annual rate
k = 12 12 months in 1 year
N = 20 since we’re looking for how much we’ll have after 20 years
So {{P}_{20}}=3000{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}^{20\times12}}=\$9930.61 (round your answer to the nearest penny)
Let us compare the amount of money earned from compounding against the amount you would earn from simple interest
Years Simple Interest ($15 per month) 6% compounded monthly = 0.5% each month.
5 $3900 $4046.55
10 $4800 $5458.19
15 $5700 $7362.28
20 $6600 $9930.61
25 $7500 $13394.91
30 $8400 $18067.73
35 $9300 $24370.65
As you can see, over a long period of time, compounding makes a large difference in the account balance. You may recognize this
as the difference between linear growth and exponential growth.
Evaluating exponents on the calculator
When we need to calculate something like 53 it is easy enough to just multiply 5⋅5⋅5=125. But when we need to calculate
something like 1.005240 , it would be very tedious to calculate this by multiplying 1.005 by itself 240 times! So to make things
easier, we can harness the power of our scientific calculators.
Most scientific calculators have a button for exponents. It is typically either labeled like:
^ , yx , or xy .
To evaluate 1.005240 we’d type 1.005 ^ 240, or 1.005 yx 240. Try it out – you should get something around 3.3102044758.
Example 5
You know that you will need $40,000 for your child’s education in 18 years. If your account earns 4% compounded quarterly, how
much would you need to deposit now to reach your goal?
In this example,
We’re looking for P0.
r = 0.04 4%
k=4 4 quarters in 1 year
N = 18 Since we know the balance in 18 years
P18 = $40,000 The amount we have in 18 years
In this case, we’re going to have to set up the equation, and solve for P0.
\begin{align}&40000={{P}_{0}}{{\left(1+\frac{0.04}{4}\right)}^{18\times4}}\\&40000={{P}_{0}}(2.0471)\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{40000}{2.0471}=\$19539.84 \\ \end{align}
So you would need to deposit $19,539.84 now to have $40,000 in 18 years.

Rounding
It is important to be very careful about rounding when calculating things with exponents. In general, you want to keep as many
decimals during calculations as you can. Be sure to keep at least 3 significant digits (numbers after any leading zeros). Rounding
0.00012345 to 0.000123 will usually give you a “close enough” answer, but keeping more digits is always better.
Example 6
To see why not over-rounding is so important, suppose you were investing $1000 at 5% interest compounded monthly for 30 years.
r = 0.05 5%
N = 30 since we’re looking for the amount after 30 years
If we first compute r/k, we find 0.05/12 = 0.00416666666667
Here is the effect of rounding this to different values:
Gives P30 to be: Error

r/k rounded to:
0.004 $4208.59 $259.15
0.0042 $4521.45 $53.71
0.00417 $4473.09 $5.35
0.004167 $4468.28 $0.54
0.0041667 $4467.80 $0.06
no rounding $4467.74
If you’re working in a bank, of course you wouldn’t round at all. For our purposes, the answer we got by rounding to 0.00417,
three significant digits, is close enough – $5 off of $4500 isn’t too bad. Certainly keeping that fourth decimal place wouldn’t have
hurt.
Using your calculator
In many cases, you can avoid rounding completely by how you enter things in your calculator. For example, in the example above,
we needed to calculate
We can quickly calculate 12×30 = 360, giving
.
Now we can use the calculator.
Type this Calculator shows
0.05 ÷ 12 = . 0.00416666666667
+1=. 1.00416666666667
yx 360 = . 4.46774431400613
× 1000 = . 4467.74431400613
Using your calculator continued

The previous steps were assuming you have a “one operation at a time” calculator; a more advanced calculator will often allow you
to type in the entire expression to be evaluated. If you have a calculator like this, you will probably just need to enter:
1000 × ( 1 + 0.05 ÷ 12 ) yx 360 = .

7.2: Compound Interest is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
7.3: Annuities
For most of us, we aren’t able to put a large sum of money in the bank today. Instead, we save for the future by depositing a smaller
amount of money from each paycheck into the bank. This idea is called a savings annuity. Most retirement plans like 401k plans
or IRA plans are examples of savings annuities.
An annuity can be described recursively in a fairly simple way. Recall that basic compound interest follows from the relationship
For a savings annuity, we simply need to add a deposit, d, to the account with each compounding period:
{{P}_{m}}=\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right){{P}_{m-1}}+d
Taking this equation from recursive form to explicit form is a bit trickier than with compound interest. It will be easiest to see by
working with an example rather than working in general.
Suppose we will deposit $100 each month into an account paying 6% interest. We assume that the account is compounded with the
same frequency as we make deposits unless stated otherwise. In this example:
r = 0.06 (6%)
k = 12 (12 compounds/deposits per year)
d = $100 (our deposit per month)
Writing out the recursive equation gives
{{P}_{m}}=\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right){{P}_{m-1}}+100=\left(1.005\right){{P}_{m-1}}+100
Assuming we start with an empty account, we can begin using this relationship:
Continuing this pattern, after m deposits, we’d have saved:
In other words, after m months, the first deposit will have earned compound interest for m-1 months. The second deposit will have
earned interest for m-2 months. Last months deposit would have earned only one month worth of interest. The most recent deposit
will have earned no interest yet.
This equation leaves a lot to be desired, though – it doesn’t make calculating the ending balance any easier! To simplify things,
multiply both sides of the equation by 1.005:
1.005{{P}_{m}}=1.005\left(100{{\left(1.005\right)}^{m-1}}+100{{\left(1.005\right)}^{m-2}}+\cdots+100(1.005)+100\right)
Distributing on the right side of the equation gives

1.005{{P}_{m}}=100{{\left(1.005\right)}^{m}}+100{{\left(1.005\right)}^{m-1}}+\cdots+100{{(1.005)}^{2}}+100(1.005)
Now we’ll line this up with like terms from our original equation, and subtract each side
\begin{align}&\begin{matrix}1.005{{P}_{m}}&=&100{{\left(1.005\right)}^{m}}+&100{{\left(1.005\right)}^{m-1}}+\cdots+&100(1.005)&{}\\{{P}_{m}}&=&{}&100{{\left(1.005\right)}^{m-
1}}+\cdots+&100(1.005)&+100\\\end{matrix}\\&\\\end{align}
Almost all the terms cancel on the right hand side when we subtract, leaving
1.005{{P}_{m}}-{{P}_{m}}=100{{\left(1.005\right)}^{m}}-100
Solving for Pm
\begin{align}&0.005{{P}_{m}}=100\left({{\left(1.005\right)}^{m}}-1\right)\\&{{P}_{m}}=\frac{100\left({{\left(1.005\right)}^{m}}-1\right)}{0.005}\\\end{align}
Replacing m months with 12N, where N is measured in years, gives

{{P}_{N}}=\frac{100\left({{\left(1.005\right)}^{12N}}-1\right)}{0.005}
Recall 0.005 was r/k and 100 was the deposit d. 12 was k, the number of deposit each year. Generalizing this result, we get the
saving annuity formula.
Annuity Formula
P_{N}=\frac{d\left(\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)^{Nk}-1\right)}{\left(\frac{r}{k}\right)}

d is the regular deposit (the amount you deposit each year, each month, etc.)
r is the annual interest rate in decimal form.
If the compounding frequency is not explicitly stated, assume there are the same number of compounds in a year as there are
deposits made in a year.
For example, if the compounding frequency isn’t stated:

If you make your deposits every month, use monthly compounding, k = 12.
If you make your deposits every year, use yearly compounding, k = 1.
If you make your deposits every quarter, use quarterly compounding, k = 4.
Etc.
When do you use this
Annuities assume that you put money in the account on a regular schedule (every month, year, quarter, etc.) and let it sit there
earning interest.
Compound interest assumes that you put money in the account once and let it sit there earning interest.
Compound interest: One deposit
Annuity: Many deposits.
Example 7
A traditional individual retirement account (IRA) is a special type of retirement account in which the money you invest is exempt
from income taxes until you withdraw it. If you deposit $100 each month into an IRA earning 6% interest, how much will you have
in the account after 20 years?
In this example,
d = $100 the monthly deposit
k = 12 since we’re doing monthly deposits, we’ll compound monthly
N = 20 we want the amount after 20 years
Putting this into the equation:
\begin{align}&{{P}_{20}}=\frac{100\left({{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}^{20(12)}}-1\right)}{\left(\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}\\&{{P}_{20}}=\frac{100\left({{\left(1.005\right)}^{240}}-1\right)}
{\left(0.005\right)}\\&{{P}_{20}}=\frac{100\left(3.310-1\right)}{\left(0.005\right)}\\&{{P}_{20}}=\frac{100\left(2.310\right)}{\left(0.005\right)}=\$46200 \\ \end{align}
The account will grow to $46,200 after 20 years.

Notice that you deposited into the account a total of $24,000 ($100 a month for 240 months). The difference between what you end
up with and how much you put in is the interest earned. In this case it is $46,200 – $24,000 = $22,200.
Example 8
You want to have $200,000 in your account when you retire in 30 years. Your retirement account earns 8% interest. How much do
you need to deposit each month to meet your retirement goal?
In this example,
We’re looking for d.
k = 12 since we’re depositing monthly
N = 30 30 years
P30 = $200,000 The amount we want to have in 30 years
In this case, we’re going to have to set up the equation, and solve for d.
\begin{align}&200,000=\frac{d\left({{\left(1+\frac{0.08}{12}\right)}^{30(12)}}-1\right)}{\left(\frac{0.08}{12}\right)}\\&200,000=\frac{d\left({{\left(1.00667\right)}^{360}}-1\right)}
{\left(0.00667\right)}\\&200,000=d(1491.57)\\&d=\frac{200,000}{1491.57}=\$134.09 \\ \end{align}
So you would need to deposit $134.09 each month to have $200,000 in 30 years if your account earns 8% interest
Try it Now 2
A more conservative investment account pays 3% interest. If you deposit $5 a day into this account, how much will you have after
10 years? How much is from interest?
7.3: Annuities is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
In the last section you learned about annuities. In an annuity, you start with nothing, put money into an account on a regular basis,
and end up with money in your account.
In this section, we will learn about a variation called a Payout Annuity. With a payout annuity, you start with money in the
account, and pull money out of the account on a regular basis. Any remaining money in the account earns interest. After a fixed
amount of time, the account will end up empty.
Payout annuities are typically used after retirement. Perhaps you have saved $500,000 for retirement, and want to take money out
of the account each month to live on. You want the money to last you 20 years. This is a payout annuity. The formula is derived in a
similar way as we did for savings annuities. The details are omitted here.
Payout Annuity Formula
P_{0}=\frac{d\left(1-\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)^{-Nk}\right)}{\left(\frac{r}{k}\right)}
P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (starting amount, or principal).

d is the regular withdrawal (the amount you take out each year, each month, etc.)
r is the annual interest rate (in decimal form. Example: 5% = 0.05)
N is the number of years we plan to take withdrawals
Like with annuities, the compounding frequency is not always explicitly given, but is determined by how often you take the
withdrawals.
Payout annuities assume that you take money from the account on a regular schedule (every month, year, quarter, etc.) and let the
rest sit there earning interest.
Payout Annuity: Many withdrawals
Example 9
After retiring, you want to be able to take $1000 every month for a total of 20 years from your retirement account. The account
earns 6% interest. How much will you need in your account when you retire?
In this example,
d = $1000 the monthly withdrawal
k = 12 since we’re doing monthly withdrawals, we’ll compound monthly
N = 20 since were taking withdrawals for 20 years
We’re looking for P0; how much money needs to be in the account at the beginning.
\begin{align}&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{1000\left(1-{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}^{-20(12)}}\right)}{\left(\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{1000\times\left(1-{{\left(1.005\right)}^{-240}}\right)}
{\left(0.005\right)}\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{1000\times\left(1-0.302\right)}{\left(0.005\right)}=\$139,600 \\ \end{align}
You will need to have $139,600 in your account when you retire.
Notice that you withdrew a total of $240,000 ($1000 a month for 240 months). The difference between what you pulled out and
what you started with is the interest earned. In this case it is $240,000 – $139,600 = $100,400 in interest.
Evaluating negative exponents on your calculator
With these problems, you need to raise numbers to negative powers. Most calculators have a separate button for negating a number
that is different than the subtraction button. Some calculators label this (-) , some with +/- . The button is often near the = key or
the decimal point.
If your calculator displays operations on it (typically a calculator with multiline display), to calculate 1.005-240 you’d type
something like: 1.005 ^ (-) 240
If your calculator only shows one value at a time, then usually you hit the (-) key after a number to negate it, so you’d hit: 1.005 yx
240 (-) =
Give it a try – you should get 1.005-240 = 0.302096
Example 10
You know you will have $500,000 in your account when you retire. You want to be able to take monthly withdrawals from the
account for a total of 30 years. Your retirement account earns 8% interest. How much will you be able to withdraw each month?
In this example,
k = 12 since we’re withdrawing monthly
N = 30 30 years
P0 = $500,000 we are beginning with $500,000
\begin{align}&500,000=\frac{d\left(1-{{\left(1+\frac{0.08}{12}\right)}^{-30(12)}}\right)}{\left(\frac{0.08}{12}\right)}\\&500,000=\frac{d\left(1-{{\left(1.00667\right)}^{-360}}\right)}
You would be able to withdraw $3,670.21 each month for 30 years.
Try it Now 3
A donor gives $100,000 to a university, and specifies that it is to be used to give annual scholarships for the next 20 years. If the
university can earn 4% interest, how much can they give in scholarships each year?
7.4: Payout Annuities is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
7.5: Loans
In the last section, you learned about payout annuities.
In this section, you will learn about conventional loans (also called amortized loans or installment loans). Examples include auto
loans and home mortgages. These techniques do not apply to payday loans, add-on loans, or other loan types where the interest is
calculated up front.
One great thing about loans is that they use exactly the same formula as a payout annuity. To see why, imagine that you had
$10,000 invested at a bank, and started taking out payments while earning interest as part of a payout annuity, and after 5 years
your balance was zero. Flip that around, and imagine that you are acting as the bank, and a car lender is acting as you. The car
lender invests $10,000 in you. Since you’re acting as the bank, you pay interest. The car lender takes payments until the balance is
zero.
Loans Formula
P_{0}=\frac{d\left(1-\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)^{-Nk}\right)}{\left(\frac{r}{k}\right)}
P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (the principal, or amount of the loan).
d is your loan payment (your monthly payment, annual payment, etc)
N is the length of the loan, in years
Like before, the compounding frequency is not always explicitly given, but is determined by how often you make payments.
The loan formula assumes that you make loan payments on a regular schedule (every month, year, quarter, etc.) and are paying
interest on the loan.
Loans: Many payments
Example 11
You can afford $200 per month as a car payment. If you can get an auto loan at 3% interest for 60 months (5 years), how expensive
of a car can you afford? In other words, what amount loan can you pay off with $200 per month?
In this example,
d = $200 the monthly loan payment
k = 12 since we’re doing monthly payments, we’ll compound monthly
N=5 since we’re making monthly payments for 5 years
We’re looking for P0, the starting amount of the loan.
\begin{align}&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{200\left(1-{{\left(1+\frac{0.03}{12}\right)}^{-5(12)}}\right)}{\left(\frac{0.03}{12}\right)}\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{200\left(1-{{\left(1.0025\right)}^{-60}}\right)}
{\left(0.0025\right)}\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{200\left(1-0.861\right)}{\left(0.0025\right)}=\$11,120 \\ \end{align}
You can afford a $11,120 loan.

You will pay a total of $12,000 ($200 per month for 60 months) to the loan company. The difference between the amount you pay
and the amount of the loan is the interest paid. In this case, you’re paying $12,000-$11,120 = $880 interest total.
Example 12
You want to take out a $140,000 mortgage (home loan). The interest rate on the loan is 6%, and the loan is for 30 years. How much
will your monthly payments be?
In this example,
k = 12 since we’re paying monthly
N = 30 30 years
P0 = $140,000 the starting loan amount
You will make payments of $839.37 per month for 30 years.

You’re paying a total of $302,173.20 to the loan company: $839.37 per month for 360 months. You are paying a total of
$302,173.20 – $140,000 = $162,173.20 in interest over the life of the loan.
Try it Now 4
Janine bought $3,000 of new furniture on credit. Because her credit score isn’t very good, the store is charging her a fairly high
interest rate on the loan: 16%. If she agreed to pay off the furniture over 2 years, how much will she have to pay each month?
7.5: Loans is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
With loans, it is often desirable to determine what the remaining loan balance will be after some number of years. For example, if
you purchase a home and plan to sell it in five years, you might want to know how much of the loan balance you will have paid off
and how much you have to pay from the sale.
To determine the remaining loan balance after some number of years, we first need to know the loan payments, if we don’t already
know them. Remember that only a portion of your loan payments go towards the loan balance; a portion is going to go towards
interest. For example, if your payments were $1,000 a month, after a year you will not have paid off $12,000 of the loan balance.
To determine the remaining loan balance, we can think “how much loan will these loan payments be able to pay off in the
remaining time on the loan?”
Example 13
If a mortgage at a 6% interest rate has payments of $1,000 a month, how much will the loan balance be 10 years from the end the
loan?
To determine this, we are looking for the amount of the loan that can be paid off by $1,000 a month payments in 10 years. In other
words, we’re looking for P0 when
d = $1,000 the monthly loan payment
N = 10 since we’re making monthly payments for 10 more years
\begin{align}&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{1000\left(1-{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}^{-10(12)}}\right)}{\left(\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{1000\left(1-{{\left(1.005\right)}^{-120}}\right)}
{\left(0.005\right)}\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{1000\left(1-0.5496\right)}{\left(0.005\right)}=\$90,073.45 \\ \end{align}
The loan balance with 10 years remaining on the loan will be $90,073.45
Often times answering remaining balance questions requires two steps:
1) Calculating the monthly payments on the loan
2) Calculating the remaining loan balance based on the remaining time on the loan
Example 14
A couple purchases a home with a $180,000 mortgage at 4% for 30 years with monthly payments. What will the remaining balance
on their mortgage be after 5 years?
First we will calculate their monthly payments.
k = 12 since they’re paying monthly
N = 30 30 years
We set up the equation and solve for d.
Now that we know the monthly payments, we can determine the remaining balance. We want the remaining balance after 5 years,
when 25 years will be remaining on the loan, so we calculate the loan balance that will be paid off with the monthly payments over
those 25 years.
d = $858.93 the monthly loan payment we calculated above
k = 12 since they’re doing monthly payments
N = 25 since they’d be making monthly payments for 25 more years
\begin{align}&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{858.93\left(1-{{\left(1+\frac{0.04}{12}\right)}^{-25(12)}}\right)}{\left(\frac{0.04}{12}\right)}\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{858.93\left(1-{{\left(1.00333\right)}^{-300}}\right)}
{\left(0.00333\right)}\\&{{P}_{0}}=\frac{858.93\left(1-0.369\right)}{\left(0.00333\right)}=\$155,793.91 \\ \end{align}
The loan balance after 5 years, with 25 years remaining on the loan, will be $155,793.91
Over that 5 years, the couple has paid off $180,000 – $155,793.91 = $24,206.09 of the loan balance. They have paid a total of
$858.93 a month for 5 years (60 months), for a total of $51,535.80, so $51,535.80 – $24,206.09 = $27,329.71 of what they have
paid so far has been interest.
7.6: Remaining Loan Balance is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
When presented with a finance problem (on an exam or in real life), you’re usually not told what type of problem it is or which
equation to use. Here are some hints on deciding which equation to use based on the wording of the problem.
The easiest types of problem to identify are loans. Loan problems almost always include words like: “loan”, “amortize” (the fancy
word for loans), “finance (a car)”, or “mortgage” (a home loan). Look for these words. If they’re there, you’re probably looking at
a loan problem. To make sure, see if you’re given what your monthly (or annual) payment is, or if you’re trying to find a monthly
payment.
If the problem is not a loan, the next question you want to ask is: “Am I putting money in an account and letting it sit, or am I
making regular (monthly/annually/quarterly) payments or withdrawals?” If you’re letting the money sit in the account with
nothing but interest changing the balance, then you’re looking at a compound interest problem. The exception would be bonds and
other investments where the interest is not reinvested; in those cases you’re looking at simple interest.
If you’re making regular payments or withdrawals, the next questions is: “Am I putting money into the account, or am I pulling
money out?” If you’re putting money into the account on a regular basis (monthly/annually/quarterly) then you’re looking at a
basic Annuity problem. Basic annuities are when you are saving money. Usually in an annuity problem, your account starts empty,
and has money in the future.
If you’re pulling money out of the account on a regular basis, then you’re looking at a Payout Annuity problem. Payout annuities
are used for things like retirement income, where you start with money in your account, pull money out on a regular basis, and your
account ends up empty in the future.
Remember, the most important part of answering any kind of question, money or otherwise, is first to correctly identify what the
question is really asking, and to determine what approach will best allow you to solve the problem.
Try it Now 5
For each of the following scenarios, determine if it is a compound interest problem, a savings annuity problem, a payout annuity
problem, or a loans problem. Then solve each problem.
7.7: Which Equation to Use? is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Often we are interested in how long it will take to accumulate money or how long we’d need to extend a loan to bring payments
down to a reasonable level.
Note: This section assumes you’ve covered solving exponential equations using logarithms, either in prior classes or in the growth
models chapter.
Example 15
If you invest $2000 at 6% compounded monthly, how long will it take the account to double in value?
This is a compound interest problem, since we are depositing money once and allowing it to grow. In this problem,
So our general equation is
. We also know that we want our ending amount to be double of $2000, which is $4000, so we’re looking for N so that PN = 4000.
To solve this, we set our equation for PN equal to 4000.
4000=2000{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}^{N\times12}} Divide both sides by 2000
2={{\left(1.005\right)}^{12N}} To solve for the exponent, take the log of both sides
\log\left(2\right)=\log\left({{\left(1.005\right)}^{12N}}\right) Use the exponent property of logs on the right side
\log\left(2\right)=12N\log\left(1.005\right) Now we can divide both sides by 12log(1.005)
\frac{\log\left(2\right)}{12\log\left(1.005\right)}=N Approximating this to a decimal
N = 11.581
It will take about 11.581 years for the account to double in value. Note that your answer may come out slightly differently if you
had evaluated the logs to decimals and rounded during your calculations, but your answer should be close. For example if you
rounded log(2) to 0.301 and log(1.005) to 0.00217, then your final answer would have been about 11.577 years.
Example 16
If you invest $100 each month into an account earning 3% compounded monthly, how long will it take the account to grow to
$10,000?
This is a savings annuity problem since we are making regular deposits into the account.
We don’t know N, but we want PN to be $10,000.
10,000=\frac{100\left({{\left(1+\frac{0.03}{12}\right)}^{N(12)}}-1\right)}{\left(\frac{0.03}{12}\right)} Simplifying the fractions a bit
10,000=\frac{100\left({{\left(1.0025\right)}^{12N}}-1\right)}{0.0025}
We want to isolate the exponential term, 1.002512N, so multiply both sides by 0.0025
25=100\left({{\left(1.0025\right)}^{12N}}-1\right) Divide both sides by 100
0.25={{\left(1.0025\right)}^{12N}}-1 Add 1 to both sides
1.25={{\left(1.0025\right)}^{12N}} Now take the log of both sides
\log\left(1.25\right)=\log\left({{\left(1.0025\right)}^{12N}}\right) Use the exponent property of logs
\log\left(1.25\right)=12N\log\left(1.0025\right) Divide by 12log(1.0025)
\frac{\log\left(1.25\right)}{12\log\left(1.0025\right)}=N Approximating to a decimal
N = 7.447 years
It will take about 7.447 years to grow the account to $10,000.
Try it Now 6
Joel is considering putting a $1,000 laptop purchase on his credit card, which has an interest rate of 12% compounded monthly.
How long will it take him to pay off the purchase if he makes payments of $30 a month?
Try it Now Answers

1.
I = $30 of interest
P0 = $500 principal
r = unknown
t = 1 month
Using I = P0rt, we get 30 = 500·r·1. Solving, we get r = 0.06, or 6%. Since the time was monthly, this is the monthly interest. The
annual rate would be 12 times this: 72% interest.
2.
d = $5 the daily deposit
k = 365 since we’re doing daily deposits, we’ll compound daily
$21,282.07
{{P}_{10}}=\frac{5\left({{\left(1+\frac{0.03}{365}\right)}^{365\times10}}-1\right)}{\frac{0.03}{365}}=
We would have deposited a total of $5·365·10 = $18,250, so $3,032.07 is from interest

3.
d = unknown
k=1 since we’re doing annual scholarships
N = 20 20 years
P0 = 100,000 we’re starting with $100,000
100,000=\frac{d\left(1-{{\left(1+\frac{0.04}{1}\right)}^{-20\times1}}\right)}{\frac{0.04}{1}}
Solving for d gives $7,358.18 each year that they can give in scholarships.
It is worth noting that usually donors instead specify that only interest is to be used for scholarship, which makes the original
donation last indefinitely. If this donor had specified that, $100,000(0.04) = $4,000 a year would have been available.
Try it Now Answers continued

4.
d = unknown
k = 12 since we’re making monthly payments
N=2 2 years to repay
P0 = 3,000 we’re starting with a $3,000 loan
3,000=\frac{d\left(1-{{\left(1+\frac{0.16}{12}\right)}^{-2\times12}}\right)}{\frac{0.16}{12}}
Solving for d gives $146.89 as monthly payments.

In total, she will pay $3,525.36 to the store, meaning she will pay $525.36 in interest over the two years.
5.
6.
d = $30 The monthly payments
k = 12 since we’re making monthly payments
P0 = 1,000 we’re starting with a $1,000 loan
We are solving for N, the time to pay off the loan
1,000=\frac{30\left(1-{{\left(1+\frac{0.12}{12}\right)}^{-N(12)}}\right)}{\frac{0.12}{12}}
Solving for N gives 3.396. It will take about 3.4 years to pay off the purchase.
7.8: Solving for Time is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
7.9: Exercises
Skills
1. A friend lends you $200 for a week, which you agree to repay with 5% one-time interest. How much will you have to repay?
2. Suppose you obtain a $3,000 T-note with a 3% annual rate, paid quarterly, with maturity in 5 years. How much interest will you
earn?
3. A T-bill is a type of bond that is sold at a discount over the face value. For example, suppose you buy a 13-week T-bill with a
face value of $10,000 for $9,800. This means that in 13 weeks, the government will give you the face value, earning you $200.
What annual interest rate have you earned?
4. Suppose you are looking to buy a $5000 face value 26-week T-bill. If you want to earn at least 1% annual interest, what is the
most you should pay for the T-bill?
5. You deposit $300 in an account earning 5% interest compounded annually. How much will you have in the account in 10 years?
6. How much will $1000 deposited in an account earning 7% interest compounded annually be worth in 20 years?
7. You deposit $2000 in an account earning 3% interest compounded monthly.
a. How much will you have in the account in 20 years?
b. How much interest will you earn?
8. You deposit $10,000 in an account earning 4% interest compounded monthly.
9. How much would you need to deposit in an account now in order to have $6,000 in the account in 8 years? Assume the account
earns 6% interest compounded monthly.
10. How much would you need to deposit in an account now in order to have $20,000 in the account in 4 years? Assume the
account earns 5% interest.
11. You deposit $200 each month into an account earning 3% interest compounded monthly.
b. How much total money will you put into the account?
c. How much total interest will you earn?
12. You deposit $1000 each year into an account earning 8% compounded annually.
13. Jose has determined he needs to have $800,000 for retirement in 30 years. His account earns 6% interest.
a. How much would you need to deposit in the account each month?
14. You wish to have $3000 in 2 years to buy a fancy new stereo system. How much should you deposit each quarter into an
account paying 8% compounded quarterly?
15. You want to be able to withdraw $30,000 each year for 25 years. Your account earns 8% interest.
a. How much do you need in your account at the beginning
b. How much total money will you pull out of the account?
c. How much of that money is interest?
16. How much money will I need to have at retirement so I can withdraw $60,000 a year for 20 years from an account earning 8%
compounded annually?
17. You have $500,000 saved for retirement. Your account earns 6% interest. How much will you be able to pull out each month, if
you want to be able to take withdrawals for 20 years?
18. Loren already knows that he will have $500,000 when he retires. If he sets up a payout annuity for 30 years in an account
paying 10% interest, how much could the annuity provide each month?
19. You can afford a $700 per month mortgage payment. You’ve found a 30 year loan at 5% interest.
a. How big of a loan can you afford?
b. How much total money will you pay the loan company?
20. Marie can afford a $250 per month car payment. She’s found a 5 year loan at 7% interest.
a. How expensive of a car can she afford?
b. How much total money will she pay the loan company?
21. You want to buy a $25,000 car. The company is offering a 2% interest rate for 48 months (4 years). What will your monthly
payments be?
22. You decide finance a $12,000 car at 3% compounded monthly for 4 years. What will your monthly payments be? How much
interest will you pay over the life of the loan?
23. You want to buy a $200,000 home. You plan to pay 10% as a down payment, and take out a 30 year loan for the rest.
a. How much is the loan amount going to be?
b. What will your monthly payments be if the interest rate is 5%?
c. What will your monthly payments be if the interest rate is 6%?
24. Lynn bought a $300,000 house, paying 10% down, and financing the rest at 6% interest for 30 years.
a. Find her monthly payments.
b. How much interest will she pay over the life of the loan?
25. Emile bought a car for $24,000 three years ago. The loan had a 5 year term at 3% interest rate. How much does he still owe on
the car?
26. A friend bought a house 15 years ago, taking out a $120,000 mortgage at 6% for 30 years. How much does she still owe on the
mortgage?
27. Pat deposits $6,000 into an account earning 4% compounded monthly. How long will it take the account to grow to $10,000?
28. Kay is saving $200 a month into an account earning 5% interest. How long will it take her to save $20,000?
29. James has $3,000 in credit card debt, which charges 14% interest. How long will it take to pay off the card if he makes the
minimum payment of $60 a month?
30. Chris has saved $200,000 for retirement, and it is in an account earning 6% interest. If she withdraws $3,000 a month, how long
will the money last?
Concepts
31. Suppose you invest $50 a month for 5 years into an account earning 8% compounded monthly. After 5 years, you leave the
money, without making additional deposits, in the account for another 25 years. How much will you have in the end?
32. Suppose you put off making investments for the first 5 years, and instead made deposits of $50 a month for 25 years into an
account earning 8% compounded monthly. How much will you have in the end?
33. Mike plans to make contributions to his retirement account for 15 years. After the last contribution, he will start withdrawing
$10,000 a quarter for 10 years. Assuming Mike’s account earns 8% compounded quarterly, how large must his quarterly
contributions be during the first 15 years, in order to accomplish his goal?
34. Kendra wants to be able to make withdrawals of $60,000 a year for 30 years after retiring in 35 years. How much will she have
to save each year up until retirement if her account earns 7% interest?
35. You have $2,000 to invest, and want it to grow to $3,000 in two years. What interest rate would you need to find to make this
possible?
36. You have $5,000 to invest, and want it to grow to $20,000 in ten years. What interest rate would you need to find to make this
possible?
37. You plan to save $600 a month for the next 30 years for retirement. What interest rate would you need to have $1,000,000 at
retirement?
38. You really want to buy a used car for $11,000, but can only afford $200 a month. What interest rate would you need to find to
be able to afford the car, assuming the loan is for 60 months?
Exploration
39. Pay day loans are short term loans that you take out against future paychecks: The company advances you money against a
future paycheck. Either visit a pay day loan company, or look one up online. Be forewarned that many companies do not make
their fees obvious, so you might need to do some digging or look at several companies.
a. Explain the general method by which the loan works.
b. We will assume that we need to borrow $500 and that we will pay back the loan in 14 days. Determine the total amount that
you would need to pay back and the effective loan rate. The effective loan rate is the percentage of the original loan amount
that you pay back. It is not the same as the APR (annual rate) that is probably published.
c. If you cannot pay back the loan after 14 days, you will need to get an extension for another 14 days. Determine the fees for
an extension, determine the total amount you will be paying for the now 28 day loan, and compute the effective loan rate.
40. Suppose that 10 years ago you bought a home for $110,000, paying 10% as a down payment, and financing the rest at 9%
interest for 30 years.
a. Let’s consider your existing mortgage:
i. How much money did you pay as your down payment?
ii. How much money was your mortgage (loan) for?
iii. What is your current monthly payment?
iv. How much total interest will you pay over the life of the loan?
b. This year, you check your loan balance. Only part of your payments have been going to pay down the loan; the rest has been
going towards interest. You see that you still have $88,536 left to pay on your loan. Your house is now valued at $150,000.
i. How much of the loan have you paid off? (i.e., how much have you reduced the loan balance by? Keep in mind that
interest is charged each month – it’s not part of the loan balance.)
ii. How much money have you paid to the loan company so far?
iii. How much interest have you paid so far?
iv. How much equity do you have in your home (equity is value minus remaining debt)
c. Since interest rates have dropped, you consider refinancing your mortgage at a lower 6% rate.
i. If you took out a new 30 year mortgage at 6% for your remaining loan balance, what would your new monthly payments
be?
ii. How much interest will you pay over the life of the new loan?
d. Notice that if you refinance, you are going to be making payments on your home for another 30 years. In addition to the 10
years you’ve already been paying, that’s 40 years total.
i. How much will you save each month because of the lower monthly payment?
ii. How much total interest will you be paying (you need to consider the amount from 2c and 3b)
iii. Does it make sense to refinance? (there isn’t a correct answer to this question. Just give your opinion and your reason)
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
8: Topic F- Using a Calculator
8.2: F1.02- Examples 4-5
8.3: F1.03- Example 6
8: Topic F- Using a Calculator is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Topic F. Using a Calculator
Objectives:
1. Understand that different calculators require a somewhat different order of entering numbers and operations. Be able to use the
correct order on YOUR calculator, and recognize which other calculators require a different order.
2. Perform basic operations and square root
3. Use exponents—not just squares and cubes
4. Use the constant pi.
5. Learn the difference between entering a negative number and the operation of subtraction.
6. Learn to put in parentheses when needed.
7. Read the output when it includes scientific notation.
8. When and how much should you round the results?
9. Checking your work with a calculator. (Estimation)
Discussion: Types of calculators

Generally speaking, the various brands of calculators all work in pretty similar ways, so the differences are in the type of calculator,
not the brand.
We might think of four categories of calculators typically used by students:
Basic calculators. These add, subtract, multiply, divide, and a few other things. They cost $2 to $8.
Scientific calculators with a one-line display. These cost $5 to $15.
Scientific calculators with a two-line display. These cost $8 to $20.
Graphing calculators. These cost $40 to $150.
For these materials, the basic calculators don’t have enough capability and the graphing calculators have much more capability than
needed and are more expensive than needed. Either of the two types of scientific calculators is acceptable. However, we enter
various operations into them in different ways, so you’ll find it easier to pick one type and always use it. If you already have a
scientific calculator, you can use it for this course. Most students find that they prefer a calculator with a two-line display. Those
enable you to see what you entered and the result at the same time, which is not possible on the one-line-display calculators.
Example 1. Perform basic operations and square root.
Try all of these problems on your calculator to make sure that you understand what to enter to obtain the correct answer:
a. 3+4
b. 7-12
c. 12\div4
d. 8\cdot3
e. \sqrt{36}
Solution: You know how to do all of these operations without a calculator. Do them and then make sure you can get the same
answer with your calculator.
The order in which you enter the numbers and operations is different on different calculators. Practice with the calculator
you will use in this course. Make a note in the margin here about anything you must remember in order to enter these into your
calculator.
Example 2. Use exponents—not just squares and cubes.
a. Find
b. Find
c. Find \sqrt[5]{32}={{32}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{5}\;}}
d. Find \sqrt[6]{79}={{79}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{6}\;}}
Solution: Most scientific calculators have a square and a cube key (powers of 2 and 3.) But we will need to compute other
powers. The exponent key on most calculators is denoted by one of these symbols:
, , or ^.
a. By hand (or in your head) find that {{2}^{4}}=16.
Find the exponent key on your calculator and make sure that you can use it correctly.
Practice by evaluating .
b. Then use the same method to find . (That answer should be 2.157669.)
c. You’ll need parentheses around the fraction in the exponent. \sqrt[5]{32}={{32}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{5}\;}}=2
d. Again, use parentheses around the fraction in the exponent. \sqrt[6]{79}={{79}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{6}\;}}=2.071434
Example 3. Use the constant \pi .
a. Find \pi.
b. b. Find 2\pi
c. c. Evaluate the area of a circle with radius 2: A=\pi{{r}^{2}} .
Solution:
a. This is the Greek letter “pi” which denotes a number which is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter and is
approximately 3.14. It is used in many geometry formulas involving round objects. Often we need to use it to a greater accuracy
than two decimal places. Most scientific calculators have a key for . Have you noticed that your scientific calculator has two
different values for most keys? One, called the main value, is labeled on the key itself and the other, called the secondary value,
is usually labeled right above it. To get that secondary value, you must press a specific other key on the calculator first. That is
the “2nd” key or maybe “Shift” or “Inv”. Almost always it is the top left key of the calculator keyboard. On many calculators,
the \pi key is a secondary key value, so you’ll need to punch that top left key first. When you find that key, you’ll be able to
see that \pi=3.14159..... The different calculators have different numbers of decimal places.
b. To find 2\pion your calculator, you must learn to use multiplication and the second key in the correct order. You can check your
work, of course, by multiplying 2 times 3.14159… by hand to see if your calculator is giving you the correct answer.
c. Notice how to enter these into your calculator so that the operations are done correctly. On one-line-display calculators, you
may need to square the radius before multiplying by \pi.
A=\pi{{r}^{2}}=\pi\cdot{{2}^{2}}=\text{12.56637061}

Mathematics for Modeling. Authored by: Mary Parker and Hunter Ellinger. License: CC BY: Attribution
8.1: F1.01 Beginning and Example 3 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
8.2: F1.02- Examples 4-5
Example 4. Negative numbers and the operation of subtraction.
a. 8-6
b. -6+8
Solution: When we do subtraction problems by hand or work with negative numbers, we usually write the negative sign and the
subtraction symbol in exactly the same way, so we think of them as the same. But calculators treat them differently. Use your
calculator to find 8-6.
Now try to find -6+8. Using the subtraction symbol won’t work here. The key you need is probably labeled +/-\,\,\,\,\,or\,\,\,\left(-\right) .
Find that key and experiment with it until you see how to use your calculator to find -6+8.
Most students go through entire algebra courses and never need the negative number key because they handle all the sign parts of
the problem mentally. For example, we’d just say -6+8=8-6 and then use the calculator for this resulting problem. But when we
learn about trigonometry later in the course, we will need to be able to fully handle negative numbers, so we’ll need to use this key.
Discussion: Order of operations.
There are three types of mathematical expressions which we write, by hand, without parentheses, but which need parentheses when
entering them into a calculator or spreadsheet.
Evaluate Enter this Why?

each
expression
, where x=3 3 ^ (2*3) =

or In the original expression, the placement of the symbols indicates that the exponent is 2 times x. But
3\,\,{{y}^{x}}
(2*3)=
when we have to just enter symbols one after the other – on the same line – we have to use parentheses
to clarify what is in the exponent.
\frac{{{x}^{2}}-
6x}{4x+2} (3^2-
, where x=3 6*3)/(4*3+2) In the original expression, the placement of the symbols indicates that the entire numerator is divided by
= or the entire denominator. But when we have to just enter symbols one after the other – on the same line –
(32- we have to use parentheses to clarify what is to be divided by what.
6*3)/(4*3+2)
=
\sqrt{4x+13} ,
where (4*3+13) = In the original expression, the fact that the expression was completely under the square root symbol
made it clear. In the calculator, we have to use parentheses to say that.
OR 4*3+13
= \sqrt{{}} =
Example 5. For each of the expressions above, evaluate it by hand and then evaluate it with your calculator. By hand
, where x=3
\begin{align}&\,\,\,\,{{3}^{2\cdot3}}=
{{3}^{6}}=3\cdot3\cdot3\cdot3\cdot3\cdot3\\&=9\cdot3\cdot3\cdot3\cdot3=27\cdot3\cdot3\cdot3=81\cdot3\cdot3=243\cdot3=729\\\end{align}
\frac{{{x}^{2}}-6x}{4x+2} , where \frac{{{3}^{2}}-6\cdot3}{4\cdot3+2}=\frac{9-18}{12+2}=\frac{-9}{14}

x=3
Now use your calculator to find this is –0.642857
\sqrt{4x+13} , where x=3 \sqrt{4x+13}=\sqrt{4\cdot3+13}=\sqrt{25}=5
Plug these into your calculator using the expressions above, with parentheses
Evaluate each expression Enter this
, where x=3
3 ^ (2*3) = 729
OR 3\,\,{{y}^{x}}(2*3)= 729
\frac{{{x}^{2}}-6x}{4x+2}, where x=3
(3^2-6*3)/(4*3+2) = –0.642857
OR (32-6*3)/(4*3+2) = –0.642857
\sqrt{4x+13} , where x=3 \sqrt{{}} (4*3+13) = 5
OR 4*3+13 = \sqrt{{}} =5

8.2: F1.02- Examples 4-5 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
8.3: F1.03- Example 6
Example 6. Scientific notation. Multiply 8,000,000 by 60,000.
Solution: When you do this on your calculator, you’ll get a strange-looking answer with a E in it. You must learn to interpret that
answer. That’s the way calculators give scientific notation.
In some algebra classes you learned scientific notation as a shorter way of writing some very large or very small numbers.
4,120,000=4.12\times{{10}^{6}} and 0.000089=8.9\times{{10}^{-5}}
When using a calculator or spreadsheet we might easily obtain a number that is too big for the display and must be expressed in
scientific notation. But calculator displays usually use shorthand for this. On most calculators and spreadsheets, we’ll have 3.12 E
05 or 6.7 E–10. These mean
3.12 E 05 = 3.12\,\times{{10}^{5}}=312,000
6.7 E–10 = 6.7\times{{10}^{-10}}=0.00000000067
On your calculator, multiply 8,000,000 by 60,000. What do you get? How would you write it in scientific notation? How would
you write it in regular notation? (Answer: 480,000,000,000,= 4.8\,\times{{10}^{11}})
Review: Additional review of scientific notation is available from the course website.
Going further: Scientific notation is also used to convey the precision of measured values clearly and concisely. We will discuss
that in later Topics in this course.
Discussion. When and how much should you round the results of a calculator computation?
Calculators keep more accuracy in calculations than we will probably want to do in our hand calculations. Typically, that is about
12 decimal places for the inexpensive scientific calculators. When computing, it is tempting for students to use the calculator to do
each individual operation and then write down that result correct to about three decimal places and then do the next individual
operation. This is not considered good practice because if it is done for several steps, then quite a bit of accuracy can be lost.
Good practice in using a calculator is to do all the calculations in the problem by keeping the intermediate results in the
calculator and only round at the end to report the final answer. That enables us to keep as much accuracy in our result as our
original data had and not to introduce inaccuracy as a result of our computation.
However, when formulas are particularly long or complicated, you may need to write down intermediate results in order to better
understand the techniques. While that is acceptable to help you make progress, it is important for you to understand that you are
losing accuracy. If there is anything important depending on your computed result, you should learn to keep all the computed
values in the calculator to produce the final answer.
Discussion. Checking your work
When learning to use the keys on a calculator, use problems that you can easily do by hand or even mentally, so that you can easily
check to see whether the calculator has given the correct answer. In fact, using such problems to experiment is one of the main
ways people learn to do new things on their calculators. After all, what percentage of time do most of us spend reading the
calculator manual? In fact, how many of us can even remember where we put the calculator manual?
Notice that most of the examples so far used simple numbers so that it would be easy for you to do the calculation by hand and
check your calculator work. That is always how you should approach learning to use a key on your calculator that you have never
used before.
When using the calculator to do messy problems that we wouldn’t want to do by hand, it is also important to do some checking. (It
is very easy to punch in the wrong numbers, decimals, or operations.) In such cases, you should estimate what the answer will be
and then be sure that your final answer on the calculator is reasonably close to your estimate. If it is not, you’ll need to determine
whether your estimate was wrong or the something went wrong with the calculation in the calculator.
Example 7: A sofa is priced at $887 in the furniture store. The sales tax is 8.25%.
a. Estimate the total amount you’ll have to pay with both the cost and the tax.
b. Use your calculator to compute the total amount you’ll have to pay.
c. Is your calculator answer close to your estimate?
Solution.
a. Since $887 is not too far from to $1000, let’s estimate the cost of the sofa as $1000. 8.25% is pretty close to 8%, so let’s
compute 8% of $1000.Since 8% of $100 is $8, then 8% of $1000 must be ten times that, so it’s about $80. Thus, sales tax
amount is pretty close to $80.So how much is the whole bill? It’s about $80 more than the cost of the sofa itself. Here we could
continue to use the estimate of the sofa as $1000, but it’s really closer to $900.
It’s pretty easy to add $900 and $80, so we estimate the total is about $980.
b. Using a calculator, we compute 887 + 0.0825*887 = 960.18.
c. Yes, the calculator answer is pretty close to my estimate, so it seems likely that it is correct.

8.3: F1.03- Example 6 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Part I.
As you work through these, make a page of notes of anything you need to remember about how to use your calculator.
1. Evaluate each.
a. 3+4
b. 7-12
c. 12\div4
d. 8\cdot3
e. \sqrt{36}
2. a. Find
b. Find
c. Find \sqrt[5]{32}={{32}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{5}\;}}
d. Find \sqrt[6]{79}={{79}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{6}\;}}
3. a. Find \pi.
b. Find 2\pi
c. Evaluate the area of a circle with radius 2: A=\pi{{r}^{2}} .
4. Use a calculator to evaluate each.
a. 8-6
b. -6+8
5. Evaluate each of these expressions.

a. , where x=3
b. \sqrt{4x+13}, where x=3
6. Evaluate this expression: \frac{{{x}^{2}}-6x}{4x+2}, where x=3
7. Use a calculator to multiply 8,000,000 by 60,000.

8. A sofa is priced at $887 in the furniture store. The sales tax is 8.25%.
a. Estimate the total amount you’ll have to pay with both the cost and the tax.
b. Use your calculator to compute the total amount you’ll have to pay.
c. Is your calculator answer close to your estimate?
Part II.
For any problems for which the answers are not whole numbers, round to three decimal places. That will enable you to check the
problems without the results being too confusing. For the algebra problems, use the calculator as needed, including in checking
the results.
9. Evaluate using your calculator’s exponent key and then check it by multiplying by hand.
10. Evaluate using your calculator’s exponent key and then check it by multiplying by hand.
11. Evaluate each.
a.
b. \sqrt[4]{217}={{217}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{4}\;}}
12. Evaluate each.

a.
b. \sqrt[7]{383}={{383}^{{}^{1}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{7}\;}}
13. Use the \pi key on your calculator when evaluating 3+8\pi. Check your work by estimating \pi as 3 and working it in your
head.
14. Use the \pi key on your calculator when evaluating 12\pi-7. Check your work by estimating \pi as 3 and working it in your
head.
15. Use your calculator to evaluate 73-37and then use the negative number key as part of evaluating -37+73 . Check your work by
doing it by hand.
16. Use your calculator to evaluate 24-35and then use the negative number key as part of evaluating -35+24 . Check your work by
doing it by hand.
17. Evaluate each of these expressions:
a. , where x=3
b. \frac{{{x}^{2}}-6x}{4x+2}, where x=3
18. Evaluate each of these expressions:

a. , where x=4
b. \frac{3x+15}{5{{x}^{2}}-11}, where x=4
19. Use your calculator to multiply 2,700,000 by 1,138.3 . Write what your calculator shows and then the answer in standard
number notation, not scientific notation. Check your work by estimating the first number as about 3,000,000 and the second
number as about 1000. Multiply those by hand and see if this estimate is close to your calculator’s answer.
20. Use your calculator to multiply 9,701.3 by 81,200,000. Write what your calculator shows and then the answer in standard
number notation, not scientific notation. Check your work by estimating the first number as about 10,000 and the second
number as about 80,000,000. Multiply those by hand and see if this estimate is close to your calculator’s answer.
21. The price of a car is $24,871 and the tax due on this is 9.3%. Find the total of the price and tax. First estimate it, explaining how
you are estimating, and then use a calculator to compute it.
22. The price of a car is $40,373 and the tax due on this is 4.6%. Find the total of the price and tax. First estimate it, explaining how
you are estimating, and then use a calculator to compute it.
Work the following problems and check your work as we learned in Topic A. Use a calculator to do the arithmetic easily in the
solution of the problem and in checking your answer.
23. Simplify -12(x-2) 29. Solve \frac{12}{m}=\frac{5}{2} 35. Solve for y: y-7=3(x-5)
24. Simplify 7(3m-8) 30. Solve \frac{8}{17}=\frac{t}{9} 36. Solve for y: y-9=13(x-7)
25. Solve 32y-15=81 31. Solve \frac{18}{11}=\frac{38}{w} 37. 37. Solve for y:
26. Solve 19=3-7t 32. Solve \frac{1.12}{7.2}=\frac{v}{96} y-2=0.12(x-10)
27. Solve 6(3m-11)=32 33. Solve \frac{m}{72}=0.6482 38. Solve for y: y-10=-1.42(x-20)
28. Solve 9(2q-7)=12 34. Solve \frac{18}{r}=0.938 39. 39. Solve for y:
y-1.12=-0.063(x-12.72)

8.4: F1.04- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
9: Describing Data
9.5: Exercises
9: Describing Data is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Categorical, or qualitative, data are pieces of information that allow us to classify the objects under investigation into various
categories. We usually begin working with categorical data by summarizing the data into a frequency table.
Frequency Table
A frequency table is a table with two columns. One column lists the categories, and another for the frequencies with which the
items in the categories occur (how many items fit into each category).
Example 1
An insurance company determines vehicle insurance premiums based on known risk factors. If a person is considered a higher risk,
their premiums will be higher. One potential factor is the color of your car. The insurance company believes that people with some
color cars are more likely to get in accidents. To research this, they examine police reports for recent total-loss collisions. The data
is summarized in the frequency table below.
Color Frequency
Blue 25
Green 52
Red 41
White 36
Black 39
Grey 23
Sometimes we need an even more intuitive way of displaying data. This is where charts and graphs come in. There are many,
many ways of displaying data graphically, but we will concentrate on one very useful type of graph called a bar graph. In this
section we will work with bar graphs that display categorical data; the next section will be devoted to bar graphs that display
quantitative data.
Bar graph
A bar graph is a graph that displays a bar for each category with the length of each bar indicating the frequency of that category.
To construct a bar graph, we need to draw a vertical axis and a horizontal axis. The vertical direction will have a scale and measure
the frequency of each category; the horizontal axis has no scale in this instance. The construction of a bar chart is most easily
described by use of an example.
Example 2
Using our car data from above, note the highest frequency is 52, so our vertical axis needs to go from 0 to 52, but we might as well
use 0 to 55, so that we can put a hash mark every 5 units:
Notice that the height of each bar is determined by the frequency of the corresponding color. The horizontal gridlines are a nice
touch, but not necessary. In practice, you will find it useful to draw bar graphs using graph paper, so the gridlines will already be in
place, or using technology. Instead of gridlines, we might also list the frequencies at the top of each bar, like this:
In this case, our chart might benefit from being reordered from largest to smallest frequency values. This arrangement can make it
easier to compare similar values in the chart, even without gridlines. When we arrange the categories in decreasing frequency order
like this, it is called a Pareto chart.
Pareto chart
A Pareto chart is a bar graph ordered from highest to lowest frequency
Example 3
Transforming our bar graph from earlier into a Pareto chart, we get:
Example 4
In a survey[1], adults were asked whether they personally worried about a variety of environmental concerns. The numbers (out of
1012 surveyed) who indicated that they worried “a great deal” about some selected concerns are summarized below.
Environmental Issue Frequency
Pollution of drinking water 597
Contamination of soil and water by toxic waste 526
Air pollution 455
Global warming 354
This data could be shown graphically in a bar graph:
To show relative sizes, it is common to use a pie chart.
Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle with wedges cut of varying sizes marked out like slices of pie or pizza. The relative sizes of the wedges
correspond to the relative frequencies of the categories.
Example 5
For our vehicle color data, a pie chart might look like this:
Pie charts can often benefit from including frequencies or relative frequencies (percents) in the chart next to the pie slices. Often
having the category names next to the pie slices also makes the chart clearer.
Example 6
The pie chart to the right shows the percentage of voters supporting each candidate running for a local senate seat.
If there are 20,000 voters in the district, the pie chart shows that about 11% of those, about 2,200 voters, support Reeves.
Pie charts look nice, but are harder to draw by hand than bar charts since to draw them accurately we would need to compute the
angle each wedge cuts out of the circle, then measure the angle with a protractor. Computers are much better suited to drawing pie
charts. Common software programs like Microsoft Word or Excel, OpenOffice.org Write or Calc, or Google Docs are able to create
bar graphs, pie charts, and other graph types. There are also numerous online tools that can create graphs.[2]
Try it Now 1
Create a bar graph and a pie chart to illustrate the grades on a history exam below.
A: 12 students, B: 19 students, C: 14 students, D: 4 students, F: 5 students
Don’t get fancy with graphs! People sometimes add features to graphs that don’t help to convey their information. For example, 3-
dimensional bar charts like the one shown below are usually not as effective as their two-dimensional counterparts.
Here is another way that fanciness can lead to trouble. Instead of plain bars, it is tempting to substitute meaningful images. This
type of graph is called a pictogram.
Pictogram
A pictogram is a statistical graphic in which the size of the picture is intended to represent the frequencies or size of the values
being represented.
Example 7
A labor union might produce the graph to the right to show the difference between the average manager salary
and the average worker salary.
Looking at the picture, it would be reasonable to guess that the manager salaries is 4 times as large as the worker salaries – the area
of the bag looks about 4 times as large. However, the manager salaries are in fact only twice as large as worker salaries, which were
reflected in the picture by making the manager bag twice as tall.
Another distortion in bar charts results from setting the baseline to a value other than zero. The baseline is the bottom of the vertical
axis, representing the least number of cases that could have occurred in a category. Normally, this number should be zero.
Example 8
Compare the two graphs below showing support for same-sex marriage rights from a poll taken in December 2008[3]. The
difference in the vertical scale on the first graph suggests a different story than the true differences in percentages; the second graph
makes it look like twice as many people oppose marriage rights as support it.
Try it Now 2
A poll was taken asking people if they agreed with the positions of the 4 candidates for a county office. Does the pie chart present a
good representation of this data? Explain.
1. Gallup Poll. March 5-8, 2009. http://www.pollingreport.com/enviro.htm↵

2. For example: http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createAgraph/ or http://docs.google.com↵
3. CNN/Opinion Research Corporation Poll. Dec 19-21, 2008, from http://www.pollingreport.com/civil.htm↵
9.1: Presenting Categorical Data Graphically is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Quantitative, or numerical, data can also be summarized into frequency tables.
Example 9
A teacher records scores on a 20-point quiz for the 30 students in his class. The scores are:
19 20 18 18 17 18 19 17 20 18 20 16 20 15 17 12 18 19 18 19 17 20 18 16 15 18 20 5 0 0
These scores could be summarized into a frequency table by grouping like values:
Score Frequency
0 2
5 1
12 1
15 2
16 2
17 4
18 8
19 4
20 6
Using this table, it would be possible to create a standard bar chart from this summary, like we did for categorical data:
However, since the scores are numerical values, this chart doesn’t really make sense; the first and second bars are five values apart,
while the later bars are only one value apart. It would be more correct to treat the horizontal axis as a number line. This type of
graph is called a histogram.
Histogram
A histogram is like a bar graph, but where the horizontal axis is a number line
Example 10
For the values above, a histogram would look like:
Notice that in the histogram, a bar represents values on the horizontal axis from that on the left hand-side of the bar up to, but not
including, the value on the right hand side of the bar. Some people choose to have bars start at ½ values to avoid this ambiguity.
Unfortunately, not a lot of common software packages can correctly graph a histogram. About the best you can do in Excel or Word
is a bar graph with no gap between the bars and spacing added to simulate a numerical horizontal axis.
If we have a large number of widely varying data values, creating a frequency table that lists every possible value as a category
would lead to an exceptionally long frequency table, and probably would not reveal any patterns. For this reason, it is common with
quantitative data to group data into class intervals.
Class Intervals
Class intervals are groupings of the data. In general, we define class intervals so that:
Each interval is equal in size. For example, if the first class contains values from 120-129, the second class should include
values from 130-139.
We have somewhere between 5 and 20 classes, typically, depending upon the number of data we’re working with.
Example 11
Suppose that we have collected weights from 100 male subjects as part of a nutrition study. For our weight data, we have values
ranging from a low of 121 pounds to a high of 263 pounds, giving a total span of 263-121 = 142. We could create 7 intervals with a
width of around 20, 14 intervals with a width of around 10, or somewhere in between. Often time we have to experiment with a
few possibilities to find something that represents the data well. Let us try using an interval width of 15. We could start at 121, or at
120 since it is a nice round number.
Interval Frequency
120 – 134 4
135 – 149 14
150 – 164 16
165 – 179 28
180 – 194 12
195 – 209 8
210 – 224 7
225 – 239 6
240 – 254 2
255 – 269 3
A histogram of this data would look like:
In many software packages, you can create a graph similar to a histogram by putting the class intervals as the labels on a bar chart.
Other graph types such as pie charts are possible for quantitative data. The usefulness of different graph types will vary depending
upon the number of intervals and the type of data being represented. For example, a pie chart of our weight data is difficult to read
because of the quantity of intervals we used.
Try it Now 3
The total cost of textbooks for the term was collected from 36 students. Create a histogram for this data.
$140 $160 $160 $165 $180 $220 $235 $240 $250 $260 $280 $285
$285 $285 $290 $300 $300 $305 $310 $310 $315 $315 $320 $320
$330 $340 $345 $350 $355 $360 $360 $380 $395 $420 $460 $460
When collecting data to compare two groups, it is desirable to create a graph that compares quantities.
Example 12
The data below came from a task in which the goal is to move a computer mouse to a target on the screen as fast as possible. On 20
of the trials, the target was a small rectangle; on the other 20, the target was a large rectangle. Time to reach the target was recorded
on each trial.
Interval (milliseconds) Frequency Frequency

small target large target
300-399 0 0
400-499 1 5
500-599 3 10
600-699 6 5
700-799 5 0
800-899 4 0
900-999 0 0
1000-1099 1 0
1100-1199 0 0
One option to represent this data would be a comparative histogram or bar chart, in which bars for the small target group and large
target group are placed next to each other.
Frequency polygon
An alternative representation is a frequency polygon. A frequency polygon starts out like a histogram, but instead of drawing a
bar, a point is placed in the midpoint of each interval at height equal to the frequency. Typically the points are connected with
straight lines to emphasize the distribution of the data.
Example 13
This graph makes it easier to see that reaction times were generally shorter for the larger target, and that the reaction times for the
smaller target were more spread out.

9.2: Presenting Quantitative Data Graphically is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
It is often desirable to use a few numbers to summarize a distribution. One important aspect of a distribution is where its center is
located. Measures of central tendency are discussed first. A second aspect of a distribution is how spread out it is. In other words,
how much the data in the distribution vary from one another. The second section describes measures of variability.
Let’s begin by trying to find the most “typical” value of a data set.
Note that we just used the word “typical” although in many cases you might think of using the word “average.” We need to be
careful with the word “average” as it means different things to different people in different contexts. One of the most common uses
of the word “average” is what mathematicians and statisticians call the arithmetic mean, or just plain old mean for short.
“Arithmetic mean” sounds rather fancy, but you have likely calculated a mean many times without realizing it; the mean is what
most people think of when they use the word “average”.
Mean
The mean of a set of data is the sum of the data values divided by the number of values.
Example 14
Marci’s exam scores for her last math class were: 79, 86, 82, 94. The mean of these values would be:
. Typically we round means to one more decimal place than the original data had. In this case, we would round
\frac{79+86+82+94}{4}=85.25
85.25 to 85.3.
Example 15
The number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season are
shown below.
37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23 22 22 22 21 21 21 20
20 19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15 14 14 14 12 12 9 6
Adding these values, we get 634 total TDs. Dividing by 31, the number of data values, we get 634/31 = 20.4516. It would be
appropriate to round this to 20.5.
It would be most correct for us to report that “The mean number of touchdown passes thrown in the NFL in the 2000 season was
20.5 passes,” but it is not uncommon to see the more casual word “average” used in place of “mean.”
Try it Now 4
The price of a jar of peanut butter at 5 stores was: $3.29, $3.59, $3.79, $3.75, and $3.99. Find the mean price.
Example 16
The one hundred families in a particular neighborhood are asked their annual household income, to the nearest $5 thousand dollars.
The results are summarized in a frequency table below.
Income (thousands of dollars) Frequency
15 6
20 8
25 11
30 17
35 19
40 20
45 12
50 7
Calculating the mean by hand could get tricky if we try to type in all 100 values:
\frac{\overbrace{15+\cdots+15}^{\text{6terms}}+\overbrace{20+\cdots+20}^{\text{8terms}}+\overbrace{25+\cdots+25}^{\text{11terms}}+\cdots}{\text{100}}
We could calculate this more easily by noticing that adding 15 to itself six times is the same as = 90. Using this simplification, we
get
\frac{15\cdot6+20\cdot8+25\cdot11+30\cdot17+35\cdot19+40\cdot20+45\cdot12+50\cdot7}{\text{100}}=\frac{3390}{100}=33.9
The mean household income of our sample is 33.9 thousand dollars ($33,900).
Example 17
Extending off the last example, suppose a new family moves into the neighborhood example that has a household income of $5
million ($5000 thousand). Adding this to our sample, our mean is now:
\frac{15\cdot6+20\cdot8+25\cdot11+30\cdot17+35\cdot19+40\cdot20+45\cdot12+50\cdot7+5000\cdot1}{\text{101}}=\frac{8390}{101}=83.069
While 83.1 thousand dollars ($83,069) is the correct mean household income, it no longer represents a “typical” value.
Imagine the data values on a see-saw or balance scale. The mean is the value that keeps the data in balance, like in the picture
below.
If we graph our household data, the $5 million data value is so far out to the right that the mean has to adjust up to keep things in
balance
For this reason, when working with data that have outliers – values far outside the primary grouping – it is common to use a
different measure of center, the median.
Median
The median of a set of data is the value in the middle when the data is in order
To find the median, begin by listing the data in order from smallest to largest, or largest to smallest.
If the number of data values, N, is odd, then the median is the middle data value. This value can be found by rounding N/2 up to the
next whole number.
If the number of data values is even, there is no one middle value, so we find the mean of the two middle values (values N/2 and
N/2 + 1)
Example 18
Returning to the football touchdown data, we would start by listing the data in order. Luckily, it was already in decreasing order, so
we can work with it without needing to reorder it first.
37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23 22 22 22 21 21 21 20
20 19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15 14 14 14 12 12 9 6
Since there are 31 data values, an odd number, the median will be the middle number, the 16th data value (31/2 = 15.5, round up to
16, leaving 15 values below and 15 above). The 16th data value is 20, so the median number of touchdown passes in the 2000
season was 20 passes. Notice that for this data, the median is fairly close to the mean we calculated earlier, 20.5.
Example 19
Find the median of these quiz scores: 5 10 8 6 4 8 2 5 7 7
We start by listing the data in order: 2 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 10
Since there are 10 data values, an even number, there is no one middle number. So we find the mean of the two middle numbers, 6
and 7, and get (6+7)/2 = 6.5.
The median quiz score was 6.5.
Try it Now 5
The price of a jar of peanut butter at 5 stores were: $3.29, $3.59, $3.79, $3.75, and $3.99. Find the median price.
Example 20
Let us return now to our original household income data
15 6
20 8
25 11
30 17
35 19
40 20
45 12
50 7
Here we have 100 data values. If we didn’t already know that, we could find it by adding the frequencies. Since 100 is an even
number, we need to find the mean of the middle two data values – the 50th and 51st data values. To find these, we start counting up
from the bottom:
There are 6 data values of $15, so Values 1 to 6 are $15 thousand
The next 8 data values are $20, so Values 7 to (6+8)=14 are $20 thousand
From this we can tell that values 50 and 51 will be $35 thousand, and the mean of these two values is $35 thousand. The median
income in this neighborhood is $35 thousand.
Example 21
If we add in the new neighbor with a $5 million household income, then there will be 101 data values, and the 51st value will be
the median. As we discovered in the last example, the 51st value is $35 thousand. Notice that the new neighbor did not affect the
median in this case. The median is not swayed as much by outliers as the mean is.
In addition to the mean and the median, there is one other common measurement of the “typical” value of a data set: the mode.
Mode
The mode is the element of the data set that occurs most frequently.
The mode is fairly useless with data like weights or heights where there are a large number of possible values. The mode is most
commonly used for categorical data, for which median and mean cannot be computed.
Example 22
In our vehicle color survey, we collected the data
For this data, Green is the mode, since it is the data value that occurred the most frequently.
It is possible for a data set to have more than one mode if several categories have the same frequency, or no modes if each every
category occurs only once.
Try it Now 6
Reviewers were asked to rate a product on a scale of 1 to 5. Find
a. The mean rating
b. The median rating
c. The mode rating
Rating Frequency
1 4
2 8
3 7
4 3
5 1

9.3: Measures of Central Tendency is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Consider these three sets of quiz scores:
Section A: 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Section B: 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10
Section C: 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6
All three of these sets of data have a mean of 5 and median of 5, yet the sets of scores are clearly quite different. In section A,
everyone had the same score; in section B half the class got no points and the other half got a perfect score, assuming this was a 10-
point quiz. Section C was not as consistent as section A, but not as widely varied as section B.
In addition to the mean and median, which are measures of the “typical” or “middle” value, we also need a measure of how “spread
out” or varied each data set is.
There are several ways to measure this “spread” of the data. The first is the simplest and is called the range.
Range
The range is the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value of the data set.
Example 23
Using the quiz scores from above,
For section A, the range is 0 since both maximum and minimum are 5 and 5 – 5 = 0
For section B, the range is 10 since 10 – 0 = 10
For section C, the range is 2 since 6 – 4 = 2
In the last example, the range seems to be revealing how spread out the data is. However, suppose we add a fourth section, Section
D, with scores 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10.
This section also has a mean and median of 5. The range is 10, yet this data set is quite different than Section B. To better
illuminate the differences, we’ll have to turn to more sophisticated measures of variation.
Standard deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of variation based on measuring how far each data value deviates, or is different, from the
mean. A few important characteristics:
Standard deviation is always positive. Standard deviation will be zero if all the data values are equal, and will get larger as the
data spreads out.
Standard deviation has the same units as the original data.
Standard deviation, like the mean, can be highly influenced by outliers.
Using the data from section D, we could compute for each data value the difference between the data value and the mean:
data value deviation: data value – mean
0 0-5 = -5
5 5-5 = 0
5 5-5 = 0
5 5-5 = 0
5 5-5 = 0
5 5-5 = 0
5 5-5 = 0
5 5-5 = 0
5 5-5 = 0
10 10-5 = 5
We would like to get an idea of the “average” deviation from the mean, but if we find the average of the values in the second
column the negative and positive values cancel each other out (this will always happen), so to prevent this we square every value in
the second column:
data value deviation: data value – mean deviation squared
0 0-5 = -5 (-5)2 = 25
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
10 10-5 = 5 (5)2 = 25
We then add the squared deviations up to get 25 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 25 = 50. Ordinarily we would then divide by the
number of scores, n, (in this case, 10) to find the mean of the deviations. But we only do this if the data set represents a population;
if the data set represents a sample (as it almost always does), we instead divide by n – 1 (in this case, 10 – 1 = 9).[1]
So in our example, we would have 50/10 = 5 if section D represents a population and 50/9 = about 5.56 if section D represents a
sample. These values (5 and 5.56) are called, respectively, the population variance and the sample variance for section D.
Variance can be a useful statistical concept, but note that the units of variance in this instance would be points-squared since we
squared all of the deviations. What are points-squared? Good question. We would rather deal with the units we started with
(points in this case), so to convert back we take the square root and get:
\begin{align}&\text{populationstandarddeviation}=\sqrt{\frac{50}{10}}=\sqrt{5}\approx2.2\\&\text{or}\\&\text{samplestandarddeviation}=\sqrt{\frac{50}{9}}\approx2.4\\\end{align}
If we are unsure whether the data set is a sample or a population, we will usually assume it is a sample, and we will round answers
to one more decimal place than the original data, as we have done above.
To compute standard deviation:
1. Find the deviation of each data from the mean. In other words, subtract the mean from the data value.
2. Square each deviation.
3. Add the squared deviations.
4. Divide by n, the number of data values, if the data represents a whole population; divide by n – 1 if the data is from a sample.
5. Compute the square root of the result.
Example 24
Computing the standard deviation for Section B above, we first calculate that the mean is 5. Using a table can help keep track of
your computations for the standard deviation:
0 0-5 = -5 (-5)2 = 25
0 0-5 = -5 (-5)2 = 25
0 0-5 = -5 (-5)2 = 25
0 0-5 = -5 (-5)2 = 25
0 0-5 = -5 (-5)2 = 25
10 10-5 = 5 (5)2 = 25
10 10-5 = 5 (5)2 = 25
10 10-5 = 5 (5)2 = 25
10 10-5 = 5 (5)2 = 25
10 10-5 = 5 (5)2 = 25
Assuming this data represents a population, we will add the squared deviations, divide by 10, the number of data values, and
compute the square root:
\sqrt{\frac{25+25+25+25+25+25+25+25+25+25}{10}}=\sqrt{\frac{250}{10}}=5
Notice that the standard deviation of this data set is much larger than that of section D since the data in this set is more spread out.
For comparison, the standard deviations of all four sections are:
Section A: 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Standard deviation: 0
Section B: 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 Standard deviation: 5
Section C: 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 Standard deviation: 0.8
Section D: 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 Standard deviation: 2.2
Try it Now 7
The price of a jar of peanut butter at 5 stores were: $3.29, $3.59, $3.79, $3.75, and $3.99. Find the standard deviation of the prices.
Where standard deviation is a measure of variation based on the mean, quartiles are based on the median.
Quartiles
Quartiles are values that divide the data in quarters.
The first quartile (Q1) is the value so that 25% of the data values are below it; the third quartile (Q3) is the value so that 75% of the
data values are below it. You may have guessed that the second quartile is the same as the median, since the median is the value so
that 50% of the data values are below it.
This divides the data into quarters; 25% of the data is between the minimum and Q1, 25% is between Q1 and the median, 25% is
between the median and Q3, and 25% is between Q3 and the maximum value
While quartiles are not a 1-number summary of variation like standard deviation, the quartiles are used with the median, minimum,
and maximum values to form a 5 number summary of the data.
Five number summary

The five number summary takes this form:
Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
To find the first quartile, we need to find the data value so that 25% of the data is below it. If n is the
number of data values, we compute a locator by finding 25% of n . If this locator is a decimal value, we
round up, and find the data value in that position. If the locator is a whole number, we find the mean of
the data value in that position and the next data value. This is identical to the process we used to find the
median, except we use 25% of the data values rather than half the data values as the locator.
To find the first quartile, Q1
Begin by ordering the data from smallest to largest
Compute the locator: L = 0.25n
If L is a decimal value:
Round up to L+
Use the data value in the L+th position
If L is a whole number:
Find the mean of the data values in the Lth and L+1th positions.
To find the third quartile, Q3

Use the same procedure as for Q1, but with locator: L = 0.75n
Examples should help make this clearer.
Example 25
Suppose we have measured 9 females and their heights (in inches), sorted from smallest to largest are:
59 60 62 64 66 67 69 70 72
To find the first quartile we first compute the locator: 25% of 9 is L = 0.25(9) = 2.25. Since this value is not a whole number, we
round up to 3. The first quartile will be the third data value: 62 inches.
To find the third quartile, we again compute the locator: 75% of 9 is 0.75(9) = 6.75. Since this value is not a whole number, we
round up to 7. The third quartile will be the seventh data value: 69 inches.
Example 26
Suppose we had measured 8 females and their heights (in inches), sorted from smallest to largest are:
59 60 62 64 66 67 69 70
To find the first quartile we first compute the locator: 25% of 8 is L = 0.25(8) = 2. Since this value is a whole number, we will find
the mean of the 2nd and 3rd data values: (60+62)/2 = 61, so the first quartile is 61 inches.
The third quartile is computed similarly, using 75% instead of 25%. L = 0.75(8) = 6. This is a whole number, so we will find the
mean of the 6th and 7th data values: (67+69)/2 = 68, so Q3 is 68.
Note that the median could be computed the same way, using 50%.
The 5-number summary combines the first and third quartile with the minimum, median, and maximum values.
Example 27
For the 9 female sample, the median is 66, the minimum is 59, and the maximum is 72. The 5 number summary is: 59, 62, 66, 69,
72.
For the 8 female sample, the median is 65, the minimum is 59, and the maximum is 70, so the 5 number summary would be: 59,
61, 65, 68, 70.
Example 28
Returning to our quiz score data. In each case, the first quartile locator is 0.25(10) = 2.5, so the first quartile will be the 3rd data
value, and the third quartile will be the 8th data value. Creating the five-number summaries:
Section and data 5-number summary
Section A: 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5, 5, 5, 5, 5
Section B: 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 0, 0, 5, 10, 10
Section C: 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 4, 4, 5, 6, 6
Section D: 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 0, 5, 5, 5, 10
Of course, with a relatively small data set, finding a five-number summary is a bit silly, since the summary contains almost as many
values as the original data.
Try it Now 8
The total cost of textbooks for the term was collected from 36 students. Find the 5 number summary of this data.
$140 $160 $160 $165 $180 $220 $235 $240 $250 $260 $280 $285
$285 $285 $290 $300 $300 $305 $310 $310 $315 $315 $320 $320
$330 $340 $345 $350 $355 $360 $360 $380 $395 $420 $460 $460
Example 29
Returning to the household income data from earlier, create the five-number summary.
15 6
20 8
25 11
30 17
35 19
40 20
45 12
50 7
By adding the frequencies, we can see there are 100 data values represented in the table. In Example 20, we found the median was
$35 thousand. We can see in the table that the minimum income is $15 thousand, and the maximum is $50 thousand.
To find Q1, we calculate the locator: L = 0.25(100) = 25. This is a whole number, so Q1 will be the mean of the 25th and 26th data
values.
Counting up in the data as we did before,
There are 6 data values of $15, so Values 1 to 6 are $15 thousand
The 25th data value is $25 thousand, and the 26th data value is $30 thousand, so Q1 will be the mean of these: (25 + 30)/2 = $27.5
thousand.
values. Continuing our counting from earlier,
Both the 75th and 76th data values lie in this group, so Q3 will be $40 thousand.
Putting these values together into a five-number summary, we get: 15, 27.5, 35, 40, 50
Note that the 5 number summary divides the data into four intervals, each of which will contain about 25% of the data. In the
previous example, that means about 25% of households have income between $40 thousand and $50 thousand.
For visualizing data, there is a graphical representation of a 5-number summary called a box plot, or box and whisker graph.
Box plot
A box plot is a graphical representation of a five-number summary.
To create a box plot, a number line is first drawn. A box is drawn from the first quartile to the third quartile, and a line is drawn
through the box at the median. “Whiskers” are extended out to the minimum and maximum values.
Example 30
The box plot below is based on the 9 female height data with 5 number summary:
59, 62, 66, 69, 72.
Example 31
The box plot below is based on the household income data with 5 number summary:
15, 27.5, 35, 40, 50
Try it Now 9
Create a boxplot based on the textbook price data from the last Try it Now.
Box plots are particularly useful for comparing data from two populations.
Example 32
The box plot of service times for two fast-food restaurants is shown below.
While store 2 had a slightly shorter median service time (2.1 minutes vs. 2.3 minutes), store 2 is less consistent, with a wider spread
of the data.
At store 1, 75% of customers were served within 2.9 minutes, while at store 2, 75% of customers were served within 5.7 minutes.
Which store should you go to in a hurry? That depends upon your opinions about luck – 25% of customers at store 2 had to wait
between 5.7 and 9.6 minutes.
Example 33
The boxplot below is based on the birth weights of infants with severe idiopathic respiratory distress syndrome (SIRDS)[2]. The
boxplot is separated to show the birth weights of infants who survived and those that did not.
Comparing the two groups, the boxplot reveals that the birth weights of the infants that died appear to be, overall, smaller than the
weights of infants that survived. In fact, we can see that the median birth weight of infants that survived is the same as the third
quartile of the infants that died.
Similarly, we can see that the first quartile of the survivors is larger than the median weight of those that died, meaning that over
75% of the survivors had a birth weight larger than the median birth weight of those that died.
Looking at the maximum value for those that died and the third quartile of the survivors, we can see that over 25% of the survivors
had birth weights higher than the heaviest infant that died.
The box plot gives us a quick, albeit informal, way to determine that birth weight is quite likely linked to survival of infants with
SIRDS.
Try it Now Answers
1.
2. While the pie chart accurately depicts the relative size of the people agreeing with each candidate, the chart is confusing, since
usually percents on a pie chart represent the percentage of the pie the slice represents.
3. Using a class intervals of size 55, we can group our data into six intervals:
Cost interval Frequency
$140-194 5
$195-249 3
$250-304 9
$305-359 12
$360-414 4
$415-469 3
We can use the frequency distribution to generate the histogram

4. Adding the prices and dividing by 5 we get the mean price: $3.682
5. First we put the data in order: $3.29, $3.59, $3.75, $3.79, $3.99. Since there are an odd number of data, the median will be the
middle value, $3.75.
6. There are 23 ratings.
a. The mean is \frac{1\cdot4+2\cdot8+3\cdot7+4\cdot3+5\cdot1}{23} ≈ 2.5
b. There are 23 data values, so the median will be the 12th data value. Ratings of 1 are the first 4 values, while a rating of 2 are
the next 8 values, so the 12th value will be a rating of 2. The median is 2.
c. The mode is the most frequent rating. The mode rating is 2.
7. Earlier we found the mean of the data was $3.682.
3.29 3.29 – 3.682 = -0.391 0.153664
3.59 3.59 – 3.682 = -0.092 0.008464
3.79 3.79 – 3.682 = 0.108 0.011664
3.75 3.75 – 3.682 = 0.068 0.004624
3.99 3.99 – 3.682 = 0.308 0.094864
This data is from a sample, so we will add the squared deviations, divide by 4, the number of data values minus 1, and compute
the square root: \sqrt{\frac{0.153664+0.008464+0.011664+0.004624+0.094864}{4}}\approx$0.261
8. The data is already in order, so we don’t need to sort it first.The minimum value is $140 and the maximum is $460.There are 36
data values so n = 36. n/2 = 18, which is a whole number, so the median is the mean of the 18th and 19th data values, $305 and
$310. The median is $307.50.
To find the first quartile, we calculate the locator, L = 0.25(36) = 9. Since this is a whole number, we know Q1 is the mean of
the 9th and 10th data values, $250 and $260. Q1 = $255.
To find the third quartile, we calculate the locator, L = 0.75(36) = 27. Since this is a whole number, we know Q3 is the mean of
the 27th and 28th data values, $345 and $350. Q3 = $347.50.
The 5 number summary of this data is: $140, $255, $307.50, $347.50, $460
9. Boxplot of textbook costs
1. The reason we do this is highly technical, but we can see how it might be useful by considering the case of a small sample from
a population that contains an outlier, which would increase the average deviation: the outlier very likely won't be included in the
sample, so the mean deviation of the sample would underestimate the mean deviation of the population; thus we divide by a
slightly smaller number to get a slightly bigger average deviation. ↵
2. van Vliet, P.K. and Gupta, J.M. (1973) Sodium bicarbonate in idiopathic respiratory distress syndrome. Arch. Disease in
Childhood, 48, 249–255. As quoted on http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=398296&section=1.1.3↵
9.4: Measures of Variation is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
9.5: Exercises
Skills
1. The table below shows scores on a Math test.
a. Complete the frequency table for the Math test scores
b. Construct a histogram of the data
c. Construct a pie chart of the data
80 50 50 90 70 70 100 60 70 80 70 50
90 100 80 70 30 80 80 70 100 60 60 50
2. A group of adults where asked how many cars they had in their household
a. Complete the frequency table for the car number data
b. Construct a histogram of the data
c. Construct a pie chart of the data
1 4 2 2 1 2 3 3 1 4 2 2
1 2 1 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2
3. A group of adults were asked how many children they have in their families. The bar graph to the right shows the number of
adults who indicated each number of children.
a. How many adults where questioned?
b. What percentage of the adults questioned had 0 children?
4. Jasmine was interested in how many days it would take an order from Netflix to arrive at her door. The graph below shows the
data she collected.
a. How many movies did she order?
b. What percentage of the movies arrived in one day?
5. The bar graph below shows the percentage of students who received each letter grade on their last English paper. The class
contains 20 students. What number of students earned an A on their paper?
6. Kori categorized her spending for this month into four categories: Rent, Food, Fun, and Other. The percents she spent in each
category are pictured here. If she spent a total of $2600 this month, how much did she spend on rent?
7. A group of diners were asked how much they would pay for a meal. Their responses were: $7.50, $8.25, $9.00, $8.00, $7.25,
$7.50, $8.00, $7.00.
1. Find the mean
2. Find the median
3. Write the 5-number summary for this data
8. You recorded the time in seconds it took for 8 participants to solve a puzzle. The times were: 15.2, 18.8, 19.3, 19.7, 20.2, 21.8,
22.1, 29.4.
1. Find the mean
2. Find the median
9. Refer back to the histogram from question #3.
1. Compute the mean number of children for the group surveyed
2. Compute the median number of children for the group surveyed
4. Create box plot
10. Refer back to the histogram from question #4.
1. Computer the mean number of shipping days
2. Compute the median number of shipping days
4. Create box plot
Concepts
11. The box plot below shows salaries for Actuaries and CPAs. Kendra makes the median salary for an Actuary. Kelsey makes the
first quartile salary for a CPA. Who makes more money? How much more?
12. Referring to the boxplot above, what percentage of actuaries makes more than the median salary of a CPA?
Exploration
13. Studies are often done by pharmaceutical companies to determine the effectiveness of a treatment program. Suppose that a new
AIDS antibody drug is currently under study. It is given to patients once the AIDS symptoms have revealed themselves. Of
interest is the average length of time in months patients live once starting the treatment. Two researchers each follow a different
set of 40 AIDS patients from the start of treatment until their deaths. The following data (in months) are collected.Researcher 1:
3; 4; 11; 15; 16; 17; 22; 44; 37; 16; 14; 24; 25; 15; 26; 27; 33; 29; 35; 44; 13; 21; 22; 10; 12; 8; 40; 32; 26; 27; 31; 34; 29; 17; 8;
24; 18; 47; 33; 34Researcher 2: 3; 14; 11; 5; 16; 17; 28; 41; 31; 18; 14; 14; 26; 25; 21; 22; 31; 2; 35; 44; 23; 21; 21; 16; 12; 18;
41; 22; 16; 25; 33; 34; 29; 13; 18; 24; 23; 42; 33; 29
a. Create comparative histograms of the data
b. Create comparative boxplots of the data
14. A graph appears below showing the number of adults and children who prefer each type of soda. There were 130 adults and
kids surveyed. Discuss some ways in which the graph below could be improved
15. Make up three data sets with 5 numbers each that have:
a. the same mean but different standard deviations.
b. the same mean but different medians.
c. the same median but different means.
16. A sample of 30 distance scores measured in yards has a mean of 7, a variance of 16, and a standard deviation of 4.
a. You want to convert all your distances from yards to feet, so you multiply each score in the sample by 3. What are the new
mean, median, variance, and standard deviation?
b. You then decide that you only want to look at the distance past a certain point. Thus, after multiplying the original scores by
3, you decide to subtract 4 feet from each of the scores. Now what are the new mean, median, variance, and standard
deviation?
17. In your class, design a poll on a topic of interest to you and give it to the class.
a. Summarize the data, computing the mean and five-number summary.
b. Create a graphical representation of the data.
c. Write several sentences about the topic, using your computed statistics as evidence in your writing.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
10: Sets
10.1: Basics
10.3: Venn Diagrams
10.4: Cardinality
10.5: Exercises
10: Sets is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
10.1: Basics
An art collector might own a collection of paintings, while a music lover might keep a collection of CDs. Any collection of items
can form a set.
Set
A set is a collection of distinct objects, called elements of the set
A set can be defined by describing the contents, or by listing the elements of the set, enclosed in curly brackets.
Example 1
Some examples of sets defined by describing the contents:
a) The set of all even numbers
b) The set of all books written about travel to Chile
Some examples of sets defined by listing the elements of the set:
a) {1, 3, 9, 12}
b) {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, purple}
A set simply specifies the contents; order is not important. The set represented by {1, 2, 3} is equivalent to the set {3, 1, 2}.
Notation
Commonly, we will use a variable to represent a set, to make it easier to refer to that set later.
The symbol ∊ means “is an element of”.
A set that contains no elements, { }, is called the empty set and is notated ∅
Example 2
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
To notate that 2 is element of the set, we’d write 2 ∊ A
Sometimes a collection might not contain all the elements of a set. For example, Chris owns three Madonna albums. While Chris’s
collection is a set, we can also say it is a subset of the larger set of all Madonna albums.
Subset
A subset of a set A is another set that contains only elements from the set A, but may not contain all the elements of A.
If B is a subset of A, we write B ⊆ A
A proper subset is a subset that is not identical to the original set – it contains fewer elements.
If B is a proper subset of A, we write B ⊂ A
Example 3
Consider these three sets
A = the set of all even numbers B = {2, 4, 6} C = {2, 3, 4, 6}
Here B ⊂ A since every element of B is also an even number, so is an element of A.
More formally, we could say B ⊂ A since if x ∊ B, then x ∊ A.
It is also true that B ⊂ C.
C is not a subset of A, since C contains an element, 3, that is not contained in A
Example 4
Suppose a set contains the plays Much Ado About Nothing, MacBeth, and A Midsummer’s Night Dream. What is a larger set this
might be a subset of?
There are many possible answers here. One would be the set of plays by Shakespeare. This is also a subset of the set of all plays
ever written. It is also a subset of all British literature.
Try it Now 1
The set A = {1, 3, 5}. What is a larger set this might be a subset of?
10.1: Basics is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Commonly sets interact. For example, you and a new roommate decide to have a house party, and you both invite your circle of
friends. At this party, two sets are being combined, though it might turn out that there are some friends that were in both sets.
Union, Intersection, and Complement

The union of two sets contains all the elements contained in either set (or both sets).
The union is notated A ⋃ B.
More formally, x ∊ A ⋃ B if x ∊ A or x ∊ B (or both)
The intersection of two sets contains only the elements that are in both sets.
The intersection is notated A ⋂ B.
More formally, x ∊ A ⋂ B if x ∊ A and x ∊ B
The complement of a set A contains everything that is not in the set A.
The complement is notated A’, or Ac, or sometimes ~A.
Example 5
Consider the sets: A = {red, green, blue} B = {red, yellow, orange}
C = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple}
a) Find A ⋃ B
The union contains all the elements in either set: A ⋃ B = {red, green, blue, yellow, orange}
Notice we only list red once.
b) Find A ⋂ B
The intersection contains all the elements in both sets: A ⋂ B = {red}
c) Find Ac ⋂ C
Here we’re looking for all the elements that are not in set A and are also in C.
Ac ⋂ C = {orange, yellow, purple}
Try it Now 2
Using the sets from the previous example, find A ⋃ C and Bc ⋂ A
Notice that in the example above, it would be hard to just ask for Ac, since everything from the color fuchsia to puppies and peanut
butter are included in the complement of the set. For this reason, complements are usually only used with intersections, or when we
have a universal set in place.
Universal Set
A universal set is a set that contains all the elements we are interested in. This would have to be defined by the context.
A complement is relative to the universal set, so Ac contains all the elements in the universal set that are not in A.
Example 6
a) If we were discussing searching for books, the universal set might be all the books in the library.
b) If we were grouping your Facebook friends, the universal set would be all your Facebook friends.
c) If you were working with sets of numbers, the universal set might be all whole numbers, all integers, or all real numbers
Example 7
Suppose the universal set is U = all whole numbers from 1 to 9. If A = {1, 2, 4}, then
Ac = {3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
As we saw earlier with the expression Ac ⋂ C, set operations can be grouped together. Grouping symbols can be used like they are
with arithmetic – to force an order of operations.
Example 8
Suppose H = {cat, dog, rabbit, mouse}, F = {dog, cow, duck, pig, rabbit}
W = {duck, rabbit, deer, frog, mouse}
a) Find (H ⋂ F) ⋃ W
We start with the intersection: H ⋂ F = {dog, rabbit}
Now we union that result with W: (H ⋂ F) ⋃ W = {dog, duck, rabbit, deer, frog, mouse}
b) Find H ⋂ (F ⋃ W)
We start with the union: F ⋃ W = {dog, cow, rabbit, duck, pig, deer, frog, mouse}
Now we intersect that result with H: H ⋂ (F ⋃ W) = {dog, rabbit, mouse}
c) Find (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W
We start with the intersection: H ⋂ F = {dog, rabbit}
Now we want to find the elements of W that are not in H ⋂ F
(H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W = {duck, deer, frog, mouse}
10.2: Union, Intersection, and Complement is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
10.3: Venn Diagrams
To visualize the interaction of sets, John Venn in 1880 thought to use overlapping circles, building on a similar idea used by
Leonhard Euler in the 18th century. These illustrations now called Venn Diagrams.
Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram represents each set by a circle, usually drawn inside of a containing box representing the universal set.
Overlapping areas indicate elements common to both sets.
Basic Venn diagrams can illustrate the interaction of two or three sets.
Example 9
Create Venn diagrams to illustrate A ⋃ B, A ⋂ B, and Ac ⋂ B
A ⋃ B contains all elements in either set.
A ⋂ B contains only those elements in both sets – in the overlap of the circles.
Ac will contain all elements not in the set A. Ac ⋂ B will contain the elements in set B that are not in set A.
Example 10
Use a Venn diagram to illustrate (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W
We’ll start by identifying everything in the set H ⋂ F
Now, (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W will contain everything not in the set identified above that is also in set W.
Example 11
Create an expression to represent the outlined part of the Venn diagram shown.
The elements in the outlined set are in sets H and F, but are not in set W. So we could represent this set as H ⋂ F ⋂ Wc
Try it Now 3
Create an expression to represent the outlined portion of the Venn diagram shown

10.3: Venn Diagrams is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
10.4: Cardinality
Often times we are interested in the number of items in a set or subset. This is called the cardinality of the set.
Cardinality
The number of elements in a set is the cardinality of that set.
The cardinality of the set A is often notated as |A| or n(A)
Example 12
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
What is the cardinality of B? A ⋃ B, A ⋂ B?
The cardinality of B is 4, since there are 4 elements in the set.
The cardinality of A ⋃ B is 7, since A ⋃ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}, which contains 7 elements.
The cardinality of A ⋂ B is 3, since A ⋂ B = {2, 4, 6}, which contains 3 elements.
Example 13
What is the cardinality of P = the set of English names for the months of the year?
The cardinality of this set is 12, since there are 12 months in the year.
Sometimes we may be interested in the cardinality of the union or intersection of sets, but not know the actual elements of each set.
This is common in surveying.
Example 14
A survey asks 200 people “What beverage do you drink in the morning”, and offers choices:
Tea only
Coffee only
Both coffee and tea
Suppose 20 report tea only, 80 report coffee only, 40 report both. How many people drink tea in the morning? How many people
drink neither tea or coffee?
This question can most easily be answered by creating a Venn diagram. We can see that we can find the people who drink tea by
adding those who drink only tea to those who drink both: 60 people.
We can also see that those who drink neither are those not contained in the any of the three other groupings, so we can count those
by subtracting from the cardinality of the universal set, 200.
200 – 20 – 80 – 40 = 60 people who drink neither.
Example 15
A survey asks: Which online services have you used in the last month:
Twitter
Facebook
Have used both
The results show 40% of those surveyed have used Twitter, 70% have used Facebook, and 20% have used both. How many people
have used neither Twitter or Facebook?
Let T be the set of all people who have used Twitter, and F be the set of all people who have used Facebook. Notice that while the
cardinality of F is 70% and the cardinality of T is 40%, the cardinality of F ⋃ T is not simply 70% + 40%, since that would count
those who use both services twice. To find the cardinality of F ⋃ T, we can add the cardinality of F and the cardinality of T, then
subtract those in intersection that we’ve counted twice. In symbols,
n(F ⋃ T) = n(F) + n(T) – n(F ⋂ T)
n(F ⋃ T) = 70% + 40% – 20% = 90%
Now, to find how many people have not used either service, we’re looking for the cardinality of (F ⋃ T)c . Since the universal set
contains 100% of people and the cardinality of F ⋃ T = 90%, the cardinality of (F ⋃ T)c must be the other 10%.
The previous example illustrated two important properties
Cardinality properties
n(A ⋃ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ⋂ B)
n(Ac) = n(U) – n(A)
Notice that the first property can also be written in an equivalent form by solving for the cardinality of the intersection:
n(A ⋂ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ⋃ B)
Example 16
Fifty students were surveyed, and asked if they were taking a social science (SS), humanities (HM) or a natural science (NS) course
the next quarter.
21 were taking a SS course 26 were taking a HM course
19 were taking a NS course 9 were taking SS and HM
7 were taking SS and NS 10 were taking HM and NS
3 were taking all three 7 were taking none
How many students are only taking a SS course?
It might help to look at a Venn diagram.

From the given data, we know that there are
3 students in region e and
7 students in region h.
Since 7 students were taking a SS and NS course, we know that n(d) + n(e) = 7. Since we know there are 3 students in region 3,
there must be
7 – 3 = 4 students in region d.
Similarly, since there are 10 students taking HM and NS, which includes regions e and f, there must be
10 – 3 = 7 students in region f.
Since 9 students were taking SS and HM, there must be 9 – 3 = 6 students in region b.
Now, we know that 21 students were taking a SS course. This includes students from regions a, b, d, and e. Since we know the
number of students in all but region a, we can determine that 21 – 6 – 4 – 3 = 8 students are in region a.
8 students are taking only a SS course.
Try it Now 4
One hundred fifty people were surveyed and asked if they believed in UFOs, ghosts, and Bigfoot.
43 believed in UFOs 44 believed in ghosts
25 believed in Bigfoot 10 believed in UFOs and ghosts
8 believed in ghosts and Bigfoot 5 believed in UFOs and Bigfoot
2 believed in all three
How many people surveyed believed in at least one of these things?
Try it Now Answers

1. There are several answers: The set of all odd numbers less than 10. The set of all odd numbers. The set of all integers. The set of
all real numbers.
2. A ⋃ C = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue purple}
Bc ⋂ A = {green, blue}
3. A ⋃ B ⋂ Cc
4. Starting with the intersection of all three circles, we work our way out. Since 10 people believe in UFOs and Ghosts, and 2
believe in all three, that leaves 8 that believe in only UFOs and Ghosts. We work our way out, filling in all the regions. Once we
have, we can add up all those regions, getting 91 people in the union of all three sets. This leaves 150 – 91 = 59 who believe in
none.

10.4: Cardinality is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
10.5: Exercises
1. List out the elements of the set “The letters of the word Mississippi”
2. List out the elements of the set “Months of the year”
3. Write a verbal description of the set {3, 6, 9}
4. Write a verbal description of the set {a, i, e, o, u}
5. Is {1, 3, 5} a subset of the set of odd integers?
6. Is {A, B, C} a subset of the set of letters of the alphabet?
For problems 7-12, consider the sets below, and indicate if each statement is true or false.
7. A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {1, 3, 5} C = {4, 6} U = {numbers from 0 to 10}
8. 3 ∊ B 8. 5 ∊ C
9. B ⊂ A
10. C ⊂ A
11. C ⊂ B
12. C ⊂ D
Using the sets from above, and treating U as the Universal set, find each of the following:
13. A⋃B
14. A⋃C
15. A⋂C
16. B⋂C
17. Ac
18. Bc
Let D = {b, a, c, k}, E = {t, a, s, k}, F = {b, a, t, h}. Using these sets, find the following:
19. Dc ⋂ E
20. Fc ⋂ D
21. (D ⋂ E) ⋃ F
22. D ⋂ (E ⋃ F)
23. (F ⋂ E)c ⋂ D
24. (D ⋃ E)c ⋂ F
Create a Venn diagram to illustrate each of the following:
25. (F ⋂ E) ⋃ D
26. (D ⋃ E)c ⋂ F
27. (F c ⋂ E c) ⋂ D
28. (D ⋃ E) ⋃ F
Write an expression for the shaded region.
29.
30.
31.
32.
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = {1, 3, 5} C = {4, 6}. Find the cardinality of the given set.
33. n(A)
34. n(B)
35. n(A ⋃ C)
36. n(A ⋂ C)
The Venn diagram here shows the cardinality of each set. Use this in 37-40 to find the cardinality of given set.
37. n(A ⋂ C)
38. n(B ⋃ C)
39. n(A ⋂ B ⋂ Cc)
40. n(A ⋂ Bc ⋂ C)
41. If n(G) = 20, n(H) = 30, n(G ⋂ H) = 5, find n(G ⋃ H)
42. If n(G) = 5, n(H) = 8, n(G ⋂ H) = 4, find n(G ⋃ H)
43. A survey was given asking whether they watch movies at home from Netflix, Redbox, or a video store. Use the results to
determine how many people use Redbox.
52 only use Netflix 62 only use Redbox
24 only use a video store 16 use only a video store and Redbox
48 use only Netflix and Redbox 30 use only a video store and Netflix
10 use all three 25 use none of these
44. A survey asked buyers whether color, size, or brand influenced their choice of cell phone. The results are below. How many
people were influenced by brand?
5 only said color 8 only said size
16 only said brand 20 said only color and size
42 said only color and brand 53 said only size and brand
102 said all three 20 said none of these
45. Use the given information to complete a Venn diagram, then determine: a) how many students have seen exactly one of these
movies, and b) how many had seen only Star Wars.
18 had seen The Matrix (M) 24 had seen Star Wars (SW)
20 had seen Lord of the Rings (LotR) 10 had seen M and SW
14 had seen LotR and SW 12 had seen M and LotR
6 had seen all three
46. A survey asked people what alternative transportation modes they use. Using the data to complete a Venn diagram, then
determine: a) what percent of people only ride the bus, and b) how many people don’t use any alternate transportation.
30% use the bus 20% ride a bicycle
25% walk 5% use the bus and ride a bicycle
10% ride a bicycle and walk 12% use the bus and walk
2% use all three
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
11: Statistics
11.6: Experiments
11.10: Z-Scores
11.13: Exercises
11: Statistics is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Like most people, you probably feel that it is important to “take control of your life.” But what does this mean? Partly it means
being able to properly evaluate the data and claims that bombard you every day. If you cannot distinguish good from faulty
reasoning, then you are vulnerable to manipulation and to decisions that are not in your best interest. Statistics provides tools that
you need in order to react intelligently to information you hear or read. In this sense, Statistics is one of the most important things
that you can study.
To be more specific, here are some claims that we have heard on several occasions. (We are not saying that each one of these
claims is true!)
4 out of 5 dentists recommend Dentyne.
Almost 85% of lung cancers in men and 45% in women are tobacco-related.
Condoms are effective 94% of the time.
Native Americans are significantly more likely to be hit crossing the streets than are people of other ethnicities.
People tend to be more persuasive when they look others directly in the eye and speak loudly and quickly.
Women make 75 cents to every dollar a man makes when they work the same job.
A surprising new study shows that eating egg whites can increase one’s life span.
People predict that it is very unlikely there will ever be another baseball player with a batting average over 400.
There is an 80% chance that in a room full of 30 people that at least two people will share the same birthday.
79.48% of all statistics are made up on the spot.
All of these claims are statistical in character. We suspect that some of them sound familiar; if not, we bet that you have heard other
claims like them. Notice how diverse the examples are; they come from psychology, health, law, sports, business, etc. Indeed, data
and data-interpretation show up in discourse from virtually every facet of contemporary life.
Statistics are often presented in an effort to add credibility to an argument or advice. You can see this by paying attention to
television advertisements. Many of the numbers thrown about in this way do not represent careful statistical analysis. They can be
misleading, and push you into decisions that you might find cause to regret. For these reasons, learning about statistics is a long
step towards taking control of your life. (It is not, of course, the only step needed for this purpose.) These chapters will help you
learn statistical essentials. It will make you into an intelligent consumer of statistical claims.
You can take the first step right away. To be an intelligent consumer of statistics, your first reflex must be to question the statistics
that you encounter. The British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli famously said, “There are three kinds of lies—lies, damned lies,
and statistics.” This quote reminds us why it is so important to understand statistics. So let us invite you to reform your statistical
habits from now on. No longer will you blindly accept numbers or findings. Instead, you will begin to think about the numbers,
their sources, and most importantly, the procedures used to generate them.
We have put the emphasis on defending ourselves against fraudulent claims wrapped up as statistics. Just as important as detecting
the deceptive use of statistics is the appreciation of the proper use of statistics. You must also learn to recognize statistical evidence
that supports a stated conclusion. When a research team is testing a new treatment for a disease, statistics allows them to conclude
based on a relatively small trial that there is good evidence their drug is effective. Statistics allowed prosecutors in the 1950s and
60s to demonstrate racial bias existed in jury panels. Statistics are all around you, sometimes used well, sometimes not. We must
learn how to distinguish the two cases.
11.1: Module Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Before we begin gathering and analyzing data we need to characterize the population we are studying. If we want to study the
amount of money spent on textbooks by a typical first-year college student, our population might be all first-year students at your
college. Or it might be:
All first-year community college students in the state of Washington.
All first-year students at public colleges and universities in the state of Washington.
All first-year students at all colleges and universities in the state of Washington.
All first-year students at all colleges and universities in the entire United States.
And so on.
Population
The population of a study is the group the collected data is intended to describe.
Sometimes the intended population is called the target population, since if we design our study badly, the collected data might not
actually be representative of the intended population.
Why is it important to specify the population? We might get different answers to our question as we vary the population we are
studying. First-year students at the University of Washington might take slightly more diverse courses than those at your college,
and some of these courses may require less popular textbooks that cost more; or, on the other hand, the University Bookstore might
have a larger pool of used textbooks, reducing the cost of these books to the students. Whichever the case (and it is likely that
some combination of these and other factors are in play), the data we gather from your college will probably not be the same as that
from the University of Washington. Particularly when conveying our results to others, we want to be clear about the population we
are describing with our data.
Example 1
A newspaper website contains a poll asking people their opinion on a recent news article.
What is the population?
While the target (intended) population may have been all people, the real population of the survey is readers of the website.
If we were able to gather data on every member of our population, say the average (we will define “average” more carefully in a
subsequent section) amount of money spent on textbooks by each first-year student at your college during the 2009-2010 academic
year, the resulting number would be called a parameter.
Parameter
A parameter is a value (average, percentage, etc.) calculated using all the data from a population
We seldom see parameters, however, since surveying an entire population is usually very time-consuming and expensive, unless the
population is very small or we already have the data collected.
Census
A survey of an entire population is called a census.
You are probably familiar with two common censuses: the official government Census that attempts to count the population of the
U.S. every ten years, and voting, which asks the opinion of all eligible voters in a district. The first of these demonstrates one
additional problem with a census: the difficulty in finding and getting participation from everyone in a large population, which can
bias, or skew, the results.
There are occasionally times when a census is appropriate, usually when the population is fairly small. For example, if the manager
of Starbucks wanted to know the average number of hours her employees worked last week, she should be able to pull up payroll
records or ask each employee directly.
Since surveying an entire population is often impractical, we usually select a sample to study;
Sample
A sample is a smaller subset of the entire population, ideally one that is fairly representative of the whole population.
We will discuss sampling methods in greater detail in a later section. For now, let us assume that samples are chosen in an
appropriate manner. If we survey a sample, say 100 first-year students at your college, and find the average amount of money
spent by these students on textbooks, the resulting number is called a statistic.
Statistic
A statistic is a value (average, percentage, etc.) calculated using the data from a sample.
Example 2
A researcher wanted to know how citizens of Tacoma felt about a voter initiative. To study this, she goes to the Tacoma Mall and
randomly selects 500 shoppers and asks them their opinion. 60% indicate they are supportive of the initiative. What is the sample
and population? Is the 60% value a parameter or a statistic?
The sample is the 500 shoppers questioned. The population is less clear. While the intended population of this survey was Tacoma
citizens, the effective population was mall shoppers. There is no reason to assume that the 500 shoppers questioned would be
representative of all Tacoma citizens.
The 60% value was based on the sample, so it is a statistic.
Try it Now 1
To determine the average length of trout in a lake, researchers catch 20 fish and measure them. What is the sample and population
in this study?
Try it Now 2
A college reports that the average age of their students is 28 years old. Is this a statistic or a parameter?
11.2: Populations and Samples is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Once we have gathered data, we might wish to classify it. Roughly speaking, data can be classified as categorical data or
quantitative data.
Quantitative and categorical data
Categorical (qualitative) data are pieces of information that allow us to classify the objects under investigation into various
categories.
Quantitative data are responses that are numerical in nature and with which we can perform meaningful arithmetic calculations.
Example 3
We might conduct a survey to determine the name of the favorite movie that each person in a math class saw in a movie theater.
When we conduct such a survey, the responses would look like: Finding Nemo, The Hulk, or Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines.
We might count the number of people who give each answer, but the answers themselves do not have any numerical values: we
cannot perform computations with an answer like “Finding Nemo.” This would be categorical data.
Example 4
A survey could ask the number of movies you have seen in a movie theater in the past 12 months (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …)
This would be quantitative data.
Other examples of quantitative data would be the running time of the movie you saw most recently (104 minutes, 137 minutes, 104
minutes, …) or the amount of money you paid for a movie ticket the last time you went to a movie theater ($5.50, $7.75, $9, …).
Sometimes, determining whether or not data is categorical or quantitative can be a bit trickier.
Example 5
Suppose we gather respondents’ ZIP codes in a survey to track their geographical location.
ZIP codes are numbers, but we can’t do any meaningful mathematical calculations with them (it doesn’t make sense to say that
98036 is “twice” 49018 — that’s like saying that Lynnwood, WA is “twice” Battle Creek, MI, which doesn’t make sense at all), so
ZIP codes are really categorical data.
Example 6
A survey about the movie you most recently attended includes the question “How would you rate the movie you just saw?” with
these possible answers:
1 – it was awful
2 – it was just OK
3 – I liked it
4 – it was great
5 – best movie ever!
Again, there are numbers associated with the responses, but we can’t really do any calculations with them: a movie that rates a 4 is
not necessarily twice as good as a movie that rates a 2, whatever that means; if two people see the movie and one of them thinks it
stinks and the other thinks it’s the best ever it doesn’t necessarily make sense to say that “on average they liked it.”
As we study movie-going habits and preferences, we shouldn’t forget to specify the population under consideration. If we survey
3-7 year-olds the runaway favorite might be Finding Nemo. 13-17 year-olds might prefer Terminator 3. And 33-37 year-olds
might prefer…well, Finding Nemo.
Try it Now 3
Classify each measurement as categorical or quantitative
a. Eye color of a group of people
b. Daily high temperature of a city over several weeks
c. Annual income
11.3: Categorizing Data is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
As we mentioned in a previous section, the first thing we should do before conducting a survey is to identify the population that we
want to study. Suppose we are hired by a politician to determine the amount of support he has among the electorate should he
decide to run for another term. What population should we study? Every person in the district? Not every person is eligible to
vote, and regardless of how strongly someone likes or dislikes the candidate, they don’t have much to do with him being re-elected
if they are not able to vote.
What about eligible voters in the district? That might be better, but if someone is eligible to vote but does not register by the
deadline, they won’t have any say in the election either. What about registered voters? Many people are registered but choose not
to vote. What about “likely voters?”
This is the criteria used in much political polling, but it is sometimes difficult to define a “likely voter.” Is it someone who voted in
the last election? In the last general election? In the last presidential election? Should we consider someone who just turned 18 a
“likely voter?” They weren’t eligible to vote in the past, so how do we judge the likelihood that they will vote in the next election?
In November 1998, former professional wrestler Jesse “The Body” Ventura was elected governor of Minnesota. Up until right
before the election, most polls showed he had little chance of winning. There were several contributing factors to the polls not
reflecting the actual intent of the electorate:
Ventura was running on a third-party ticket and most polling methods are better suited to a two-candidate race.
Many respondents to polls may have been embarrassed to tell pollsters that they were planning to vote for a professional
wrestler.
The mere fact that the polls showed Ventura had little chance of winning might have prompted some people to vote for him in
protest to send a message to the major-party candidates.
But one of the major contributing factors was that Ventura recruited a substantial amount of support from young people,
particularly college students, who had never voted before and who registered specifically to vote in the gubernatorial election. The
polls did not deem these young people likely voters (since in most cases young people have a lower rate of voter registration and a
turnout rate for elections) and so the polling samples were subject to sampling bias: they omitted a portion of the electorate that
was weighted in favor of the winning candidate.
Sampling bias
A sampling method is biased if every member of the population doesn’t have equal likelihood of being in the sample.
So even identifying the population can be a difficult job, but once we have identified the population, how do we choose an
appropriate sample? Remember, although we would prefer to survey all members of the population, this is usually impractical
unless the population is very small, so we choose a sample. There are many ways to sample a population, but there is one goal we
need to keep in mind: we would like the sample to be representative of the population.
Returning to our hypothetical job as a political pollster, we would not anticipate very accurate results if we drew all of our samples
from among the customers at a Starbucks, nor would we expect that a sample drawn entirely from the membership list of the local
Elks club would provide a useful picture of district-wide support for our candidate.
One way to ensure that the sample has a reasonable chance of mirroring the population is to employ randomness. The most basic
random method is simple random sampling.
Simple random sample
A random sample is one in which each member of the population has an equal probability of being chosen. A simple random
sample is one in which every member of the population and any group of members has an equal probability of being chosen.
Example 7
If we could somehow identify all likely voters in the state, put each of their names on a piece of paper, toss the slips into a (very
large) hat and draw 1000 slips out of the hat, we would have a simple random sample.
In practice, computers are better suited for this sort of endeavor than millions of slips of paper and extremely large headgear.
It is always possible, however, that even a random sample might end up not being totally representative of the population. If we
repeatedly take samples of 1000 people from among the population of likely voters in the state of Washington, some of these
samples might tend to have a slightly higher percentage of Democrats (or Republicans) than does the general population; some
samples might include more older people and some samples might include more younger people; etc. In most cases, this sampling
variability is not significant.
Sampling variability
The natural variation of samples is called sampling variability.
This is unavoidable and expected in random sampling, and in most cases is not an issue.
To help account for variability, pollsters might instead use a stratified sample.
Stratified sampling
In stratified sampling, a population is divided into a number of subgroups (or strata). Random samples are then taken from each
subgroup with sample sizes proportional to the size of the subgroup in the population.
Example 8
Suppose in a particular state that previous data indicated that the electorate was comprised of 39% Democrats, 37% Republicans
and 24% independents. In a sample of 1000 people, they would then expect to get about 390 Democrats, 370 Republicans and 240
independents. To accomplish this, they could randomly select 390 people from among those voters known to be Democrats, 370
from those known to be Republicans, and 240 from those with no party affiliation.
Stratified sampling can also be used to select a sample with people in desired age groups, a specified mix ratio of males and
females, etc. A variation on this technique is called quota sampling.
Quota sampling
Quota sampling is a variation on stratified sampling, wherein samples are collected in each subgroup until the desired quota is
met.
Example 9
Suppose the pollsters call people at random, but once they have met their quota of 390 Democrats, they only gather people who do
not identify themselves as a Democrat.
You may have had the experience of being called by a telephone pollster who started by asking you your age, income, etc. and then
thanked you for your time and hung up before asking any “real” questions. Most likely, they already had contacted enough people
in your demographic group and were looking for people who were older or younger, richer or poorer, etc. Quota sampling is
usually a bit easier than stratified sampling, but also does not ensure the same level of randomness.
Another sampling method is cluster sampling, in which the population is divided into groups, and one or more groups are
randomly selected to be in the sample.
Cluster sampling
In cluster sampling, the population is divided into subgroups (clusters), and a set of subgroups are selected to be in the sample
Example 10
If the college wanted to survey students, since students are already divided into classes, they could randomly select 10 classes and
give the survey to all the students in those classes. This would be cluster sampling.
Other sampling methods include systematic sampling.
Systematic sampling
In systematic sampling, every nth member of the population is selected to be in the sample.
Example 11
To select a sample using systematic sampling, a pollster calls every 100th name in the phone book.
Systematic sampling is not as random as a simple random sample (if your name is Albert Aardvark and your sister Alexis Aardvark
is right after you in the phone book, there is no way you could both end up in the sample) but it can yield acceptable samples.
Perhaps the worst types of sampling methods are convenience samples and voluntary response samples.
Convenience sampling and voluntary response sampling
Convenience sampling is samples chosen by selecting whoever is convenient.
Voluntary response sampling is allowing the sample to volunteer.
Example 12
A pollster stands on a street corner and interviews the first 100 people who agree to speak to him. This is a convenience sample.
Example 13
A website has a survey asking readers to give their opinion on a tax proposal. This is a self-selected sample, or voluntary response
sample, in which respondents volunteer to participate.
Usually voluntary response samples are skewed towards people who have a particularly strong opinion about the subject of the
survey or who just have way too much time on their hands and enjoy taking surveys.
Try it Now 4
In each case, indicate what sampling method was used
a. Every 4th person in the class was selected
b. A sample was selected to contain 25 men and 35 women
c. Viewers of a new show are asked to vote on the show’s website
d. A website randomly selects 50 of their customers to send a satisfaction survey to
e. To survey voters in a town, a polling company randomly selects 10 city blocks, and interviews everyone who lives on those
blocks.
11.4: Sampling Methods is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
There are number of ways that a study can be ruined before you even start collecting data. The first we have already explored –
sampling or selection bias, which is when the sample is not representative of the population. One example of this is voluntary
response bias, which is bias introduced by only collecting data from those who volunteer to participate. This is not the only
potential source of bias.
Sources of bias
Sampling bias – when the sample is not representative of the population
Voluntary response bias – the sampling bias that often occurs when the sample is volunteers
Self-interest study – bias that can occur when the researchers have an interest in the outcome
Response bias – when the responder gives inaccurate responses for any reason
Perceived lack of anonymity – when the responder fears giving an honest answer might negatively affect them
Loaded questions – when the question wording influences the responses
Non-response bias – when people refusing to participate in the study can influence the validity of the outcome
Example 14
Consider a recent study which found that chewing gum may raise math grades in teenagers[1]. This study was conducted by the
Wrigley Science Institute, a branch of the Wrigley chewing gum company. This is an example of a self-interest study; one in
which the researches have a vested interest in the outcome of the study. While this does not necessarily ensure that the study was
biased, it certainly suggests that we should subject the study to extra scrutiny.
Example 15
A survey asks people “when was the last time you visited your doctor?” This might suffer from response bias, since many people
might not remember exactly when they last saw a doctor and give inaccurate responses.
Sources of response bias may be innocent, such as bad memory, or as intentional as pressuring by the pollster. Consider, for
example, how many voting initiative petitions people sign without even reading them.
Example 16
A survey asks participants a question about their interactions with members of other races. Here, a perceived lack of anonymity
could influence the outcome. The respondent might not want to be perceived as racist even if they are, and give an untruthful
answer.
Example 17
An employer puts out a survey asking their employees if they have a drug abuse problem and need treatment help. Here, answering
truthfully might have consequences; responses might not be accurate if the employees do not feel their responses are anonymous or
fear retribution from their employer.
Example 18
A survey asks “do you support funding research of alternative energy sources to reduce our reliance on high-polluting fossil fuels?”
This is an example of a loaded or leading question – questions whose wording leads the respondent towards an answer.
Loaded questions can occur intentionally by pollsters with an agenda, or accidentally through poor question wording. Also a
concern is question order, where the order of questions changes the results. A psychology researcher provides an example[2]:
“My favorite finding is this: we did a study where we asked students, ‘How satisfied are you with your life? How often do you
have a date?’ The two answers were not statistically related – you would conclude that there is no relationship between dating
frequency and life satisfaction. But when we reversed the order and asked, ‘How often do you have a date? How satisfied are you
with your life?’ the statistical relationship was a strong one. You would now conclude that there is nothing as important in a
student’s life as dating frequency.”
Example 19
A telephone poll asks the question “Do you often have time to relax and read a book?”, and 50% of the people called refused to
answer the survey. It is unlikely that the results will be representative of the entire population. This is an example of non-response
bias, introduced by people refusing to participate in a study or dropping out of an experiment. When people refuse to participate,
we can no longer be so certain that our sample is representative of the population.
Try it Now 5
In each situation, identify a potential source of bias
a. A survey asks how many sexual partners a person has had in the last year
b. A radio station asks readers to phone in their choice in a daily poll.
c. A substitute teacher wants to know how students in the class did on their last test. The teacher asks the 10 students sitting in the
front row to state their latest test score.
d. High school students are asked if they have consumed alcohol in the last two weeks.
e. The Beef Council releases a study stating that consuming red meat poses little cardiovascular risk.
f. A poll asks “Do you support a new transportation tax, or would you prefer to see our public transportation system fall apart?”
1. Reuters. http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20090423/od_uk_nm/oukoe_uk_gum_learning. Retrieved 4/27/09 ↵

2. Swartz, Norbert. http://www.umich.edu/~newsinfo/MT/01/Fal01/mt6f01.html. Retrieved 3/31/2009 ↵
11.5: How to Mess Things Up Before You Start is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
11.6: Experiments
So far, we have primarily discussed observational studies – studies in which conclusions would be drawn from observations of a
sample or the population. In some cases these observations might be unsolicited, such as studying the percentage of cars that turn
right at a red light even when there is a “no turn on red” sign. In other cases the observations are solicited, like in a survey or a poll.
In contrast, it is common to use experiments when exploring how subjects react to an outside influence. In an experiment, some
kind of treatment is applied to the subjects and the results are measured and recorded.
Observational studies and experiments
An observational study is a study based on observations or measurements
An experiment is a study in which the effects of a treatment are measured
Here are some examples of experiments:
Example 20
a. A pharmaceutical company tests a new medicine for treating Alzheimer’s disease by administering the drug to 50 elderly
patients with recent diagnoses. The treatment here is the new drug.
b. A gym tests out a new weight loss program by enlisting 30 volunteers to try out the program. The treatment here is the new
program.
c. You test a new kitchen cleaner by buying a bottle and cleaning your kitchen. The new cleaner is the treatment.
d. A psychology researcher explores the effect of music on temperament by measuring people’s temperament while listening to
different types of music. The music is the treatment.
Try it Now 6
Is each scenario describing an observational study or an experiment?
a. The weights of 30 randomly selected people are measured
b. Subjects are asked to do 20 jumping jacks, and then their heart rates are measured
c. Twenty coffee drinkers and twenty tea drinkers are given a concentration test
When conducting experiments, it is essential to isolate the treatment being tested.
Example 21
Suppose a middle school (junior high) finds that their students are not scoring well on the state’s standardized math test. They
decide to run an experiment to see if an alternate curriculum would improve scores. To run the test, they hire a math specialist to
come in and teach a class using the new curriculum. To their delight, they see an improvement in test scores.
The difficulty with this scenario is that it is not clear whether the curriculum is responsible for the improvement, or whether the
improvement is due to a math specialist teaching the class. This is called confounding – when it is not clear which factor or factors
caused the observed effect. Confounding is the downfall of many experiments, though sometimes it is hidden.
Confounding
Confounding occurs when there are two potential variables that could have caused the outcome and it is not possible to determine
which actually caused the result.
Example 22
A drug company study about a weight loss pill might report that people lost an average of 8 pounds while using their new drug.
However, in the fine print you find a statement saying that participants were encouraged to also diet and exercise. It is not clear in
this case whether the weight loss is due to the pill, to diet and exercise, or a combination of both. In this case confounding has
occurred.
Example 23
Researchers conduct an experiment to determine whether students will perform better on an arithmetic test if they listen to music
during the test. They first give the student a test without music, then give a similar test while the student listens to music. In this
case, the student might perform better on the second test, regardless of the music, simply because it was the second test and they
were warmed up.
There are a number of measures that can be introduced to help reduce the likelihood of confounding. The primary measure is to use
a control group.
Control group
When using a control group, the participants are divided into two or more groups, typically a control group and a treatment group.
The treatment group receives the treatment being tested; the control group does not receive the treatment.
Ideally, the groups are otherwise as similar as possible, isolating the treatment as the only potential source of difference between
the groups. For this reason, the method of dividing groups is important. Some researchers attempt to ensure that the groups have
similar characteristics (same number of females, same number of people over 50, etc.), but it is nearly impossible to control for
every characteristic. Because of this, random assignment is very commonly used.
Example 24
To determine if a two day prep course would help high school students improve their scores on the SAT test, a group of students
was randomly divided into two subgroups. The first group, the treatment group, was given a two day prep course. The second
group, the control group, was not given the prep course. Afterwards, both groups were given the SAT.
Example 25
A company testing a new plant food grows two crops of plants in adjacent fields, the treatment group receiving the new plant food
and the control group not. The crop yield would then be compared. By growing them at the same time in adjacent fields, they are
controlling for weather and other confounding factors.
Sometimes not giving the control group anything does not completely control for confounding variables. For example, suppose a
medicine study is testing a new headache pill by giving the treatment group the pill and the control group nothing. If the treatment
group showed improvement, we would not know whether it was due to the medicine in the pill, or a response to have taken any
pill. This is called a placebo effect.
Placebo effect
The placebo effect is when the effectiveness of a treatment is influenced by the patient’s perception of how effective they think the
treatment will be, so a result might be seen even if the treatment is ineffectual.
Example 26
A study found that when doing painful dental tooth extractions, patients told they were receiving a strong painkiller while actually
receiving a saltwater injection found as much pain relief as patients receiving a dose of morphine.[1]
To control for the placebo effect, a placebo, or dummy treatment, is often given to the control group. This way, both groups are
truly identical except for the specific treatment given.
Placebo and Placebo controlled experiments
A placebo is a dummy treatment given to control for the placebo effect.
An experiment that gives the control group a placebo is called a placebo controlled experiment.
Example 27
a. In a study for a new medicine that is dispensed in a pill form, a sugar pill could be used as a placebo.
b. In a study on the effect of alcohol on memory, a non-alcoholic beer might be given to the control group as a placebo.
c. In a study of a frozen meal diet plan, the treatment group would receive the diet food, and the control could be given standard
frozen meals stripped of their original packaging.
In some cases, it is more appropriate to compare to a conventional treatment than a placebo. For example, in a cancer research
study, it would not be ethical to deny any treatment to the control group or to give a placebo treatment. In this case, the currently
acceptable medicine would be given to the second group, called a comparison group in this case. In our SAT test example, the
non-treatment group would most likely be encouraged to study on their own, rather than be asked to not study at all, to provide a
meaningful comparison.
When using a placebo, it would defeat the purpose if the participant knew they were receiving the placebo.
Blind studies
A blind study is one in which the participant does not know whether or not they are receiving the treatment or a placebo.
A double-blind study is one in which those interacting with the participants don’t know who is in the treatment group and who is
in the control group.
Example 28
In a study about anti-depression medicine, you would not want the psychological evaluator to know whether the patient is in the
treatment or control group either, as it might influence their evaluation, so the experiment should be conducted as a double-blind
study.
It should be noted that not every experiment needs a control group.
Example 29
If a researcher is testing whether a new fabric can withstand fire, she simply needs to torch multiple samples of the fabric – there is
no need for a control group.
Try it Now 7
To test a new lie detector, two groups of subjects are given the new test. One group is asked to answer all the questions truthfully,
and the second group is asked to lie on one set of questions. The person administering the lie detector test does not know what
group each subject is in.
Does this experiment have a control group? Is it blind, double-blind, or neither?
Try it Now Answers

1. The sample is the 20 fish caught. The population is all fish in the lake. The sample may be somewhat unrepresentative of the
population since not all fish may be large enough to catch the bait.
2. This is a parameter, since the college would have access to data on all students (the population)
3. a. Categorical. b. Quantitative c. Quantitative
4. a. Systematic
b. Stratified or Quota
c. Voluntary response
d. Simple random
e. Cluster
5. a. Response bias – historically, men are likely to over-report, and women are likely to under-report to this question.
b. Voluntary response bias – the sample is self-selected
c. Sampling bias – the sample may not be representative of the whole class
d. Lack of anonymity
e. Self-interest study
f. Loaded question
6. a. Observational study
b. Experiment; the treatment is the jumping jacks
c. Experiment; the treatments are coffee and tea
7. The truth-telling group could be considered the control group, but really both groups are treatment groups here, since it is
important for the lie detector to be able to correctly identify lies, and also not identify truth telling as lying. This study is blind,
since the person running the test does not know what group each subject is in.
1. Levine JD, Gordon NC, Smith R, Fields HL. (1981) Analgesic responses to morphine and placebo in individuals with
postoperative pain. Pain. 10:379-89. ↵
11.6: Experiments is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Once we have collected data from surveys or experiments, we need to summarize and present the data in a way that will be
meaningful to the reader. We will begin with graphical presentations of data then explore numerical summaries of data.
Presenting Categorical Data Graphically

Categorical, or qualitative, data are pieces of information that allow us to classify the objects under investigation into various
categories. We usually begin working with categorical data by summarizing the data into a frequency table.
Frequency Table
A frequency table is a table with two columns. One column lists the categories, and another for the frequencies with which the
items in the categories occur (how many items fit into each category).
Example 1
An insurance company determines vehicle insurance premiums based on known risk factors. If a person is considered a higher risk,
their premiums will be higher. One potential factor is the color of your car. The insurance company believes that people with some
color cars are more likely to get in accidents. To research this, they examine police reports for recent total-loss collisions. The data
is summarized in the frequency table below.
Color Frequency
Blue 25
Green 52
Red 41
White 36
Black 39
Grey 23
Sometimes we need an even more intuitive way of displaying data. This is where charts and graphs come in. There are many, many
ways of displaying data graphically, but we will concentrate on one very useful type of graph called a bar graph. In this section we
will work with bar graphs that display categorical data; the next section will be devoted to bar graphs that display quantitative data.
Bar Graph
A bar graph is a graph that displays a bar for each category with the length of each bar indicating the frequency of that category.
To construct a bar graph, we need to draw a vertical axis and a horizontal axis. The vertical direction will have a scale and measure
the frequency of each category; the horizontal axis has no scale in this instance. The construction of a bar chart is most easily
described by use of an example.
Example 2
Using our car data from above, note the highest frequency is 52, so our vertical axis needs to go from 0 to 52, but we might as well
use 0 to 55, so that we can put a hash mark every 5 units:
Notice that the height of each bar is determined by the frequency of the corresponding color. The horizontal gridlines are a nice
touch, but not necessary. In practice, you will find it useful to draw bar graphs using graph paper, so the gridlines will already be in
place, or using technology. Instead of gridlines, we might also list the frequencies at the top of each bar, like this:
In this case, our chart might benefit from being reordered from largest to smallest frequency values. This arrangement can make it
easier to compare similar values in the chart, even without gridlines. When we arrange the categories in decreasing frequency order
like this, it is called a Pareto chart.
Pareto Chart
A Pareto chart is a bar graph ordered from highest to lowest frequency
Example 3
Transforming our bar graph from earlier into a Pareto chart, we get:
Example 4
In a survey,[1] adults were asked whether they personally worried about a variety of environmental concerns. The numbers (out of
1012 surveyed) who indicated that they worried “a great deal” about some selected concerns are summarized below.
Pollution of drinking water 597
Contamination of soil and water by toxic waste 526
Air pollution 455
Global warming 354
This data could be shown graphically in a bar graph:
To show relative sizes, it is common to use a pie chart.
Pie Chart
A pie chart is a circle with wedges cut of varying sizes marked out like slices of pie or pizza. The relative sizes of the wedges
correspond to the relative frequencies of the categories.
Example 5
For our vehicle color data, a pie chart might look like this:
Pie charts can often benefit from including frequencies or relative frequencies (percents) in the chart next to the pie slices. Often
having the category names next to the pie slices also makes the chart clearer.
Example 6
The pie chart to the right shows the percentage of voters supporting each candidate running for a local senate seat.
If there are 20,000 voters in the district, the pie chart shows that about 11% of those, about 2,200 voters, support Reeves.
Pie charts look nice, but are harder to draw by hand than bar charts since to draw them accurately we would need to compute the
angle each wedge cuts out of the circle, then measure the angle with a protractor. Computers are much better suited to drawing pie
charts. Common software programs like Microsoft Word or Excel, OpenOffice.org Write or Calc, or Google Docs are able to create
bar graphs, pie charts, and other graph types. There are also numerous online tools that can create graphs.[2]
Try It Now
Create a bar graph and a pie chart to illustrate the grades on a history exam below.
A: 12 students, B: 19 students, C: 14 students, D: 4 students, F: 5 students
Don’t get fancy with graphs! People sometimes add features to graphs that don’t help to convey their information. For example, 3-
dimensional bar charts like the one shown below are usually not as effective as their two-dimensional counterparts.
Here is another way that fanciness can lead to trouble. Instead of plain bars, it is tempting to substitute meaningful images. This
type of graph is called a pictogram.
Pictogram
A pictogram is a statistical graphic in which the size of the picture is intended to represent the frequencies or size of the values
being represented.
Example 7
A labor union might produce the graph to the right to show the difference between the average
manager salary and the average worker salary.
Looking at the picture, it would be reasonable to guess that the manager salaries is 4 times as large as the worker salaries—the area
of the bag looks about 4 times as large. However, the manager salaries are in fact only twice as large as worker salaries, which were
reflected in the picture by making the manager bag twice as tall.
Another distortion in bar charts results from setting the baseline to a value other than zero. The baseline is the bottom of the vertical
axis, representing the least number of cases that could have occurred in a category. Normally, this number should be zero.
Example 8
Compare the two graphs below showing support for same-sex marriage rights from a poll taken in December 2008.[3] The
difference in the vertical scale on the first graph suggests a different story than the true differences in percentages; the second graph
makes it look like twice as many people oppose marriage rights as support it.
Try It Now
A poll was taken asking people if they agreed with the positions of the 4 candidates for a county office. Does the pie chart present a
good representation of this data? Explain.
Presenting Quantitative Data Graphically

Quantitative, or numerical, data can also be summarized into frequency tables.
Example 9
A teacher records scores on a 20-point quiz for the 30 students in his class. The scores are:
19 20 18 18 17 18 19 17 20 18 20 16 20 15 17 12 18 19 18 19 17 20 18 16 15 18 20 5 0 0
These scores could be summarized into a frequency table by grouping like values:
Score Frequency
0 2
5 1
12 1
15 2
16 2
17 4
18 8
Score Frequency
19 4
20 6
Using this table, it would be possible to create a standard bar chart from this summary, like we did for categorical data:
However, since the scores are numerical values, this chart doesn’t really make sense; the first and second bars are five values apart,
while the later bars are only one value apart. It would be more correct to treat the horizontal axis as a number line. This type of
graph is called a histogram.
Histogram
A histogram is like a bar graph, but where the horizontal axis is a number line
Example 10
For the values above, a histogram would look like:
Notice that in the histogram, a bar represents values on the horizontal axis from that on the left hand-side of the bar up to, but not
including, the value on the right hand side of the bar. Some people choose to have bars start at ½ values to avoid this ambiguity.
Unfortunately, not a lot of common software packages can correctly graph a histogram. About the best you can do in Excel or Word
is a bar graph with no gap between the bars and spacing added to simulate a numerical horizontal axis.
If we have a large number of widely varying data values, creating a frequency table that lists every possible value as a category
would lead to an exceptionally long frequency table, and probably would not reveal any patterns. For this reason, it is common with
quantitative data to group data into class intervals.
Class Intervals
Class intervals are groupings of the data. In general, we define class intervals so that:
Each interval is equal in size. For example, if the first class contains values from 120 to 129, the second class should include
values from 130 to 139.
We have somewhere between 5 and 20 classes, typically, depending upon the number of data we’re working with.
Example 11
Suppose that we have collected weights from 100 male subjects as part of a nutrition study. For our weight data, we have values
ranging from a low of 121 pounds to a high of 263 pounds, giving a total span of 263-121 = 142. We could create 7 intervals with a
width of around 20, 14 intervals with a width of around 10, or somewhere in between. Often time we have to experiment with a
few possibilities to find something that represents the data well. Let us try using an interval width of 15. We could start at 121, or at
120 since it is a nice round number.
Interval Frequency
120–134 4
135–149 14
150–164 16
165–179 28
180–194 12
195–209 8
210–224 7
225–239 6
240–254 2
255–269 3
A histogram of this data would look like:
In many software packages, you can create a graph similar to a histogram by putting the class intervals as the labels on a bar chart.
Other graph types such as pie charts are possible for quantitative data. The usefulness of different graph types will vary depending
upon the number of intervals and the type of data being represented. For example, a pie chart of our weight data is difficult to read
because of the quantity of intervals we used.
Try It Now
The total cost of textbooks for the term was collected from 36 students. Create a histogram for this data.
$140 $160 $160 $165 $180 $220 $235 $240 $250 $260 $280 $285
$285 $285 $290 $300 $300 $305 $310 $310 $315 $315 $320 $320
$330 $340 $345 $350 $355 $360 $360 $380 $395 $420 $460 $460
When collecting data to compare two groups, it is desirable to create a graph that compares quantities.
Example 12
The data below came from a task in which the goal is to move a computer mouse to a target on the screen as fast as possible. On 20
of the trials, the target was a small rectangle; on the other 20, the target was a large rectangle. Time to reach the target was recorded
on each trial.
Interval Frequency: Frequency:
(milliseconds) small target large target
300–399 0 0
400–499 1 5
500–599 3 10
600–699 6 5
700–799 5 0
800–899 4 0
900–999 0 0
1000–1099 1 0
1100–1199 0 0
One option to represent this data would be a comparative histogram or bar chart, in which bars for the small target group and large
target group are placed next to each other.
Frequency Polygon
An alternative representation is a frequency polygon. A frequency polygon starts out like a histogram, but instead of drawing a
bar, a point is placed in the midpoint of each interval at height equal to the frequency. Typically the points are connected with
straight lines to emphasize the distribution of the data.
Example 13
This graph makes it easier to see that reaction times were generally shorter for the larger target, and that the reaction times for the
smaller target were more spread out.
Numerical Summaries of Data
It is often desirable to use a few numbers to summarize a distribution. One important aspect of a distribution is where its center is
located. Measures of central tendency are discussed first. A second aspect of a distribution is how spread out it is. In other words,
how much the data in the distribution vary from one another. The second section describes measures of variability.
Measures of Central Tendency

Let’s begin by trying to find the most “typical” value of a data set.
Note that we just used the word “typical” although in many cases you might think of using the word “average.” We need to be
careful with the word “average” as it means different things to different people in different contexts. One of the most common uses
of the word “average” is what mathematicians and statisticians call the arithmetic mean, or just plain old mean for short.
“Arithmetic mean” sounds rather fancy, but you have likely calculated a mean many times without realizing it; the mean is what
most people think of when they use the word “average”.
Mean
The mean of a set of data is the sum of the data values divided by the number of values.
Example 14
Marci’s exam scores for her last math class were: 79, 86, 82, 94. The mean of these values would be:
\frac{79+86+82+94}{4}=85.25\\ . Typically we round means to one more decimal place than the original data had. In this case, we would
round 85.25 to 85.3.
Example 15
The number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season are
shown below.
37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23 22 22 22 21 21 21 20
20 19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15 14 14 14 12 12 9 6
Adding these values, we get 634 total TDs. Dividing by 31, the number of data values, we get . It would be
\frac{634}{31}=20.4516\\
appropriate to round this to 20.5.

It would be most correct for us to report that “The mean number of touchdown passes thrown in the NFL in the 2000 season was
20.5 passes,” but it is not uncommon to see the more casual word “average” used in place of “mean.”
Try It Now
The price of a jar of peanut butter at 5 stores was: $3.29, $3.59, $3.79, $3.75, and $3.99. Find the mean price.
Example 16
The one hundred families in a particular neighborhood are asked their annual household income, to the nearest $5 thousand dollars.
The results are summarized in a frequency table below.
15 6
20 8
25 11
30 17
35 19
40 20
45 12
50 7
Calculating the mean by hand could get tricky if we try to type in all 100 values:
\displaystyle\frac{\stackrel{6\text{ terms}}{\overbrace{15+\cdots{+}15}}+\stackrel{8\text{ terms}}{\overbrace{20+\cdots{+}20}}+\stackrel{11\text{ terms}}{\overbrace{25+\cdots{+}25}}+\cdots}{100}
We could calculate this more easily by noticing that adding 15 to itself six times is the same as 15 × 6 = 90. Using this
simplification, we get
\frac{15\cdot6+20\cdot8+25\cdot11+30\cdot17+35\cdot19+40\cdot20+\cdot12+50\cdot7}{100}=\frac{3390}{100}=33.9\\
The mean household income of our sample is 33.9 thousand dollars ($33,900).
Example 17
Extending off the last example, suppose a new family moves into the neighborhood example that has a household income of $5
million ($5000 thousand). Adding this to our sample, our mean is now:
\frac{15\cdot6+20\cdot8+25\cdot11+30\cdot17+35\cdot19+40\cdot20+\cdot12+50\cdot7+5000\cdot1}{101}=\frac{3390}{101}=83.069\\
While 83.1 thousand dollars ($83,069) is the correct mean household income, it no longer represents a “typical” value.
Imagine the data values on a see-saw or balance scale. The mean is the value that keeps the data in balance, like in the picture
below.
If we graph our household data, the $5 million data value is so far out to the right that the mean has to adjust up to keep things in
balance
For this reason, when working with data that have outliers—values far outside the primary grouping—it is common to use a
different measure of center, the median.
Median
The median of a set of data is the value in the middle when the data is in order.
To find the median, begin by listing the data in order from smallest to largest, or largest to smallest.
If the number of data values, N, is odd, then the median is the middle data value. This value can be found by rounding N/2 up to the
next whole number.
If the number of data values is even, there is no one middle value, so we find the mean of the two middle values (values N/2 and
N/2 + 1)
Example 18
Returning to the football touchdown data, we would start by listing the data in order. Luckily, it was already in decreasing order, so
we can work with it without needing to reorder it first.
37 33 33 32 29 28 28 23 22 22 22 21 21 21 20
20 19 19 18 18 18 18 16 15 14 14 14 12 12 9 6
Since there are 31 data values, an odd number, the median will be the middle number, the 16th data value \frac{31}{2}=15.5\\, round up
to 16, leaving 15 values below and 15 above). The 16th data value is 20, so the median number of touchdown passes in the 2000
season was 20 passes. Notice that for this data, the median is fairly close to the mean we calculated earlier, 20.5.
Example 19
Find the median of these quiz scores: 5 10 8 6 4 8 2 5 7 7
We start by listing the data in order: 2 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 10
Since there are 10 data values, an even number, there is no one middle number. So we find the mean of the two middle numbers, 6
and 7, and get \frac{6+7}{2}=6.5\\.
The median quiz score was 6.5.
Try It Now
The price of a jar of peanut butter at 5 stores were: $3.29, $3.59, $3.79, $3.75, and $3.99. Find the median price.
Example 20
Let us return now to our original household income data:
15 6
20 8
25 11
30 17
35 19
40 20
45 12
50 7
Here we have 100 data values. If we didn’t already know that, we could find it by adding the frequencies. Since 100 is an even
number, we need to find the mean of the middle two data values: the 50th and 51st data values. To find these, we start counting up
from the bottom:
There are 6 data values of $15, so values 1 to 6 are $15 thousand
The next 8 data values are $20, so values 7 to (6+8)=14 are $20 thousand
From this we can tell that values 50 and 51 will be $35 thousand, and the mean of these two values is $35 thousand. The median
income in this neighborhood is $35 thousand.
Example 21
If we add in the new neighbor with a $5 million household income, then there will be 101 data values, and the 51st value will be
the median. As we discovered in the last example, the 51st value is $35 thousand. Notice that the new neighbor did not affect the
median in this case. The median is not swayed as much by outliers as the mean is.
In addition to the mean and the median, there is one other common measurement of the “typical” value of a data set: the mode.
Mode
The mode is the element of the data set that occurs most frequently.
The mode is fairly useless with data like weights or heights where there are a large number of possible values. The mode is most
commonly used for categorical data, for which median and mean cannot be computed.
Example 22
In our vehicle color survey, we collected the data
Color Frequency
Blue 3
Green 5
Red 4
White 3
Black 2
Grey 3
For this data, Green is the mode, since it is the data value that occurred the most frequently.
It is possible for a data set to have more than one mode if several categories have the same frequency, or no modes if each every
category occurs only once.
Try It Now
Reviewers were asked to rate a product on a scale of 1 to 5. Find
1. The mean rating
2. The median rating
3. The mode rating
Rating Frequency
1 4
2 8
3 7
4 3
5 1
Measures of Variation
Consider these three sets of quiz scores:
Section A: 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Section B: 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10
Section C: 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6
All three of these sets of data have a mean of 5 and median of 5, yet the sets of scores are clearly quite different. In section A,
everyone had the same score; in section B half the class got no points and the other half got a perfect score, assuming this was a 10-
point quiz. Section C was not as consistent as section A, but not as widely varied as section B.
In addition to the mean and median, which are measures of the “typical” or “middle” value, we also need a measure of how “spread
out” or varied each data set is.
There are several ways to measure this “spread” of the data. The first is the simplest and is called the range.
Range
The range is the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value of the data set.
Example 23
Using the quiz scores from above,
For section A, the range is 0 since both maximum and minimum are 5 and 5 – 5 = 0
For section B, the range is 10 since 10 – 0 = 10
For section C, the range is 2 since 6 – 4 = 2
In the last example, the range seems to be revealing how spread out the data is. However, suppose we add a fourth section, Section
D, with scores 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10.
This section also has a mean and median of 5. The range is 10, yet this data set is quite different than Section B. To better
illuminate the differences, we’ll have to turn to more sophisticated measures of variation.
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of variation based on measuring how far each data value deviates, or is different, from the
mean. A few important characteristics:
Standard deviation is always positive. Standard deviation will be zero if all the data values are equal, and will get larger as the
data spreads out.
Standard deviation has the same units as the original data.
Standard deviation, like the mean, can be highly influenced by outliers.
Using the data from section D, we could compute for each data value the difference between the data value and the mean:
data value deviation: data value − mean
0 0 − 5 = −5
5 5−5=0
5 5−5=0
5 5−5=0
5 5−5=0
5 5−5=0
5 5−5=0
5 5−5=0
5 5−5=0
10 10 − 5 = 5
We would like to get an idea of the “average” deviation from the mean, but if we find the average of the values in the second
column the negative and positive values cancel each other out (this will always happen), so to prevent this we square every value in
the second column:
data value deviation: data value − mean deviation squared
0 0−5 = −5 (−5)2 = 25
5 5−5=0 02 = 0
5 5-5 = 0 02 = 0
5 5−5=0 02 = 0
5 5−5=0 02 = 0
5 5−5=0 02 = 0
5 5−5=0 02 = 0
5 5−5=0 02 = 0
5 5−5=0 02 = 0
10 10 − 5 = 5 (5)2 = 25
We then add the squared deviations up to get 25 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 25 = 50. Ordinarily we would then divide by the
number of scores, n, (in this case, 10) to find the mean of the deviations. But we only do this if the data set represents a population;
if the data set represents a sample (as it almost always does), we instead divide by n − 1 (in this case, 10 − 1 = 9).[4]
So in our example, we would have 50/10 = 5 if section D represents a population and 50/9 = about 5.56 if section D represents a
sample. These values (5 and 5.56) are called, respectively, the population variance and the sample variance for section D.
Variance can be a useful statistical concept, but note that the units of variance in this instance would be points-squared since we
squared all of the deviations. What are points-squared? Good question. We would rather deal with the units we started with (points
in this case), so to convert back we take the square root and get:
population standard deviation =\sqrt{\frac{50}{10}}=\sqrt{5}\approx{2.2}\\
or
population standard deviation =\sqrt{\frac{50}{9}}\approx{2.4}\\
If we are unsure whether the data set is a sample or a population, we will usually assume it is a sample, and we will round answers
to one more decimal place than the original data, as we have done above.
To compute standard deviation:

1. Find the deviation of each data from the mean. In other words, subtract the mean from the data value.
2. Square each deviation.
3. Add the squared deviations.
4. Divide by n, the number of data values, if the data represents a whole population; divide by n − 1 if the data is from a sample.
5. Compute the square root of the result.
Example 24
Computing the standard deviation for Section B above, we first calculate that the mean is 5. Using a table can help keep track of
your computations for the standard deviation:
data value deviation: data value − mean deviation squared
0 0 − 5 = −5 (−5)2 = 25
0 0 − 5 = −5 (−5)2 = 25
0 0 − 5 = −5 (−5)2 = 25
0 0 − 5 = −5 (−5)2 = 25
0 0 − 5 = −5 (−5)2 = 25
10 10 − 5 = −5 (5)2 = 25
10 10 − 5 = −5 (5)2 = 25
10 10 − 5 = −5 (5)2 = 25
10 10 − 5 = −5 (5)2 = 25
10 10 − 5 = −5 (5)2 = 25
Assuming this data represents a population, we will add the squared deviations, divide by 10, the number of data values, and
compute the square root:
\displaystyle\sqrt{\frac{25+25+25+25+25+25+25+25+25+25}{10}}=\sqrt{\frac{250}{10}}=5\\
Notice that the standard deviation of this data set is much larger than that of section D since the data in this set is more spread out.
For comparison, the standard deviations of all four sections are:
Section A: 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Standard deviation: 0
Section B: 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 Standard deviation: 5
Section C: 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 Standard deviation: 0.8
Section D: 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 Standard deviation: 2.2
Try It Now
The price of a jar of peanut butter at 5 stores were: $3.29, $3.59, $3.79, $3.75, and $3.99. Find the standard deviation of the prices.
Where standard deviation is a measure of variation based on the mean, quartiles are based on the median.
Quartiles
Quartiles are values that divide the data in quarters.
The first quartile (Q1) is the value so that 25% of the data values are below it; the third quartile (Q3) is the value so that 75% of the
data values are below it. You may have guessed that the second quartile is the same as the median, since the median is the value so
that 50% of the data values are below it.
This divides the data into quarters; 25% of the data is between the minimum and Q1, 25% is between Q1 and the median, 25% is
between the median and Q3, and 25% is between Q3 and the maximum value
While quartiles are not a 1-number summary of variation like standard deviation, the quartiles are used with the median, minimum,
and maximum values to form a 5 number summary of the data.
Five number summary

The five number summary takes this form:
Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
To find the first quartile, we need to find the data value so that 25% of the data is below it. If n is the number of data values, we
compute a locator by finding 25% of n. If this locator is a decimal value, we round up, and find the data value in that position. If
the locator is a whole number, we find the mean of the data value in that position and the next data value. This is identical to the
process we used to find the median, except we use 25% of the data values rather than half the data values as the locator.
To find the first quartile, Q1

Begin by ordering the data from smallest to largest
Compute the locator: L = 0.25n
If L is a decimal value:
Round up to L+
Use the data value in the L+th position
If L is a whole number:
Find the mean of the data values in the Lth and L + 1th positions.
To find the third quartile, Q3

Use the same procedure as for Q1L = 0.75n
Examples should help make this clearer.
Example 25
Suppose we have measured 9 females and their heights (in inches), sorted from smallest to largest are:
59 60 62 64 66 67 69 70 72
To find the first quartile we first compute the locator: 25% of 9 is L = 0.25(9) = 2.25. Since this value is not a whole number, we
round up to 3. The first quartile will be the third data value: 62 inches.
To find the third quartile, we again compute the locator: 75% of 9 is 0.75(9) = 6.75. Since this value is not a whole number, we
round up to 7. The third quartile will be the seventh data value: 69 inches.
Example 26
Suppose we had measured 8 females and their heights (in inches), sorted from smallest to largest are:
59 60 62 64 66 67 69 70
To find the first quartile we first compute the locator: 25% of 8 is L = 0.25(8) = 2. Since this value is a whole number, we will find
the mean of the 2nd and 3rd data values: (60+62)/2 = 61, so the first quartile is 61 inches.
The third quartile is computed similarly, using 75% instead of 25%. L = 0.75(8) = 6. This is a whole number, so we will find the
mean of the 6th and 7th data values: (67+69)/2 = 68, so Q3 is 68.
Note that the median could be computed the same way, using 50%.
The 5-number summary combines the first and third quartile with the minimum, median, and maximum values.
Example 27
For the 9 female sample, the median is 66, the minimum is 59, and the maximum is 72. The 5 number summary is: 59, 62, 66, 69,
72.
For the 8 female sample, the median is 65, the minimum is 59, and the maximum is 70, so the 5 number summary would be: 59,
61, 65, 68, 70.
Example 28
Returning to our quiz score data. In each case, the first quartile locator is 0.25(10) = 2.5, so the first quartile will be the 3rd data
value, and the third quartile will be the 8th data value. Creating the five-number summaries:
Section and data 5-number summary
Section A: 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5, 5, 5, 5, 5
Section B: 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 0, 0, 5, 10, 10
Section C: 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 4, 4, 5, 6, 6
Section D: 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 0, 5, 5, 5, 10
Of course, with a relatively small data set, finding a five-number summary is a bit silly, since the summary contains almost as many
values as the original data.
Try It Now
The total cost of textbooks for the term was collected from 36 students. Find the 5 number summary of this data.
$140 $160 $160 $165 $180 $220 $235 $240 $250 $260 $280 $285
$285 $285 $290 $300 $300 $305 $310 $310 $315 $315 $320 $320
$330 $340 $345 $350 $355 $360 $360 $380 $395 $420 $460 $460
Example 29
Returning to the household income data from earlier, create the five-number summary.
15 6
20 8
25 11
30 17
35 19
40 20
45 12
50 7
By adding the frequencies, we can see there are 100 data values represented in the table. In Example 20, we found the median was
$35 thousand. We can see in the table that the minimum income is $15 thousand, and the maximum is $50 thousand.
values.
Counting up in the data as we did before,
There are 6 data values of $15, so values 1 to 6 are $15 thousand
The 25th data value is $25 thousand, and the 26th data value is $30 thousand, so Q1 will be the mean of these: (25 + 30)/2 = $27.5
thousand.
values. Continuing our counting from earlier,
Both the 75th and 76th data values lie in this group, so Q3 will be $40 thousand.
Putting these values together into a five-number summary, we get: 15, 27.5, 35, 40, 50
Note that the 5 number summary divides the data into four intervals, each of which will contain about 25% of the data. In the
previous example, that means about 25% of households have income between $40 thousand and $50 thousand.
For visualizing data, there is a graphical representation of a 5-number summary called a box plot, or box and whisker graph.
Box Plot
A box plot is a graphical representation of a five-number summary.
To create a box plot, a number line is first drawn. A box is drawn from the first quartile to the third quartile, and a line is drawn
through the box at the median. “Whiskers” are extended out to the minimum and maximum values.
Example 30
The box plot below is based on the 9 female height data with 5 number summary: 59, 62, 66, 69, 72.
Example 31
The box plot below is based on the household income data with 5 number summary: 15, 27.5, 35, 40, 50
Try It Now
Create a boxplot based on the textbook price data from the last Try it Now.
Box plots are particularly useful for comparing data from two populations.
Example 32
The box plot of service times for two fast-food restaurants is shown below.
While store 2 had a slightly shorter median service time (2.1 minutes vs. 2.3 minutes), store 2 is less consistent, with a wider spread
of the data.
At store 1, 75% of customers were served within 2.9 minutes, while at store 2, 75% of customers were served within 5.7 minutes.
Which store should you go to in a hurry? That depends upon your opinions about luck: 25% of customers at store 2 had to wait
between 5.7 and 9.6 minutes.
Example 33
The boxplot below is based on the birth weights of infants with severe idiopathic respiratory distress syndrome (SIRDS).[5] The
boxplot is separated to show the birth weights of infants who survived and those that did not.
Comparing the two groups, the boxplot reveals that the birth weights of the infants that died appear to be, overall, smaller than the
weights of infants that survived. In fact, we can see that the median birth weight of infants that survived is the same as the third
quartile of the infants that died.
Similarly, we can see that the first quartile of the survivors is larger than the median weight of those that died, meaning that over
75% of the survivors had a birth weight larger than the median birth weight of those that died.
Looking at the maximum value for those that died and the third quartile of the survivors, we can see that over 25% of the survivors
had birth weights higher than the heaviest infant that died.
The box plot gives us a quick, albeit informal, way to determine that birth weight is quite likely linked to survival of infants with
SIRDS.
1. Gallup Poll. March 5–8, 2009. http://www.pollingreport.com/enviro.htm↵

2. For example: http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createAgraph/ or http://docs.google.com↵
3. CNN/Opinion Research Corporation Poll. Dec 19-21, 2008, from http://www.pollingreport.com/civil.htm↵
4. The reason we do this is highly technical, but we can see how it might be useful by considering the case of a small sample from
a population that contains an outlier, which would increase the average deviation: the outlier very likely won't be included in the
sample, so the mean deviation of the sample would underestimate the mean deviation of the population; thus we divide by a
slightly smaller number to get a slightly bigger average deviation. ↵
5. van Vliet, P.K. and Gupta, J.M. (1973) Sodium bicarbonate in idiopathic respiratory distress syndrome. Arch. Disease in
Childhood, 48, 249–255. As quoted on http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=398296&section=1.1.3↵
Describing Data. Authored by: David Lippman. Located at: http://www.opentextbookstore.com/mathinsociety/. Project: Math
in Society. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
11.7: Describing Data is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Objective
Here you will learn about the Normal Distribution. You will learn what it is and why it is important, and you will begin to develop
an intuition for the rarity of a value in a set by comparing it to the mean and standard deviation of the data.
If you knew that the prices of t-shirts sold in an online shopping site were normally distributed, and had a mean cost of $10, with
a standard deviation of $1.50, how could that information benefit you as you are looking at various t-shirt prices on the site? How
could you use what you know if you were looking to make a profit by purchasing unusually inexpensive shirts to resell at prices
that are more common?
Watch This: Spread of a Normal Distribution
A Vimeo element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: http://pb.libretexts.org/mala/?p=154
Guidance
A distribution is an evaluation of the way that points in a data set are clustered or spread across their range of values. A normal
distribution is a very specific symmetrical distribution that indicates, among other things, that exactly \frac{1}{2}\\ of the data is
below the mean, and \frac{1}{2}\\ is above, that approximately 68% of the data is within 1, approximately 96% of the data is within 2,
and approximately 99.7% is within 3 standard deviations of the mean.
There are a number of reasons that it is important to become familiar with the normal distribution, as you will discover throughout
this chapter. Examples of values associated with normal distribution:
Physical characteristics such as height, weight, arm or leg length, etc.
The percentile rankings of standardized testing such as the ACT and SAT
The volume of water produced by a river on a monthly or yearly basis
The velocity of molecules in an ideal gas
Knowing that the values in a set are exactly or approximately normally distributed allows you to get a feel for how common a
particular value might be in that set. Because the values of a normal distribution are predictably clustered around the mean, you can
estimate in short order the rarity of a given value in the set. In our upcoming lesson on the Empirical Rule, you will see that it is
worth memorizing that normally distributed data has the characteristics mentioned above:
50% of all data points are above the mean and 50% are below
Apx 68% of all data points are within 1 standard deviation of the mean
Apx 95% of all data points are within 2 standard deviations of the mean
Apx 99.7% of all data points are within 3 standard deviations of the mean
In this lesson, we will be practicing a ’rough estimate’ of the probability that a value within a given range will occur in a particular
set of data, just to develop an intuition of the use of a normal distribution. In subsequent lessons, we will become more specific
with our estimates. The image below will be used in greater detail in the lesson on the Empirical Rule, but you may use it as a
reference for this lesson also.
Example 1
Human height is commonly considered an approximately normally distributed measure. If the mean height of a male adult in the
United States is 5′ 1″, with a standard deviation of 1.5″, how common are men with heights greater than 6′ 2″?
Solution
Since each standard deviation of this normally distributed data is 1.5″, and 6′ 2″ is 400 above the mean for the population, 6′ 2″ is
nearly 3 standard deviations above the mean. That tells us that men taller than 6′ 2″ are quite rare in this population.
Example 2
If the fuel mileage of a particular model of car is normally distributed, with a mean of 26 mpg and a standard deviation of 2 mpg,
how common are cars with a fuel efficiency of 24 to 25 mpg?
Solution
We know that apx 68% of the cars in the population have an efficiency of between 24 and 28 mpg, since that would be 1 SD below
and 1 SD above the mean. That suggests that apx 34% have an efficiency of 24 to 26 mpg, so we can say that it is uncommon to see
a car with an efficiency between 24 and 25 mpg, but not extremely so.
Example 3
If the maximum jumping height of US high school high jumpers is normally distributed with a mean of 5′ 11.5″ and a SD of 2.2″,
how unusual is it to see a high school jumper clear 6′ 3″?
Solution
If the mean is 5′ 11.5″, then 1 SD above is 6′ 1.7″ and 2 SDs is 6′ 3.9″. That means that less than 2.5% of jumpers 6′ 3.9″, so it
would be pretty uncommon to see a high-school competitor exceed 6′ 3″.
Intro Problem Revisited

If you knew that the prices of t-shirts sold in an online shopping site were normally distributed, and had a mean cost of $10, with a
standard deviation of $1.50, how could that information benefit you as you are looking at various t-shirt styles and designs on the
site? How could you use what you know if you were looking to make a profit by purchasing unusually inexpensive shirts to resell at
prices that are more common?
By knowing the mean and SD of the shirt prices, and knowing that they are normally distributed, you can estimate right away if a
shirt is priced at a point significantly below the norm. For instance, with this data, we can estimate that a shirt priced at $7.00 is less
expensive than apx 97.5% of all shirts on the site, and could likely be resold at a profit (assuming there is not something wrong the
shirt that is not obvious from the listing).
Vocabulary
Distribution: an arrangement of values of a variable showing their observed or theoretical frequency of occurrence.
Range of values of a distribution: is the difference between the least and greatest values.
Normal distribution: a very specific distribution that is symmetric about its mean. Half the values of the random variable are
below the mean and half are above the mean. Approximately 68% of the data is within 1 standard deviation of the
mean; aproximately 96% is within 2 SDs, and 99.7% within 3 SDs.
Standard deviation: a measure of how spread out the data is from the mean. To determine if a data value is far from the mean,
determine how many standard deviations it is from the mean. The SD is calculated as the square root of the variance.
Guided Practice
Assume the data to be normally distributed, and describe the rarity of an event using the following scale:
0% to < 1% probability = very rare
1% to < 5% = rare
5% to < 34% = uncommon
34% to < 50% = common
50% to 100% = likely
Questions
1. If the mean (µ) of the data is 75, and the standard deviation (σ) is 5, how common is a value between 70 and 75?
2. If the µ is .02 and the σ is .005, how common is a value between .005 and .01?
3. If the µ is 1280 and the σ is 70, how common is a value between 1210 and 1350?
4. If the mean defect rate at a cellphone production plant is .1%, with a standard deviation of .03%, would it seem reasonable for a
quality assurance manager to be concerned about 3 defective phones in a single 1000 unit run?
Solutions
1. A value of 70 is only 1 standard deviation below the mean, so a value between 70 and 75 would be expected approximately
34% of the time, so it would be common.
2. A value of .01 is 2 SDs below the mean, and .005 is 3 SDs below, so we would expect there to be about a 2.5% probability of a
value occurring in that range. A value between 0.005 and 0.01 would be rare.
3. 1210 is 1 SD below the mean, and 1350 is 1 SD above the mean, so we would expect approximately 68% of the data to be in
that range, meaning that it is likely that a value in that range would occur.
4. .1% translates into 1 per thousand, with a standard deviation of 3 per ten thousand. That means that 3 defects in the same
thousand is nearly 7 SDs above the mean, well into the very rare category. While it is not impossible for random chance to
result in such a value, it would certainly be prudent for the manager to investigate.
Practice Questions
Assume all sets/populations to be approximately normally distributed, and describe the rarity of an event using the following scale:
0% to< 1% probability = very rare
1% to < 5% = rare
5% to < 34% = uncommon
34% to < 50% = common
50% to 100% = likely.
You may reference the image below:
1. Scores on a certain standardized test have a mean of 500, and a standard deviation of 100. How common is a score between 600
and 700?
2. Considering a full-grown show-quality male Siberian Husky has a mean weight of 52.5 lbs, with SD of 7.5 lbs, how common
are male huskies in the 37.5–45 lbs range?
3. A population µ = 125, and σ = 25, how common are values in the 100 – 150 range?
4. Population µ = 0.0025 and σ = 0.0005, how common are values between 0.0025 and 0.0030?
5. A 12 oz can of soda has a mean volume of 12 oz, with a standard deviation of .25 oz. How common are cans with between 11
and 11.5 oz of soda?
6. µ = 0.0025 and σ = 0.0005, how common are values between 0.0045 and 0.005?
7. If a population µ = 1130 and σ = 5, how common are values between 0 and 1100?
8. Assuming population µ = 1130 and σ = 5, how common are values between 1125 and 1135?
9. The American Robin Redbreast has a mean weight of 77 g, with a standard deviation of 6 g. How common are Robins in the 59
g−71 g range?
10. Population µ = \frac{3}{5}\\ and σ = \frac{1}{10}\\, how common are values between \frac{2}{5}\\ and 1?
11. Population µ = 0.25% and σ = 0.05%, how common are values between 0.35% and 0.45%?
12. Population µ = 156.5 and σ = 0.25, how common are values between 155 and 156?
The Normal Distribution. Authored by: Karen Walters. Provided by: CK-12 Foundation. Located at: http://www.ck12.org/.
License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
Chapter6SpreadofaNormalDistributionA. Authored by: CK-12 Foundation. Located at: https://vimeo.com/47099905.
License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
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License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
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Objective
Here you will learn how to use the Empirical Rule to estimate the probability of an event.
If the price per pound of USDA Choice Beef is normally distributed with a mean of $4.85/lb and a standard deviation of $0.35/lb,
what is the estimated probability that a randomly chosen sample (from a randomly chosen market) will be between $5.20 and $5.55
per pound?
Watch This: Empirical Rule
A Vimeo element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: http://pb.libretexts.org/mala/?p=156
Guidance
This reading on the Empirical Rule is an extension of the previous reading “Understanding the Normal Distribution.” In the prior
reading, the goal was to develop an intuition of the interaction between decreased probability and increased distance from the
mean. In this reading, we will practice applying the Empirical Rule to estimate the specific probability of occurrence of a sample
based on the range of the sample, measured in standard deviations.
The graphic below is a representation of the Empirical Rule:
The graphic is a rather concise summary of the vital statistics of a Normal Distribution. Note how the graph resembles a bell? Now
you know why the normal distribution is also called a “ bell curve.”
50% of the data is above, and 50% below, the mean of the data
Approximately 68% of the data occurs within 1 SD of the mean
Approximately 95% occurs within 2 SD’s of the mean
Approximately 99.7% of the data occurs within 3 SDs of the mean
It is due to the probabilities associated with 1, 2, and 3 SDs that the Empirical Rule is also known as the 68−95−99.7 rule.
Example 1
If the diameter of a basketball is normally distributed, with a mean (µ) of 9″, and a standard deviation (σ) of 0.5″, what is the
probability that a randomly chosen basketball will have a diameter between 9.5″ and 10.5″?
Solution
Since the σ = 0.5″ and the µ = 9″, we are evaluating the probability that a randomly chosen ball will have a diameter between 1 and
3 standard deviations above the mean. The graphic below shows the portion of the normal distribution included between 1 and 3
SDs:
The percentage of the data spanning the 2nd and 3rd SDs is 13.5% + 2.35% = 15.85%
The probability that a randomly chosen basketball will have a diameter between 9.5 and 10.5 inches is 15.85%.
Example 2
If the depth of the snow in my yard is normally distributed, with µ = 2.5″ and σ = .25″, what is the probability that a randomly
chosen location will have a snow depth between 2.25 and 2.75 inches?
Solution
2.25 inches is µ − 1σ, and 2.75 inches is µ + 1σ, so the area encompassed approximately represents 34% + 34% = 68%.
The probability that a randomly chosen location will have a depth between 2.25 and 2.75 inches is 68%.
Example 3
If the height of women in the United States is normally distributed with µ = 5′ 8″ and σ = 1.5″, what is the probability that
a randomly chosen woman in the United States is shorter than 5′ 5″?
Solution
This one is slightly different, since we aren’t looking for the probability of a limited range of values. We want to evaluate the
probability of a value occurring anywhere below 5′ 5″. Since the domain of a normal distribution is infinite, we can’t actually state
the probability of the portion of the distribution on “that end” because it has no “end”! What we need to do is add up the
probabilities that we do know and subtract them from 100% to get the remainder.
Here is that normal distribution graphic again, with the height data inserted:
Recall that a normal distribution always has 50% of the data on each side of the mean. That indicates that 50% of US females are
taller than 5′ 8″, and gives us a solid starting point to calculate from. There is another 34% between 5′ 6.5″ and 5′ 8″ and a final
13.5% between 5′ 5″ and 5′ 6.5″. Ultimately that totals: 50% + 34% + 13.5% = 97.5%. Since 97.5% of US females are 5′ 5″ or
taller, that leaves 2.5% that are less than 5′ 5″ tall.

If the price per pound of USDA Choice Beef is normally distributed with a mean of $4.85/lb and a standard deviation of $0.35/lb,
what is the estimated probability that a randomly chosen sample (from a randomly chosen market) will be between $5.20 and
$5.55 per pound?
$5.20 is µ + 1σ, and $5.55 is µ + 2σ, so the probability of a value occurring in that range is approximately 13.5%.
Vocabulary
Normal distribution: a common, but specific, distribution of data with a set of characteristics detailed in the lesson above.
Empirical Rule: a name for the way in which the normal distribution divides data by standard deviations: 68% within 1 SD, 95%
within 2 SDs and 99.7 within 3 SDs of the mean
68-95-99.7 rule: another name for the Empirical Rule
Bell curve: the shape of a normal distribution
Guided Practice
1. A normally distributed data set has µ = 10 and σ = 2.5, what is the probability of randomly selecting a value greater than 17.5
from the set?
2. A normally distributed data set has µ = .05 and σ = .01, what is the probability of randomly choosing a value between .05 and
.07 from the set?
3. A normally distributed data set has µ = 514 and an unknown standard deviation, what is the probability that a randomly selected
value will be less than 514?
Solutions
1. If µ = 10 and σ = 2.5, then 17.5 = µ + 3σ. Since we are looking for all data above that point, we need to subtract the probability
that a value will occur below that value from 100%: The probability that a value will be less than 10 is 50%, since 10 is the
mean. There is another 34% between 10 and 12.5, another 13.5% between 12.5 and 15, and a final 2.35% between 15 and 17.5.
100% −50% −34% −13.5% −2.35% = 0.15% probability of a value greater than 17.5
2. 0.05 is the mean, and 0.07 is 2 standard deviations above the mean, so the probability of a value in that range is 34% + 13.5% =
47.5%
3. 514 is the mean, so the probability of a value less than that is 50%.
Practice Questions
Assume all distributions to be normal or approximately normal, and calculate percentages using the 68−95−99.7 rule.
1. Given mean 63 and standard deviation of 168, find the approximate percentage of the distribution that lies between −105 and
567.
2. Approximately what percent of a normal distribution is between 2 standard deviations and 3 standard deviations from the
mean?
3. Given standard deviation of 74 and mean of 124, approximately what percentage of the values are greater than 198?
4. Given σ = 39 and µ = 101, approximately what percentage of the values are less than 23?
5. Given mean 92 and standard deviation 189, find the approximate percentage of the distribution that lies between −286 and 470.
6. Approximately what percent of a normal distribution lies between µ + 1σ and µ + 2σ?
7. Given standard deviation of 113 and mean 81, approximately what percentage of the values are less than −145?
8. Given mean 23 and standard deviation 157, find the approximate percentage of the distribution that lies between 23 and 337.
9. Given σ = 3 and µ = 84, approximately what percentage of the values are greater than 90?
10. Approximately what percent of a normal distribution is between µ and µ+1σ?
11. Given mean 118 and standard deviation 145, find the approximate percentage of the distribution that lies between −27 and 118.
12. Given standard deviation of 81 and mean 67, approximately what percentage of values are greater than 310?
13. Approximately what percent of a normal distribution is less than 2 standard deviations from the mean?
14. Given µ + 1σ = 247 and µ + 2σ = 428, find the approximate percentage of the distribution that lies between 66 and 428.
15. Given µ − 1σ = −131 and µ + 1σ = 233, approximately what percentage of the values are greater than −495?
Chapter6EmpiricalRuleA. Authored by: CK-12 Foundation. Located at: https://vimeo.com/47111393. License: CC BY-NC-
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11.10: Z-Scores
Objectives
1. Here you will learn how z-scores can be used to evaluate how extreme a given value is in a particular set or
population.
2. Here you will learn to evaluate z-scores as they relate to probability.
3. Here you will learn to calculate the probability of a z-score between two others.
Part I
Using the Empirical Rule can give you a good idea of the probability of occurrence of a value that happens to be exactly one, two
or three to either side of the mean, but how do you compare the probabilities of values that are in between standard deviations?
Watch This: Maths Tutorial: Z scores

The British video below is very clear and easy to follow. It is worth noting, particularly for US students, that the instructor uses the
notation x rather than µ for mean, and pronounces z as “zed.”
A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: http://pb.libretexts.org/mala/?
p=158
Z-scores are related to the Empirical Rule from the standpoint of being a method of evaluating how extreme a particular value is in
a given set. You can think of a z-score as the number of standard deviations there are between a given value and the mean of
the set. While the Empirical Rule allows you to associate the first three standard deviations with the percentage of data that each
SD includes, the z-score allows you to state (as accurately as you like), just how many SDs a given value is above or below the
mean.
Conceptually, the z-score calculation is just what you might expect, given that you are calculating the number of SDs between a
value and the mean. You calculate the z-score by first calculating the difference between your value and the mean, and then
dividing that amount by the standard deviation of the set. The formula looks like this:
\displaystyle\text{z-score}=\frac{(\text{value}-\text{mean})}{\text{standard deviation}}=\frac{(x=\mu)}{\sigma}\\
In this lesson, we will practice calculating the z-score for various values. In the next lesson, we will learn how to associate the z-
score of a value with the probability that the value will occur.
Example 1
What is the z-score of a value of 27, given a set mean of 24, and a standard deviation of 2?
Solution
To find the z-score we need to divide the difference between the value, 27, and the mean, 24, by the standard deviation of the set, 2.
\displaystyle\text{z-score}=\frac{27-\mu}{\sigma}=\frac{27-24}{2}=\frac{3}{2}\\
\displaystyle\text{z-score of }27=+1.5\\
This indicates that 27 is 1.5 standard deviations above the mean.
Example 2
What is the z-score of a value of 104.5, in a set with µ = 125 and σ = 6.2?
Solution
Find the difference between the given value and the mean, then divide it by the standard deviation.
\displaystyle\text{z-score}=\frac{104.5-\mu}{\sigma}=\frac{104.5-125}{6.2}=\frac{-20.5}{6.2}\\
\displaystyle\text{z-score of }104005=-3.306\\
Note that the z-score is negative, since the measured value, 104.5, is less than (below) the mean, 125.
Example 3
Find the value represented by a z-score of 2.403, given µ = 63 and σ = 4.25.
Solution
This one requires that we solve for a missing value rather than for a missing z-score, so we just need to fill in our formula with
what we know and solve for the missing value:
\displaystyle\text{z-score}=\frac{x-\mu}{\sigma}\\
\displaystyle2.403=\frac{x-63}{4.25}\\
\displaystyle10.213=x-63\\
73.213=x\\
73.213 has a z-score of 2.403

Using the Empirical Rule can give you a good idea of the probability of occurrence of a value that happens to be right on one of the
first three standard deviations to either side of the mean, but how do you compare the probabilities of values that are in between
standard deviations?
The z-score of a value is the count of the number of standard deviations between the value and the mean of the set. You can find it
by subtracting the value from the mean, and dividing the result by the standard deviation.
Vocabulary
The z-score of a value is the number of standard deviations between the value and the mean of the set.
Guided Practice
1. What is the z-score of the price of a pair of skis that cost $247, if the mean ski price is $279, with a standard deviation of $16?
2. What is the z-score of a 5-scoop ice cream cone if the mean number of scoops is 3, with a standard deviation of 1 scoop?
3. What is the z-score of the weight of a cow that tips the scales at 825 lbs, if the mean weight for cows of her type is 1150 lbs,
with a standard deviation of 77 lbs?
4. What is the z-score of a measured value of 0.0034, given µ = 0.0041 and σ = 0.0008?
Solutions
1. First find the difference between the measured value and the mean, then divide that difference by the standard deviation:
\frac{247-279}{16}=\frac{-32}{16}\\
z-score = −2
2. This one is easy: The difference between 5 scoops and 3 scoops is +2, and we divide that by the standard deviation of 1, so the
z-score is +2.
\frac{825\text{ lbs}-1150\text{ lbs}}{771\text{ lbs}}=\frac{-325}{77}\\
z-score = −4.2407
\frac{0.0034-0.0041}{0.0008}=\frac{-0.0007}{0.0008}\\
z-score = −0.875
Part II
Knowing the z-score of a given value is great, but what can you do with it? How does a z-score relate to probability? What is the
probability of occurrence of a z-score less than +2.47?
Watch This: The Normal Distribution

The video below provides a demonstration of how to use a z-score probability reference table, as we do in this lesson. The table he
uses in the video is slightly different, but the concept is the same.
p=158
Since z-scores are a measure of the number of SDs between a value and the mean, they can be used to calculate probability by
comparing the location of the z-score to the area under a normal curve either to the left or right. The area can be calculated using
calculus, but we will just use a table to look up the area.
I believe that the concept of comparing z-scores to probability is most easily understood with a graphic like the one we used in the
lesson on the Empirical Rule, so I included one below. Be sure to review the examples to see how the scores work.
Like the graphic we viewed in the Empirical Rule lesson, this one only provides probability percentages for integer values of z-
scores (standard deviations). In order to find the values for z-scores that aren’t integers, you can use a table like the one below. To
find the value associated with a given z-score, you find the first decimal of your z-score on the left or right side and then the 2nd
decimal of your z-score across the top or bottom of the table. Where they intersect you will find the decimal expression of the
percentage of values that are less than your sample (see example 4).
Table 1 (scroll to see all values)
Z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 Z
0.0 0.5 0.504 0.508 0.512 0.516 0.5199 0.5239 0.5279 0.5319 0.5359 0.0
0.1 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 0.5517 0.5557 0.5596 0.5636 0.5675 0.5714 0.5753 0.1
0.2 0.5793 0.5832 0.5871 0.591 0.5948 0.5987 0.6026 0.6064 0.6103 0.6141 0.2
0.3 0.6179 0.6217 0.6255 0.6293 0.6331 0.6368 0.6406 0.6443 0.648 0.6517 0.3
0.4 0.6554 0.6591 0.6628 0.6664 0.67 0.6736 0.6772 0.6808 0.6844 0.6879 0.4
0.5 0.6915 0.695 0.6985 0.7019 0.7054 0.7088 0.7123 0.7157 0.719 0.7224 0.5
0.6 0.7257 0.7291 0.7324 0.7357 0.7389 0.7422 0.7454 0.7486 0.7517 0.7549 0.6
0.7 0.758 0.7611 0.7642 0.7673 0.7704 0.7734 0.7764 0.7794 0.7823 0.7852 0.7
0.8 0.7881 0.791 0.7939 0.7967 0.7995 0.8023 0.8051 0.8078 0.8106 0.8133 0.8
0.9 0.8159 0.8186 0.8212 0.8238 0.8264 0.8289 0.8315 0.834 0.8365 0.8389 0.9
1.0 0.8413 0.8438 0.8461 0.8485 0.8508 0.8531 0.8554 0.8577 0.8599 0.8621 1.0
1.1 0.8643 0.8665 0.8686 0.8708 0.8729 0.8749 0.877 0.879 0.881 0.883 1.1
1.2 0.8849 0.8869 0.8888 0.8907 0.8925 0.8944 0.8962 0.898 0.8997 0.9015 1.2
1.3 0.9032 0.9049 0.9066 0.9082 0.9099 0.9115 0.9131 0.9147 0.9162 0.9177 1.3
1.4 0.9192 0.9207 0.9222 0.9236 0.9251 0.9265 0.9279 0.9292 0.9306 0.9319 1.4
1.5 0.9332 0.9345 0.9357 0.937 0.9382 0.9394 0.9406 0.9418 0.9429 0.9441 1.5
1.6 0.9452 0.9463 0.9474 0.9484 0.9495 0.9505 0.9515 0.9525 0.9535 0.9545 1.6
1.7 0.9554 0.9564 0.9573 0.9582 0.9591 0.9599 0.9608 0.9616 0.9625 0.9633 1.7
1.8 0.9641 0.9649 0.9656 0.9664 0.9671 0.9678 0.9686 0.9693 0.9699 0.9706 1.8
1.9 0.9713 0.9719 0.9726 0.9732 0.9738 0.9744 0.975 0.9756 0.9761 0.9767 1.9
2.0 0.9772 0.9778 0.9783 0.9788 0.9793 0.9798 0.9803 0.9808 0.9812 0.9817 2.0
2.1 0.9821 0.9826 0.983 0.9834 0.9838 0.9842 0.9846 0.985 0.9854 0.9857 2.1
2.2 0.9861 0.9864 0.9868 0.9871 0.9875 0.9878 0.9881 0.9884 0.9887 0.989 2.2
2.3 0.9893 0.9896 0.9898 0.9901 0.9904 0.9906 0.9909 0.9911 0.9913 0.9916 2.3
2.4 0.9918 0.992 0.9922 0.9925 0.9927 0.9929 0.9931 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936 2.4
2.5 0.9938 0.994 0.9941 0.9943 0.9945 0.9946 0.9948 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952 2.5
2.6 0.9953 0.9955 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.996 0.9961 0.9962 0.9963 0.9964 2.6
2.7 0.9965 0.9966 0.9967 0.9968 0.9969 0.997 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974 2.7
2.8 0.9974 0.9975 0.9976 0.9977 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9979 0.998 0.9981 2.8
2.9 0.9981 0.9982 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986 2.9
3.0 0.9987 0.9987 0.9987 0.9988 0.9988 0.9989 0.9989 0.9989 0.999 0.999 3.0
3.1 0.999 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9993 0.9993 3.1
3.2 0.9993 0.9993 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 3.2
3.3 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 3.3
3.4 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 3.4
3.5 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 3.5
3.6 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 3.6
3.7 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 3.7
3.8 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 3.8
3.9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3.9
Z Z
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Z-score tables like the one above describe the probability that a given value, or any value less than it, will occur in a given set. This
particular table assumes you are looking to find the probability associated with a positive z-score. You may have additional work to
do if the z-score is negative.
To find the percentage of values greater than a negative Z score, just look up the matching positive Z score value.
To find the percentage of values less than a negative z-score, subtract the chart value from 1.
To find the percentage of values greater than a positive z-score, subtract the chart value from 1.
Example 4
What is the probability that a value with a z-score less than 2.47 will occur in a normal distribution?
Solution
Scroll up to the table above and find “2.4” on the left or right side. Now move across the table to “0.07” on the top or bottom, and
record the value in the cell: 0.9932. That tells us that 99.32% of values in the set are at or below a z-score of 2.47.
Example 5
What is the probability that a value with a z-score greater than 1.53 will occur in a normal distribution?
Solution
Scroll up to the table of z-score probabilities again and find the intersection between 1.5 on the left or right and 3 on the top or
bottom, record the value in the cell: 0.937.
That decimal lets us know that 93.7% of values in the set are below the z-score of 1.53. To find the percentage that is above that
value, we subtract 0.937 from 1.0 (or 93.7% from 100%), to get 0.063 or 6.3%.
Example 6
What is the probability of a random selection being less than 3.65, given a normal distribution with µ = 5 and σ = 2.2?
Solution
This question requires us to first find the z-score for the value 3.65, then calculate the percentage of values below
that z-score from a reference.
1. Find the z-score for 3.65, using the z-score formula: \frac{(x-\mu)}{\sigma}=\frac{3.65-5}{2.2}=\frac{-1.35}{2.2}\approx{-0.61}\\
2. Now we can scroll up to our z-score reference above and find the intersection of 0.6 and 0.01, which should be .7291.
3. Since this is a negative z-score, and we want the percentage of values below it, we subtract that decimal from 1.0 (reference the
three steps highlighted by bullet points below the chart if you didn’t recall this), to get 1 − .7291 = .2709
There is approximately a 27.09% probability that a value less than 3.65 would occur from a random selection
of a normal distribution with mean 5 and standard deviation 2. 2.
Concept Problem Revisited

Knowing the z-score of a given value is great, but what can you do with it? How does a z-score relate to probability? What is the
probability of occurrence of a z-score less than 2.47?
A z-score lets you calculate the probability that a randomly selected value will be greater or less than a particular value in a set.
To find the probability of a z-score below +2.47, using a reference such as the table in the lesson above:
1. Find 2.4 on the left or right side
2. Move across to 0.07 on the top or bottom.
3. The cell you arrive at says: 0.9932, which means that apx 99.32% of the values in a normal distribution will occur below a z-
score of 2.47.
Vocabulary
Z-score table: a table that associates the various common z-scores between 0 and 3.99 with the decimal probability of being less
than or equal to that z-score.
Guided Practice
1. What is the probability of occurrence of a value with z-score greater than 1.24?
2. What is the probability of z < −.23?
3. What is P(Z < 2.13)?
Solutions
1. Since this is a positive z-score, we can use the value for z = 1.24 directly from the table, and just express it as a percentage:
0.8925 or 89.25%
2. This is a negative z-score, and we want the percentage of values greater than it, so we need to subtract the value for z = +0.23
from 1: 1 − 0.591 = .409 or 40.9%
3. This is a positive z-score, and we need the percentage of values below it, so we can use the percentage associated with z = +2.13
directly from the table: 0.9834 or 98.34%
Part III
Do z-score probabilities always need to be calculated as the chance of a value either above or below a given score? How would you
calculate the probability of a z-score between −0.08 and +1.92?
Watch This: Reading Probabilities from the Z-table
p=158
To calculate the probability of getting a value with a z-score between two other z-scores, you can either use a reference table to
look up the value for both scores and subtract them to find the difference, or you can use technology. In this lesson, which is an
extension of Z-scores and Z-scores II, we will practice both methods.
Historically, it has been very common to use a z-score probability table like the one below to look up the probability associated
with a given z-score:
Z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 Z
0.0 0.5 0.504 0.508 0.512 0.516 0.5199 0.5239 0.5279 0.5319 0.5359 0.0
0.1 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 0.5517 0.5557 0.5596 0.5636 0.5675 0.5714 0.5753 0.1
0.2 0.5793 0.5832 0.5871 0.591 0.5948 0.5987 0.6026 0.6064 0.6103 0.6141 0.2
0.3 0.6179 0.6217 0.6255 0.6293 0.6331 0.6368 0.6406 0.6443 0.648 0.6517 0.3
0.4 0.6554 0.6591 0.6628 0.6664 0.67 0.6736 0.6772 0.6808 0.6844 0.6879 0.4
0.5 0.6915 0.695 0.6985 0.7019 0.7054 0.7088 0.7123 0.7157 0.719 0.7224 0.5
0.6 0.7257 0.7291 0.7324 0.7357 0.7389 0.7422 0.7454 0.7486 0.7517 0.7549 0.6
0.7 0.758 0.7611 0.7642 0.7673 0.7704 0.7734 0.7764 0.7794 0.7823 0.7852 0.7
0.8 0.7881 0.791 0.7939 0.7967 0.7995 0.8023 0.8051 0.8078 0.8106 0.8133 0.8
0.9 0.8159 0.8186 0.8212 0.8238 0.8264 0.8289 0.8315 0.834 0.8365 0.8389 0.9
1.0 0.8413 0.8438 0.8461 0.8485 0.8508 0.8531 0.8554 0.8577 0.8599 0.8621 1.0
1.1 0.8643 0.8665 0.8686 0.8708 0.8729 0.8749 0.877 0.879 0.881 0.883 1.1
1.2 0.8849 0.8869 0.8888 0.8907 0.8925 0.8944 0.8962 0.898 0.8997 0.9015 1.2
1.3 0.9032 0.9049 0.9066 0.9082 0.9099 0.9115 0.9131 0.9147 0.9162 0.9177 1.3
1.4 0.9192 0.9207 0.9222 0.9236 0.9251 0.9265 0.9279 0.9292 0.9306 0.9319 1.4
1.5 0.9332 0.9345 0.9357 0.937 0.9382 0.9394 0.9406 0.9418 0.9429 0.9441 1.5
1.6 0.9452 0.9463 0.9474 0.9484 0.9495 0.9505 0.9515 0.9525 0.9535 0.9545 1.6
1.7 0.9554 0.9564 0.9573 0.9582 0.9591 0.9599 0.9608 0.9616 0.9625 0.9633 1.7
1.8 0.9641 0.9649 0.9656 0.9664 0.9671 0.9678 0.9686 0.9693 0.9699 0.9706 1.8
1.9 0.9713 0.9719 0.9726 0.9732 0.9738 0.9744 0.975 0.9756 0.9761 0.9767 1.9
2.0 0.9772 0.9778 0.9783 0.9788 0.9793 0.9798 0.9803 0.9808 0.9812 0.9817 2.0
2.1 0.9821 0.9826 0.983 0.9834 0.9838 0.9842 0.9846 0.985 0.9854 0.9857 2.1
2.2 0.9861 0.9864 0.9868 0.9871 0.9875 0.9878 0.9881 0.9884 0.9887 0.989 2.2
2.3 0.9893 0.9896 0.9898 0.9901 0.9904 0.9906 0.9909 0.9911 0.9913 0.9916 2.3
2.4 0.9918 0.992 0.9922 0.9925 0.9927 0.9929 0.9931 0.9932 0.9934 0.9936 2.4
2.5 0.9938 0.994 0.9941 0.9943 0.9945 0.9946 0.9948 0.9949 0.9951 0.9952 2.5
2.6 0.9953 0.9955 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.996 0.9961 0.9962 0.9963 0.9964 2.6
2.7 0.9965 0.9966 0.9967 0.9968 0.9969 0.997 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974 2.7
2.8 0.9974 0.9975 0.9976 0.9977 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9979 0.998 0.9981 2.8
2.9 0.9981 0.9982 0.9982 0.9983 0.9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986 2.9
3.0 0.9987 0.9987 0.9987 0.9988 0.9988 0.9989 0.9989 0.9989 0.999 0.999 3.0
3.1 0.999 0.9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9993 0.9993 3.1
3.2 0.9993 0.9993 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 3.2
3.3 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9997 3.3
3.4 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998 3.4
3.5 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 3.5
3.6 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 3.6
3.7 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 3.7
3.8 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 3.8
3.9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3.9
Z Z
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Since the proliferation of the Internet, however, you can also use a free online calculator such as one of these three:
z-Score Calculator
z-Score to p-Value Calculator
z-Score Calculator
Example 7
What is the probability associated with a z-score between 1.2 and 2.31?
Solution
To evaluate the probability of a value occurring within a given range, you need to find the probability of both the upper and lower
values in the range, and subtract to find the difference.
First find z = 1.2 on the z-score probability reference above: .8849. Remember that value represents the percentage of values
below 1.2.
Next, find and record the value associated with z = 2.31: .9896
Since approximately 88.49% of all values are below z = 1.2 and approximately 98.96% of all values are below z = 2.31, there
are 98.96% −88.49% = 10.47% of values between.
Example 8
What is the probability that a value with a z-score between -1.32 and +1.49 will occur in a normal distribution?
Solution
Let’s use the online calculator at mathportal.org for this one. When you open the page, you should see a window like this:
All you need to do is select the radio button to the left of the first type of probability, input “−1.32” into the first box, and 1.49 into
the second. When you click Compute, you should get the result P(−1.32 < Z < 1.49) = 0.8385
Which tells us that there is approximately and 83.85% probability that a value with a z-score between 1.32 and 1.49 will occur in a
normal distribution.
Notice that the calculator also details the steps involved with finding the answer:
1. Estimate the probability using a graph, so you have an idea of what your answer should be.
2. Find the probability of z < 1.49, using a reference. (0.9319)
3. Find the probability of z < −1.32, again, using a reference. (0.0934)
4. Subtract the values: 0.9319 − 0.0934 = 0.8385 or 83.85%
Example 9
What is the probability that a random selection will be between 8.45 and 10.25, if it is from a normal distribution with µ = 10 and σ
= 2?
Solution
This question requires us to first find the z-scores for the value 8.45 and 10.25, then calculate the percentage of value between them
by using values from a z-score reference and finding the difference.
1. Find the z-score for 8.45, using the z-score formula: \frac{(x-\mu)}{\sigma}\\
\frac{8.45-10}{2}=\frac{-1.55}{2}\approx{-0.78}\\
2. Find the z-score for 10.25 the same way:

\frac{10.25-10}{2}=\frac{0.25}{2}\approx{.13}\\
3. Now find the percentages for each, using a reference (don’t forget we want the probability of values less than our negative score
and less than our positive score, so we can find the values between):
P(Z < −0.78) = .2177 or 21.77%
P(Z < .13) = .5517 or 55.17%
4. At this point, let’s sketch the graph to get an idea what we are looking for:
5. Finally, subtract the values to find the difference:

.5517 − .2177 = .3340 or about 33.4%
There is approximately a 33.4% probability that a value between 8.45 and 10.25 would result from a random selection of a
normal distribution with mean 10 and standard deviation 2.
Concept Problem Revisited

Do z-score probabilities always need to be calculated as the chance of a value either above or below a given score? How would
you calculate the probability of a z-score between −0.08 and +1.92?
After this lesson, you should know without question that z-score probabilities do not need to assume only probabilities above or
below a given value, the probability between values can also be calculated.
The probability of a z-score below −0.08 is 46.81%, and the probability of a z-score below 1.92 is 97.26%, so the probability
between them is 97.26%−46.81% = 50.45%.
Vocabulary
z-score: a measure of how many standard deviations there are between a data value and the mean.
z-score probability table: a table that associates z-scores to area under the normal curve. The table may be used to associate a Z-
score with a percent probability.
Guided Practice
1. What is the probability of a z-score between −0.93 and 2.11?
2. What is P(1.39 < Z < 2.03)?
3. What is P(−2.11 < Z < 2.11)?
Solutions
1. Using the z-score probability table above, we can see that the probability of a value below −0.93 is .1762, and the probability of
a value below 2.11 is .9826. Therefore, the probability of a value between them is .9826−.1762 = .8064 or 80.64%
2. Using the z-score probability table, we see that the probability of a value below z = 1.39 is .9177, and a value below z = 2.03 is
.9788. That means that the probability of a value between them is .9788 − .9177 = .0611 or 6.11%
3. Using the online calculator at mathportal.org, we select the top calculation with the associated radio button to the left of it, enter
“−2.11” in the first box, and “2.11” in the second box. Click Compute to get “ .9652,” and convert to a percentage. The
probability of a z-score between −2.11 and +2.11 is about 96.52%.
Practice Questions
1. Given a distribution with a mean of 70 and standard deviation of 62, find a value with a z-score of −1.82.
2. What does a z-score of 3.4 mean?
3. Given a distribution with a mean of 60 and standard deviation of 98, find the z-score of 120.76.
4. Given a distribution with a mean of 60 and standard deviation of 21, find a value with a z-score of 2.19.
5. Find the z-score of 187.37, given a distribution with a mean of 185 and standard deviation of 1.
6. What does a z-score of −3.8 mean?
7. Find the z-score of 125.18, given a distribution with a mean of 101 and standard deviation of 62.
10. Find the z-score of 264.16, given µ = 188 and σ = 64.
11. Find a value with a z-score of −0.2, given µ = 145 and σ = 56.
12. Find the z-score of 89.79 given µ = 10 and σ = 79.
Find the probabilities, use the table from the lesson above.
1. What is the probability of a z-score less than +2.02?
2. What is the probability of a z-score greater than +2.02?
3. What is the probability of a z-score less than −1.97?
4. What is the probability of a z-score greater than −1.97?
5. What is the probability of a z-score less than +0.09?
6. What is the probability of a z-score less than −0.02?
7. What is P(Z < 1.71)?
8. What is P(Z > 2.22)?
9. What is P(Z < −1.19)?
10. What is P(Z > −2.71)?
11. What is P(Z < 3.71)?
12. What is the probability of the random occurrence of a value greater than 56 from a normally distributed population with mean
62 and standard deviation 4.5?
13. What is the probability of a value of 329 or greater, assuming a normally distributed set with mean 290 and standard deviation
32?
14. What is the probability of getting a value below 1.2 from the random output of a normally distributed set with µ = 2.6 and σ =
.9?
Find the probabilities, use the table from the lesson or an online resource.
1. What is the probability of a z-score between +1.99 and +2.02?
2. What is the probability of a z-score between −1.99 and +2.02?
3. What is the probability of a z-score between −1.20 and −1.97?
4. What is the probability of a z-score between +2.33 and −0.97?
5. What is the probability of a z-score greater than +0.09?
6. What is the probability of a z-score greater than −0.02?
7. What is P(1.42 < Z < 2.01)?
8. What is P(1.77 < Z < 2.22)?
9. What is P(−2.33 < Z < −1.19)?
10. What is P(−3.01 < Z < −0.71)?
11. What is P(2.66 < Z < 3.71)?
12. What is the probability of the random occurrence of a value between 56 and 61 from a normally distributed population with
mean 62 and standard deviation 4.5?
13. What is the probability of a value between 301 and 329, assuming a normally distributed set with mean 290 and standard
deviation 32?
14. What is the probability of getting
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This YouTube playlist contains several videos that supplement the reading in this unit. You are not required to
watch all of these videos, but I recommend watching the videos for any concepts you may be struggling with.
Mathematics for the Liberal Arts II. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College.
Objective
Here you will learn about pairs of variables that are related in a linear fashion, including those with values occurring
in a slightly random manner.
Here you will learn to calculate the linear correlation coefficient, and how to use it to describe the relationship between an
explanatory and response variable.
Linear Relationships
Imagine walking through the electronics section of your local department store. On the wall are examples of dozens of television
sets, from little 1900 units made to sit on a kitchen counter to 72″+ monsters meant to be the centerpiece of a home theatre.
Looking at the prices, you note without surprise that the 72″ model is more expensive than the 19″, and a 42″ model is priced in
between. It seems rather clear that as the TV gets larger, the price goes up. Does that mean increased screen size causes increased
price?
Look to the end of the section for the answer.
Watch This: Exploring Linear Relationships
p=160
When two quantities are compared, it is not uncommon to note a relationship between them that indicates both quantities increase
and decrease at the same time, or that one increases as the other decreases. If both quantities are plotted on coordinate axes, the data
points show a general or definite linear trend.
If the points actually form a clearly defined line, the variables may be an example of a deterministic relationship. A deterministic
relationship indicates that the value of one variable can be reliably and accurately determined by the manipulation of the other
variable. An example might be inches and centimeters: one inch is the same as 2.54 centimeters. If you know how many inches
long something is, you can reliably and accurately calculate the number of centimeters long the same item is.
As you likely recall from Algebra, the slope describes the angle of the line created by plotting points from a linear relationship, and
the point where the explanatory variable has a value of zero is called the y-intercept (commonly denoted b).
Often, particularly in research situations when one or both variables are measured, the plotted values are generally linear, but do not
line up precisely. When two variables seem to show a linear relationship, but the values display some amount of randomness, we
commonly visually describe the relationship with a scatter plot. As you will see throughout this chapter, the strength of the linear
relationship of the variables can be described through mathematics.
Example 1
Given the equation y = 2.3x + 5:
1. Create an x–y table to describe the values of at least four points
2. What is the slope of the line?
3. What is the y-intercept?
Solution
1. Pick a value for x, substitute the chosen value for x in the equation, and calculate y:
Table 1
x calculation y
1 y = 2.3(1) + 5 7.3
2 y = 2.3(2) + 5 9.6
0 y = 2.3(0) + 5 5
−1 y = 2.3(−1) + 5 2.7
The equation in the problem is in y = mx + b form (also known as slope-intercept form), where b is the y-value when x = 0, and
m is the slope of the line.
2. m = 2.3
3. b = 5
Example 2
Given the equation y = −3x + 3.9:
1. Create an x–y table to describe the values of at least four points
Solution
Table 2
x calculation y
1 y = −3(1) + 3.9 6.9
2 y = −3(2) + 3.9 9.9
Table 2
0 y = −3(0) + 3.9 3.9
−1 y = −3(−1) + 3.9 0.9
2. m = −3
3. b = 3.9
Example 3
Given the equation y = −2.8x − 9.1:
1. Create an x–y table to describe the values of at least four points.
Solution
Table 3
x calculation y
1 y = −2.8(1) − 9.1 −11.9
2 y = −2.8(2) − 9.1 −14.7
0 y = −2.8(0) − 9.1 −9.1
−1 y = −2.8(−1) − 9.1 6.3
2. m = −2.8
3. b = −9.1

Imagine walking through the electronics section of your local department store. On the wall are examples of dozens of television
sets, from little 1900 units made to sit on a kitchen counter to 72″+ monsters meant to be the centerpiece of a home theatre.
Looking at the prices, you note without surprise that the 72″ model is more expensive than the 19″, and a 42″ model is priced in
between. It seems rather clear that as the TV gets larger, the price goes up. Does that mean increased screen size causes increased
price?
No, it does not. This is an example of the difficulty associated with examining linear relationships. Correlation does not imply
causation. Just because a pair of variables exhibit a relationship, linear or otherwise, does not mean that one variable causes
changes in the other variable.
Vocabulary
Cartesian Graph: a “plus-shaped” graph, with the explanatory variable (the input value) plotted horizontally on the x-axis, and
the response variable (the output value) plotted vertically on the y-axis.
Deterministic linear relationship: a relationship that plots a reliably straight and accurate single line.
Slope of a line: (commonly denoted m) describes the angle of a plotted line on a graph.
Scatter plot: a graph of individual points on an x–y graph.
Guided Practice
1. If a linear graph exhibits a positive slope, what can you predict will happen to the response variable as the explanatory variable
increases?
2. If a linear graph has no slope, what does that mean?
3. Given the linear equation 2y = 5.2x + 7:
1. What is the slope?
2. What is the y-interept?
3. What happens to y as x increases?
4. Given the equation y = 2x2 +4:
1. Is this a linear equation? Why or why not?
2. Does this equation represent a relationship?
Solutions
1. A positive slope indicates that the variables increase and decrease together.
2. A line with no slope is a horizontal line, since the only defined variable is the output. No matter what value is given for the
explanatory variable, the response is the same.
3. Answers:
1. The slope, m, is 5.2.
2. The y-intercept, b, is 7.
3. Since this line has a positive slope, y increases as x increases.
4. Answers:
1. No, the explanatory variable is squared, this graph would form a parabola.
2. Yes! It is just not a linear relationship.
Linear Correlation Coefficient

Suppose you have noted that your car seems to use more gas when you drive fast than when you drive more slowly. You decide to
see how strong the relationship is, so you do some research, collect the data, and plot the data on the graph below, where the
explanatory variable x is mph, and the response variable y is mpg. How can you describe how strong the correlation is without the
graph?
Watch This: The Correlation Coefficient and Coefficient of Determination
p=160
The linear correlation coefficient (sometimes called Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient), commonly denoted r, is a measure of the
strength of the linear relationship between two variables. The value of r has the following properties:
r is always a value between −1 and +1
The further an r value is from zero, the stronger the relationship between the two variables.
The sign of r indicates the nature of the relationship: A positive r indicates a positive relationship, and a negative r indicates a
negative relationship.
Generally speaking, you may think of the values of r in the following manner:
If |r| is between 0.85 and 1, there is a strong correlation.
If |r| is between 0.5 and 0.85, there is a moderate correlation.
If |r| is between 0.1 and 0.5, there is a weak correlation.
If |r| is less than 0.1, there is no apparent correlation.
Naturally, r-value can be calculated, but the formula is a bit beyond the scope of this course. Fortunately, there are many excellent
and free online calculators for determining the r-value of a set of data. In this reading, I will be using the one at
easycalculation.com, but a search for “correlation calculator online” will yield the most current options.
At the risk of overloading you with new terms, there is one more that I think it is worth learning in this reading, the coefficient of
determination. The coefficient of determination is very simple to calculate if you know the correlation coefficient, since it is just
r2. The reason I mention it is that the coefficient of determination can be interpreted as the percentage of variation of the y variable
that can be attributed to the relationship. In other words, a value of r2 = .63 can be interpreted as “63% of the changes between one
y value and another can be attributed to y’s relationship with x.”
Example 4
Elaina is curious about the relationship between the weight of a dog and the amount of food it eats. Specifically, she wonders if
heavier dogs eat more food, or if age and size factor in. She works at the Humane Society, and does some research. After some
calculation, she determines that dog weight and food weight exhibit an r-value of 0.73.
What can Elaina say about the relationship, based on her research? What percentage of the increases in food intake can she attribute
to weight, according to her research?
Solution
The calculated r-value of 0.73 tells us that Elaina’s data demonstrates a moderate to strong correlation between the variables.
Since the coefficient of determination tells us the percentage of changes in the output variable that can be attributed to the input
variable, we need to calculate r2:
r2 = (0.73)2 = .5329
Approximately 53% of increases in food intake can be attributed to the linear relationship between food intake and the weight of
the dog, suggesting that other factors, perhaps age and size, are also involved.
Example 5
Tuscany wonders if barrel racing times are related to the age of the horse. Specifically, she wonders if older horses take longer to
complete a barrel racing run. As a member of the Pony Club, she does some research, and determines that horse age to barrel run
time exhibits an r-value of 0.52.
What can Tuscany say about horse age vs barrel race time, according to her research?
Solution
Tuscany’s research suggests that there is a moderate to weak correlation between horse age and barrel run time. In other words, the
research suggests that (0.52)2 = .27 = 27% of the differences between barrel run times could be attributable to the linear
relationship between barrel run time and the age of the horse.
Example 6
Sayber has collected the following data regarding player score vs age in his favorite online game. He suspects that increased age is
not a good indicator of gaming ability. What are the linear correlation coefficient and coefficient of determination values of his
data, and how do they support or not support Sayber’s hypothesis?
Table 4
Age Avg. Player Score
12 5,120
14 6,328
18 7,892
Table 4
22 7,340
28 6,987
34 7,750
42 5,421
Solution
Let’s use the online calculator at easycalculation.com for this one.

I entered the explanatory (Age) and response (Player Score) values into the calculator:
The linear correlation coefficient of approximately 0.04 suggests that there is no appreciable linear correlation. The coefficient of
determination of 0.0016 suggests that perhaps 0.16% (practically none) of the variability of the player score is dependent on age.
Looking at the scores, however, something seems a miss with our findings. The scores suggest that age has no bearing on player
score, but look at the graph of the same data:
The graph suggests that the youngest and oldest polled players score less than players in late teens to mid-thirties, which seems
reasonable.
This is an important example of the weakness of using just one indicator of the relationship between two variables. As I noted early
in the reading, the r-value is only an indicator of linear correlation, it says nothing at all about other kinds of variable relationships.
It is always a good idea to review your data in different ways to evaluate your initial conclusions.
Suppose you have noted that your car seems to use more gas when you drive fast than when you drive more slowly. You decide to
see how strong the relationship is, so you do some research, collect the data, and plot the data on the graph below, where the
explanatory variable x is mph, and the response variable y is mpg. How can you describe how strong the correlation is without the
graph?
After the reading above, we know that the r-value or r2-value of the relationship between MPG and MPH would describe the
strength of the linear relationship in a single value.
By taking the data points detailed on the graph (in practice, of course, I would have had them in table format already, since I would
have needed them to build the graph in the first place), and entering them into a free linear coefficient calculator online, I get an r-
value of −0.943, indicating a strong negative relationship. This also translates into an r2-value of (−0.943)2 = 0.89, indicating that
the research suggests that approximately 89% of the decrease in MPG from left to right across the graph can be attributed to the
increase in MPH.
Vocabulary
Linear correlation coefficient or r-value of a relationship: describes the strength of the linear relationship.
Coefficient of determination or r2-value of a relationship: indicates the approximate percentage of variation in the response
variable that can be attributed to the linear relationship between the response and explanatory variables, according to the data
presented.
Guided Practice
1. What can you say about the strength of a linear relationship with an r-value of −0.87?
2. What can you say about the level of negative correlation of a relationship if you know the coefficient of determination is 0.82?
3. How much of the variability of y is attributable to x in a relationship with an r-value of 0.76?
Solutions
1. An |r| of > 0.85 indicates a strong linear relationship. The fact that r is negative indicates that as x increases, y decreases.
2. Nothing! The coefficient of determination is r2, and therefore always positive. We know that |r|= \sqrt{.82}\approx{.91}\\, so this is a
strong linear correlation, but we have no idea if it is positive or negative.
3. The coefficient of determination describes the variation in y attributable to x, so we need to find r2: (0.76)2 = .5776.
Approximately 57.76% of the change in y-values can be attributed to the change in x.
Practice Questions
For the following questions, find the x and y intercepts of the given equations.
1. −x + 4y = 8
2. 3x + 5y = 15
3. −3x + 4y = 36
4. −8x + 5y = 40
5. 5x − 6y = −30
6. −9x − 3y = −54
7. −x + 5y = −10
8. −3x + 8y = −72
For the following questions, graph the line.
1. x + 3y = 2
2. m = −4, b = \frac{4}{3}\\
3. x-intercept = −1, y-intercept = 2
4. y = −4x + 2
5. m = −1, b = \frac{1}{2}\\
6. x + 2y = 5
7. −3x + 2y = −3
For the following questions, describe the relationship based on the r-value.
1. r = 0
2. r = 0.91
3. r = −0.49
4. r = 0.05
5. r = 1
For the following questions, describe the relationship based on the coefficient of determination:
1. r2 = 0.82
2. r2 = 0.15
3. r2 = 0.47
4. r2 = 1
5. r2 = 0
The following questions refer to the data in the following table:
Table 5
x y
5 70
7 69
13 58
22 47
36 36
38 25
Table 5
45 14
1. What is the linear correlation coefficient of the data?

2. What does r tell you about the relationship?
3. What is the r2 value of the data?
4. What does the coefficient of determination tell you about this relationship?
5. What would a graph of the data look like?
Regression and Correlation. Authored by: Karen Walters. Provided by: CK-12 Foundation. Located at: http://www.ck12.org/.
Best Buy section QR codes. Authored by: Eliot Phillips. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/98ookU. License: CC BY-NC:
Attribution-NonCommercial
Puppies eating. Authored by: Christian Haugen. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/6ESbCP. License: CC BY: Attribution
Modeling with linear equations example 1. Authored by: Khan Academy. Located at: https://youtu.be/qPx7i1jwXX4.
License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
The Correlation Coefficient and Coefficient of Determination (Old, fast version). Authored by: jbstatistics. Located at:
https://youtu.be/dCgIavyFWIo. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
11.12: Regression and Correlation is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
11.13: Exercises
Skills
1. A political scientist surveys 28 of the current 106 representatives in a state’s congress. Of them, 14 said they were supporting a
new education bill, 12 said there were not supporting the bill, and 2 were undecided.
a. What is the population of this survey?
b. What is the size of the population?
c. What is the size of the sample?
d. Give the sample statistic for the proportion of voters surveyed who said they were supporting the education bill.
e. Based on this sample, we might expect how many of the representatives to support the education bill?
2. The city of Raleigh has 9500 registered voters. There are two candidates for city council in an upcoming election: Brown and
Feliz. The day before the election, a telephone poll of 350 randomly selected registered voters was conducted. 112 said they’d
vote for Brown, 207 said they’d vote for Feliz, and 31 were undecided.
a. What is the population of this survey?
b. What is the size of the population?
c. What is the size of the sample?
d. Give the sample statistic for the proportion of voters surveyed who said they’d vote for Brown.
e. Based on this sample, we might expect how many of the 9500 voters to vote for Brown?
3. Identify the most relevant source of bias in this situation: A survey asks the following: Should the mall prohibit loud and
annoying rock music in clothing stores catering to teenagers?
4. Identify the most relevant source of bias in this situation: To determine opinions on voter support for a downtown renovation
project, a surveyor randomly questions people working in downtown businesses.
5. Identify the most relevant source of bias in this situation: A survey asks people to report their actual income and the income
they reported on their IRS tax form.
6. Identify the most relevant source of bias in this situation: A survey randomly calls people from the phone book and asks them to
answer a long series of questions.
7. Identify the most relevant source of bias in this situation: A survey asks the following: Should the death penalty be permitted if
innocent people might die?
8. Identify the most relevant source of bias in this situation: A study seeks to investigate whether a new pain medication is safe to
market to the public. They test by randomly selecting 300 men from a set of volunteers.
9. In a study, you ask the subjects their age in years. Is this data qualitative or quantitative?
10. In a study, you ask the subjects their gender. Is this data qualitative or quantitative?
11. Does this describe an observational study or an experiment: The temperature on randomly selected days throughout the year
was measured.
12. Does this describe an observational study or an experiment? A group of students are told to listen to music while taking a test
and their results are compared to a group not listening to music.
13. In a study, the sample is chosen by separating all cars by size, and selecting 10 of each size grouping. What is the sampling
method?
14. In a study, the sample is chosen by writing everyone’s name on a playing card, shuffling the deck, then choosing the top 20
cards. What is the sampling method?
15. A team of researchers is testing the effectiveness of a new HPV vaccine. They randomly divide the subjects into two groups.
Group 1 receives new HPV vaccine, and Group 2 receives the existing HPV vaccine. The patients in the study do not know
which group they are in.
a. Which is the treatment group?
b. Which is the control group (if there is one)?
c. Is this study blind, double-blind, or neither?
d. Is this best described as an experiment, a controlled experiment, or a placebo controlled experiment?
16. For the clinical trials of a weight loss drug containing Garcinia cambogia the subjects were randomly divided into two groups.
The first received an inert pill along with an exercise and diet plan, while the second received the test medicine along with the
same exercise and diet plan. The patients do not know which group they are in, nor do the fitness and nutrition advisors.
a. Which is the treatment group?
b. Which is the control group (if there is one)?
c. Is this study blind, double-blind, or neither?
d. Is this best described as an experiment, a controlled experiment, or a placebo controlled experiment?
Concepts
17. A teacher wishes to know whether the males in his/her class have more conservative attitudes than the females. A questionnaire
is distributed assessing attitudes.
a. Is this a sampling or a census?
b. Is this an observational study or an experiment?
c. Are there any possible sources of bias in this study?
18. A study is conducted to determine whether people learn better with spaced or massed practice. Subjects volunteer from an
introductory psychology class. At the beginning of the semester 12 subjects volunteer and are assigned to the massed-practice
group. At the end of the semester 12 subjects volunteer and are assigned to the spaced-practice condition.
a. Is this a sampling or a census?
b. Is this an observational study or an experiment?
c. This study involves two kinds of non-random sampling: (1) Subjects are not randomly sampled from some specified
population and (2) Subjects are not randomly assigned to groups. Which problem is more serious? What affect on the results
does each have?
19. A farmer believes that playing Barry Manilow songs to his peas will increase their yield. Describe a controlled experiment the
farmer could use to test his theory.
20. A sports psychologist believes that people are more likely to be extroverted as adults if they played team sports as children.
Describe two possible studies to test this theory. Design one as an observational study and the other as an experiment. Which is
more practical?
Exploration
21. Studies are often done by pharmaceutical companies to determine the effectiveness of a treatment program. Suppose that a new
AIDS antibody drug is currently under study. It is given to patients once the AIDS symptoms have revealed themselves. Of
interest is the average length of time in months patients live once starting the treatment. Two researchers each follow a different
set of 50 AIDS patients from the start of treatment until their deaths.
a. What is the population of this study?
b. List two reasons why the data may differ.
c. Can you tell if one researcher is correct and the other one is incorrect? Why?
d. Would you expect the data to be identical? Why or why not?
e. If the first researcher collected her data by randomly selecting 40 states, then selecting 1 person from each of those states.
What sampling method is that?
f. If the second researcher collected his data by choosing 40 patients he knew. What sampling method would that researcher
have used? What concerns would you have about this data set, based upon the data collection method?
22. Find a newspaper or magazine article, or the online equivalent, describing the results of a recent study (the results of a poll are
not sufficient). Give a summary of the study’s findings, then analyze whether the article provided enough information to
determine the validity of the conclusions. If not, produce a list of things that are missing from the article that would help you
determine the validity of the study. Look for the things discussed in the text: population, sample, randomness, blind, control,
placebos, etc.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
12: Module 3- Set Theory
12.2: Set Theory
12.6: Helpful Links
12: Module 3- Set Theory is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
What You’ll Learn To Do: Describe set theory and perform operations.
Learning Objectives
Describe memberships of sets, including the empty set, using proper notation, and decide whether given items are members and
determine the cardinality of a given set.
Describe the relations between sets regarding membership, equality, subset, and proper subset, using proper notation.
Perform the operations of union, intersection, complement, and difference on sets using proper notation.
Be able to draw and interpret Venn diagrams of set relations and operations and use Venn diagrams to solve problems.
Recognize when set theory is applicable to real-life situations, solve real-life problems, and communicate real-life problems and
Learning Activities

Read: Set Theory
Read: Supplemental Videos for Set Theory
Read: Verbal, Roster, and Set-Builder Notation for a Set
Read: Consider a Set
Review: Helpful Links
Submit: Set Theory Homework #1 (16 points)
Submit: Set Theory Homework #2 (14 points)
Discuss: Application of Set Theory (20 points)
12.2: Set Theory
It is natural for us to classify items into groups, or sets, and consider how those sets overlap with each other. We can use these sets
understand relationships between groups, and to analyze survey data.
Basics
An art collector might own a collection of paintings, while a music lover might keep a collection of CDs. Any collection of items
can form a set.
Set
A set is a collection of distinct objects, called elements of the set
A set can be defined by describing the contents, or by listing the elements of the set, enclosed in curly brackets.
Example 1
Some examples of sets defined by describing the contents:
1. The set of all even numbers
2. The set of all books written about travel to Chile
Answers
Some examples of sets defined by listing the elements of the set:
1. {1, 3, 9, 12}
2. {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, purple}
A set simply specifies the contents; order is not important. The set represented by {1, 2, 3} is equivalent to the set {3, 1, 2}.
Notation
Commonly, we will use a variable to represent a set, to make it easier to refer to that set later.
The symbol ∈ means “is an element of”.
A set that contains no elements, { }, is called the empty set and is notated ∅
Example 2
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
To notate that 2 is element of the set, we’d write 2 ∈ A
Sometimes a collection might not contain all the elements of a set. For example, Chris owns three Madonna albums. While Chris’s
collection is a set, we can also say it is a subset of the larger set of all Madonna albums.
Subset
A subset of a set A is another set that contains only elements from the set A, but may not contain all the elements of A.
If B is a subset of A, we write B ⊆ A
A proper subset is a subset that is not identical to the original set—it contains fewer elements.
If B is a proper subset of A, we write B ⊂ A
Example 3
Consider these three sets:
A = the set of all even numbers
B = {2, 4, 6}
C = {2, 3, 4, 6}
Here B ⊂ A since every element of B is also an even number, so is an element of A.
More formally, we could say B ⊂ A since if x ∈ B, then x ∈ A.
It is also true that B ⊂ C.
C is not a subset of A, since C contains an element, 3, that is not contained in A
Example 4
Suppose a set contains the plays “Much Ado About Nothing,” “MacBeth,” and “A Midsummer’s Night Dream.” What is a larger
set this might be a subset of?
There are many possible answers here. One would be the set of plays by Shakespeare. This is also a subset of the set of all plays
ever written. It is also a subset of all British literature.
Try It Now
The set A = {1, 3, 5}. What is a larger set this might be a subset of?

Commonly sets interact. For example, you and a new roommate decide to have a house party, and you both invite your circle of
friends. At this party, two sets are being combined, though it might turn out that there are some friends that were in both sets.

The union of two sets contains all the elements contained in either set (or both sets). The union is notated A ⋃ B. More formally, x
∊ A ⋃ B if x ∈ A or x ∈ B (or both)
The intersection of two sets contains only the elements that are in both sets. The intersection is notated A ⋂ B. More formally, x ∈
A ⋂ B if x ∈ A and x ∈ B.
The complement of a set A contains everything that is not in the set A. The complement is notated A’, or Ac, or sometimes ~A.
Example 5
Consider the sets:
A = {red, green, blue}
B = {red, yellow, orange}
C = {red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple}
Find the following:
1. Find A ⋃ B
2. Find A ⋂ B
3. Find Ac⋂ C
Answers
1. The union contains all the elements in either set: A ⋃ B = {red, green, blue, yellow, orange} Notice we only list red once.
2. The intersection contains all the elements in both sets: A ⋂ B = {red}
3. Here we’re looking for all the elements that are not in set A and are also in C. Ac ⋂ C = {orange, yellow, purple}
Try It Now
Using the sets from the previous example, find A ⋃ C and Bc ⋂ A
Notice that in the example above, it would be hard to just ask for Ac, since everything from the color fuchsia to puppies and peanut
butter are included in the complement of the set. For this reason, complements are usually only used with intersections, or when we
have a universal set in place.
Universal Set
A universal set is a set that contains all the elements we are interested in. This would have to be defined by the context.
A complement is relative to the universal set, so Ac contains all the elements in the universal set that are not in A.
Example 6
1. If we were discussing searching for books, the universal set might be all the books in the library.
2. If we were grouping your Facebook friends, the universal set would be all your Facebook friends.
3. If you were working with sets of numbers, the universal set might be all whole numbers, all integers, or all real numbers
Example 7
Suppose the universal set is U = all whole numbers from 1 to 9. If A = {1, 2, 4}, then Ac = {3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
As we saw earlier with the expression Ac ⋂ C, set operations can be grouped together. Grouping symbols can be used like they are
with arithmetic – to force an order of operations.
Example 8
Suppose H = {cat, dog, rabbit, mouse}, F = {dog, cow, duck, pig, rabbit}, and W = {duck, rabbit, deer, frog, mouse}
1. Find (H ⋂ F) ⋃ W
2. Find H ⋂ (F ⋃ W)
3. Find (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W
Solutions
1. We start with the intersection: H ⋂ F = {dog, rabbit}. Now we union that result with W: (H ⋂ F) ⋃ W = {dog, duck, rabbit,
deer, frog, mouse}
2. We start with the union: F ⋃ W = {dog, cow, rabbit, duck, pig, deer, frog, mouse}. Now we intersect that result with H: H ⋂ (F
⋃ W) = {dog, rabbit, mouse}
3. We start with the intersection: H ⋂ F = {dog, rabbit}. Now we want to find the elements of W that are not in H ⋂ F. (H ⋂
F)c ⋂ W = {duck, deer, frog, mouse}
Venn Diagrams
To visualize the interaction of sets, John Venn in 1880 thought to use overlapping circles, building on a similar idea used by
Leonhard Euler in the eighteenth century. These illustrations now called Venn Diagrams.
Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram represents each set by a circle, usually drawn inside of a containing box representing the universal set.
Overlapping areas indicate elements common to both sets.
Basic Venn diagrams can illustrate the interaction of two or three sets.
Example 9
Create Venn diagrams to illustrate A ⋃ B, A ⋂ B, and Ac ⋂ B
A ⋃ B contains all elements in either set.
A ⋂ B contains only those elements in both sets—in the overlap of the circles.
Ac will contain all elements not in the set A. Ac ⋂ B will contain the elements in set B that are
not in set A.
Example 10
Use a Venn diagram to illustrate (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W
We’ll start by identifying everything in the set H ⋂ F
Now, (H ⋂ F)c ⋂ W will contain everything not in the set identified above that is also in set W.
Example 11
Create an expression to represent the outlined part of the Venn diagram shown.
The elements in the outlined set are in sets H and F, but are not in set W. So we could represent this set as H ⋂ F ⋂ Wc
Try It Now
Create an expression to represent the outlined portion of the Venn diagram shown
Cardinality
Often times we are interested in the number of items in a set or subset. This is called the cardinality of the set.
Cardinality
The number of elements in a set is the cardinality of that set.
The cardinality of the set A is often notated as |A| or n(A)
Example 12
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}.
What is the cardinality of B? A ⋃ B, A ⋂ B?
Answers
The cardinality of B is 4, since there are 4 elements in the set.

The cardinality of A ⋃ B is 7, since A ⋃ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}, which contains 7 elements.
The cardinality of A ⋂ B is 3, since A ⋂ B = {2, 4, 6}, which contains 3 elements.
Example 13
What is the cardinality of P = the set of English names for the months of the year?
Answers
The cardinality of this set is 12, since there are 12 months in the year.
Sometimes we may be interested in the cardinality of the union or intersection of sets, but not know the actual elements of each set.
This is common in surveying.
Example 14
A survey asks 200 people “What beverage do you drink in the morning”, and offers choices:
Tea only
Coffee only
Both coffee and tea
Suppose 20 report tea only, 80 report coffee only, 40 report both. How many people drink tea in the morning? How many people
drink neither tea or coffee?
Answers
This question can most easily be answered by creating a Venn diagram. We can see that we can find
the people who drink tea by adding those who drink only tea to those who drink both: 60 people.
We can also see that those who drink neither are those not contained in the any of the three other groupings, so we can count those
by subtracting from the cardinality of the universal set, 200.
200 – 20 – 80 – 40 = 60 people who drink neither.
Example 15
A survey asks: “Which online services have you used in the last month?”
Twitter
Facebook
Have used both
The results show 40% of those surveyed have used Twitter, 70% have used Facebook, and 20% have used both. How many people
have used neither Twitter or Facebook?
Answers
Let T be the set of all people who have used Twitter, and F be the set of all people who have used Facebook. Notice that while the
cardinality of F is 70% and the cardinality of T is 40%, the cardinality of F ⋃ T is not simply 70% + 40%, since that would count
those who use both services twice. To find the cardinality of F ⋃ T, we can add the cardinality of F and the cardinality of T, then
subtract those in intersection that we’ve counted twice. In symbols,
n(F ⋃ T) = n(F) + n(T) – n(F ⋂ T)
n(F ⋃ T) = 70% + 40% – 20% = 90%
Now, to find how many people have not used either service, we’re looking for the cardinality of (F ⋃ T)c . Since the universal set
contains 100% of people and the cardinality of F ⋃ T = 90%, the cardinality of (F ⋃ T)c must be the other 10%.
The previous example illustrated two important properties
Cardinality properties
n(A ⋃ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ⋂ B)
n(Ac) = n(U) – n(A)
Notice that the first property can also be written in an equivalent form by solving for the cardinality of the intersection:
n(A ⋂ B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A ⋃ B)
Example 16
Fifty students were surveyed, and asked if they were taking a social science (SS), humanities (HM) or a natural science (NS) course
the next quarter.
21 were taking a SS course 26 were taking a HM course
19 were taking a NS course 9 were taking SS and HM
7 were taking SS and NS 10 were taking HM and NS
3 were taking all three 7 were taking none
How many students are only taking a SS course?

Answers
It might help to look at a Venn diagram. From the given data, we know that there are 3
students in region e and 7 students in region h.
Since 7 students were taking a SS and NS course, we know that n(d) + n(e) = 7. Since we know there are 3 students in region 3,
there must be 7 – 3 = 4 students in region d.
Similarly, since there are 10 students taking HM and NS, which includes regions e and f, there must be 10 – 3 = 7 students in region
f.
Since 9 students were taking SS and HM, there must be 9 – 3 = 6 students in region b.
Now, we know that 21 students were taking a SS course. This includes students from regions a, b, d, and e. Since we know the
number of students in all but region a, we can determine that 21 – 6 – 4 – 3 = 8 students are in region a.
8 students are taking only a SS course.
Try It Now
One hundred fifty people were surveyed and asked if they believed in UFOs, ghosts, and Bigfoot.
43 believed in UFOs 44 believed in ghosts
25 believed in Bigfoot 10 believed in UFOs and ghosts
8 believed in ghosts and Bigfoot 5 believed in UFOs and Bigfoot
2 believed in all three
How many people surveyed believed in at least one of these things?

Sets. Authored by: David Lippman. Located at: http://www.opentextbookstore.com/mathinsociety/. Project: Math in Society.
License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
12.2: Set Theory is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
This YouTube playlist contains several videos that supplement the reading on Set Theory.
with.
This site includes a written description and a video describing the three ways to name a set:
By name or verbal description
By roster (list or listing) form
By set-builder notation. Note that the colon : may be replaced by a vertical line |
Click on the link below to view the article “Verbal, Roster, and Set-builder Notation for a Set” developed by Minnesota State
University–Moorhead.
Verbal, Roster, and Set-builder Notation for a Set
Image of blue i. Authored by: OpenClipArtVectors. Located at: https://pixabay.com/en/information-circle-icon-blue-160885/.
12.4: Verbal, Roster, and Set-Builder Notation for a Set is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
Consider this set: A = {a, b, c, d}.
As defined in the first reading assignment, a subset of A is another set that contains only elements from the set A, but many not
contain all the elements of A. A proper subset is a subset that is not identical to the original set—it contains fewer elements.
We can list all of the subsets of A:
{} (or Ø), {a}, {b}, {c}, {d}, {a,b}, {a,c}, {a,d}, {b,c}, {b,d}, {c,d}, {a,b,c}, {a,b,d}, {a,c,d}, {b,c,d}, {a,b,c,d}
You can see that there are 16 subsets, 15 of which are proper subsets.
Listing the sets is fine if you have only a few elements. However, if we were to list all of the subsets of a set containing many
elements, it would be quite tedious. Instead, let’s consider each element of the set separately.
In our example, there are four elements. For the first element, a, either it’s in the set or it’s not. Thus there are 2 choices for that
first element. Similarly, there are two choices for b—either it’s in the set or it’s not. Using just those two elements, we see that the
subsets are as follows:
{}—both elements are not in the set
{a}—a is in; b is not in the set
{b}—a is not in the set; b is in
{a,b}—a is in; b is in
Two choices for a times the two for b gives us 22 = 4 subsets. You can draw a tree diagram to see this as well.
Now let’s include c. Again, either c is included or it isn’t, which gives us two choices. The outcomes are {}, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b},
{a,c}, {b,c}, {a,b,c}. Note that there are 23 = 8 subsets.
Including all four elements, there are 24 = 16 subsets. 15 of those subsets are proper, 1 subset, namely {a,b,c,d}, is not.
In general, if you have n elements in your set, then there are 2n subsets and 2n − 1 proper subsets.
12.5: Consider a Set is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
12.6: Helpful Links
These pages on Purplemath.com will provide further background and understanding of both Set Notation
and Venn Diagrams. They provide instruction and examples.
Set Notation
Venn Diagrams (You’ll notice the words “Page 1 of 4” at the top of this page. Be sure to look at all four pages of the Venn
Diagram section.)
12.6: Helpful Links is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Pick a real problem and try to solve it using the general problem solving strategies from this module. Present the problem and the
solution to the rest of the class. View the problems posted by your classmates and respond to at least two. Read the Sets
Application Directions for detailed directions.
Use the Set Theory Application forum in the Discussion Board to complete this assignment.

Possible
The problem: 5
The strategies: 5
The presentation: 4
Your responses: 6

12.7: Discuss- Application of Set Theory is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
13: Module 4- Logic
13.2: Logic
13: Module 4- Logic is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
What You’ll Learn To Do: Identify, make, and interpret logic.
Learning Objectives
Identify, make, and interpret logical statements in English and symbolic notation.
Express and interpret connectives (including negation) in English and symbolic notation.
Express and interpret logical quantifiers, and their negations, in English.
Express and interpret the propositions of conditional, converse, inverse, and contrapositive in English and symbolic notation.
Construct and interpret truth tables to evaluate the truth value of a compound statement, determine whether or not two
statements are logically equivalent, and determine the validity of an argument.
Recognize when logic is applicable to real-life situations, solve real-life problems, and communicate real-life problems and
Learning Activities

Read: Logic
Read: Truth Tables and Analyzing Arguments: Examples
Watch: Truth Tables: Conjunction and Disjunction
Watch: Truth Tables: Implication
Watch: Analyzing Arguments with Truth Tables
Read: Negating “all,” “some,” or “no” statements
Submit: Logic Homework Assignment #1 (16 points)
Submit: Logic Homework Assignment #2 (14 points)
Discuss: Truth Table Practice (10 points)
Discuss: Logic Application (20 points)
Complete: Exam 2
13.2: Logic
Logic is a systematic way of thinking that allows us to deduce new information from old information and to parse the meanings of
sentences. You use logic informally in everyday life and certainly also in doing mathematics. For example, suppose you are
working with a certain circle, call it “Circle X,” and you have available the following two pieces of information.
1. Circle X has radius equal to 3.
2. If any circle has radius r, then its area is πr2 square units.
You have no trouble putting these two facts together to get:
3. Circle X has area 9π square units.
In doing this you are using logic to combine existing information to produce new information. Since a major objective in
mathematics is to deduce new information, logic must play a fundamental role. This chapter is intended to give you a sufficient
mastery of logic.
It is important to realize that logic is a process of deducing information correctly, not just deducing correct information. For
example, suppose we were mistaken and Circle X actually had a radius of 4, not 3. Let’s look at our exact same argument again.
1. Circle X has radius equal to 3.
2. If any circle has radius r, then its area is πr2 square units.
3. Circle X has area 9π square units.
The sentence “Circle X has radius equal to 3.” is now untrue, and so is our conclusion “Circle X has area 9π square units.” But the
logic is perfectly correct; the information was combined correctly, even if some of it was false. This distinction between correct
logic and correct information is significant because it is often important to follow the consequences of an incorrect assumption.
Ideally, we want both our logic and our information to be correct, but the point is that they are different things.
In proving theorems, we apply logic to information that is considered obviously true (such as “Any two points determine exactly
one line.”) or is already known to be true (e.g., the Pythagorean theorem). If our logic is correct, then anything we deduce from
such information will also be true (or at least as true as the “obviously true” information we began with).
Statements
The study of logic begins with statements. A statement is a sentence or a mathematical expression that is either definitely true or
definitely false. You can think of statements as pieces of information that are either correct or incorrect. Thus statements are pieces
of information that we might apply logic to in order to produce other pieces of information (which are also statements).
Example 1
Here are some examples of statements. They are all true.
If a circle has radius r, then its area is πr2 square units.
Every even number is divisible by 2.
2\text{ }{\in}\text{ }\mathbb{Z}\\ (2 is an element of the set of integers (or more simply, 2 is an integer).)
\sqrt{2}\text{ }{\notin}\text{ }\mathbb{Z}\\ (The square root of 2 is not an integer.)
\mathbb{N}\text{ }{\subseteq}\text{ }\mathbb{Z}\\ (The set of natural numbers is a subset of the set of integers.)
The set {0,1,2} has three elements.
Some right triangles are isosceles.
Example 2
Here are some additional statements. They are all false.
All right triangles are isosceles.
5=2
\sqrt{2}\text{ }{\notin}\text{ }\mathbb{R}\\ (The square root of 2 is not a real number.)
\mathbb{Z}\subseteq\mathbb{N}\\ (The set of integers is a subset of the set of natural numbers.)
{0,1,2}\cap\mathbb{N}=\varnothing\\ (The intersection of the set {0,1,2} and the natural numbers is the empty set.)
Example 3
Here we pair sentences or expressions that are not statements with similar expressions that are statements.
NOT Statements Statements
Add 5 to both sides. Adding 5 to both sides of x − 5 = 37 gives x = 42.
\mathbb{Z}\\ (The set of integers) 42\text{ }{\in}\text{ }\mathbb{Z}\\ (42 is an element of the set of integers.)
42 42 is not a number.
What is the solution of 2x = 84? The solution of 2x = 84 is 42.
Example 4
We will often use the letters P, Q, R, and S to stand for specific statements. When more letters are needed we can use
subscripts. Here are more statements, designated with letters. You decide which of them are true and which are false.
P : For every integer n > 1, the number 2n − 1 is prime.
Q : Every polynomial of degree n has at most n roots.
R : The function f(x) = x2 is continuous.
S1 : \mathbb{N}\subseteq\varnothing\\
S2 : {0,-1,-2}\cap\mathbb{N}=\varnothing\\
Designating statements with letters (as was done above) is a very useful shorthand. In discussing a particular statement, such as
“The function f(x) = x2 is continuous,” it is convenient to just refer to it as R to avoid having to write or say it many times.
Statements can contain variables. Here is an example.
P : If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even.
This is a sentence that is true. (All multiples of 6 are even, so no matter which multiple of 6 the integer x happens to be, it is even.)
Since the sentence P is definitely true, it is a statement. When a sentence or statement P contains a variable such as x, we
sometimes denote it as P(x) to indicate that it is saying something about x. Thus the above statement can be denoted as
P(x) : If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even.
A statement or sentence involving two variables might be denoted P(x, y), and so on.
It is quite possible for a sentence containing variables to not be a statement. Consider the following example.
Q(x) : The integer x is even.
Is this a statement? Whether it is true or false depends on just which integer x is. It is true if x = 4 and false if x = 7, etc. But without
any stipulations on the value of x it is impossible to say whether Q(x) is true or false. Since it is neither definitely true nor definitely
false, Q(x) cannot be a statement. A sentence such as this, whose truth depends on the value of one or more variables, is called an
open sentence. The variables in an open sentence (or statement) can represent any type of entity, not just numbers. Here is an open
sentence where the variables are functions:
R(f, g) : The function f is the derivative of the function g.
This open sentence is true if f(x) = 2x and g(x) = x2. It is false if f(x) = x3 and g(x) = x2, etc. We point out that a sentence such as R(f,
g) (that involves variables) can be denoted either as R(f, g) or just R. We use the expression R(f, g) when we want to emphasize that
the sentence involves variables.
We will have more to say about open sentences later, but for now let’s return to statements.
Statements are everywhere in mathematics. Any result or theorem that has been proved true is a statement. The quadratic formula
and the Pythagorean theorem are both statements:
P : The solutions of the equation \displaystyle{a}x^2+bx+c=0\text{ are }x=\frac{-b\pm\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2a}\\.
Q : If a right triangle has legs of lengths a and b and hypotenuse of length a^2+b^2={c}^2\\..
Here is a very famous statement, so famous, in fact, that it has a name. It is called Fermat’s last theorem after Pierre Fermat, a
seventeenth-century French mathematician who scribbled it in the margin of a notebook.
R : For all numbers a, b, c, n ∈ \mathbb{N}\\ with n > 2, it is the case that a^n+b^n\neq{c}^n\\ .
Fermat believed this statement was true. He noted that he could prove it was true, except his notebook’s margin was too narrow to
contain his proof. It is doubtful that he really had a correct proof in mind, for after his death generations of brilliant mathematicians
tried unsuccessfully to prove that his statement was true (or false). Finally, in 1993, Andrew Wiles of Princeton University
announced that he had devised a proof. Wiles had worked on the problem for over seven years, and his proof runs
through hundreds of pages. The moral of this story is that some true statements are not obviously true.
Here is another statement famous enough to be named. It was first posed in the eighteenth century by the German mathematician
Christian Goldbach, and thus is called the Goldbach conjecture:
S : Every even integer greater than 2 is a sum of two prime numbers.
You must agree that S is either true or false. It appears to be true, because when you examine even numbers that are bigger than 2,
they seem to be sums of two primes: 4 = 2+2, 6 = 3+3, 8 = 3+5, 10 = 5+5, 12 = 5+7, 100 = 17+83 and so on. But that’s not to say
there isn’t some large even number that’s not the sum of two primes. If such a number exists, then S is false. The thing is, in the
over 260 years since Goldbach first posed this problem, no one has been able to determine whether it’s true or false. But since it is
clearly either true or false, S is a statement.
This book is about the methods that can be used to prove that S (or any other statement) is true or false. To prove that a statement is
true, we start with obvious statements (or other statements that have been proven true) and use logic to deduce more and more
complex statements until finally we obtain a statement such as S. Of course some statements are more difficult to prove than others,
and S appears to be notoriously difficult; we will concentrate on statements that are easier to prove.
But the point is this: In proving that statements are true, we use logic to help us understand statements and to combine pieces of
information to produce new pieces of information. In the next several sections we explore some standard ways that statements can
be combined to form new statements, or broken down into simpler statements.
And, Or, Not

The word “and” can be used to combine two statements to form a new statement. Consider for example the following sentence.
R1 : The number 2 is even and the number 3 is odd.
We recognize this as a true statement, based on our common-sense understanding of the meaning of the word “and.” Notice that R1
is made up of two simpler statements:
P : The number 2 is even.
Q : The number 3 is odd.
These are joined together by the word “and” to form the more complex statement R1. The statement R1 asserts that P and Q are
both true. Since both P and Q are in fact true, the statement R1 is also true.
Had one or both of P and Q been false, then R1 would be false. For instance, each of the following statements is false.
From these examples we see that any two statements P and Q can be combined to form a new statement “PandQ.” In the spirit of
using letters to denote statements, we now introduce the special symbol ∧ to stand for the word “and.” Thus if P and Q are
statements, P ∧ Q stands for the statement “PandQ.” The statement P ∧ Q is true if both P and Q are true; otherwise it is false.
This is summarized in the following table, called a truth table.
P Q P∧Q
T T T
P Q P∧Q
T F F
F T F
F F F
In this table, T stands for “True,” and F stands for “False.” (T and F are called truth values.) Each line lists one of the four possible
combinations or truth values for P and Q, and the column headed by P ∧ Q tells whether the statement P ∧ Q is true or false in
each case.
Statements can also be combined using the word “or.” Consider the following four statements.
S1 : The number 2 is even or the number 3 is odd.
In mathematics, the assertion “PorQ” is always understood to mean that one or both of P and Q is true. Thus statements S1, S2, S3
are all true, while S4 is false. The symbol ∨ is used to stand for the word “or.” So if P and Q are statements, P ∨ Q represents the
statement “PorQ.” Here is the truth table.
P Q P∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
It is important to be aware that the meaning of “or” expressed in the above table differs from the way it is sometimes used in
everyday conversation. For example, suppose a university official makes the following threat:
You pay your tuition or you will be withdrawn from school.
You understand that this means that either you pay your tuition or you will be withdrawn from school, but not both. In mathematics
we never use the word “or” in such a sense. For us “or” means exactly what is stated in the table for ∨. Thus P ∨ Q being true
means one or both of P and Q is true. If we ever need to express the fact that exactly one of P and Q is true, we use one of the
following constructions:
PorQ, but not both.
EitherPorQ.
If the university official were a mathematician, he might have qualified his statement in one of the following ways.
Pay your tuition or you will be withdrawn from school, but not both.
Either you pay your tuition or you will be withdrawn from school.
To conclude this section, we mention another way of obtaining new statements from old ones. Given any statement P, we can form
the new statement “It is not true thatP.” For example, consider the following statement.
The number 2 is even.
This statement is true. Now change it by inserting the words “It is not true that” at the beginning:
It is not true that the number 2 is even.
This new statement is false.
For another example, starting with the false statement “ 2\in\varnothing\\ ” we get the true statement “It is not true that 2\in\varnothing\\
.”
We use the symbol ∼ to stand for the words “It’s not true that,” so ∼ P means “It’s not true thatP.” We often read ∼ P simply as
“not P.” Unlike ∧ and ∨, which combine two statements, the symbol ∼ just alters a single statement. Thus its truth table has just
two lines, one for each possible truth value of P.
P ∼P
T F
F T
The statement ∼ P is called the negation of P. The negation of a specific statement can be expressed in numerous ways. Consider
P : The number 2 is even.
Here are several ways of expressing its negation.
∼ P : It’s not true that the number 2 is even.
∼ P : It is false that the number 2 is even.
∼ P : The number 2 is not even.
In this section we’ve learned how to combine or modify statements with the operations ∧, ∨ and ∼. Of course we can also apply
these operations to open sentences or a mixture of open sentences and statements. For example, (x is an even integer)∧(3 is an odd
integer) is an open sentence that is a combination of an open sentence and a statement.
Conditional Statements
There is yet another way to combine two statements. Suppose we have in mind a specific integer a. Consider the following
statement about a.
R : If the integer a is a multiple of 6, then a is divisible by 2.
We immediately spot this as a true statement based on our knowledge of integers and the meanings of the words “if” and “then.” If
integer a is a multiple of 6, then a is even, so therefore a is divisible by 2. Notice that R is built up from two simpler statements:
P : The integer a is a multiple of 6.
Q : The integer a is divisible by 2.
R : If P, then Q.
In general, given any two statements P and Q whatsoever, we can form the new statement “If P, then Q.” This is written
symbolically as P ⇒ Q which we read as “If P, then Q,” or “P implies Q.” Like ∧ and ∨, the symbol ⇒ has a very specific
meaning. When we assert that the statement P ⇒ Q is true, we mean that ifP is true thenQ must also be true. (In other words we
mean that the condition P being true forces Q to be true.) A statement of form P ⇒ Q is called a conditional statement because it
means Q will be true under the condition that P is true.
You can think of P ⇒ Q as being a promise that whenever P is true, Q will be true also. There is only one way this promise can be
broken (i.e. be false) and that is if P is true but Q is false. Thus the truth table for the promise P ⇒ Q is as follows:
P Q P⇒Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
P Q P⇒Q
F F T
Perhaps you are bothered by the fact that P ⇒ Q is true in the last two lines of this table. Here’s an example to convince you that
the table is correct. Suppose your professor makes the following promise:
If you pass the final exam, then you will pass the course.
Your professor is making the promise
(You pass the exam) ⇒ (You pass the course).
Under what circumstances did she lie? There are four possible scenarios, depending on whether or not you passed the exam and
whether or not you passed the course. These scenarios are tallied in the following table.
You pass exam You pass course (You pass exam) ⇒ (You pass course)
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The first line describes the scenario where you pass the exam and you pass the course. Clearly the professor kept her promise, so
we put a T in the third column to indicate that she told the truth. In the second line, you passed the exam, but your professor gave
you a failing grade in the course. In this case she broke her promise, and the F in the third column indicates that what she said was
untrue.
Now consider the third row. In this scenario you failed the exam but still passed the course. How could that happen? Maybe your
professor felt sorry for you. But that doesn’t make her a liar. Her only promise was that if you passed the exam then you would pass
the course. She did not say passing the exam was the only way to pass the course. Since she didn’t lie, then she told the truth, so
there is a T in the third column.
Finally look at the fourth row. In that scenario you failed the exam and you failed the course. Your professor did not lie; she did
exactly what she said she would do. Hence the T in the third column.
In mathematics, whenever we encounter the construction “If P, then Q” it means exactly what the truth table for ⇒ expresses. But
of course there are other grammatical constructions that also mean P ⇒ Q. Here is a summary of the main ones.
{P}\Rightarrow{Q}\begin{cases}{\text{If }P\text{, then }Q.}\\{Q\text{ if }P.}\\{Q\text{ whenever }P.}\\{Q\text{, provided that }P.}\\{\text{Whenever }P\text{, then also }Q.}\\{P\text{ is a sufficient condition for
}Q.}\\{\text{For }Q\text{, it is sufficient that }P.}\\{Q\text{ is a necessary condition for }P.}\\{\text{For }P\text{, it is necessary that }Q.}\\{P\text{ only if }Q.}\end{cases}\\
These can all be used in the place of (and mean exactly the same thing as) “If P, then Q.” You should analyze the meaning of each
one and convince yourself that it captures the meaning of P ⇒ Q. For example, P ⇒ Q means the condition of P being true is
enough (i.e., sufficient) to make Q true; hence “P is a sufficient condition for Q.”
The wording can be tricky. Often an everyday situation involving a conditional statement can help clarify it. For example, consider
your professor’s promise:
(You pass the exam) ⇒ (You pass the course)
This means that your passing the exam is a sufficient (though perhaps not necessary) condition for your passing the course. Thus
your professor might just as well have phrased her promise in one of the following ways.
Passing the exam is a sufficient condition for passing the course.
For you to pass the course, it is sufficient that you pass the exam.
However, when we want to say “If P, then Q” in everyday conversation, we do not normally express this as “Q is a necessary
condition for P” or “P only if Q.” But such constructions are not uncommon in mathematics. To understand why they make sense,
notice that P ⇒ Q being true means that it’s impossible that P is true but Q is false, so in order for P to be true it is necessary that Q
is true; hence “Q is a necessary condition for P.” And this means that P can only be true if Q is true, i.e., “P only if Q.”
Biconditional Statements
It is important to understand that P ⇒ Q is not the same as Q ⇒ P. To see why, suppose that a is some integer and consider the
statements
(a is a multiple of 6) ⇒ (a is divisible by 2),
(a is divisible by 2) ⇒ (a is a multiple of 6).
The first statement asserts that if a is a multiple of 6 then a is divisible by 2. This is clearly true, for any multiple of 6 is even and
therefore divisible by 2. The second statement asserts that if a is divisible by 2 then it is a multiple of 6. This is not necessarily true,
for a = 4 (for instance) is divisible by 2, yet not a multiple of 6. Therefore the meanings of P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P are in general quite
different. The conditional statement Q ⇒ P is called the converse of P ⇒ Q, so a conditional statement and its converse express
entirely different things.
However, the contrapositive of P ⇒ Q, ~Q ⇒ ~P, is equivalent to P ⇒ Q. Similarly, the inverse of P ⇒ Q, which is ~P ⇒ ~Q, is
equivalent to the converse Q ⇒ P. In “Truth Tables for Statements,” we will learn how to show these equivalences using a truth
table.
But sometimes, if P and Q are just the right statements, it can happen that P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P are both necessarily true. For
example, consider the statements
(a is even) ⇒ (a is divisible by 2),
(a is divisible by 2) ⇒ (a is even).
No matter what value a has, both of these statements are true. Since both P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P are true, it follows that (P ⇒ Q)∧(Q ⇒
P) is true.
We now introduce a new symbol ⇔ to express the meaning of the statement (P ⇒ Q)∧(Q ⇒ P). The expression P ⇔ Q is
understood to have exactly the same meaning as (P ⇒ Q)∧(Q ⇒ P). According to the previous section, Q ⇒ P is read as “P if Q,”
and P ⇒ Q can be read as “P only if Q.” Therefore we pronounce P ⇔ Q as “P if and only if Q.” For example, given an integer a,
we have the true statement
(a is even) ⇔ (a is divisible by 2),
which we can read as “Integer a is even if and only if a is divisible by 2.”
The truth table for ⇔ is shown below. Notice that in the first and last rows, both P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P are true (according to the truth
table for ⇒), so (P ⇒ Q) ∧ (Q ⇒ P) is true, and hence P ⇔ Q is true. However, in the middle two rows one of P ⇒ Q or Q ⇒ P is
false, so (P ⇒ Q)∧(Q ⇒ P) is false, making P ⇔ Q false.
P Q P⇔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Compare the statement R : (a is even) ⇔ (a is divisible by 2) with this truth table. If a is even then the two statements on either side
of ⇔ are true, so according to the table R is true. If a is odd then the two statements on either side of ⇔ are false, and again
according to the table R is true. Thus R is true no matter what value a has. In general, P ⇔ Q being true means P and Q are both
true or both false.
Not surprisingly, there are many ways of saying P ⇔ Q in English. The following constructions all mean P ⇔ Q:
{P}\iff{Q}\begin{cases}{P\text{ if and only if }Q.}\\{P\text{ is a necessary and sufficient condition for }Q.}\\{\text{For }P\text{ it is necessary and sufficient that }Q.}\\{\text{If }P\text{, then }Q\text{, and
conversely.}}\end{cases}\\
The first three of these just combine constructions from the previous section to express that P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P. In the last one, the
words “and conversely” mean that in addition to “If P, then Q” being true, the converse statement “If Q, then P” is also true.
Truth Tables for Statements

You should now know the truth tables for ∧, ∨, ∼, ⇒ and ⇔. They should be internalized as well as memorized. You must
understand the symbols thoroughly, for we now combine them to form more complex statements.
For example, suppose we want to convey that one or the other of P and Q is true but they are not both true. No single symbol
expresses this, but we could combine them as
(P ∨ Q)∧ ∼ (P ∧ Q),
which literally means:
P or Q is true, and it is not the case that both P and Q are true.
This statement will be true or false depending on the truth values of P and Q. In fact we can make a truth table for the entire
statement. Begin as usual by listing the possible true/false combinations of P and Q on four lines. The statement (P ∨ Q)∧ ∼ (P ∧
Q) contains the individual statements (P ∨ Q) and (P ∧ Q), so we next tally their truth values in the third and fourth columns. The
fifth column lists values for ∼ (P ∧ Q), and these are just the opposites of the corresponding entries in the fourth column. Finally,
combining the third and fifth columns with ∧, we get the values for (P ∨ Q)∧ ∼(P ∧ Q) in the sixth column.
P Q (P ∨ Q) (P ∧ Q) ∼(P ∧ Q) (P ∨ Q)∧ ∼(P ∧ Q)
T T T T F F
T F T F T T
F T T F T T
F F F F T F
This truth table tells us that (P ∨ Q)∧ ∼(P ∧ Q) is true precisely when one but not both of P and Q are true, so it has the meaning
we intended. (Notice that the middle three columns of our truth table are just “helper columns” and are not necessary parts of the
table. In writing truth tables, you may choose to omit such columns if you are confident about your work.)
For another example, consider the following familiar statement concerning two real numbers x and y:
The product xy equals zero if and only if x = 0 or y = 0.
This can be modeled as (xy = 0) ⇔ (x = 0 ∨ y = 0). If we introduce letters P, Q, and R for the statements xy = 0, x = 0 and y = 0, it
becomes P ⇔ (Q ∨ R). Notice that the parentheses are necessary here, for without them we wouldn’t know whether to read the
statement as P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) or (P ⇔ Q) ∨ R.
Making a truth table for P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) entails a line for each T/F combination for the three statements P, Q, and R. The eight
possible combinations are tallied in the first three columns of the following table.
P Q R Q∨R P ⇔ (Q ∨ R)
T T T T T
T T F T T
T F T T T
T F F F F
P Q R Q∨R P ⇔ (Q ∨ R)
F T T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F
F F F F T
We fill in the fourth column using our knowledge of the truth table for ∨. Finally the fifth column is filled in by combining the first
and fourth columns with our understanding of the truth table for ⇔. The resulting table gives the true/false values of P ⇔ (Q ∨ R)
for all values of P, Q, and R.
Notice that when we plug in various values for x and y, the statements P : xy = 0, Q : x = 0 and R : y = 0 have various truth values,
but the statement P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) is always true. For example, if x = 2 and y = 3, then P, Q, and R are all false. This scenario is
described in the last row of the table, and there we see that P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) is true. Likewise if x = 0 and y = 7, then P and Q are true
and R is false, a scenario described in the second line of the table, where again P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) is true. There is a simple reason why P
⇔ (Q ∨ R) is true for any values of x and y: It is that P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) represents (xy = 0) ⇔ (x = 0 ∨ y = 0), which is a true
mathematical statement. It is absolutely impossible for it to be false.
This may make you wonder about the lines in the table where P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) is false. Why are they there? The reason is that P ⇔ (Q
∨ R) can also represent a false statement. To see how, imagine that at the end of the semester your professor makes the following
promise.
You pass the class if and only if you get an “A” on the final or you get a “B” on the final.
This promise has the form P ⇔ (Q ∨ R), so its truth values are tabulated in the above table. Imagine it turned out that you got an
“A” on the exam but failed the course. Then surely your professor lied to you. In fact, P is false, Q is true and R is false. This
scenario is reflected in the sixth line of the table, and indeed P ⇔ (Q ∨ R) is false (i.e., it is a lie).
The moral of this example is that people can lie, but true mathematical statements never lie.
We close this section with a word about the use of parentheses. The symbol ∼ is analogous to the minus sign in algebra. It negates
the expression it precedes. Thus ∼P ∨ Q means (∼P) ∨ Q, not ∼(P ∨ Q). In ∼(P ∨ Q), the value of the entire expression P ∨ Q
is negated.
Logical Equivalence
In contemplating the truth table for P ⇔ Q, you probably noticed that P ⇔ Q is true exactly when P and Q are both true or both
false. In other words, P ⇔ Q is true precisely when at least one of the statements P ∧ Q or ∼P ∧ ∼Q is true. This may tempt us to
say that P ⇔ Q means the same thing as (P ∧ Q)∨(∼P ∧ ∼Q).
To see if this is really so, we can write truth tables for P ⇔ Q and (P ∧ Q) ∨ (∼P ∧ ∼Q). In doing this, it is more efficient to put
these two statements into the same table, as follows. (This table has helper columns for the intermediate expressions ∼P, ∼Q, (P ∧
Q), and (~P ∧ ∼Q).)
P Q ∼P ∼Q (P ∧ Q) (∼P ∧ ∼Q) (P ∧ Q)∨(∼P ∧ ∼Q) P⇔Q
T T F F T F T T
T F F T F F F F
F T T F F F F F
F F T T F T T T
The table shows that P ⇔ Q and (P ∧ Q)∨(∼P ∧ ∼Q) have the same truth value, no matter the values P and Q. It is as if P ⇔ Q
and (P∧Q)∨(∼P ∧ ∼Q) are algebraic expressions that are equal no matter what is “plugged into” variables P and Q. We express
this state of affairs by writing
P ⇔ Q = (P ∧ Q)∨(∼P ∧ ∼Q)
and saying that P ⇔ Q and (P ∧ Q)∨(∼P ∧ ∼Q) are logically equivalent.
In general, two statements are logically equivalent if their truth values match up line-for-line in a truth table.
Logical equivalence is important because it can give us different (and potentially useful) ways of looking at the same thing. As an
example, the following table shows that P ⇒ Q is logically equivalent to (∼Q) ⇒ (∼P).
P Q ∼P ∼Q (∼Q) ⇒ (∼P) P⇒Q
T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
The fact that P ⇒ Q = (∼Q) ⇒ (∼P) is useful because so many theorems have the form P ⇒ Q. As we will see in Chapter 5,
proving such a theorem may be easier if we express it in the logically equivalent form (∼Q) ⇒ (∼P).
There are two pairs of logically equivalent statements that come up again and again throughout this book and beyond. They are
prevalent enough to be dignified by a special name: DeMorgan’s laws.
Fact: DeMorgan’s Laws

1. ∼(P ∧ Q) = (∼P)∨(∼Q)
2. ∼(P ∨ Q) = (∼P)∧(∼Q)
The first of DeMorgan’s laws is verified by the following table. You are asked to verify the second in one of the exercises.
P Q ~P ~Q P∧Q ∼(P ∧ Q) (∼P)∨(∼Q)
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T
DeMorgan’s laws are actually very natural and intuitive. Consider the statement ∼(P ∧ Q), which we can interpret as meaning that
it is not the case that both P and Q are true. If it is not the case that both P and Q are true, then at least one of P or Q is false, in
which case (∼P)∨(∼Q) is true. Thus ∼(P ∧ Q) means the same thing as (∼P)∨(∼Q).
DeMorgan’s laws can be very useful. Suppose we happen to know that some statement having form ∼(P ∨ Q) is true. The second
of DeMorgan’s laws tells us that (∼Q)∧(∼P) is also true, hence ∼P and ∼Q are both true as well. Being able to quickly obtain
such additional pieces of information can be extremely useful.
Here is a summary of some significant logical equivalences. Those that are not immediately obvious can be verified with a truth
table.
\text{Contrapositive law}\begin{cases}P\Rightarrow{Q}=(\sim{Q})\Rightarrow(\sim{P})\end{cases}\\
\text{DeMorgan's laws}\begin{cases}{\sim(P\land{Q})=\sim{P}\lor\sim{Q}}\\{\sim(P\lor{Q})=\sim{P}\land\sim{Q}}\end{cases}\\
\text{Commutative laws}\begin{cases}{(P\land{Q})={P}\land{Q}}\\{(P\lor{Q})={P}\lor{Q}}\end{cases}\\
\text{Distributive laws}\begin{cases}{{P}\land(Q\lor{R})=({P}\land{Q})\lor(P\land{R})}\\{P\lor(Q\land{R})=({P}\lor{Q})\land(P\lor{R})}\end{cases}\\
\text{Associative laws}\begin{cases}{P\land(Q\land{R})=(P\land{Q})\land{R}}\\{P\lor(Q\lor{R})=(P\lor{Q})\lor{R}}\end{cases}\\
Notice how the distributive law P ∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R) has the same structure as the distributive law p(q + r) = p · q + p
· r from algebra. Concerning the associative laws, the fact that P ∧ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∧ R means that the position of the
parentheses is irrelevant, and we can write this as P ∧ Q ∧ R without ambiguity. Similarly, we may drop the parentheses in an
expression such as P ∨ (Q ∨ R).
But parentheses are essential when there is a mix of ∧ and ∨, as in P ∨(Q ∧ R). Indeed, P ∨(Q ∧ R) and (P ∨ Q) ∧ R are not
logically equivalent.
Negating Statements
Given a statement R, the statement ∼R is called the negation of R. If R is a complex statement, then it is often the case that its
negation ∼R can be written in a simpler or more useful form. The process of finding this form is called negatingR. In proving
theorems it is often necessary to negate certain statements. We now investigate how to do this.
We have already examined part of this topic. DeMorgan’s laws
∼ (P ∧Q) = (∼ P)∨(∼ Q)
∼ (P ∨Q) = (∼ P)∧(∼ Q)
(from “Logical Equivalence”) can be viewed as rules that tell us how to negate the statements P ∧Q and P ∨Q. Here are some
examples that illustrate how DeMorgan’s laws are used to negate statements involving “and” or “or.”
Example 5
Consider negating the following statement.
R : You can solve it by factoring or with the quadratic formula.
Now, R means (You can solve it by factoring) ∨ (You can solve it with Q.F.), which we will denote as P ∨ Q. The negation of this
is
∼(P ∨ Q) = (∼P)∧(∼Q).
Therefore, in words, the negation of R is
∼R : You can’t solve it by factoring and you can’t solve it with the quadratic formula.
Maybe you can find ∼R without invoking DeMorgan’s laws. That is good; you have internalized DeMorgan’s laws and are using
them unconsciously.
Example 6
We will negate the following sentence.
R : The numbers x and y are both odd.
This statement means (x is odd) ∧ (y is odd), so its negation is
~[(x is odd) ∧ (y is odd)] = ∼(x is odd) ∨ ∼(y is odd)
(x is odd) ∧ (y is odd) = (x is even) ∨ (y is even).
Therefore the negation of R can be expressed in the following ways:
∼ R : The number x is even or the number y is even.
∼ R : At least one of x and y is even.
Now let’s move on to a slightly different kind of problem. It’s often necessary to find the negations of quantified statements. For
example, consider ∼(∀x ∈ \mathbb{N}\\, P(x)). Reading this in words, we have the following:
It is not the case that P(x) is true for all natural numbers x.
This means P(x) is false for at least one x. In symbols, this is ∃ x ∈ \mathbb{N}\\, ∼P(x). Thus ∼ (∀x ∈ \mathbb{N}\\, P(x)) = ∃ x ∈
\mathbb{N}\\, ∼P(x). Similarly, you can reason out that ∼ (∃ x ∈ \mathbb{N}\\, P(x)) = ∀x ∈ \mathbb{N}\\, ∼P(x). In general:
∼ (∀x ∈ S, P(x)) = ∃ x ∈ S, ∼P(x)
∼ (∃ x ∈ S, P(x)) = ∀x ∈ S, ∼P(x)
Logical Inference
Suppose we know that a statement of form P ⇒ Q is true. This tells us that whenever P is true, Q will also be true. By itself, P ⇒ Q
being true does not tell us that either P or Q is true (they could both be false, or P could be false and Q true). However if in addition
we happen to know that P is true then it must be that Q is true. This is called a logical inference: Given two true statements we can
infer that a third statement is true. In this instance true statements P ⇒ Q and P are “added together” to get Q. This is described
below with P ⇒ Q and P stacked one atop the other with a line separating them from Q. The intended meaning is that P ⇒ Q
combined with P produces Q.
Two other logical inferences are listed above. In each case you should convince yourself (based on your knowledge of the relevant
truth tables) that the truth of the statements above the line forces the statement below the line to be true.
Following are some additional useful logical inferences. The first expresses the obvious fact that if P and Q are both true then the
statement P ∧ Q will be true. On the other hand, P ∧ Q being true forces P (also Q) to be true. Finally, if P is true, then P ∨ Q
must be true, no matter what statement Q is.
These inferences are so intuitively obvious that they scarcely need to be mentioned. However, they represent certain patterns of
reasoning that we will frequently apply to sentences in proofs, so we should be cognizant of the fact that we are using them.
The first two statements in each case are called “premises” and the final statement is the “conclusion.” We combine premises with
∧ (“and”). The premises together imply the conclusion. Thus, the first argument would have (( P ⇒ Q) ∧ P) ⇒ Q as its symbolic
statement.
An Important Note
It is important to be aware of the reasons that we study logic. There are three very significant reasons. First, the truth tables we
studied tell us the exact meanings of the words such as “and,” “or,” “not,” and so on. For instance, whenever we use or read the
“If…, then” construction in a mathematical context, logic tells us exactly what is meant. Second, the rules of inference provide a
system in which we can produce new information (statements) from known information. Finally, logical rules such as DeMorgan’s
laws help us correctly change certain statements into (potentially more useful) statements with the same meaning. Thus logic helps
us understand the meanings of statements and it also produces new meaningful statements.
Logic is the glue that holds strings of statements together and pins down the exact meaning of certain key phrases such as the “If…,
then” or “For all” constructions. Logic is the common language that all mathematicians use, so we must have a firm grip on it in
order to write and understand mathematics.
But despite its fundamental role, logic’s place is in the background of what we do, not the forefront. From here on, the beautiful
symbols ∧, ∨, ⇒, ⇔, ∼, ∀ and ∃ are rarely written. But we are aware of their meanings constantly. When reading or writing a
sentence involving mathematics we parse it with these symbols, either mentally or on scratch paper, so as to understand the true
and unambiguous meaning.
Logic. Authored by: Richard Hammack. Located at: http://www.people.vcu.edu/~rhammack/BookOfProof/. Project: BOOK
OF PROOF. License: CC BY-ND: Attribution-NoDerivatives
13.2: Logic is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Truth Tables
Because complex Boolean statements can get tricky to think about, we can create a truth table to keep track of what truth values
for the simple statements make the complex statement true and false
Truth Table
A table showing what the resulting truth value of a complex statement is for all the possible truth values for the simple statements.
Example 1
Suppose you’re picking out a new couch, and your significant other says “get a sectional or something with a chaise.”
This is a complex statement made of two simpler conditions: “is a sectional,” and “has a chaise.” For simplicity, let’s use S to
designate “is a sectional,” and C to designate “has a chaise.” The condition S is true if the couch is a sectional.
A truth table for this would look like this:
S C S or C
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
In the table, T is used for true, and F for false. In the first row, if S is true and C is also true, then the complex statement “S or C” is
true. This would be a sectional that also has a chaise, which meets our desire.
Remember also that or in logic is not exclusive; if the couch has both features, it does meet the condition.
To shorthand our notation further, we’re going to introduce some symbols that are commonly used for and, or, and not.
Symbols
The symbol ⋀ is used for and: A and B is notated A ⋀ B.
The symbol ⋁ is used for or: A or B is notated A ⋁ B
The symbol ~ is used for not: not A is notated ~A
You can remember the first two symbols by relating them to the shapes for the union and intersection. A ⋀ B would be the
elements that exist in both sets, in A ⋂ B. Likewise, A ⋁ B would be the elements that exist in either set, in A ⋃ B.
In the previous example, the truth table was really just summarizing what we already know about how the or statement work. The
truth tables for the basic and, or, and not statements are shown below.
Basic Truth Tables

A B A⋀B
T T T
T F F
F T F
A B A⋀B
F F F
A B A⋁B
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
A ~A
T F
F T
Truth tables really become useful when analyzing more complex Boolean statements.
Example 2
Create a truth table for the statement A ⋀ ~(B ⋁ C)
It helps to work from the inside out when creating truth tables, and create tables for intermediate operations. We start by listing all
the possible truth value combinations for A, B, and C. Notice how the first column contains 4 Ts followed by 4 Fs, the second
column contains 2 Ts, 2 Fs, then repeats, and the last column alternates. This pattern ensures that all combinations are considered.
Along with those initial values, we’ll list the truth values for the innermost expression, B ⋁ C.
A B C B⋁C
T T T T
T T F T
T F T T
T F F F
F T T T
F T F T
F F T T
F F F F
Next we can find the negation of B ⋁ C, working off the B ⋁ C column we just created.
A B C B⋁C ~(B ⋁ C)
T T T T F
T T F T F
T F T T F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F
F F F F T
Finally, we find the values of Aand ~(B ⋁ C)
A B C B⋁C ~(B ⋁ C) A ⋀ ~(B ⋁ C)
T T T T F F
T T F T F F
T F T T F F
T F F F T T
F T T T F F
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
F F F F T F
It turns out that this complex expression is only true in one case: if A is true, B is false, and C is false.
When we discussed conditions earlier, we discussed the type where we take an action based on the value of the condition. We are
now going to talk about a more general version of a conditional, sometimes called an implication.
Implications
Implications are logical conditional sentences stating that a statement p, called the antecedent, implies a consequence q.
Implications are commonly written as p → q
Implications are similar to the conditional statements we looked at earlier; p → q is typically written as “if p then q,” or “p
therefore q.” The difference between implications and conditionals is that conditionals we discussed earlier suggest an action—if
the condition is true, then we take some action as a result. Implications are a logical statement that suggest that the consequence
must logically follow if the antecedent is true.
Example 3
The English statement “If it is raining, then there are clouds is the sky” is a logical implication. It is a valid argument because if the
antecedent “it is raining” is true, then the consequence “there are clouds in the sky” must also be true.
Notice that the statement tells us nothing of what to expect if it is not raining. If the antecedent is false, then the implication
becomes irrelevant.
Example 4
A friend tells you that “if you upload that picture to Facebook, you’ll lose your job.” There are four possible outcomes:
1. You upload the picture and keep your job
2. You upload the picture and lose your job
3. You don’t upload the picture and keep your job
4. You don’t upload the picture and lose your job
There is only one possible case where your friend was lying—the first option where you upload the picture and keep your job. In
the last two cases, your friend didn’t say anything about what would happen if you didn’t upload the picture, so you can’t conclude
their statement is invalid, even if you didn’t upload the picture and still lost your job.
In traditional logic, an implication is considered valid (true) as long as there are no cases in which the antecedent is true and the
consequence is false. It is important to keep in mind that symbolic logic cannot capture all the intricacies of the English language.
Truth Values for Implications
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Example 5
Construct a truth table for the statement (m ⋀ ~p) → r
We start by constructing a truth table for the antecedent.
m p ~p m ⋀ ~p
T T F F
T F T T
F T F F
F F T F
Now we can build the truth table for the implication
m p ~p m ⋀ ~p r (m ⋀ ~p) → r
T T F F T T
T F T T T T
F T F F T T
F F T F T T
T T F F F T
T F T T F F
F T F F F T
F F T F F T
In this case, when m is true, p is false, and r is false, then the antecedent m ⋀ ~p will be true but the consequence false, resulting in
a invalid implication; every other case gives a valid implication.
For any implication, there are three related statements, the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive.
Related Statements
The original implication is “if p then q”: p → q
The converse is “if q then p”: q → p
The inverse is “if not p then not q”: ~p → ~q
The contrapositive is “if not q then not p”: ~q → ~p
Example 6
Consider again the valid implication “If it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky.”
The converse would be “If there are clouds in the sky, it is raining.” This is certainly not always true.
The inverse would be “If it is not raining, then there are not clouds in the sky.” Likewise, this is not always true.
The contrapositive would be “If there are not clouds in the sky, then it is not raining.” This statement is valid, and is equivalent to
the original implication.
Looking at truth tables, we can see that the original conditional and the contrapositive are logically equivalent, and that the
converse and inverse are logically equivalent.
Implication Converse Inverse Contrapositive
p q p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T
Equivalence
A conditional statement and its contrapositive are logically equivalent.
The converse and inverse of a statement are logically equivalent.
Arguments
A logical argument is a claim that a set of premises support a conclusion. There are two general types of arguments: inductive and
deductive arguments.
Argument types
An inductive argument uses a collection of specific examples as its premises and uses them to propose a general conclusion.
A deductive argument uses a collection of general statements as its premises and uses them to propose a specific situation as the
conclusion.
Example 7
The argument “when I went to the store last week I forgot my purse, and when I went today I forgot my purse. I always forget my
purse when I go the store” is an inductive argument.
The premises are:
I forgot my purse last week
I forgot my purse today
The conclusion is:
I always forget my purse
Notice that the premises are specific situations, while the conclusion is a general statement. In this case, this is a fairly weak
argument, since it is based on only two instances.
Example 8
The argument “every day for the past year, a plane flies over my house at 2pm. A plane will fly over my house every day at 2pm”
is a stronger inductive argument, since it is based on a larger set of evidence.
Evaluating inductive arguments

An inductive argument is never able to prove the conclusion true, but it can provide either weak or strong evidence to suggest it
may be true.
Many scientific theories, such as the big bang theory, can never be proven. Instead, they are inductive arguments supported by a
wide variety of evidence. Usually in science, an idea is considered a hypothesis until it has been well tested, at which point it
graduates to being considered a theory. The commonly known scientific theories, like Newton’s theory of gravity, have all stood up
to years of testing and evidence, though sometimes they need to be adjusted based on new evidence. For gravity, this happened
when Einstein proposed the theory of general relativity.
A deductive argument is more clearly valid or not, which makes them easier to evaluate.
Evaluating deductive arguments

A deductive argument is considered valid if all the premises are true, and the conclusion follows logically from those premises. In
other words, the premises are true, and the conclusion follows necessarily from those premises.
Example 9
The argument “All cats are mammals and a tiger is a cat, so a tiger is a mammal” is a valid deductive argument.
The premises are:
All cats are mammals
A tiger is a cat
The conclusion is:
A tiger is a mammal
Both the premises are true. To see that the premises must logically lead to the conclusion, one approach
would be use a Venn diagram. From the first premise, we can conclude that the set of cats is a subset of the set of mammals. From
the second premise, we are told that a tiger lies within the set of cats. From that, we can see in the Venn diagram that the tiger also
lies inside the set of mammals, so the conclusion is valid.
Analyzing Arguments with Venn Diagrams[1]

To analyze an argument with a Venn diagram
1. Draw a Venn diagram based on the premises of the argument
2. If the premises are insufficient to determine what determine the location of an element, indicate that.
3. The argument is valid if it is clear that the conclusion must be true
Example 10
Premise: All firefighters know CPR
Premise: Jill knows CPR
Conclusion: Jill is a firefighter
From the first premise, we know that firefighters all lie inside the set of those who know CPR. From the
second premise, we know that Jill is a member of that larger set, but we do not have enough information to know if she also is a
member of the smaller subset that is firefighters.
Since the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises, this is an invalid argument, regardless of whether Jill actually
is a firefighter.
It is important to note that whether or not Jill is actually a firefighter is not important in evaluating the validity of the argument; we
are only concerned with whether the premises are enough to prove the conclusion.
In addition to these categorical style premises of the form “all ___,” “some ____,” and “no ____,” it is also common to see
premises that are implications.
Example 11
Premise: If you live in Seattle, you live in Washington.
Premise: Marcus does not live in Seattle
Conclusion: Marcus does not live in Washington
From the first premise, we know that the set of people who live in Seattle is inside the set of those who live
in Washington. From the second premise, we know that Marcus does not lie in the Seattle set, but we have insufficient information
to know whether or not Marcus lives in Washington or not. This is an invalid argument.
Example 12
Consider the argument “You are a married man, so you must have a wife.”
This is an invalid argument, since there are, at least in parts of the world, men who are married to other men, so the premise not
insufficient to imply the conclusion.
Some arguments are better analyzed using truth tables.
Example 13
Consider the argument:
Premise: If you bought bread, then you went to the store
Premise: You bought bread
Conclusion: You went to the store
While this example is hopefully fairly obviously a valid argument, we can analyze it using a truth table by representing each of the
premises symbolically. We can then look at the implication that the premises together imply the conclusion. If the truth table is a
tautology (always true), then the argument is valid.
We’ll get B represent “you bought bread” and S represent “you went to the store”. Then the argument becomes:
Premise: B→S
Premise: B
Conclusion: S
To test the validity, we look at whether the combination of both premises implies the conclusion; is it true that [(B→S) ⋀ B] → S ?
B S B→S (B→S) ⋀ B [(B→S) ⋀ B] → S
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T
Since the truth table for [(B→S) ⋀ B] → S is always true, this is a valid argument.
Analyzing arguments using truth tables

To analyze an argument with a truth table:
1. Represent each of the premises symbolically
2. Create a conditional statement, joining all the premises with and to form the antecedent, and using the conclusion as the
consequent.
3. Create a truth table for that statement. If it is always true, then the argument is valid.
Example 14
Premise: If I go to the mall, then I’ll buy new jeans
Premise: If I buy new jeans, I’ll buy a shirt to go with it
Conclusion: If I got to the mall, I’ll buy a shirt.
Let M = I go to the mall, J = I buy jeans, and S = I buy a shirt.
The premises and conclusion can be stated as:
Premise: M→J
Premise: J→S
Conclusion: M→S
We can construct a truth table for [(M→J) ⋀ (J→S)] → (M→S)
M J S M→J J→S (M→J) ⋀ (J→S) M→S [(M→J) ⋀ (J→S)] → (M→S)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F T T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
From the truth table, we can see this is a valid argument.
1. Technically, these are Euler circles or Euler diagrams, not Venn diagrams, but for the sake of simplicity we’ll continue to call
them Venn diagrams. ↵
Logic. Authored by: David Lippman. Located at: http://www.opentextbookstore.com/mathinsociety/. Project: Math In
Society. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
13.3: Truth Tables and Analyzing Arguments- Examples is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
This video explores the example “It is snowing OR I am wearing my hat,” and “It is snowing AND I am wearing my hat.”
https://youtu.be/8rNPcI_08Ec
Truth tables Conjunction and Disjunction. Authored by: Karen Walters. Located at: https://youtu.be/8rNPcI_08Ec. License:
All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
13.4: Truth Tables- Conjunction and Disjunction is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
This video explores the example “If it is snowing, then I am wearing my hat.”
https://youtu.be/2tIbh7l6Gi4
Truth tables Implication. Authored by: Karen Walters. Located at: https://youtu.be/2tIbh7l6Gi4. License: All Rights Reserved.
License Terms: Standard YouTube License
13.5: Truth Tables- Implication is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Part I
p=194
Part II
p=194
3.6 Analyzing Arguments with Truth Tables (part 1) . Authored by: Krista Hands. Located at:
https://youtu.be/dW7US8yRaEw. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
3.6 Analyzing Arguments with Truth Tables (part 2). Authored by: Krista Hands. Located at:
https://youtu.be/3PhHWT9MJew. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
13.6: Analyzing Arguments with Truth Tables is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
This reading provides information about negating “all,” “some,” or “no” statements. Click on the link below to view the
page “Negation—NOT—Compound Statements and ALL/SOME” created by Donna Roberts of the Oswego City School District
Regents Exam Prep Center.
Negation—NOT—Compound Statements and ALL/SOME
For more information, look at page 229 of Logic and Sets, staring with “Statements involving the universal quantifiers all, no,
non and every, or the existential quantifiers some and there exists at least one have to be negated in a different way.”
13.7: Negating “all,” “some,” or “no” statements is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
You will need to become familiar with creating a Truth Table in Blackboard. You may be asked to create a Truth Table for some of
your exam questions. See Creating a Truth Table for instructions.
Create a new thread in the Truth Table Practice forum in the Discussion Board to submit your assignment.
13.8: Discuss- Truth Table Practice is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Pick a real problem and try to solve it using what you learned about logic in this module. Present the problem and the solution to
the rest of the class. View the problems posted by your classmates and respond to at least two. Read the Logic Application
Directions for detailed directions.
Create a new thread in the Logic Application forum in the Discussion Board to complete this assignment.

Possible
The problem: 5
The strategies: 5
The presentation: 4
Your responses: 6

13.9: Discuss- Logic Application is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
14: Module 5- Numeration Systems
14.2: Numeration
14: Module 5- Numeration Systems is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
What You’ll Learn To Do: Understand numbers in other bases and recognize when use of other bases
is applicable to real-life situations.
Learning Objectives
Describe historical examples of simple grouping, multiplicative grouping, and positional numeration systems in the
development of modern mathematics.
Write and interpret numbers in other bases.
Convert directly between binary, octal, decimal, and hexadecimal bases.
Recognize when use of other bases is applicable to real-life situations, solve real-life problems, and communicate real-life
problems and solutions to others.
Learning Activities

Read: Numeration
Read: Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal
Submit: Numeration Homework #1 (16 points)
Submit: Numeration Homework #2 (16 points)
Discuss: Numeration Application (20 points)
14.2: Numeration
Historical Counting Systems Introduction and Basic Number and Counting Systems
Introduction
As we begin our journey through the history of mathematics, one question to be asked is “Where do we start?” Depending on how
you view mathematics or numbers, you could choose any of a number of launching points from which to begin. Howard Eves
suggests the following list of possibilities.[1]
Where to start the study of the history of mathematics…
At the first logical geometric “proofs” traditionally credited to Thales of Miletus (600 BCE).
With the formulation of methods of measurement made by the Egyptians and Mesopotamians/Babylonians.
Where prehistoric peoples made efforts to organize the concepts of size, shape, and number.
In pre-human times in the very simple number sense and pattern recognition that can be displayed by certain animals, birds, etc.
Even before that in the amazing relationships of numbers and shapes found in plants.
With the spiral nebulae, the natural course of planets, and other universe phenomena.
We can choose no starting point at all and instead agree that mathematics has always existed and has simply been waiting in the
wings for humans to discover. Each of these positions can be defended to some degree and which one you adopt (if any) largely
depends on your philosophical ideas about mathematics and numbers.
Nevertheless, we need a starting point. Without passing judgment on the validity of any of these particular possibilities, we will
choose as our starting point the emergence of the idea of number and the process of counting as our launching pad. This is done
primarily as a practical matter given the nature of this course. In the following chapter, we will try to focus on two main ideas. The
first will be an examination of basic number and counting systems and the symbols that we use for numbers. We will look at our
own modern (Western) number system as well those of a couple of selected civilizations to see the differences and diversity that is
possible when humans start counting. The second idea we will look at will be base systems. By comparing our own base-ten
(decimal) system with other bases, we will quickly become aware that the system that we are so used to, when slightly changed,
will challenge our notions about numbers and what symbols for those numbers actually mean.
Recognition of More vs. Less

The idea of number and the process of counting goes back far beyond history began to be recorded. There is some archeological
evidence that suggests that humans were counting as far back as 50,000 years ago.[2] However, we do not really know how this
process started or developed over time. The best we can do is to make a good guess as to how things progressed. It is probably not
hard to believe that even the earliest humans had some sense of more and less. Even some small animals have been shown to have
such a sense. For example, one naturalist tells of how he would secretly remove one egg each day from a plover’s nest. The mother
was diligent in laying an extra egg every day to make up for the missing egg. Some research has shown that hens can be trained to
distinguish between even and odd numbers of pieces of food.[3] With these sorts of findings in mind, it is not hard to conceive that
early humans had (at least) a similar sense of more and less. However, our conjectures about how and when these ideas emerged
among humans are simply that; educated guesses based on our own assumptions of what might or could have been.
The Need for Simple Counting

As societies and humankind evolved, simply having a sense of more or less, even or odd, etc., would prove to be insufficient to
meet the needs of everyday living. As tribes and groups formed, it became important to be able to know how many members were
in the group, and perhaps how many were in the enemy’s camp. Certainly it was important for them to know if the flock of sheep or
other possessed animals were increasing or decreasing in size. “Just how many of them do we have, anyway?” is a question that we
do not have a hard time imagining them asking themselves (or each other).
In order to count items such as animals, it is often conjectured that one of the earliest methods of doing so would be with “tally
sticks.” These are objects used to track the numbers of items to be counted. With this method, each “stick” (or pebble, or whatever
counting device being used) represents one animal or object. This method uses the idea of one to one correspondence. In a one to
one correspondence, items that are being counted are uniquely linked with some counting tool.
Figure 1.
In the picture to the right, you see each stick corresponding to one horse. By examining the collection of sticks in hand one knows
how many animals should be present. You can imagine the usefulness of such a system, at least for smaller numbers of items to
keep track of. If a herder wanted to “count off” his animals to make sure they were all present, he could mentally (or methodically)
assign each stick to one animal and continue to do so until he was satisfied that all were accounted for.
Of course, in our modern system, we have replaced the sticks with more abstract objects. In particular, the top stick is replaced with
our symbol “1,” the second stick gets replaced by a “2” and the third stick is represented by the symbol “3,” but we are getting
ahead of ourselves here. These modern symbols took many centuries to emerge.
Another possible way of employing the “tally stick” counting method is by making marks or cutting notches into pieces of wood,
or even tying knots in string (as we shall see later). In 1937, Karl Absolom discovered a wolf bone that goes back possibly 30,000
years. It is believed to be a counting device.[4] Another example of this kind of tool is the Ishango Bone, discovered in 1960 at
Ishango, and shown below.[5] It is reported to be between six and nine thousand years old and shows what appear to be markings
used to do counting of some sort.
The markings on rows (a) and (b) each add up to 60. Row (b) contains the prime numbers between 10 and 20. Row (c) seems to
illustrate for the method of doubling and multiplication used by the Egyptians. It is believed that this may also represent a lunar
phase counter.
Figure 2.
Spoken Words
As methods for counting developed, and as language progressed as well, it is natural to expect that spoken words for numbers
would appear. Unfortunately, the developments of these words, especially those corresponding to the numbers from one through
ten, are not easy to trace. Past ten, however, we do see some patterns:
Eleven comes from “ein lifon,” meaning “one left over.”
Twelve comes from “twe lif,” meaning “two left over.”
Thirteen comes from “Three and ten” as do fourteen through nineteen.
Twenty appears to come from “twe-tig” which means “two tens.”
Hundred probably comes from a term meaning “ten times.”
Written Numbers
When we speak of “written” numbers, we have to be careful because this could mean a variety of things. It is important to keep in
mind that modern paper is only a little more than 100 years old, so “writing” in times past often took on forms that might look quite
unfamiliar to us today.
As we saw earlier, some might consider wooden sticks with notches carved in them as writing as these are means of recording
information on a medium that can be “read” by others. Of course, the symbols used (simple notches) certainly did not leave a lot of
flexibility for communicating a wide variety of ideas or information.
Other mediums on which “writing” may have taken place include carvings in stone or clay tablets, rag paper made by hand (twelfth
century in Europe, but earlier in China), papyrus (invented by the Egyptians and used up until the Greeks), and parchments from
animal skins. And these are just a few of the many possibilities.
These are just a few examples of early methods of counting and simple symbols for representing numbers. Extensive books,
articles and research have been done on this topic and could provide enough information to fill this entire course if we allowed it to.
The range and diversity of creative thought that has been used in the past to describe numbers and to count objects and people is
staggering. Unfortunately, we don’t have time to examine them all, but it is fun and interesting to look at one system in more detail
to see just how ingenious people have been.
The Number and Counting System of the Inca Civilization

Background
There is generally a lack of books and research material concerning the historical foundations of the Americas. Most of the
“important” information available concentrates on the eastern hemisphere, with Europe as the central focus. The reasons for this
may be twofold: first, it is thought that there was a lack of specialized mathematics in the American regions; second, many of the
secrets of ancient mathematics in the Americas have been closely guarded.[6] The Peruvian system does not seem to be an
exception here. Two researchers, Leland Locke and Erland Nordenskiold, have carried out research that has attempted to discover
what mathematical knowledge was known by the Incas and how they used the Peruvian quipu, a counting system using cords and
knots, in their mathematics. These researchers have come to certain beliefs about the quipu that we will summarize here.
Counting Boards
It should be noted that the Incas did not have a complicated system of computation. Where other peoples in the regions, such as the
Mayans, were doing computations related to their rituals and calendars, the Incas seem to have been more concerned with the
simpler task of record-keeping. To do this, they used what are called the “quipu” to record quantities of items. (We will describe
them in more detail in a moment.) However, they first often needed to do computations whose results would be recorded on quipu.
To do these computations, they would sometimes use a counting board constructed with a slab of stone. In the slab were cut
rectangular and square compartments so that an octagonal (eight-sided) region was left in the middle. Two opposite corner
rectangles were raised. Another two sections were mounted on the original surface of the slab so that there were actually three
levels available. In the figure shown, the darkest shaded corner regions represent the highest, third level. The lighter shaded regions
surrounding the corners are the second highest levels, while the clear white rectangles are the compartments cut into the stone slab.
Figure 3.
Pebbles were used to keep accounts and their positions within the various levels and compartments gave totals. For example, a
pebble in a smaller (white) compartment represented one unit. Note that there are 12 such squares around the outer edge of the
figure. If a pebble was put into one of the two (white) larger, rectangular compartments, its value was doubled. When a pebble was
put in the octagonal region in the middle of the slab, its value was tripled. If a pebble was placed on the second (shaded) level, its
value was multiplied by six. And finally, if a pebble was found on one of the two highest corner levels, its value was multiplied by
twelve. Different objects could be counted at the same time by representing different objects by different colored pebbles.
Example 1
Suppose you have the following counting board with two different kind of pebbles places as illustrated. Let the solid black pebble
represent a dog and the striped pebble represent a cat. How many dogs are being represented?
Solution
Figure 4.
There are two black pebbles in the outer square regions…these represent 2 dogs. There are three black pebbles in the larger (white)
rectangular compartments. These represent 6 dogs. There is one black pebble in the middle region…this represents 3 dogs. There
are three black pebbles on the second level…these represent 18 dogs. Finally, there is one black pebble on the highest corner
level…this represents 12 dogs. We then have a total of 2+6+3+18+12 = 41 dogs.
Try It Now
How many cats are represented on this board?
The Quipu
Figure 5.
This kind of board was good for doing quick computations, but it did not provide a good way to keep a permanent recording of
quantities or computations. For this purpose, they used the quipu. The quipu is a collection of cords with knots in them. These
cords and knots are carefully arranged so that the position and type of cord or knot gives specific information on how to decipher
the cord.
A quipu is made up of a main cord which has other cords (branches) tied to it. See pictures to the right.[7]
Locke called the branches H cords. They are attached to the main cord. B cords, in turn, were attached to the H cords. Most of these
cords would have knots on them. Rarely are knots found on the main cord, however, and tend to be mainly on the H and B cords. A
quipu might also have a “totalizer” cord that summarizes all of the information on the cord group in one place.
Locke points out that there are three types of knots, each representing a different value, depending on the kind of knot used and its
position on the cord. The Incas, like us, had a decimal (base-ten) system, so each kind of knot had a specific decimal value. The
Single knot, pictured in the middle of figure 6[8] was used to denote tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands. They would be
on the upper levels of the H cords. The figure-eight knot on the end was used to denote the integer “one.” Every other integer from
2 to 9 was represented with a long knot, shown on the left of the figure. (Sometimes long knots were used to represents tens and
hundreds.) Note that the long knot has several turns in it…the number of turns indicates which integer is being represented. The
units (ones) were placed closest to the bottom of the cord, then tens right above them, then the hundreds, and so on.
Figure 6
In order to make reading these pictures easier, we will adopt a convention that is consistent. For the long knot with turns in it
(representing the numbers 2 through 9), we will use the following notation:
The four horizontal bars represent four turns and the curved arc on the right links the four turns together. This would represent the
number 4.
We will represent the single knot with a large dot ( · ) and we will represent the figure eight knot with a sideways eight ( ∞ ).
Example 2
Figure 7.
What number is represented on the cord shown in figure 7?
Solution
On the cord, we see a long knot with four turns in it…this represents four in the ones place. Then 5 single knots appear in the tens
position immediately above that, which represents 5 tens, or 50. Finally, 4 single knots are tied in the hundreds, representing four 4
hundreds, or 400. Thus, the total shown on this cord is 454.
Try It Now
What numbers are represented on each of the four cords hanging from the main cord?
Figure 8.
The colors of the cords had meaning and could distinguish one object from another. One color could represent llamas, while a
different color might represent sheep, for example. When all the colors available were exhausted, they would have to be re-used.
Because of this, the ability to read the quipu became a complicated task and specially trained individuals did this job. They were
called Quipucamayoc, which means keeper of the quipus. They would build, guard, and decipher quipus.
Figure 9.
As you can see from this photograph of an actual quipu (figure 9), they could get quite complex.
There were various purposes for the quipu. Some believe that they were used to keep an account of their traditions and history,
using knots to record history rather than some other formal system of writing. One writer has even suggested that the quipu
replaced writing as it formed a role in the Incan postal system.[9] Another proposed use of the quipu is as a translation tool. After
the conquest of the Incas by the Spaniards and subsequent “conversion” to Catholicism, an Inca supposedly could use the quipu to
confess their sins to a priest. Yet another proposed use of the quipu was to record numbers related to magic and astronomy,
although this is not a widely accepted interpretation.
The mysteries of the quipu have not been fully explored yet. Recently, Ascher and Ascher have published a book, The Code of the
Quipu: A Study in Media, Mathematics, and Culture, which is “an extensive elaboration of the logical-numerical system of the
quipu.”[10] For more information on the quipu, you may want to check out “Khipus: a unique Huarochiri legacy.”
We are so used to seeing the symbols 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. that it may be somewhat surprising to see such a creative and innovative way to
compute and record numbers. Unfortunately, as we proceed through our mathematical education in grade and high school, we
receive very little information about the wide range of number systems that have existed and which still exist all over the world.
That’s not to say our own system is not important or efficient. The fact that it has survived for hundreds of years and shows no sign
of going away any time soon suggests that we may have finally found a system that works well and may not need further
improvement, but only time will tell that whether or not that conjecture is valid or not. We now turn to a brief historical look at how
our current system developed over history.
The Hindu—Arabic Number System

The Evolution of a System
Our own number system, composed of the ten symbols {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} is called the Hindu-Arabic system. This is a base-ten
(decimal) system since place values increase by powers of ten. Furthermore, this system is positional, which means that the
position of a symbol has bearing on the value of that symbol within the number. For example, the position of the symbol 3 in the
number 435,681 gives it a value much greater than the value of the symbol 8 in that same number. We’ll explore base systems more
thoroughly later. The development of these ten symbols and their use in a positional system comes to us primarily from India.[11]
Figure 10. Al-Biruni
It was not until the fifteenth century that the symbols that we are familiar with today first took form in Europe. However, the
history of these numbers and their development goes back hundreds of years. One important source of information on this topic is
the writer al-Biruni, whose picture is shown in figure 10.[12] Al-Biruni, who was born in modern day Uzbekistan, had visited India
on several occasions and made comments on the Indian number system. When we look at the origins of the numbers that al-Biruni
encountered, we have to go back to the third century BCE. to explore their origins. It is then that the Brahmi numerals were being
used.
The Brahmi numerals were more complicated than those used in our own modern system. They had separate symbols for the
numbers 1 through 9, as well as distinct symbols for 10, 100, 1000,…, also for 20, 30, 40,…, and others for 200, 300, 400, …, 900.
The Brahmi symbols for 1, 2, and 3 are shown below.[13]
These numerals were used all the way up to the fourth century CE, with variations through time and geographic location. For
example, in the first century CE, one particular set of Brahmi numerals took on the following form:[14]
From the fourth century on, you can actually trace several different paths that the Brahmi numerals took to get to different points
and incarnations. One of those paths led to our current numeral system, and went through what are called the Gupta numerals. The
Gupta numerals were prominent during a time ruled by the Gupta dynasty and were spread throughout that empire as they
conquered lands during the fourth through sixth centuries. They have the following form:[15]
How the numbers got to their Gupta form is open to considerable debate. Many possible hypotheses have been offered, most of
which boil down to two basic types.[16] The first type of hypothesis states that the numerals came from the initial letters of the
names of the numbers. This is not uncommon . . . the Greek numerals developed in this manner. The second type of hypothesis
states that they were derived from some earlier number system. However, there are other hypotheses that are offered, one of which
is by the researcher Ifrah. His theory is that there were originally nine numerals, each represented by a corresponding number of
vertical lines. One possibility is this:[17]
Because these symbols would have taken a lot of time to write, they eventually evolved into cursive symbols that could be written
more quickly. If we compare these to the Gupta numerals above, we can try to see how that evolutionary process might have taken
place, but our imagination would be just about all we would have to depend upon since we do not know exactly how the process
unfolded.
The Gupta numerals eventually evolved into another form of numerals called the Nagari numerals, and these continued to evolve
until the eleventh century, at which time they looked like this:[18]
Note that by this time, the symbol for 0 has appeared! The Mayans in the Americas had a symbol for zero long before this,
however, as we shall see later in the chapter.
These numerals were adopted by the Arabs, most likely in the eighth century during Islamic incursions into the northern part of
India.[19] It is believed that the Arabs were instrumental in spreading them to other parts of the world, including Spain (see below).
Other examples of variations up to the eleventh century include:[20]
Figure 11. Devangari, eighth century
Figure 12. West Arab Gobar, tenth century
Figure 13. Spain, 976 BCE

Finally, figure 14[21] shows various forms of these numerals as they developed and eventually converged to the fifteenth century in
Europe.
Figure 14.
The Positional System

More important than the form of the number symbols is the development of the place value system. Although it is in slight dispute,
the earliest known document in which the Indian system displays a positional system dates back to 346 CE. However, some
evidence suggests that they may have actually developed a positional system as far back as the first century CE.
The Indians were not the first to use a positional system. The Babylonians (as we will see in Chapter 3) used a positional system
with 60 as their base. However, there is not much evidence that the Babylonian system had much impact on later numeral systems,
except with the Greeks. Also, the Chinese had a base-10 system, probably derived from the use of a counting board.[22] Some
believe that the positional system used in India was derived from the Chinese system.
Wherever it may have originated, it appears that around 600 CE, the Indians abandoned the use of symbols for numbers higher than
nine and began to use our familiar system where the position of the symbol determines its overall value.[23] Numerous documents
from the seventh century demonstrate the use of this positional system.
Interestingly, the earliest dated inscriptions using the system with a symbol for zero come from Cambodia. In 683, the 605th year of
the Saka era is written with three digits and a dot in the middle. The 608th year uses three digits with a modern 0 in the middle.
[24]
The dot as a symbol for zero also appears in a Chinese work (Chiu-chih li). The author of this document gives a strikingly clear
description of how the Indian system works:
Using the [Indian] numerals, multiplication and division are carried out. Each numeral is written in one stroke. When a number is
counted to ten, it is advanced into the higher place. In each vacant place a dot is always put. Thus the numeral is always denoted in
each place. Accordingly there can be no error in determining the place. With the numerals, calculations is easy.[25]
Transmission to Europe
It is not completely known how the system got transmitted to Europe. Traders and travelers of the Mediterranean coast may have
carried it there. It is found in a tenth-century Spanish manuscript and may have been introduced to Spain by the Arabs, who
invaded the region in 711 CE and were there until 1492.
In many societies, a division formed between those who used numbers and calculation for practical, every day business and those
who used them for ritualistic purposes or for state business.[26] The former might often use older systems while the latter were
inclined to use the newer, more elite written numbers. Competition between the two groups arose and continued for quite some
time.
Figure 15.
In a fourteenth century manuscript of Boethius’ The Consolations of Philosophy, there appears a well-known drawing of two
mathematicians. One is a merchant and is using an abacus (the “abacist”). The other is a Pythagorean philosopher (the “algorist”)
using his “sacred” numbers. They are in a competition that is being judged by the goddess of number. By 1500 CE, however, the
newer symbols and system had won out and has persevered until today. The Seattle Times recently reported that the Hindu-Arabic
numeral system has been included in the book The Greatest Inventions of the Past 2000 Years.[27]
One question to answer is why the Indians would develop such a positional notation. Unfortunately, an answer to that question is
not currently known. Some suggest that the system has its origins with the Chinese counting boards. These boards were portable
and it is thought that Chinese travelers who passed through India took their boards with them and ignited an idea in Indian
mathematics.[28] Others, such as G. G. Joseph propose that it is the Indian fascination with very large numbers that drove them to
develop a system whereby these kinds of big numbers could easily be written down. In this theory, the system developed entirely
within the Indian mathematical framework without considerable influence from other civilizations.
The Development and Use of Different Number Bases
Introduction and Basics
During the previous discussions, we have been referring to positional base systems. In this section of the chapter, we will explore
exactly what a base system is and what it means if a system is “positional.” We will do so by first looking at our own familiar, base-
ten system and then deepen our exploration by looking at other possible base systems. In the next part of this section, we will
journey back to Mayan civilization and look at their unique base system, which is based on the number 20 rather than the number
10.
A base system is a structure within which we count. The easiest way to describe a base system is to think about our own base-ten
system. The base-ten system, which we call the “decimal” system, requires a total of ten different symbols/digits to write any
number. They are, of course, 0, 1, 2, . . . , 9.
The decimal system is also an example of a positional base system, which simply means that the position of a digit gives its place
value. Not all civilizations had a positional system even though they did have a base with which they worked.
In our base-ten system, a number like 5,783,216 has meaning to us because we are familiar with the system and its places. As we
know, there are six ones, since there is a 6 in the ones place. Likewise, there are seven “hundred thousands,” since the 7 resides in
that place. Each digit has a value that is explicitly determined by its position within the number. We make a distinction between
digit, which is just a symbol such as 5, and a number, which is made up of one or more digits. We can take this number and assign
each of its digits a value. One way to do this is with a table, which follows:
5,000,000 = 5 × 1,000,000 = 5 × 106 Five million
+700,000 = 7 × 100,000 = 7 × 105 Seven hundred thousand
+80,000 = 8 × 10,000 = 8 × 104 Eighty thousand
+3,000 = 3 × 1000 = 3 × 103 Three thousand
+200 = 2 × 100 = 2 × 102 Two hundred
+10 = 1 × 10 = 1 × 101 Ten
+6 =6×1 = 6 × 100 Six
5,783,216 Five million, seven hundred eighty-three thousand, two hundred sixteen
From the third column in the table we can see that each place is simply a multiple of ten. Of course, this makes sense given that our
base is ten. The digits that are multiplying each place simply tell us how many of that place we have. We are restricted to having at
most 9 in any one place before we have to “carry” over to the next place. We cannot, for example, have 11 in the hundreds place.
Instead, we would carry 1 to the thousands place and retain 1 in the hundreds place. This comes as no surprise to us since we
readily see that 11 hundreds is the same as one thousand, one hundred. Carrying is a pretty typical occurrence in a base system.
However, base-ten is not the only option we have. Practically any positive integer greater than or equal to 2 can be used as a base
for a number system. Such systems can work just like the decimal system except the number of symbols will be different and each
position will depend on the base itself.
Other Bases
For example, let’s suppose we adopt a base-five system. The only modern digits we would need for this system are 0,1,2,3 and 4.
What are the place values in such a system? To answer that, we start with the ones place, as most base systems do. However, if we
were to count in this system, we could only get to four (4) before we had to jump up to the next place. Our base is 5, after all! What
is that next place that we would jump to? It would not be tens, since we are no longer in base-ten. We’re in a different numerical
world. As the base-ten system progresses from 100 to 101, so the base-five system moves from 50 to 51 = 5. Thus, we move from
the ones to the fives.
After the fives, we would move to the 52 place, or the twenty fives. Note that in base-ten, we would have gone from the tens to the
hundreds, which is, of course, 102.
Let’s take an example and build a table. Consider the number 30412 in base five. We will write this as 304125, where the subscript
5 is not part of the number but indicates the base we’re using. First off, note that this is NOT the number “thirty thousand, four
hundred twelve.” We must be careful not to impose the base-ten system on this number. Here’s what our table might look like. We
will use it to convert this number to our more familiar base-ten system.
Base 5 This column coverts to base-ten In Base-Ten
3 × 54 = 3 × 625 = 1875
+ 0 × 53 = 0 × 125 =0
+ 4 × 52 = 4 × 25 = 100
+ 1 × 51 =1×5 =5
+ 2 × 50 =2×1 =2
Total 1982
As you can see, the number 304125 is equivalent to 1,982 in base-ten. We will say 304125 = 198210. All of this may seem strange
to you, but that’s only because you are so used to the only system that you’ve ever seen.
Example 3
Convert 62347 to a base 10 number.
Solution
We first note that we are given a base-7 number that we are to convert. Thus, our places will start at the ones (70), and then move
up to the 7s, 49s (72), etc. Here’s the breakdown:
Base 7 Convert Base 10
= 6 × 73 = 6 × 343 = 2058
+ = 2 × 72 = 2 × 49 = 98
+ =3×7 =3×7 = 21
+ =4×1 =4×1 =4
Total 2181
Thus 62347 = 218110
Try It Now
Converting from Base 10 to Other Bases

Converting from an unfamiliar base to the familiar decimal system is not that difficult once you get the hang of it. It’s only a matter
of identifying each place and then multiplying each digit by the appropriate power. However, going the other direction can be a
little trickier. Suppose you have a base-ten number and you want to convert to base-five. Let’s start with some simple examples
before we get to a more complicated one.
Example 4
Convert twelve to a base-five number.
Solution
We can probably easily see that we can rewrite this number as follows:
12 = (2 × 5) + (2 × 1)
Hence, we have two fives and 2 ones. Hence, in base-five we would write twelve as 225. Thus, 1210 =225.
Example 5
Convert sixty-nine to a base-five number.
Solution
We can see now that we have more than 25, so we rewrite sixty-nine as follows:
69 = (2 × 25) + (3 × 5) + (4 × 1)
Here, we have two twenty-fives, 3 fives, and 4 ones. Hence, in base five we have 234. Thus, 6910 = 2345.
Example 6
Convert the base-seven number 32617 to base 10.
Solution
The powers of 7 are:
70 = 1
71 = 7
72 = 49
73 = 343
Etc…
32617 = (3 × 343) + (2 × 49) + (6 × 7) + (1 × 1) =117010.
Thus 32617 = 117010.
Try It Now
Convert 143 to base 5
Try It Now
Convert the base-three number 210213 to base 10.
In general, when converting from base -ten to some other base, it is often helpful to determine the highest power of the base that
will divide into the given number at least once.
In the last example, 52 = 25 is the largest power of five that is present in 69, so that was our starting point. If we had moved to 53 =
125, then 125 would not divide into 69 at least once.
Converting from Base 10 to Base b

1. Find the highest power of the base b that will divide into the given number at least once and then divide.
2. Write down the whole number part, then use the remainder from division in the next step.
3. Repeat step two, dividing by the next highest power of the base b, writing down the whole number part (including 0), and using
the remainder in the next step.
4. Continue until the remainder is smaller than the base. This last remainder will be in the “ones” place.
5. Collect all your whole number parts to get your number in base b notation.
Example 7
Convert the base-ten number 348 to base-five.
Solution
The powers of five are:
50 = 1
51 = 5
52 = 25
53 = 125
54 = 625
Etc…
Since 348 is smaller than 625, but bigger than 125, we see that 53 = 125 is the highest power of five present in 348. So we divide
125 into 348 to see how many of them there are:
348 ÷ 125 = 2 with remainder 98
We write down the whole part, 2, and continue with the remainder. There are 98 left over, so we see how many 25s (the next
smallest power of five) there are in the remainder:
We write down the whole part, 2, and continue with the remainder. There are 23 left over, so we look at the next place, the 5s:
This leaves us with 3, which is less than our base, so this number will be in the “ones” place. We are ready to assemble our base-
five number:
348 = (2 × 53) + (3 × 52) + (4 × 51) + (3 × 1)
Hence, our base-five number is 2343. We’ll say that 34810 = 23435.
Example 8
Convert the base-ten number 4,509 to base-seven.
Solution
70 = 1
71 = 7
72 = 49
73 = 343
74 = 2401
75 = 16807
Etc…
The highest power of 7 that will divide into 4,509 is 74 = 2401. With division, we see that it will go in 1 time with a remainder of
2108. So we have 1 in the 74 place.
The next power down is 73 = 343, which goes into 2108 six times with a new remainder of 50. So we have 6 in the 73 place.
The next power down is 72 = 49, which goes into 50 once with a new remainder of 1. So there is a 1 in the 72 place.
The next power down is 71 but there was only a remainder of 1, so that means there is a 0 in the 7s place and we still have 1 as a
remainder.
That, of course, means that we have 1 in the ones place.
Putting all of this together means that 4,50910 = 161017.
4,509 ÷ 74 = 1 R 21082108 ÷ 73 = 6 R 50
50 ÷ 72 = 1 R 1
1 ÷ 71 = 1
4,50910 = 161017.
Try It Now
Try It Now
Another Method For Converting From Base 10 to Other Bases

As you read the solution to this last example and attempted the “Try it Now” problems, you may have had to repeatedly stop and
think about what was going on. The fact that you are probably struggling to follow the explanation and reproduce the process
yourself is mostly due to the fact that the non-decimal systems are so unfamiliar to you. In fact, the only system that you are
probably comfortable with is the decimal system.
As budding mathematicians, you should always be asking questions like “How could I simplify this process?” In general, that is
one of the main things that mathematicians do: they look for ways to take complicated situations and make them easier or more
familiar. In this section we will attempt to do that.
To do so, we will start by looking at our own decimal system. What we do may seem obvious and maybe even intuitive but that’s
the point. We want to find a process that we readily recognize works and makes sense to us in a familiar system and then use it to
extend our results to a different, unfamiliar system.
Let’s start with the decimal number, 486310. We will convert this number to base 10. Yeah, I know it’s already in base 10, but if you
carefully follow what we’re doing, you’ll see it makes things work out very nicely with other bases later on. We first note that the
highest power of 10 that will divide into 4863 at least once is 103 = 1000. In general, this is the first step in our new process; we
find the highest power that a given base that will divide at least once into our given number.
We now divide 1000 into 4863:
4863 ÷ 1000 = 4.863
This says that there are four thousands in 4863 (obviously). However, it also says that there are 0.863 thousands in 4863. This
fractional part is our remainder and will be converted to lower powers of our base (10). If we take that decimal and multiply by 10
(since that’s the base we’re in) we get the following:
0.863 × 10 = 8.63
Why multiply by 10 at this point? We need to recognize here that 0.863 thousands is the same as 8.63 hundreds. Think about that
until it sinks in.
(0.863)(1000) = 863
(8.63)(100) = 863
These two statements are equivalent. So, what we are really doing here by multiplying by 10 is rephrasing or converting from one
place (thousands) to the next place down (hundreds).
0.863 × 10 ⇒ 8.63
(Parts of Thousands) × 10 ⇒ Hundreds
What we have now is 8 hundreds and a remainder of 0.63 hundreds, which is the same as 6.3 tens. We can do this again with the
0.63 that remains after this first step.
0.63 × 10 ⇒ 6.3
Hundreds × 10 ⇒ Tens
So we have six tens and 0.3 tens, which is the same as 3 ones, our last place value.
Now here’s the punch line. Let’s put all of the together in one place:
Converting from Base 10 to Base b: Another methodNote that in each step, the remainder is carried down to the next step and
multiplied by 10, the base. Also, at each step, the whole number part, which is circled, gives the digit that belongs in that particular
place. What is amazing is that this works for any base! So, to convert from a base 10 number to some other base, b, we have the
following steps we can follow:
Converting from Base 10 to Base b: Another method

1. Find the highest power of the base b that will divide into the given number at least once and then divide.
2. Keep the whole number part, and multiply the fractional part by the base b.
3. Repeat step two, keeping the whole number part (including 0), carrying the fractional part to the next step until only a whole
number result is obtained.
4. Collect all your whole number parts to get your number in base b notation.
We will illustrate this procedure with some examples.
Example 9
Convert the base 10 number, 34810, to base 5.
Solution
This is actually a conversion that we have done in a previous example. The powers of five are:
50 = 1
51 = 5
52 = 25
53 = 125
54 = 625
Etc…
The highest power of five that will go into 348 at least once is 53.
We divide by 125 and then proceed.
By keeping all the whole number parts, from top bottom, gives 2343 as our base 5 number. Thus, 23435 = 34810.
We can compare our result with what we saw earlier, or simply check with our calculator, and find that these two numbers really
are equivalent to each other.
Example 10
Solution
The highest power of 5 that divides at least once into 3007 is 54 = 625. Thus, we have:
3007 ÷ 625 = ④.8112
0.8112 × 5 = ④.056
0.056 × 5 = .28
0.28 × 5 = ①0.4
0.4 × 5 = ②0.0
This gives us that 300710 = 440125. Notice that in the third line that multiplying by 5 gave us 0 for our whole number part. We
don’t discard that! The zero tells us that a zero in that place. That is, there are no 52s in this number.
This last example shows the importance of using a calculator in certain situations and taking care to avoid clearing the calculator’s
memory or display until you get to the very end of the process.
Example 11
Solution

70 = 1
71 = 7
72 = 49
73 = 343
74 = 2401
75 = 16807
etc…
The highest power of 7 that will divide at least once into 63201 is 75. When we do the initial division on a calculator, we get the
following:
63201 ÷ 75 = 3.760397453
The decimal part actually fills up the calculators display and we don’t know if it terminates at some point or perhaps even repeats
down the road. So if we clear our calculator at this point, we will introduce error that is likely to keep this process from ever
ending. To avoid this problem, we leave the result in the calculator and simply subtract 3 from this to get the fractional part all by
itself. Do not round off! Subtraction and then multiplication by seven gives:
63201 ÷ 75 = ƒ③.760397453
0.760397453 × 7 = …⑤.322782174
0.322782174 × 7 =‚ ②.259475219
0.259475219 × 7 = ①.816326531
0.816326531 × 7 = ⑤….714285714
0.714285714 × 7 = …⑤.000000000
Yes, believe it or not, that last product is exactly 5, as long as you don’t clear anything out on your calculator. This gives us our
final result: 6320110 = 3521557.
If we round, even to two decimal places in each step, clearing our calculator out at each step along the way, we will get a series of
numbers that do not terminate, but begin repeating themselves endlessly. (Try it!) We end up with something that doesn’t make any
sense, at least not in this context. So be careful to use your calculator cautiously on these conversion problems.
Also, remember that if your first division is by 75, then you expect to have 6 digits in the final answer, corresponding to the places
for 75, 74, and so on down to 70. If you find yourself with more than 6 digits due to rounding errors, you know something went
wrong.
Try It Now
Try It Now
Be careful not to clear your calculator on this one. Also, if you’re not careful in each step, you may not get all of the digits you’re
looking for, so move slowly and with caution.
The Mayan Numeral System

Background
As you might imagine, the development of a base system is an important step in making the counting process more efficient. Our
own base-ten system probably arose from the fact that we have 10 fingers (including thumbs) on two hands. This is a natural
development. However, other civilizations have had a variety of bases other than ten. For example, the Natives of Queensland used
a base-two system, counting as follows: “one, two, two and one, two two’s, much.” Some Modern South American Tribes have a
base-five system counting in this way: “one, two, three, four, hand, hand and one, hand and two,” and so on. The Babylonians used
a base-sixty (sexigesimal) system. In this chapter, we wrap up with a specific example of a civilization that actually used a base
system other than 10.
The Mayan civilization is generally dated from 1500 BCE to 1700 CE. The Yucatan
Peninsula (see figure 16[29]) in Mexico was the scene for the development of one of the most advanced civilizations of the ancient
world. The Mayans had a sophisticated ritual system that was overseen by a priestly class. This class of priests developed a
philosophy with time as divine and eternal.[30] The calendar, and calculations related to it, were thus very important to the ritual life
of the priestly class, and hence the Mayan people. In fact, much of what we know about this culture comes from their calendar
records and astronomy data. Another important source of information on the Mayans is the writings of Father Diego de Landa, who
went to Mexico as a missionary in 1549.
There were two numeral systems developed by the Mayans—one for the common people and one for the priests.
Not only did these two systems use different symbols, they also used different base systems. For the priests, the number system was
governed by ritual. The days of the year were thought to be gods, so the formal symbols for the days were decorated heads,[31] like
the sample to the left[32] Since the basic calendar was based on 360 days, the priestly numeral system used a mixed base system
employing multiples of 20 and 360. This makes for a confusing system, the details of which we will skip.
Powers Base-Ten Value Place Name
207 12,800,000,000 Hablat
206 64,000,000 Alau
205 3,200,000 Kinchil
204 160,000 Cabal
203 8,000 Pic
202 400 Bak
201 20 Kal
200 1 Hun
The Mayan Number System

Instead, we will focus on the numeration system of the “common” people, which used a more consistent base system. As we stated
earlier, the Mayans used a base-20 system, called the “vigesimal” system. Like our system, it is positional, meaning that the
position of a numeric symbol indicates its place value. In the following table you can see the place value in its vertical format.[33]
In order to write numbers down, there were only three symbols needed in this system. A horizontal bar represented the quantity 5, a
dot represented the quantity 1, and a special symbol (thought to be a shell) represented zero. The Mayan system may have been the
first to make use of zero as a placeholder/number. The first 20 numbers are shown in the table to the right.[34]
Unlike our system, where the ones place starts on the right and then moves to the left, the Mayan systems places the ones on the
bottom of a vertical orientation and moves up as the place value increases.
When numbers are written in vertical form, there should never be more than four dots in a single place. When writing Mayan
numbers, every group of five dots becomes one bar. Also, there should never be more than three bars in a single place…four bars
would be converted to one dot in the next place up. It’s the same as 10 getting converted to a 1 in the next place up when we carry
during addition.
Example 12
What is the value of this number, which is shown in vertical form?
Solution
Starting from the bottom, we have the ones place. There are two bars and three dots in this place. Since each bar is worth 5, we
have 13 ones when we count the three dots in the ones place. Looking to the place value above it (the twenties places), we see there
are three dots so we have three twenties.
Hence we can write this number in base-ten as:

(3 × 201) + (13 × 200) = (3 × 201) + (13 × 1) = 60 + 13 = 73
Example 13
What is the value of the following Mayan number?
Solution
This number has 11 in the ones place, zero in the 20s place, and 18 in the 202 = 400s place. Hence, the value of this number in
base-ten is:
18 × 400 + 0 × 20 + 11 × 1 = 7211.
Try It Now
Convert the Mayan number below to base 10.
Example 14
Convert the base 10 number 357510 to Mayan numerals.
This problem is done in two stages. First we need to convert to a base 20 number. We will do so using the method provided in the
last section of the text. The second step is to convert that number to Mayan symbols.
The highest power of 20 that will divide into 3575 is 202 = 400, so we start by dividing that and then proceed from there:
3575 ÷ 400 = 8.9375
0.9375 × 20 = 18.75
0.75 × 20 = 15.0
This means that 357510 = 8,18,1520
The second step is to convert this to Mayan notation. This number indicates that we have 15 in the ones position. That’s three bars
at the bottom of the number. We also have 18 in the 20s place, so that’s three bars and three dots in the second position. Finally, we
have 8 in the 400s place, so that’s one bar and three dots on the top. We get the following:
Note that in the previous example a new notation was used when we wrote 8,18,1520. The commas between the three numbers 8,
18, and 15 are now separating place values for us so that we can keep them separate from each other. This use of the comma is
slightly different than how they’re used in the decimal system. When we write a number in base 10, such as 7,567,323, the commas
are used primarily as an aide to read the number easily but they do not separate single place values from each other. We will need
this notation whenever the base we use is larger than 10.
Writing numbers with bases bigger than 10

When the base of a number is larger than 10, separate each “digit” with a comma to make the separation of digits clear.
For example, in base 20, to write the number corresponding to 17 × 202 + 6 × 201 + 13 × 200, we’d write 17,6,1320.
Try It Now
Try It Now
Adding Mayan Numbers

When adding Mayan numbers together, we’ll adopt a scheme that the Mayans probably did not use but which will make life a little
easier for us.
Example 15
Add, in Mayan, the numbers 37 and 29:[35]
First draw a box around each of the vertical places. This will help keep the place values from being mixed up.
Next, put all of the symbols from both numbers into a single set of places (boxes), and to the right of this new number draw a set of
empty boxes where you will place the final sum:
You are now ready to start carrying. Begin with the place that has the lowest value, just as you do with Arabic numbers. Start at the
bottom place, where each dot is worth 1. There are six dots, but a maximum of four are allowed in any one place; once you get to
five dots, you must convert to a bar. Since five dots make one bar, we draw a bar through five of the dots, leaving us with one dot
which is under the four-dot limit. Put this dot into the bottom place of the empty set of boxes you just drew:
Now look at the bars in the bottom place. There are five, and the maximum number the place can hold is three. Four bars are equal
to one dot in the next highest place.
Whenever we have four bars in a single place we will automatically convert that to a dot in the next place up. We draw a circle
around four of the bars and an arrow up to the dots’ section of the higher place. At the end of that arrow, draw a new dot. That dot
represents 20 just the same as the other dots in that place. Not counting the circled bars in the bottom place, there is one bar left.
One bar is under the three-bar limit; put it under the dot in the set of empty places to the right.
Now there are only three dots in the next highest place, so draw them in the corresponding empty box.
We can see here that we have 3 twenties (60), and 6 ones, for a total of 66. We check and note that 37 + 29 = 66, so we have done
this addition correctly. Is it easier to just do it in base-ten? Probably, but that’s only because it’s more familiar to you. Your task
here is to try to learn a new base system and how addition can be done in slightly different ways than what you have seen in the
past. Note, however, that the concept of carrying is still used, just as it is in our own addition algorithm.
Try It Now
Try adding 174 and 78 in Mayan by first converting to Mayan numbers and then working entirely within that system. Do not add in
base-ten (decimal) until the very end when you check your work.
Conclusion
In this reading, we have briefly sketched the development of numbers and our counting system, with the emphasis on the “brief”
part. There are numerous sources of information and research that fill many volumes of books on this topic. Unfortunately, we
cannot begin to come close to covering all of the information that is out there.
We have only scratched the surface of the wealth of research and information that exists on the development of numbers and
counting throughout human history. What is important to note is that the system that we use every day is a product of thousands of
years of progress and development. It represents contributions by many civilizations and cultures. It does not come down to us
from the sky, a gift from the gods. It is not the creation of a textbook publisher. It is indeed as human as we are, as is the rest of
mathematics. Behind every symbol, formula and rule there is a human face to be found, or at least sought.
Furthermore, we hope that you now have a basic appreciation for just how interesting and diverse number systems can get. Also,
we’re pretty sure that you have also begun to recognize that we take our own number system for granted so much that when we try
to adapt to other systems or bases, we find ourselves truly having to concentrate and think about what is going on.
1. Eves, Howard; An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, p. 9. ↵

2. Eves, p. 9. ↵
3. McLeish, John; The Story of Numbers—How Mathematics Has Shaped Civilization, p. 7. ↵
4. Bunt, Lucas; Jones, Phillip; Bedient, Jack; The Historical Roots of Elementary Mathematics, p. 2. ↵
5. http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_zaire-uganda.html ↵
6. Diana, Lind Mae; The Peruvian Quipu in Mathematics Teacher, Issue 60 (Oct., 1967), p. 623–28. ↵
8. http://wiscinfo.doit.wisc.edu/chaysimire/titulo2/khipus/what.htm ↵
10. http://www.cs.uidaho.edu/~casey931/seminar/quipu.html ↵
11. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html ↵
12. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Biruni.html ↵
15. Ibid. ↵
16. Ibid. ↵
17. Ibid. ↵
18. Ibid. ↵
19. Katz, page 230 ↵
20. Burton, David M., History of Mathematics, An Introduction, p. 254–255 ↵
21. Katz, page 231. ↵
22. Ibid, page 230 ↵
23. Ibid, page 231. ↵
24. Ibid, page 232. ↵
25. Ibid, page 232. ↵
26. McLeish, p. 18 ↵
27. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/news/health-science/html98/invs_20000201.html, Seattle Times, Feb. 1, 2000 ↵
28. Ibid, page 232. ↵
29. http://www.gorp.com/gorp/location/latamer/map_maya.htm ↵
30. Bidwell, James; Mayan Arithmetic in Mathematics Teacher, Issue 74 (Nov., 1967), p. 762–68. ↵
31. http://www.ukans.edu/~lctls/Mayan/numbers.html ↵
32. http://www.ukans.edu/~lctls/Mayan/numbers.html ↵
33. Bidwell ↵
34. http://www.vpds.wsu.edu/fair_95/gym/UM001.html ↵
35. http://forum.swarthmore.edu/k12/mayan.math/mayan2.html ↵
Historical Counting Systems. Authored by: David Lippman. Located at: http://www.opentextbookstore.com/mathinsociety/.
Project: Math in Society. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
14.2: Numeration is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
This YouTube playlist contains several videos that supplement the reading on Historical Counting.
with.
In modern computing and digital electronics, the most commonly used bases are decimal (base 10), binary (base 2), octal (base 8),
and hexadecimal (base 16). If we are converting between two bases other than decimal, we typically have to convert the number to
base 10 first, and then convert that number to the second base. However, we can easily convert directly from binary to octal, and
vice versa, and from binary to hexadecimal, and vice versa.
This video gives a basic introduction to these conversions:
p=210
For another description, this one is more like a math lecture:
p=210
For further clarification, recall that the numbers 0 through 7 can be represented by up to three digits in base two. In base eight,
these numbers are represented by a single digit.
Base 2 (binary) number Base 10 (decimal) equivalent Base 8 (octal) number
000 0 0
001 1 1
010 2 2
011 3 3
Base 2 (binary) number Base 10 (decimal) equivalent Base 8 (octal) number
100 4 4
101 5 5
110 6 6
111 7 7
Now when we get to the number 8, we need four digits in base 2 and two digits in base 8. In fact, the numbers 8 through 63 can be
represented by two digits in base 8. We need four, five, or six digits in base 2 to represent these same numbers:
Base 2 number Base 10 equivalent Base 8 number
1000 8 10 = 1 × 8 + 0 × 1
1001 9 11 = 1 × 8 + 1 × 1
1010 10 12 = 1 × 8 + 2 × 1
… … …
111100 60 74 = 7 × 8 + 4 × 1
111101 61 75 = 7 × 8 + 5 × 1
111110 62 76 = 7 × 8 + 6 × 1
111111 63 77 = 7 × 8 + 7 × 1
The number 64 in base 8 is represented by 1008 = 1 × 82 + 0 × 81 + 0 × 80 = 1 × 64 + 0 × 8 + 0 × 1. In base 2, this would be

10000002. Do you see a pattern here? For a single digit in base 8, we need up to three digits in base 2. For two digits in base 8, we
need 4, 5, or 6 digits in base 2. For three digits in base 8, we need 7, 8, or 9 digits in base 2. For each additional digit in base 8, we
need up to three spaces to represent it in base 2. Here’s a way to remember this: 23 = 8, so we need three spaces.
A couple of examples would help here.
1. Convert the number 61578 to base 2. We split each digit in base 8 to three digits in base 2, using the three digit base 2
equivalent, so 68 = 1102, 18 = 0012, etc.
2. Convert the number 101110110010102 to base 8. Split this number into sets of three, starting with the right-most digit, then
convert each set of three to its equivalent in base 8.
For hexadecimal (base 16), we need up to four digits in binary to represent each single digit. Remember this by recalling that 24 =
16, so we need four digits.
You may want to print out copies of these worksheets to help you with your conversions between binary and octal or hexadecimal:
Converting from Binary to Octal
Converting from Binary to Hexadecimal
If you would like to quiz yourself on converting the numbers 0 through 255 to binary, octal, and hexadecimal (and between those
bases), here’s a link to the representations of those numbers: Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal Numbers.
Pre-Algebra 3 - Decimal, Binary, Octal & Hexadecimal. Authored by: MyWhyU. Located at: https://youtu.be/5sS7w-
CMHkU. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
Binary, Hexadecimal, Octal conversion. Authored by: Joey Lawrance. Located at: https://youtu.be/2UwxdCLFW70. License:
All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
14.4: Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Pick a real problem and try to solve it using the numeration system solving strategies from this module. Present the problem and
the solution to the rest of the class. View the problems posted by your classmates and respond to at least two. Read the Numeration
Create a new thread in the Numeration Application forum in the Discussion Board to complete this assignment.

Possible
The problem: 5
The strategies: 5
The presentation: 4
Your responses: 6

14.5: Discuss- Numeration Application is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
15: Module 6- Consumer Math
15.2: Consumer Math
15: Module 6- Consumer Math is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
What You’ll Learn To Do: Understand consumer math and perform computations in daily life.
Learning Objectives
Define interest rate
Describe the difference between simple and compound interest
Calculate simple and compound interest
Describe the difference between present and future values
Calculate present and future values
Calculate annuities and payout annuities
Define finance charge
Calculate finance charges using the average daily balance method
Describe a fixed-rate mortgage
Prepare an amortization schedule
Learning Activities

Read: Consumer Math
Read: Average Daily Balance
Read: How an Amortization Schedule is Calculated
Submit: Consumer Math Homework #1 (22 points)
Submit: Consumer Math Homework #2 (12 points)
Discuss: Consumer Math Application (20 points)
Discuss: Final Reflection (40 points)
Complete: Exam 3
15.2: Consumer Math
We have to work with money every day. While balancing your checkbook or calculating your monthly expenditures on espresso
requires only arithmetic, when we start saving, planning for retirement, or need a loan, we need more mathematics.
Simple Interest
Discussing interest starts with the principal, or amount your account starts with. This could be a starting investment, or the starting
amount of a loan. Interest, in its most simple form, is calculated as a percent of the principal. For example, if you borrowed $100
from a friend and agree to repay it with 5% interest, then the amount of interest you would pay would just be 5% of 100:
$100(0.05) = $5. The total amount you would repay would be $105, the original principal plus the interest.
Simple One-Time Interest

I=P_0{r}\\
A=P_0+I=P_0+P_0{r}=P_0(1+r)\\
I is the interest
r is the interest rate (in decimal form. Example: 5% = 0.05)
Example 1
A friend asks to borrow $300 and agrees to repay it in 30 days with 3% interest. How much interest will you earn?
Solution
r = 0.03 3% rate
I = $300(0.03) = $9 You will earn $9 interest.
One-time simple interest is only common for extremely short-term loans. For longer term loans, it is common for interest to be paid
on a daily, monthly, quarterly, or annual basis. In that case, interest would be earned regularly. For example, bonds are essentially a
loan made to the bond issuer (a company or government) by you, the bond holder. In return for the loan, the issuer agrees to pay
interest, often annually. Bonds have a maturity date, at which time the issuer pays back the original bond value.
Example 2
Suppose your city is building a new park, and issues bonds to raise the money to build it. You obtain a $1,000 bond that pays 5%
interest annually that matures in 5 years. How much interest will you earn?
Solution
Each year, you would earn 5% interest: $1000(0.05) = $50 in interest. So over the course of five years, you would earn a total of
$250 in interest. When the bond matures, you would receive back the $1,000 you originally paid, leaving you with a total of
$1,250.
We can generalize this idea of simple interest over time.
Simple Interest over Time

I=P_0{rt}\\
A=P_0+I=P_0+P_0{rt}=P_0(1+rt)\\
I is the interest
r is the interest rate in decimal form
t is time
The units of measurement (years, months, etc.) for the time should match the time period for the interest rate.
APR—Annual Percentage Rate

Interest rates are usually given as an annual percentage rate (APR)—the total interest that will be paid in the year. If the interest
is paid in smaller time increments, the APR will be divided up.
For example, a 6% APR paid monthly would be divided into twelve 0.5% payments.
A 4% annual rate paid quarterly would be divided into four 1% payments.
Example 3
Treasury Notes (T-notes) are bonds issued by the federal government to cover its expenses. Suppose you obtain a $1,000 T-note
with a 4% annual rate, paid semi-annually, with a maturity in 4 years. How much interest will you earn?
Solution
Since interest is being paid semi-annually (twice a year), the 4% interest will be divided into two 2% payments.
r = 0.02 2% rate per half-year
t=8 4 years = 8 half-years
I = $1000(0.02)(8) = $160 You will earn $160 interest total over the four years.
Try It Now
A loan company charges $30 interest for a one month loan of $500. Find the annual interest rate they are charging.
Compound Interest
With simple interest, we were assuming that we pocketed the interest when we received it. In a standard bank account, any interest
we earn is automatically added to our balance, and we earn interest on that interest in future years. This reinvestment of interest is
called compounding.
Suppose that we deposit $1000 in a bank account offering 3% interest, compounded monthly. How will our money grow?
The 3% interest is an annual percentage rate (APR)—the total interest to be paid during the year. Since interest is being paid
monthly, each month, we will earn \displaystyle\frac{3\%}{12}\\ = 0.25% per month.
In the first month,
P0 = $1000
r = 0.0025 (0.25%)
I = $1000 (0.0025) = $2.50
A = $1000 + $2.50 = $1002.50
In the first month, we will earn $2.50 in interest, raising our account balance to $1002.50.
In the second month,
P0 = $1002.50
I = $1002.50 (0.0025) = $2.51 (rounded)
A = $1002.50 + $2.51 = $1005.01
Notice that in the second month we earned more interest than we did in the first month. This is because we earned interest not only
on the original $1000 we deposited, but we also earned interest on the $2.50 of interest we earned the first month. This is the key
advantage that compounding of interest gives us.
Calculating out a few more months:
Month Starting balance Interest earned Ending Balance
1 1000.00 2.50 1002.50
2 1002.50 2.51 1005.01
3 1005.01 2.51 1007.52
4 1007.52 2.52 1010.04
5 1010.04 2.53 1012.57
6 1012.57 2.53 1015.10
7 1015.10 2.54 1017.64
8 1017.64 2.54 1020.18
9 1020.18 2.55 1022.73
10 1022.73 2.56 1025.29
11 1025.29 2.56 1027.85
12 1027.85 2.57 1030.42
To find an equation to represent this, if Pm represents the amount of money after m months, then we could write the recursive
equation:
P0 = $1000
Pm = (1 + 0.0025)Pm–1
You probably recognize this as the recursive form of exponential growth. If not, we could go through the steps to build an explicit
equation for the growth:
P0 = $1000
P1 = 1.0025P0 = 1.0025 (1000)
P2 = 1.0025P1 = 1.0025 (1.0025 (1000)) = 1.00252(1000)
P3 = 1.0025P2 = 1.0025 (1.00252(1000)) = 1.00253(1000)
P4 = 1.0025P3 = 1.0025 (1.00253(1000)) = 1.00254(1000)
Observing a pattern, we could conclude
Pm = (1.0025)m($1000)
Notice that the $1000 in the equation was P0, the starting amount. We found 1.0025 by adding one to the growth rate divided by 12,
since we were compounding 12 times per year. Generalizing our result, we could write
\displaystyle{P_m}=P_0\left({1}+\frac{r}{k}\right)^m\\
In this formula:
m is the number of compounding periods (months in our example)
r is the annual interest rate
k is the number of compounds per year.
While this formula works fine, it is more common to use a formula that involves the number of years, rather than the number of
compounding periods. If N is the number of years, then m = Nk. Making this change gives us the standard formula for compound
interest.
Compound Interest
\displaystyle{P_N}=P_0\left({1}+\frac{r}{k}\right)^Nk\\

P0 is the starting balance of the account (also called initial deposit, or principal)
r is the annual interest rate in decimal form
If the compounding is done annually (once a year), k = 1.
If the compounding is done quarterly, k = 4.
If the compounding is done monthly, k = 12.
If the compounding is done daily, k = 365.
The most important thing to remember about using this formula is that it assumes that we put money in the account once and let it
sit there earning interest.
Example 4
A certificate of deposit (CD) is a savings instrument that many banks offer. It usually gives a higher interest rate, but you cannot
access your investment for a specified length of time. Suppose you deposit $3000 in a CD paying 6% interest, compounded
monthly. How much will you have in the account after 20 years?
Solution
In this example,
N = 20 since we’re looking for how much we’ll have after 20 years
So \displaystyle{P}_20=3000\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)^{20\cdot{12}}=\$9930.61\\ (round your answer to the nearest penny)

Let us compare the amount of money earned from compounding against the amount you would earn from simple interest
5 $3900 $4046.55
10 $4800 $5458.19
15 $5700 $7362.28
20 $6600 $9930.61
25 $7500 $13394.91
30 $8400 $18067.73
35 $9300 $24370.65
As you can see, over a long period of time, compounding makes a large difference in the account balance. You may recognize this
as the difference between linear growth and exponential growth.
Evaluating Exponents on the Calculator

When we need to calculate something like 53 it is easy enough to just multiply 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5 = 125. But when we need to calculate
something like 1.005240, it would be very tedious to calculate this by multiplying 1.005 by itself 240 times! So to make things
easier, we can harness the power of our scientific calculators.
Most scientific calculators have a button for exponents. It is typically either labeled like:
^, yx, or xy.
To evaluate 1.005240 we’d type 1.005 ^ 240, or 1.005 yx 240. Try it out—you should get something around 3.3102044758.
Example 5
You know that you will need $40,000 for your child’s education in 18 years. If your account earns 4% compounded quarterly, how
much would you need to deposit now to reach your goal?
Solution
In this example,
We’re looking for P0.
r = 0.04 4%
k=4 4 quarters in 1 year
N = 18 Since we know the balance in 18 years
P18 = $40,000 The amount we have in 18 years.
In this case, we’re going to have to set up the equation, and solve for P0.
\displaystyle{40000}=P_0\left(1+\frac{0.04}{4}\right)^{18\cdot{4}}\\
\displaystyle{40000}=P_0(2.0471)\\
\displaystyle{P}_0=\frac{40000}{2.0471}=\$19539.84\\
So you would need to deposit $19,539.84 now to have $40,000 in 18 years.
Rounding
It is important to be very careful about rounding when calculating things with exponents. In general, you want to keep as many
decimals during calculations as you can. Be sure to keep at least 3 significant digits (numbers after any leading zeros). Rounding
0.00012345 to 0.000123 will usually give you a “close enough” answer, but keeping more digits is always better.
Example 6
To see why not over-rounding is so important, suppose you were investing $1000 at 5% interest compounded monthly for 30 years.
r = 0.05 5%
N = 30 since we’re looking for the amount after 30 years
Solution
If we first compute , we find
\displaystyle\frac{r}{k}\\ \displaystyle\frac{0.05}{12}=0.00416666666667\\ .
Here is the effect of rounding this to different values:
\displaystyle\frac{r}{k}\\ rounded to Gives P30 to be Error
0.004 $4208.59 $259.15
0.0042 $4521.45 $53.71
0.00417 $4473.09 $5.35
0.004167 $4468.28 $0.54
0.0041667 $4467.80 $0.06
no rounding $4467.74
If you’re working in a bank, of course you wouldn’t round at all. For our purposes, the answer we got by rounding to 0.00417,
three significant digits, is close enough—$5 off of $4500 isn’t too bad. Certainly keeping that fourth decimal place wouldn’t have
hurt.
Using Your Calculator

In many cases, you can avoid rounding completely by how you enter things in your calculator. For example, in the example above,
we needed to calculate
\displaystyle\\P_{30}=1000\left(1+\frac{0.05}{12}\right)^{12\cdot{30}}
We can quickly calculate 12 × 30 = 360, giving \displaystyle\\P_{30}=1000\left(1+\frac{0.05}{12}\right)^{360} .

Now we can use the calculator.
Type This Calculator Shows
0.05 ÷ 12 = 0.00416666666667
+1= 1.00416666666667
Type This Calculator Shows
yx 360 = 4.46774431400613
× 1000 = 4467.74431400613
Using Your Calculator Continued

The previous steps were assuming you have a “one operation at a time” calculator; a more advanced calculator will often allow you
to type in the entire expression to be evaluated. If you have a calculator like this, you will probably just need to enter:
1000 × (1 + 0.05 ÷ 12) yx 360 = .
Annuities
For most of us, we aren’t able to put a large sum of money in the bank today. Instead, we save for the future by depositing a smaller
amount of money from each paycheck into the bank. This idea is called a savings annuity. Most retirement plans like 401k plans
or IRA plans are examples of savings annuities.
An annuity can be described recursively in a fairly simple way. Recall that basic compound interest follows from the relationship
\displaystyle{P}_m=\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)P_{m-1}\\
For a savings annuity, we simply need to add a deposit, d, to the account with each compounding period:
\displaystyle{P}_m=\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)P_{m-1}+d\\
Taking this equation from recursive form to explicit form is a bit trickier than with compound interest. It will be easiest to see by
working with an example rather than working in general.
Suppose we will deposit $100 each month into an account paying 6% interest. We assume that the account is compounded with the
same frequency as we make deposits unless stated otherwise. In this example:
r = 0.06 (6%)
k = 12 (12 compounds/deposits per year)
d = $100 (our deposit per month)
Writing out the recursive equation gives
\displaystyle{P}_m=\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)P_{m-1}+100=(1.005)P_{m-1}+100\\
Assuming we start with an empty account, we can begin using this relationship:
P_0=0\\
P_1=(1.005)P_0+100=100\\
P_2=(1.005)P_1+100=(1.005)100+100=100(1.005)+100\\
P_3=(1.005)P_2+100=(1.005)(100(1.005)+100)+100=100(1.005)^2+100(1.005)+100\\
Continuing this pattern, after m deposits, we’d have saved:

{P_m}=100(1.005)^{m-1}+100(1.005)^{m-2}+\cdot\cdot\cdot{+}100(1.005)+100\\
In other words, after m months, the first deposit will have earned compound interest for m − 1 months. The second deposit will
have earned interest for m − 2 months. Last months deposit would have earned only one month worth of interest. The most recent
deposit will have earned no interest yet.
This equation leaves a lot to be desired, though—it doesn’t make calculating the ending balance any easier! To simplify things,
multiply both sides of the equation by 1.005:
1.005{P}_m=1.005\left(100(1.005)^{m-1}+100(1.005)^{m-2}+100(1.005)+\cdot\cdot\cdot{+}100(1.005)+100\right)\\
Distributing on the right side of the equation gives

1.005{P}_m=100(1.005)^m+100(1.005)^{m-1}+\cdot\cdot\cdot{+}100(1.005)^2+100(1.005)\\
Now we’ll line this up with like terms from our original equation, and subtract each side
1.005{P}_m=100(1.005)^m+100(1.005)^{m-1}+\cdot\cdot\cdot{+}100(1.005)\\
P_m=100(1.005)^{m-1}+\cdot\cdot\cdot{+}100(1.005)+100\\
Almost all the terms cancel on the right hand side when we subtract, leaving
1.005{P}_m-P_m=100(1.005)^m-100\\
Solving for Pm
0.005P_m=100{\big(}(1.005)^m-1{\big)}\\
\displaystyle{P_m}=\frac{100{\big(}(1.005)^m-1{\big)}}{0.005}\\
Replacing m months with 12N, where N is measured in years, gives

\displaystyle{P_N}=\frac{100{\big(}(1.005)^{12N}-1{\big)}}{0.005}\\
Recall 0.005 was \displaystyle\frac{r}{k}\\ and 100 was the deposit d. 12 was k, the number of deposit each year. Generalizing this result,
we get the saving annuity formula.
Annuity Formula
\displaystyle{P}_N=\frac{d\left(\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)^{Nk}-1\right)}{\left(\frac{r}{k}\right)}\\

d is the regular deposit (the amount you deposit each year, each month, etc.)
If the compounding frequency is not explicitly stated, assume there are the same number of compounds in a year as there are
deposits made in a year.
For example, if the compounding frequency isn’t stated:
If you make your deposits every month, use monthly compounding, k = 12.
If you make your deposits every year, use yearly compounding, k = 1.
If you make your deposits every quarter, use quarterly compounding, k = 4.
Etc.
When Do You Use This?

Annuities assume that you put money in the account on a regular schedule (every month, year, quarter, etc.) and let it sit there
earning interest.
Compound interest assumes that you put money in the account once and let it sit there earning interest.
Example 7
A traditional individual retirement account (IRA) is a special type of retirement account in which the money you invest is exempt
from income taxes until you withdraw it. If you deposit $100 each month into an IRA earning 6% interest, how much will you have
in the account after 20 years?
Solution
In this example,

\displaystyle{P}_{20}=\frac{100\left(\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)^{20(12)}-1\right)}{\left(\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}\\
\displaystyle{P}_{20}=\frac{100\left(\left(1.005\right)^{240}-1\right)}{\left({0.005}\right)}\\
\displaystyle{P}_{20}=\frac{100\left(3.310-1\right)}{\left({0.005}\right)}\\
\displaystyle{P}_{20}=\frac{100\left(2.310\right)}{\left({0.005}\right)}=\$46200\\
The account will grow to $46,200 after 20 years.

Notice that you deposited into the account a total of $24,000 ($100 a month for 240 months). The difference between what you end
up with and how much you put in is the interest earned. In this case it is $46,200 − $24,000 = $22,200.
Example 8
You want to have $200,000 in your account when you retire in 30 years. Your retirement account earns 8% interest. How much do
you need to deposit each month to meet your retirement goal?
Solution
In this example, we’re looking for d.
k = 12 since we’re depositing monthly
N = 30 30 years
P30 = $200,000 The amount we want to have in 30 years
\displaystyle{200,000}=\frac{d\left(\left(1+\frac{0.08}{12}\right)^{30(12)}-1\right)}{\left(\frac{0.08}{12}\right)}\\
\displaystyle{200,000}=\frac{d\left(\left(1.00667\right)^{360}-1\right)}{\left(0.00667\right)}\\
\displaystyle{200,000}=d\left(1491.57\right)\\
\displaystyle{d}=\frac{200,000}{1491.57}=\$134.09\\
So you would need to deposit $134.09 each month to have $200,000 in 30 years if your account earns 8% interest
Try It Now
A more conservative investment account pays 3% interest. If you deposit $5 a day into this account, how much will you have after
10 years? How much is from interest?
Payout Annuities
In the last section you learned about annuities. In an annuity, you start with nothing, put money into an account on a regular basis,
and end up with money in your account.
In this section, we will learn about a variation called a Payout Annuity. With a payout annuity, you start with money in the
account, and pull money out of the account on a regular basis. Any remaining money in the account earns interest. After a fixed
amount of time, the account will end up empty.
Payout annuities are typically used after retirement. Perhaps you have saved $500,000 for retirement, and want to take money out
of the account each month to live on. You want the money to last you 20 years. This is a payout annuity. The formula is derived in a
similar way as we did for savings annuities. The details are omitted here.
Payout Annuity Formula
\displaystyle{P}_0=\frac{d\left({1}-\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)^{-Nk}\right)}{\left(\frac{r}{k}\right)}\\
P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (starting amount, or principal).

d is the regular withdrawal (the amount you take out each year, each month, etc.)
r is the annual interest rate (in decimal form. Example: 5% = 0.05)
N is the number of years we plan to take withdrawals
Like with annuities, the compounding frequency is not always explicitly given, but is determined by how often you take the
withdrawals.
When Do You Use This

Payout annuities assume that you take money from the account on a regular schedule (every month, year, quarter, etc.) and let
the rest sit there earning interest.
Example 9
After retiring, you want to be able to take $1000 every month for a total of 20 years from your retirement account. The account
earns 6% interest. How much will you need in your account when you retire?
Solution
In this example,
d = $1000 the monthly withdrawal
k = 12 since we’re doing monthly withdrawals, we’ll compound monthly
N = 20 since were taking withdrawals for 20 years
We’re looking for P0; how much money needs to be in the account at the beginning.
\displaystyle{P}_{0}=\frac{1000\left(1-\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)^{-20(12)}\right)}{\left(\frac{0.06}{12}\right)}\\
\displaystyle{P}_{0}=\frac{1000\left(1-\left(1.005\right)^{-240}\right)}{\left(0.005\right)}\\
\displaystyle{P}_{0}=\frac{1000\left(1-0.302\right)}{\left(0.005\right)}=\$139,600\\
You will need to have $139,600 in your account when you retire.
Notice that you withdrew a total of $240,000 ($1000 a month for 240 months). The difference between what you pulled out and
what you started with is the interest earned. In this case it is $240,000 − $139,600 = $100,400 in interest.
Evaluating Negative Exponents on Your Calculator

With these problems, you need to raise numbers to negative powers. Most calculators have a separate button for negating a number
that is different than the subtraction button. Some calculators label this (-), some with +/-. The button is often near the = key or the
decimal point.
If your calculator displays operations on it (typically a calculator with multiline display), to calculate 1.005−240 you’d type
something like: 1.005 ^ (-) 240
If your calculator only shows one value at a time, then usually you hit the (-) key after a number to negate it, so you’d hit: 1.005 yx
240 (-) =
Give it a try—you should get 1.005−240 = 0.302096
Example 10
You know you will have $500,000 in your account when you retire. You want to be able to take monthly withdrawals from the
account for a total of 30 years. Your retirement account earns 8% interest. How much will you be able to withdraw each month?
Solution
k = 12 since we’re withdrawing monthly
N = 30 30 years
P0 = $500,000 we are beginning with $500,000
\displaystyle{500,000}=\frac{d\left(1-\left(1+\frac{0.08}{12}\right)^{-30(12)}\right)}{\left(\frac{0.08}{12}\right)}\\
\displaystyle{500,000}=\frac{d\left(1-\left(1.00667\right)^{-360}\right)}{\left(0.00667\right)}\\
\displaystyle{500,000}=d\left({136.232}\right)\\
You would be able to withdraw $3,670.21 each month for 30 years.
Try It Now
A donor gives $100,000 to a university, and specifies that it is to be used to give annual scholarships for the next 20 years. If the
university can earn 4% interest, how much can they give in scholarships each year?
Loans
In the last section, you learned about payout annuities.
In this section, you will learn about conventional loans (also called amortized loans or installment loans). Examples include auto
loans and home mortgages. These techniques do not apply to payday loans, add-on loans, or other loan types where the interest is
calculated up front.
One great thing about loans is that they use exactly the same formula as a payout annuity. To see why, imagine that you had
$10,000 invested at a bank, and started taking out payments while earning interest as part of a payout annuity, and after 5 years
your balance was zero. Flip that around, and imagine that you are acting as the bank, and a car lender is acting as you. The car
lender invests $10,000 in you. Since you’re acting as the bank, you pay interest. The car lender takes payments until the balance is
zero.
Loans Formula
\displaystyle{P}_0=\frac{d\left({1}-\left(1+\frac{r}{k}\right)^{-Nk}\right)}{\left(\frac{r}{k}\right)}\\
P0 is the balance in the account at the beginning (the principal, or amount of the loan).
d is your loan payment (your monthly payment, annual payment, etc)
N is the length of the loan, in years
Like before, the compounding frequency is not always explicitly given, but is determined by how often you make payments.
The loan formula assumes that you make loan payments on a regular schedule (every month, year, quarter, etc.) and are paying
interest on the loan.
Loans: Many payments
Example 11
You can afford $200 per month as a car payment. If you can get an auto loan at 3% interest for 60 months (5 years), how expensive
of a car can you afford? In other words, what amount loan can you pay off with $200 per month?
Solution
In this example,
d = $200 the monthly loan payment
N=5 since we’re making monthly payments for 5 years
We’re looking for P0, the starting amount of the loan.

\displaystyle{P}_{0}=\frac{200\left(1-0.861\right)}{\left(0.0025\right)}=\$11,120\\
You can afford a $11,120 loan.

You will pay a total of $12,000 ($200 per month for 60 months) to the loan company. The difference between the amount you pay
and the amount of the loan is the interest paid. In this case, you’re paying $12,000 − $11,120 = $880 interest total.
Example 12
You want to take out a $140,000 mortgage (home loan). The interest rate on the loan is 6%, and the loan is for 30 years. How much
will your monthly payments be?
Solution
k = 12 since we’re paying monthly
N = 30 30 years
\displaystyle{140,000}=\frac{d\left(1-\left(1.005\right)^{-360}\right)}{\left(0.005\right)}\\
You will make payments of $839.37 per month for 30 years.

You’re paying a total of $302,173.20 to the loan company: $839.37 per month for 360 months. You are paying a total of
$302,173.20 − $140,000 = $162,173.20 in interest over the life of the loan.
Try It Now
Janine bought $3,000 of new furniture on credit. Because her credit score isn’t very good, the store is charging her a fairly high
interest rate on the loan: 16%. If she agreed to pay off the furniture over 2 years, how much will she have to pay each month?
Remaining Loan Balance

With loans, it is often desirable to determine what the remaining loan balance will be after some number of years. For example, if
you purchase a home and plan to sell it in five years, you might want to know how much of the loan balance you will have paid off
and how much you have to pay from the sale.
To determine the remaining loan balance after some number of years, we first need to know the loan payments, if we don’t already
know them. Remember that only a portion of your loan payments go towards the loan balance; a portion is going to go towards
interest. For example, if your payments were $1,000 a month, after a year you will not have paid off $12,000 of the loan balance.
To determine the remaining loan balance, we can think “how much loan will these loan payments be able to pay off in the
remaining time on the loan?”
Example 13
If a mortgage at a 6% interest rate has payments of $1,000 a month, how much will the loan balance be 10 years from the end the
loan?
Solution
To determine this, we are looking for the amount of the loan that can be paid off by $1,000 a month payments in 10 years. In other
words, we’re looking for P0 when
d = $1,000 the monthly loan payment
N = 10 since we’re making monthly payments for 10 more years
\displaystyle{P}_{0}=\frac{200\left(1-0.5496\right)}{\left(0.005\right)}=\$90,073.45\\
The loan balance with 10 years remaining on the loan will be $90,073.45
Often times answering remaining balance questions requires two steps:
1. Calculating the monthly payments on the loan
2. Calculating the remaining loan balance based on the remaining time on the loan
Example 14
A couple purchases a home with a $180,000 mortgage at 4% for 30 years with monthly payments. What will the remaining balance
on their mortgage be after 5 years?
Solution
First we will calculate their monthly payments. We’re looking for d.
k = 12 since they’re paying monthly
N = 30 30 years
We set up the equation and solve for d.

\displaystyle{180,000}=\frac{d\left(1-\left(1.00333\right)^{-360}\right)}{\left(.00333\right)}\\
Now that we know the monthly payments, we can determine the remaining balance. We want the remaining balance after 5 years,
when 25 years will be remaining on the loan, so we calculate the loan balance that will be paid off with the monthly payments over
those 25 years.
d = $858.93 the monthly loan payment we calculated above
k = 12 since they’re doing monthly payments
N = 25 since they’d be making monthly payments for 25 more years
\displaystyle{P}_{0}=\frac{858.93\left(1-\left(1+\frac{0.04}{12}\right)^{-25(12)}\right)}{\left(\frac{0.04}{12}\right)}\\
\displaystyle{P}_{0}=\frac{858.93\left(1-\left(1.00333\right)^{-300}\right)}{\left(0.00333\right)}\\
\displaystyle{P}_{0}=\frac{858.93\left(1-0.369\right)}{\left(0.00333\right)}=\$162,758.26\\
The loan balance after 5 years, with 25 years remaining on the loan, will be $162,758.26.
Over that 5 years, the couple has paid off $180,000 − $162.758.26 = $17,241.74 of the loan balance. They have paid a total of
$858.93 a month for 5 years (60 months), for a total of $51,535.80, so $51,535.80 − $17,241.74 = $34,294.06 of what they have
paid so far has been interest.
Which Equation to Use?

When presented with a finance problem (on an exam or in real life), you’re usually not told what type of problem it is or which
equation to use. Here are some hints on deciding which equation to use based on the wording of the problem.
The easiest types of problem to identify are loans. Loan problems almost always include words like: “loan,” “amortize” (the fancy
word for loans), “finance (a car),” or “mortgage” (a home loan). Look for these words. If they’re there, you’re probably looking at
a loan problem. To make sure, see if you’re given what your monthly (or annual) payment is, or if you’re trying to find a monthly
payment.
If the problem is not a loan, the next question you want to ask is: “Am I putting money in an account and letting it sit, or am I
making regular (monthly/annually/quarterly) payments or withdrawals?” If you’re letting the money sit in the account with
nothing but interest changing the balance, then you’re looking at a compound interest problem. The exception would be bonds and
other investments where the interest is not reinvested; in those cases you’re looking at simple interest.
If you’re making regular payments or withdrawals, the next questions is: “Am I putting money into the account, or am I pulling
money out?” If you’re putting money into the account on a regular basis (monthly/annually/quarterly) then you’re looking at a
basic Annuity problem. Basic annuities are when you are saving money. Usually in an annuity problem, your account starts empty,
and has money in the future.
If you’re pulling money out of the account on a regular basis, then you’re looking at a Payout Annuity problem. Payout annuities
are used for things like retirement income, where you start with money in your account, pull money out on a regular basis, and your
account ends up empty in the future.
Remember, the most important part of answering any kind of question, money or otherwise, is first to correctly identify what the
question is really asking, and to determine what approach will best allow you to solve the problem.
Try It Now
For each of the following scenarios, determine if it is a compound interest problem, a savings annuity problem, a payout annuity
problem, or a loans problem. Then solve each problem.
1. Marcy received an inheritance of $20,000, and invested it at 6% interest. She is going to use it for college, withdrawing money
for tuition and expenses each quarter. How much can she take out each quarter if she has 3 years of school left?
2. Paul wants to buy a new car. Rather than take out a loan, he decides to save $200 a month in an account earning 3% interest
compounded monthly. How much will he have saved up after 3 years?
3. Keisha is managing investments for a non-profit company. They want to invest some money in an account earning 5% interest
compounded annually with the goal to have $30,000 in the account in 6 years. How much should Keisha deposit into the
account?
4. Miao is going to finance new office equipment at a 2% rate over a 4 year term. If she can afford monthly payments of $100,
how much new equipment can she buy?
5. How much would you need to save every month in an account earning 4% interest to have $5,000 saved up in two years?
Solving for Time

Often we are interested in how long it will take to accumulate money or how long we’d need to extend a loan to bring payments
down to a reasonable level.
Note: This section assumes you’ve covered solving exponential equations using logarithms, either in prior classes or in the growth
models chapter.
Example 15
If you invest $2000 at 6% compounded monthly, how long will it take the account to double in value?
Solution
This is a compound interest problem, since we are depositing money once and allowing it to grow. In this problem,
So our general equation is:

\displaystyle{P_N}={2000}\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)^{N\cdot12}\\
We also know that we want our ending amount to be double of $2000, which is $4000, so we’re looking for N so that PN = 4000.
To solve this, we set our equation for PN equal to 4000.
\displaystyle{4000}={2000}\left(1+\frac{0.06}{12}\right)^{N\cdot{12}}\\ Divide both sides by 2000
2=(1.005)^{12N}\\ To solve for the exponent, take the log of both sides
\log(2)=\log\left(\left(1.005\right)^{12N}\right)\\ Use the exponent property of logs on the right side
\log(2)=12N\log(1.005)\\ Now we can divide both sides by 12log(1.005)
\displaystyle\frac{\log(2)}{12\log(1.005)}=N\\ Approximating this to a decimal
N = 11.581
It will take about 11.581 years for the account to double in value. Note that your answer may come out slightly differently if you
had evaluated the logs to decimals and rounded during your calculations, but your answer should be close. For example if you
rounded log(2) to 0.301 and log(1.005) to 0.00217, then your final answer would have been about 11.577 years.
Example 16
If you invest $100 each month into an account earning 3% compounded monthly, how long will it take the account to grow to
$10,000?
Solution
This is a savings annuity problem since we are making regular deposits into the account.
We don’t know N, but we want PN to be $10,000.

\displaystyle{10,000}=\frac{100\left(\left(1+\frac{0.03}{12}\right)^{N(12)}-1\right)}{\left(\frac{0.03}{12}\right)}\\
Simplifying the fractions a bit

\displaystyle{10,000}=\frac{100\left(\left({1.0025}\right)^{12N}-1\right)}{0.0025}\\
We want to isolate the exponential term, 1.002512N, so multiply both sides by 0.0025
25=100\left(\left(1.0025\right)^{12N}-1\right)\\ Divide both sides by 100
0.25=\left(1.0025\right)^{12N}-1\\ Add 1 to both sides
1.25=\left(1.0025\right)^{12N}\\ Now take the log of both sides
\log\left(1.25\right)=\log\left(\left(1.0025\right)^{12N}\right)\\ Use the exponent property of logs
\log\left(1.25\right)=12N\log(1.0025)\\ Divide by 12log(1.0025)
\displaystyle\frac{\log(1.25)}{12\log(1.0025)}=N\\ Approximating to a decimal
N = 7.447 years
It will take about 7.447 years to grow the account to $10,000.
Try It Now
Joel is considering putting a $1,000 laptop purchase on his credit card, which has an interest rate of 12% compounded monthly.
How long will it take him to pay off the purchase if he makes payments of $30 a month?
Finance. Authored by: David Lippman. Located at: http://www.opentextbookstore.com/mathinsociety/. Project: Math in
Society. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
15.2: Consumer Math is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
This YouTube playlist contains several videos that supplement the reading on Finance.
with.
Click on the link below to download a document: “Credit Cards and Installment Buying” by Erie
Community College. This reading shows an example of an Average Daily Balance Method of Determining Interest Rate using
credit cards and installment buying to illustrate its points.
Credit Cards and Installment Buying
15.4: Average Daily Balance is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Click on the link below to view the website “How is an Amortization Schedule Calculated?” by
MyAmortizationChart.com. This website provides a brief overlook Amortization Schedules.
How is an Amortization Schedule Calculated?
15.5: How an Amortization Schedule is Calculated is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
Pick a real problem and try to solve it using the consumer math solving strategies from this module. Present the problem and the
solution to the rest of the class. View the problems posted by your classmates and respond to at least two. Read the Consumer Math
Create a new thread in the Consumer Math Application forum in the Discussion Board to complete this assignment.

Possible
The problem: 5
The strategies: 5
The presentation: 4
Your responses: 6

15.6: Discuss- Consumer Math Application is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Reflect on what you have learned in this course, which will help you better understand and remember it. Read the Final Reflection
Directions for detailed directions. Create a new thread in the Final Reflection forum in the Discussion Board to complete this
assignment.
Grading Criteria Points Possible
The presentation: 15
Is it a substantive, two or three paragraph essay?
Is it clear and well-written with proper grammar and correct spelling?
The content: 25
For Option 1:
Does it apply to material covered in class?
Is the posting unique to the postings of other students and to your own application postings?
For Option 2:
Is (are) the selected question(s) answered in depth?
Are the facts accurate?

15.7: Discuss- Final Reflection is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
16: Topic G- Linear Equations – Algebra and Spreadsheets
16.3: G1.03- Examples 4-7
16.4: G1.04- Examples 8-14
16.7: G1.07- Section 4
16: Topic G- Linear Equations – Algebra and Spreadsheets is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
1
Learning Objectives
1. Understand slope of a line in two ways (graphically by rise/run, algebraic formula in x’s and y’s.)
2. Understand the y-intercept of a line in two ways (graphically as the intercept of the y-axis, algebraic formula in x’s and y’s.)
3. Algebraically, find the slope when given two points.
4. Write the formula for the line in standard slope-intercept form and notice which number is the slope and which number is the y-
intercept. Interpret the slope and intercept.
5. Find the formula for a line when given the slope and one point on the line.
6. Find the formula for a line when given two points on the line.
7. Find the inverse formula, when needed, by interchanging the input and output variables. Notice the relationship between the
slopes of the formula and the inverse formula.
8. Use a spreadsheet to explore the effects on the graph of changing the values of the slope and intercept.
Summary of algebraic facts and interpretations:
Slope:
The slope of a line is Slope-intercept form: Point-slope form:
m=\frac{rise}{run}=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-
{{x}_{1}}}
If the formula is y=mx+b If the slope of a line is m and one point on the
, where the two points ({{x}_{1}},{{y}_{1}}) where y and x are the variables and m line is ({{x}_{0}},{{y}_{0}}), then the equation of
and ({{x}_{2}},{{y}_{2}})are on the line. and b are numbers, then the graph of the line can be written as y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})
this formula is a straight line with slope which gives the formula:
m and y-intercept b. y=m(x-{{x}_{0}})+{{y}_{0}}
This can also be written as y=b+mx
Interpret the intercept:

Interpret the slope: b is the value of y when the value of x is zero.
m is the amount we expect y to increase when x increases by 1.
We want to investigate the relationship between temperature Centigrade and temperature Fahrenheit in order to take temperatures
from a news broadcast in Canada (in Centigrade) and convert them to temperatures that are easy for US citizens to understand (in
Fahrenheit.) We already know the formula for that and we know how to find points, plot them, and draw a graph. (See Topic C:
Formulas.)
Here, the temperature Centigrade is the input value and the temperature Fahrenheit is the output value. The formula is F=1.8\cdot{C}+32
and following is a table of values and a graph.
C F
0 32
10 50
20 68
30 86
40 104
Slope
Notice that the graph appears to be a straight line. That suggests that this is a linear relationship. A relationship is linear if the same
increase in the input always leads to the same increase in the output. We can look at the table of values and see that, for every
increase in C of 10°, there is an increase of 18° in F.
In general, for a straight line with input variable x and output variable y, the slope is defined to be slope =
m=\frac{rise}{run}=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}, where the two points ({{x}_{1}},{{y}_{1}}) and ({{x}_{2}},{{y}_{2}})are on the line.
In the temperature example, we notice that the variable C plays the role of x and the variable F plays the role of y. So we can
compute the slope of the line using the two points (0,32) and (10,50). Call the first point ({{x}_{1}},{{y}_{1}}) and the second point
({{x}_{2}},{{y}_{2}}).
Slope = m=\frac{rise}{run}=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}=\frac{50-32}{10-0}=\frac{18\,\,\,degrees\,\,F}{10\,\,\,degrees\,\,C}=1.8 degrees F per degree C.

For this to be a linear relationship, the slope must be the same no matter which two points on the graph you use to compute it. Let’s
try one more pair of points. So we can compute the slope of the line using the two points (20,68) and (40,104). Call the first point
({{x}_{1}},{{y}_{1}}) and the second point ({{x}_{2}},{{y}_{2}}).
Slope = m=\frac{rise}{run}=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}=\frac{104-68}{40-20}=\frac{36\,\,\,degrees\,\,F}{20\,\,\,degrees\,\,C}=1.8 degrees F per degree C.

There are several more pairs of points from our table of values that you could easily try. Try some of those and see if you get the
same slope each time.
Negative slope and positive slope.

Recall from algebra class that lines which are slanted down have negative slope and those slanted up have positive slope. One
important method of checking your work in computing the slope is to be sure that your graphs and algebra give results that are
consistent with that.
y = 2x + 13 y = 2x + 3

16.1: G1.01- Intro and Slope is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
y-intercept
In algebra class, we learned that the y-intercept of a graph is the value on the y-axis when x = 0. That is easy to find using the
formula for the line, because we only have to plug in x = 0 and find y.
Since F=1.8\cdot{C}+32 , when we plug in C = 0, then F=1.8\cdot{C}+32=1.8\cdot0+32=32
When we look at the graph for this formula, go to C = 0, and find the point on the graph above that, the y-value appears to be about
a little bit above 30. To find a more precise estimate from the graph, we’d need a bigger graph. This is consistent with the value of
32 that we found algebraically. Understanding both of these provides a way of checking your work on either of them.
The formula for the line

Notice that both the slope and the y-intercept appear in the formula for the line. In algebra class, you learned that
1. Any equation in which x and y appear only to the first power is a linear equation.
2. The equation of a line can be written in a variety of ways, but if you take any of those and “solve for y” you’ll get a formula like
y=mx+b, where y is the output variable, x is the input variable, and m and b are numbers. Then the slope is the coefficient of the
x-variable and the y-intercept is the constant. So m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.
For the temperature example, since F is the output value and C is the input value, and F=1.8\cdot{C}+32 , then we see from the formula
that the slope is 1.8 and the y-intercept is 32.
Interpret the slope and intercept

1. The y-intercept is the value for y when
2. When the x-value increases by 1 unit, then the y-value increases by the value of the slope.
So, for the temperature problem, we found that if the temperature was 0° C, then it is 32° F. And we also found that, if the
temperature C increases by 1° C, then the temperature F increases by 1.8° F.
Example 1. For this formula: R=-6.3+8.2\cdot{d}, tell
1. Which variable is the output variable?
2. Which variable is the input variable?
3. Is it linear relationship?
4. If it is a linear relationship, what is the slope?
5. If it is a linear relationship, what is the y-intercept?
[reveal-answer q=”892655″]Show Answer[/reveal-answer]
[hidden-answer a=”892655″]
1. The output variable is R.
2. the input variable is d.
3. yes, it is a linear relationship because both variables appear only to the first power.
4. the slope is 8.2 because that is the number multiplied by the input variable.
5. the y-intercept is -6.3.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 2. For this formula: R=-6.3+8.2\cdot{d}, find three points that fit this and use them to sketch a graph.
To find a point that fits this relationship, choose any value for the input variable. (Generally we choose a value that is easy to
compute with and to graph, such as a small whole number.) Let’s begin by choosing d=2. Then compute the output value.
\begin{align}&R=-6.3+8.2\cdot{d}\\&R=-6.3+8.2\cdot(2)\\&R=-6.3+16.4\\&R=10.1\\\end{align}
Now choose two other values for d and use them to compute the output values. In the interests of saving space, we will omit the
details.
Choose d=5 and find that R=-6.3+8.2\cdot5=34.7
Choose d=7 and find that R=-6.3+8.2\cdot7=51.1
Graph with unconnected points Graph with points connected by a line
[/hidden-answer]
Example 3. Determine whether these three points lie on a straight line by computing slopes: (3,5) and (1,4) and (4,6).
[hidden-answer a=”964443″]Find the slope of the line through (3,5) and (1,4).
m=\frac{rise}{run}=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}=\frac{5-4}{3-1}=\frac{1}{2}=0.5
Find the slope of the line through (3,5) and (4,6). m=\frac{rise}{run}=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}=\frac{5-6}{3-4}=\frac{-1}{-1}=1.0
Since these two slopes aren’t equal, these three points are not on a straight line.
Check: Check this by graphing the three points to see if they appear to lie on a straight line. In the following graph, we have drawn
the line between the points and it is clear that it is not the same straight line between all three points.
[/hidden-answer]
16.2: G1.02- Intercepts and Example 3 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
16.3: G1.03- Examples 4-7
Example 4. A manager is considering the cost C of printing a book based on the number of pages p. He is told that the formula for
predicting the cost is linear based on the number of pages and that the y-intercept is $4.50 and the slope is $0.027. Find the formula
to predict the cost from the number of pages.
[hidden-answer a=”494645″]Since it is linear, C=mp+b, where m=0.027 and b=4.50 .
Thus C=0.027p+4.50 is the formula.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 5. Find the formula for the line with slope 1.35 which has the point (5,40) on it.
Let m=1.35 and ({{x}_{0}},{{y}_{0}})=(5,40) . Then
\begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y-40=1.35(x-5)\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y-40=1.35x-6.75\\&\,\,y-40+40=1.35x-
6.75+40\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y=1.35x+33.25\end{align}
Thus the equation of the line is y=1.35x+33.25 .

Check: We can look at the formula and read the slope as 1.35, so that checks. To see whether the given point is on it, evaluate the
formula at x=5 and see whether it gives the correct y-value. y=1.35(5)+33.25=6.75+33.25=40. This checks!
[/hidden-answer]
We can use this same idea to compute the formula for a line if we have two points on it because we can first use the two points
to find the slope. Here’s an outline:
Find the formula for of a line through two points.
1. Choose the appropriate variable to be the output variable and call it y. Then call the input variable x.
2. Write two points as ({{x}_{1}},{{y}_{1}})and ({{x}_{2}},{{y}_{2}}).
3. Use the two points to compute the slope. Call it m.
4. Pick one of the points (either is fine) and call it ({{x}_{0}},{{y}_{0}}).
5. Plug those values into this equation. (y-{{y}_{0}})=m(x-{{x}_{0}})
6. Solve for y. That gives the equation of the line.
7. If different letters are needed besides x and y for the input and output variables, replace the x and y in the formula with those
different letters.
Example 6: Find the formula for the line through (2,6) and (4,11). Identify the slope and y-intercept.
Let ({{x}_{1}},{{y}_{1}}) = (2,6) and = (4,11).
m=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}\,\,\,\,\,=\,\,\,\frac{11-6}{4-2}\,\,=\frac{5}{2}\,\,\,\,\,=\,\,\,2.5
Now, to use the point-slope form, I will use ({{x}_{0}},{{y}_{0}}) = (2,6) to get
\begin{align}&(y-{{y}_{0}})=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&(y-6)=2.5(x-2)\\&y-6=2.5x-5\\&y\,\,\,\,\,=2.5x\,\,+\,\,1\\\end{align} So the equation of the line is y=2.5x+1 , the slope is 2.5, the
y-intercept is 1.
Check: Use the formula we derived to determine the output value for x=2 and see if the given point is on the line.
y=2.5x+1=2.5(2)+1=5+1=6. This tells us that (2,6) is on the line.
Use the formula we derived to determine the output value for x=4 and see if the second given point is on the line.
y=2.5x+1=2.5(4)+1=10+1=11. This tells us that (4,11) is on the line. So this checks.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 7. We have been told that the amount of oatmeal needed for oatmeal cookies is linearly related to the amount of flour
needed. Also, we know that if we use 3 cups of flour, we need 2 cups of oatmeal. And, of course, if we use 0 cups of flour, we will
use 0 cups of oatmeal.
1. Find the formula to predict the oatmeal needed (called M) from the flour needed (F.)
2. Interpret the slope.
3. Interpret the y-intercept.
a. Here, the output variable (y) is M and the input variable (x) is F.
So the two points given are (0,0) and (3, 2).
Using the slope formula, m=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}\,\,\,\,\,=\,\,\,\frac{2-0}{3-0}\,\,=\frac{2}{3}\,\,\,\,\,=\,\,\,0.667 cups of oatmeal per one cup of
flour.
Then, to use the point-slope form of the line, we’ll use and the first point, which is (0,0).
\begin{align}&(y-{{y}_{0}})=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&(y-0)=0.667(x-0)\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y=0.667x\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y\,=0.667x+0\\\end{align}
So the formula is M=0.667\cdot{F} , so the slope is 0.667 and the y-intercept is 0.

1. Interpret the slope: For every 1 additional cup of flour, we should use 0.667 additional cups of oatmeal.
2. Interpret the intercept: If we use 0 cups of flour, then we will use 0 cups of oatmeal.
[/hidden-answer]
This last example illustrates that sometimes the intercept is not a number that would be realistic in the situation that the
problem describes. But it does have a meaning in the algebraic formula.
For a linear formula, the slope is always a number that is meaningful.
16.3: G1.03- Examples 4-7 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
16.4: G1.04- Examples 8-14
Additional examples:
Example 8: Find the slope and intercept of the line y=-2.32x+7.89

[hidden-answer a=”429582″]The slope is -2.32 and the y-intercept is 7.89.[/hidden-answer]
Example 9: Find the slope and intercept of the line y=84.4+9.2x

[hidden-answer a=”185443″]The slope is 9.2 and the y-intercept is 84.4[/hidden-answer]
Example 10: Find the slope and intercept of the line y=1127-93x

[hidden-answer a=”191120″]The slope is -93 and the y-intercept is 1127[/hidden-answer]
Example 11: Find the slope and the intercept of the line y=2178x-114

[hidden-answer a=”383183″]The slope is 2178 and the y-intercept is -114.[/hidden-answer]
Example 12 Find the formula for the line with slope -6.2 through the point (87.2, 112.7)
[hidden-answer a=”695808″] \begin{align}&y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&y-112.7=-6.2(x-87.2)\\&y-112.7=-6.2x+540.64\\&y-112.7+112.7=-6.2x+540.64+112.7\\&y=-6.2x+653.34\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 13: Find the formula for the line through (8,5) and (13,17)
m=\frac{17-5}{13-8}=\frac{12}{5}=2.4
Then, using this slope and the second point: \begin{align}&y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&y-17=2.4(x-13)\\&y-17=2.4x-31.2\\&y-17+17=2.4x-31.2+17\\&y=2.4x-14.2\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 14: Find the formula for the line through (83.8, 79.9) and (232.7, 63.4)
m=\frac{79.9-63.4}{83.8-232.7}=\frac{16.5}{-148.9}=-0.11
Then, using this slope and the first point:

\begin{align}&y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&y-79.9=-0.11(x-83.8)\\&y-79.9=-0.11x+9.218\\&y-79.9+79.9=-0.11x+9.218+79.9\\&y=-0.11x+89.118\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
16.4: G1.04- Examples 8-14 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 2. Exploration by graphing.
We can also find lines just by graphing. That may be useful itself in some situations even without finding the actual equation of the
line. And, if we have already found the equation of the line, we can use a graph to check our algebra.
We have considered two types of problems in this topic.
The first is finding a line when we have the slope and one point on the line. To graph that by hand
1. Make a set of axes.
2. Graph the point.
3. Rewrite the slope as \frac{\text{rise}}{\text{run}} and use that count over and up (or down) to make another point on the graph.
4. Connect those points by a line.
The second case is finding a line when we have two points on the graph. To graph that by hand
1. Make a set of axes.
2. Graph one point.
3. Graph the other point.
4. Connect those points by a line.
In either of these cases, after we have the graph of a line, we can pick any point on that line and know it is supposed to fit the
equation of the line. So we can plug in the values for x and y into the algebraic formula we found. If the graph is correct and the
equation is correct, then the point will fit the equation.
Using a spreadsheet to graph lines allows us to try various possibilities quickly and easily. The interesting case here is when we
have two points and we want to explore various possible equations of a line.
Example 15. Use a spreadsheet to graph the line through the points (1,9) and (4,14).
1. Put the label x in cell A1 and enter the x-values: A2 should have 1 and A3 should have 4.
2. Put the label y in cell B1 and enter the y-values: B2 should have 9 and B3 should have 14.
3. Then select the data, with the labels. Highlight it. Then choose Insert > Chart and XY Scatter. Choose one of the options that
connects the data with curves. Then click on “Next”. In this box, check the “Columns” box to indicate that the data is arranged
with the data values in columns. This is a VERY IMPORTANT step when you are only dealing with two points. This step
should not be necessary when you have more than two points.
A B C D E F G
1 x y
2 1 4
3 9 14
4
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

16.5: G1.05- Exploring by Graphing Part I is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Example 16. Continue with the previous spreadsheet to explore to find an equation of the line through the points (1,9) and (4,14).
1. Starting with the previous spreadsheet, look at the points and guess what the intercept and slope might be. I guess that the
intercept might be 2 and the slope might be 1.5. So put those guesses in Column G. In G2 put 2 and in H2 put the label
“intercept.” In G3 put 1.5 and in H3 put the label “intercept.”
2. In column C, put the label “y formula” in cell C1. Then, in cell C2, put the formula for a line, , but put it in the appropriate form
to use the values for the slope and intercept in column G and the x values in column A. That is, in cell C2 put
=$G$3*A2+$G$2.
A B C D E F G H
1 x y y formula
2 1 4 3.5 2 intercept
3 9 14 15.5 1.5 slope
10
11
12
13
14
3. Notice that the line for the formula is close, but not correct. So adjust the values for the slope and intercept until it looks right.
First, it looks as if the intercept is actually a little higher than the formula indicates. So try 3 for that. And then it looks as if the
slope is a little lower than the formula indicates. So try 1.4 for that. That looks better, but still not correct.
4. The intercept of 3 is still too large. Try 2.8. The slope of 1.4 is still too large. Try 1.3. This looks better, but it could still be
improved upon.
5. Leave the intercept at 2.8 and try a slope of 1.25. That looks pretty good on the graph. The numbers in the formula column
show that it is not quite correct, but this is about as good as we’d expect to get from just fitting by eye. We can use algebra to
find more precise values.
A B C D E F G H
1 x y y formula
2 1 4 4.05 2.8 intercept
3 9 14 14.05 1.25 slope
10
11
12
13
14
15
Using algebra here, as illustrated in Examples 5, 6, 11, and 12, we find that the equation of the line through the points (1,4) and
(9,14) is y=1.25x+2.75. The formula we have found just by looking at the graph and approximating is very close to the correct formula.

16.6: G1.06- Exploring by Graphing Part II is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
16.7: G1.07- Section 4
OptionalSection 4: Adding formatting to the spreadsheet used to explore parameter values.
When you are just creating a spreadsheet to use for a few minutes, it is easy to remember what you put where and what it meant.
But it is also convenient to save some worksheets and use them again later. When you do that, it is good to add some features that
make it easier to remember what is where. In this course, we will add several features to such spreadsheets.
1. We will make the cells in which we change numerical values green, so that it is easy to see at a glance what to change.
2. We will make the cells that are computed from those values we change yellow, so that it is easy to look at what numbers
changed as a result of what we entered.
3. We will add a line that shows the formula with the numerical values we are using.
Because the colors don’t show in these printed materials, the example printed here in not completely satisfactory.
Methods
Color:
To make cells a given color, choose the cells (highlight them) and, from the menu, choose Format > Cells and then choose the
“Patterns” tab. From there, choose the color you want. In this course, we will use green for input and yellow for computed values.
(We will also use blue for cells where there is a “check.” That has not yet been illustrated in the examples.)
Formula:
To show the formula in the spreadsheet for Example 16 above in cell G1, use Excel’s CONCATENATE function in the following
way.
In G1 enter =CONCATENATE(“y=”,G3,” x + “,G2)
A B C D E F G H
1 x y y formula y=2.8 x + 1.25
2 1 4 4.05 2.8 intercept
3 9 14 14.05 1.25 slope
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

16.7: G1.07- Section 4 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Part I
1. For this formula: , tell
R=-6.3+8.2\cdot{d}
a. Which variable is the output variable?

b. Which variable is the input variable?
c. Is it linear relationship?
d. If it is a linear relationship, what is the slope?
e. If it is a linear relationship, what is the y-intercept?
2. For this formula: R=-6.3+8.2\cdot{d}, find a three points that fit this and use them to sketch a graph.
3. A manager is considering the cost C of printing a book based on the number of pages p. He is told that the formula for
predicting the cost is linear based on the number of pages and that the y-intercept is $4.50 and the slope is $0.027. Find the
formula to predict the cost from the number of pages.
4. Find the formula for the line with slope 1.35 which has the point (5,40) on it.
5. Find the formula for the line through (2,6) and (4,11).
Identify the slope and y-intercept.
6. We have been told that the amount of oatmeal needed for oatmeal cookies is linearly related to the amount of flour needed.
Also, we know that if we use 3 cups of flour, we need 2 cups of oatmeal. And, of course, if we use 0 cups of flour, we will use 0
cups of oatmeal.
a. Find the formula to predict the oatmeal needed (called M) from the flour needed (F.)
b. Interpret the slope.
c. Interpret the y-intercept.
7. Find the slope and intercept of the line y=-2.32x+7.89
8. Find the slope and intercept of the line y=84.4+9.2x
9. Find the slope and intercept of the line y=1127-93x
10. Find the slope and the intercept of the line y=2178x-114
11. Find the formula for the line with slope -6.2 through the point (87.2, 112.7)
12. Find the formula for the line through (8,5) and (13,17)
13. Find the formula for the line through (83.8, 79.9) and (232.7, 63.4)
14. Use a spreadsheet to approximate the equation of the line through (1,4) and (9,14).
Part II
Write your formulas for lines in point-slope form. You may make the requested graphs by hand on graph paper or using a
spreadsheet.
15. For this formula: M=12.2-4.3\cdot{z} , tell
a. Which variable is the output variable?
b. Which variable is the input variable?
c. Is it linear relationship?
d. If it is a linear relationship, what is the slope?
e. If it is a linear relationship, what is the y-intercept?
16. A manager has proposed that the rent on apartments in one location will be linear based on the number of square feet in the
apartment. The y-intercept will be $160 and the slope will be $1.50. Find the formula to predict the rent from the number of
square feet in the apartment.
17. Janet’s recipe for split-pea soup has a linear relationship between the amount of carrots and the amount of onions. When she
uses 1.5 cups of carrots, she uses 1 cup of onions. When she uses 3 cups of carrots, she uses 2 cups of onions.
a. Find the formula to predict the onions needed (called N) from the carrots needed (C.)
b. Interpret the slope.
c. Interpret the y-intercept.
18. Find the formula for the line through the point (2,8) with slope 2. Check this by looking at the formula to see that the slope
coefficient is 2 and then also plugging in the point (2,8) to confirm that it really does fit the equation.
19. Find the formula for the line through the point (13.3, 117.8) with slope 2.7. Check this by looking at the formula to see that the
slope coefficient is 2.7 and then also plugging in the point (13.3, 117.8) to confirm that it really does fit the equation.
20. Find the formula for line through the points (4,12) and (18,37). Check this by plugging in the point that you DID NOT use in
the last step to find the intercept, and be sure that it fits the equation.
21. Find a formula for the line through the points (82.7, 227.2) and (105.3, 304.2). Check this by plugging in the point that you DID
NOT use in the last step to find the intercept, and be sure that it fits the equation.
22. Find a formula for the line through the points (4,28) and (9,13). Check this by plugging in the point that you DID NOT use in
the last step to find the intercept, and be sure that it fits the equation.
23. Find a formula for the line through the points (58.2,102.7) and (75.8, 47.5). Check this by plugging in the point that you DID
NOT use in the last step to find the intercept, and be sure that it fits the equation.
24. Use a spreadsheet to approximate the formula for the line through the points (4,12) and (18,37). Use this to check your work in
the previous problem (number 20) where you found the formula algebraically.
25. Use a spreadsheet to approximate the formula for the line through the points (82.7, 227.2) and (105.3, 304.2). Use this to check
your work in the previous problem (problem 21) where you found the formula algebraically.
26. Use a spreadsheet to approximate the formula for the line through the points (4,28) and (9,13). Use this to check your work in
the previous problem (problem 22) where you found the formula algebraically.
27. Use a spreadsheet to approximate the formula for the line through the points (58.2,102.7) and (75.8,47.5). Use this to check
your work in the previous problem (problem 23) where you found the formula algebraically.
28. Find the formula for the line between (12,4) and (37,18). Do this by either of the two methods in Section 3. Compare the slopes
of this line and the line you found in the problem 20, where you had the input and output variable switched. Are they
reciprocals? (Hint: multiply them together and see if you get 1. If so, they are reciprocals.)
29. Find a formula for the line through the points (28,4) and (13,9). Do this by either of the two methods in Section 3. Compare the
slopes of this line and the line you found in problem 22, where you had the input and output variable switched. Are they
reciprocals? (Hint: multiply them together and see if you get 1. If so, they are reciprocals.)
16.8: G1.08- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
17: Topic K- Finance
17: Topic K- Finance is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Finance: Simple and Compound Interest
Questions Explored:
What is the difference between simple and compound interest?
I want to deposit a lump sum of money into an account earning interest and leave it there. What will I have in the future?
What lump sum should I deposit into an account earning interest in order to have a certain future value?
What happens to my credit card balance if I don’t pay any of it for a period of time?
Terms:
Principal – initial amount of the investment or loan
Interest – amount paid to you by the lender for investing with them, or, the fee you pay for borrowing money
Simple interest – interest paid only on the original principal
Compound interest – interest paid on both the original principal and any interest that has been added to the original principal
Annual percentage rate (APR) – % of interest earned or owed each year; may need to be divided up for smaller time periods
(i.e. monthly, quarterly, etc.), APR does not take compounding into account
Compounding period – period at the end of which interest is computed
o Annually = once a year
o Semiannually = twice a year
o Quarterly = four times a year
o Monthly = twelve times a year
o Daily = 365 times a year (was 360 in the past before computers were readily available to make math easier for the banker)
Savings accounts – accounts into which you deposit money
o Currently savings accounts have a very low interest rate
o Standard savings accounts, money market accounts, and CDs (certificate of deposit) are a few different types of savings
accounts with different interest rates and withdrawal restrictions.
FDIC – (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) guarantees safety of bank deposits currently up to $250,000 per depositor per
bank (as of 2016)
Bonds – when you purchase a bond, the bond issuer is in debt to the bond holder and pays the bond holder interest on the bond
and/or repays the principal later to the holder
o The bond holder is the lender and has loaned the bond issuer money, who is now the debtor.
o There are many types of bonds: Treasury bonds, corporate bonds, municipal bonds, etc.
o Bonds may have a fixed or variable interest rate.
o Interest may be simple or compound.
o Bonds may or may not be inflation-linked.
o Bonds may or may not have tax advantages
o Bonds may be low or high risk
Credit card – system of payment that allows someone to purchase goods or services with the promise that the money will be
repaid
Annual percentage yield (APY or effective annual yield or effective yield or yield) – actual percentage by which a balance
increases in one year, slightly different than the APR since it takes compounding into account
Rules
Simple interest: The amount of interest earned is the same percentage of the original principal every year.
Compound interest: The amount of interest earned in each time period is computed on the accumulated amount of money in the
account at the beginning of that time period.
Annual Percentage Yield: The annual percentage yield of an investment is computed by finding the relative change from the
initial balance to the balance at the end of the same year.
17.1: K1.01- Simple and Compound Interest is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Finance: Savings and Payout Annuities
Questions Explored
I would like to make regular deposits into an account at regular intervals for a number of years. How much will I have in the
end?
How much do I need to deposit at regular intervals into an account in order to have a certain amount of money?
I’d like to be able to withdraw a certain amount every year indefinitely after I retire. How much would I need to deposit at
regular intervals in order to do that?
Terms
Savings annuity—an account into which regularly scheduled deposits are made
Payout annuity—an account with money in it where money is withdrawn regularly, eventually ending up empty
401(k)—one example of an employer-sponsored savings annuity

IRA (individual retirement account) – you can open one of these and make regular deposits into the account for years
o There are several types of IRAs. Two examples are below. You’d talk to a financial planner about what type would be best
for you based on your expected future tax bracket and the type of lifestyle you’ll lead now and in the future.
Traditional IRA – deposit now, pay taxes later
Roth IRA – pay taxes on deposits now, withdraw tax-free
For an annuity: Like compound interest, the amount in an annuity in each time period is computed on the amount of money in the
annuity at the beginning of that time period. The amount present at the beginning of each period must be modified to reflect
deposits or withdrawals since the previous time period began.
Different Types of Annuities
17.2: K1.02- Savings Plans is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Finance: Savings and Payout Annuities
Questions Explored
I would like to make regular deposits into an account at regular intervals for a number of years. How much will I have in the
end?
How much do I need to deposit at regular intervals into an account in order to have a certain amount of money?
I’d like to be able to withdraw a certain amount every year indefinitely after I retire. How much would I need to deposit at
regular intervals in order to do that?
Terms
Savings annuity—an account into which regularly scheduled deposits are made
Payout annuity—an account with money in it where money is withdrawn regularly, eventually ending up empty
401(k)—one example of an employer-sponsored savings annuity

IRA (individual retirement account) – you can open one of these and make regular deposits into the account for years
o There are several types of IRAs. Two examples are below. You’d talk to a financial planner about what type would be best
for you based on your expected future tax bracket and the type of lifestyle you’ll lead now and in the future.
Traditional IRA – deposit now, pay taxes later
Roth IRA – pay taxes on deposits now, withdraw tax-free
For an annuity: Like compound interest, the amount in an annuity in each time period is computed on the amount of money in the
annuity at the beginning of that time period. The amount present at the beginning of each period must be modified to reflect
deposits or withdrawals since the previous time period began.
17.3: K1.03- Installment Loans is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Exercises
S kills
1. A friend lends you $200 for a week, which you agree to repay with 5% one-time interest. How much will you have to repay?
2. Suppose you obtain a $3,000 T-note with a 3% annual rate, paid quarterly, with maturity in 5 years. How much interest will
you earn?
3. A T-bill is a type of bond that is sold at a discount over the face value. For example, suppose you buy a 13-week T-bill with a
face value of $10,000 for $9,800. This means that in 13 weeks, the government will give you the face value, earning you $200.
What annual interest rate have you earned?
4. Suppose you are looking to buy a $5000 face value 26-week T-bill. If you want to earn at least 1% annual interest, what is the
most you should pay for the T-bill?
5. You deposit $300 in an account earning 5% interest compounded annually. How much will you have in the account in 10
years?
6. How much will $1000 deposited in an account earning 7% interest compounded annually be worth in 20 years?
7. You deposit $2000 in an account earning 3% interest compounded monthly.

8. You deposit $10,000 in an account earning 4% interest compounded monthly.

account earns 6% interest compounded monthly.
account earns 5% interest.
11. You deposit $200 each month into an account earning 3% interest compounded monthly.
12. You deposit $1000 each year into an account earning 8% compounded annually.
13. Jose has determined he needs to have $800,000 for retirement in 30 years. His account earns 6% interest.
a. How much would you need to deposit in the account each month?
14. You wish to have $3000 in 2 years to buy a fancy new stereo system. How much should you deposit each quarter into an
account paying 8% compounded quarterly?
15. You want to be able to withdraw $30,000 each year for 25 years. Your account earns 8% interest.
16. How much money will I need to have at retirement so I can withdraw $60,000 a year for 20 years from an account earning 8%
compounded annually?
17. You have $500,000 saved for retirement. Your account earns 6% interest. How much will you be able to pull out each month, if
you want to be able to take withdrawals for 20 years?
18. Loren already knows that he will have $500,000 when he retires. If he sets up a payout annuity for 30 years in an account
paying 10% interest, how much could the annuity provide each month?
19. You can afford a $700 per month mortgage payment. You’ve found a 30 year loan at 5% interest.
a. How big of a loan can you afford?
b. How much total money will you pay the loan company?
20. Marie can afford a $250 per month car payment. She’s found a 5 year loan at 7% interest.
a. How expensive of a car can she afford?
b. How much total money will she pay the loan company?
21. You want to buy a $25,000 car. The company is offering a 2% interest rate for 48 months (4 years). What will your monthly
payments be?
22. You decide finance a $12,000 car at 3% compounded monthly for 4 years. What will your monthly payments be? How much
interest will you pay over the life of the loan?
23. You want to buy a $200,000 home. You plan to pay 10% as a down payment, and take out a 30 year loan for the rest.
a. How much is the loan amount going to be?
b. What will your monthly payments be if the interest rate is 5%?
c. What will your monthly payments be if the interest rate is 6%?
24. Lynn bought a $300,000 house, paying 10% down, and financing the rest at 6% interest for 30 years.
a. Find her monthly payments.
b. How much interest will she pay over the life of the loan?
25. Emile bought a car for $24,000 three years ago. The loan had a 5 year term at 3% interest rate. How much does he still owe on
the car?
26. A friend bought a house 15 years ago, taking out a $120,000 mortgage at 6% for 30 years. How much does she still owe on the
mortgage?
27. Pat deposits $6,000 into an account earning 4% compounded monthly. How long will it take the account to grow to $10,000?
28. Kay is saving $200 a month into an account earning 5% interest. How long will it take her to save $20,000?
29. James has $3,000 in credit card debt, which charges 14% interest. How long will it take to pay off the card if he makes the
minimum payment of $60 a month?
30. Chris has saved $200,000 for retirement, and it is in an account earning 6% interest. If she withdraws $3,000 a month, how
long will the money last?
Concepts
31. Suppose you invest $50 a month for 5 years into an account earning 8% compounded monthly. After 5 years, you leave the
money, without making additional deposits, in the account for another 25 years. How much will you have in the end?
32. Suppose you put off making investments for the first 5 years, and instead made deposits of $50 a month for 25 years into an
account earning 8% compounded monthly. How much will you have in the end?
33. Mike plans to make contributions to his retirement account for 15 years. After the last contribution, he will start withdrawing
$10,000 a quarter for 10 years. Assuming Mike’s account earns 8% compounded quarterly, how large must his quarterly
contributions be during the first 15 years, in order to accomplish his goal?
34. Kendra wants to be able to make withdrawals of $60,000 a year for 30 years after retiring in 35 years. How much will she have
to save each year up until retirement if her account earns 7% interest?
35. You have $2,000 to invest, and want it to grow to $3,000 in two years. What interest rate would you need to find to make this
possible?
36. You have $5,000 to invest, and want it to grow to $20,000 in ten years. What interest rate would you need to find to make this
possible?
37. You plan to save $600 a month for the next 30 years for retirement. What interest rate would you need to have $1,000,000 at
retirement?
38. You really want to buy a used car for $11,000, but can only afford $200 a month. What interest rate would you need to find to
be able to afford the car, assuming the loan is for 60 months?
CC licensed content, Specific attribution

Math in Society. Authored by: Lippman, David. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright
17.4: K1.04- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
18: Topic L- Automated Fitting of Models, Comparative Goodness of Fit, and Outliers
18.1: L1.02- Section 1
18.2: L1.03- Section 2
18.3: L1.04- Section 3
18.4: L1.05- Section 4
18.5: L1.06- Section 5
18.6: L1.07- Section 6
18.7: L1.08- Section 7
18.8: L1.09- Section 8
18: Topic L- Automated Fitting of Models, Comparative Goodness of Fit, and Outliers is shared under a not declared license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
18.1: L1.02- Section 1
Section 1: Choosing a numerical indicator of how well a model fits a dataset
In an earlier topic we computed a numerical indicator of the noise of a measurement process, the standard deviation around the
average measurement. If we had a similar indicator of the scatter of the data around a model, we could use it to guide our search for
the best set of model parameters. Even better, we might be able to get a computer program to help in the search since computers are
good at working with numbers. Our original method of judging a model, visually comparing the data and model graphs, is easy for
people but beyond the current capabilities of computers.
While scatter indicators of this kind as often referred to as measuring “goodness of fit”, keep in mind that they are showing the
amount of deviation, so smaller is better (these are actually badness-of-fit indicators). We will find the best model by adjusting the
parameters to make the indicator as close to zero as possible.
We want to minimize both positive and negative deviations, since here we care about how close the data is to the model, but not
whether it is higher or lower. In this situation, the most productive way to treat positive and negative deviations the same is to
square each deviation (i.e., multiply it by itself, a process that produces positive results for both positive and negative numbers).
We will then minimize some indicator based on these squared deviations.
In spreadsheets that arranged similarly to Models.xls (input data in column A, output data in column B, model prediction in column
C, and data-model deviation in column D), it is natural to put these squared deviations in column E. This can be done by putting the
formula “=D3^2” into cell E3, then spreading that formula down all the data rows.
Example 1: Add a squared-deviations row to the US-population spreadsheet made in an earlier topic
A B C D E F G H I
1 x Y y Residual Squared Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^x
2 Year-1780 Population Model values Deviations y = 2.8 * (1.03^x)
3 0 2.8 2.80 0.0000 0.000000 2.8 a: Initial value at x=0
4 10 3.9 3.76 0.1370 0.018778 0.03 r: Growth rate
5 20 5.3 5.06 0.2429 0.058995
6 30 7.2 6.80 0.4037 0.162945
7 40 9.6 9.13 0.4663 0.217430
8 50 12.9 12.27 0.6251 0.390704
9 60 17.1 16.50 0.6035 0.364226
10 70 23.2 22.17 1.0301 1.061103
11 80 31.4 29.79 1.6055 2.577651
12 90 39.8 40.04 -0.2413 0.058230
Column E now contains the formulas
“=D3^2” in E3
“=D4^2” in E4
“=D5^2” in E5
et cetera, for each data row
What number will be used to represent the squared-deviation values?

If we are going to make decisions about parameter settings by looking at a numerical goodness-of-fit indicator, that indicator must
be a single number so we can decide which settings are better by choosing those that give the lowest indicator value. What
indicator should be used to summarize this column of squared deviations? One obvious possibility, which turns out to be the most
generally useful, is the sum of the squared deviations. This can be computed by applying the spreadsheet SUM function to column
E, as by putting the formula “=SUM(E3:E12)” into some empty cell such as H8.
An alternative indicator that is useful in a few situations is simply the largest squared deviation (which comes from the largest
deviation, whether positive or negative). This can be computed with the spreadsheet MAX function, using the formula
“=MAX(E3:E12)” in this case. Other indicators are sometimes constructed that take into account the economic cost in a particular
situation of different deviation sizes and/or directions. But the sum of the squared deviations is by far the most commonly used
indicator for fitting models to data, and we will use it in this course except where another indicator is specifically asked for.
Example 2: Improve the earlier population model by using the sum-of-squared-deviations indicator.
The exponential-model parameter settings a = 2.8 and r = 0.03 that were found earlier fit the data pretty well, but of course other
nearby settings of the parameters, such as would change the graph so little we could not tell by looking whether one of these
models is slightly better than the other. But the numerical sum-of-squared-deviations calculation in H8 provides a way to choose
among nearby model settings to get the very best fit.
[a] Here is the worksheet result from the initial model, which was chosen by setting the first parameter of the model to 2.8 (the data
value at x = 0), then adjusting the growth rate until the graphs were close.
A B C D E F G H I
1 x y y Residual Squared Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^x
2 Year-1780 Population Model values deviations y = 2.8 * (1.03^x)
3 0 2.8 2.80 0.0000 0.000000 2.8 a: Initial value at x=0
4 10 3.9 3.76 0.1370 0.018778 0.03 r: Growth rate
5 20 5.3 5.06 0.2429 0.058995
6 30 7.2 6.80 0.4037 0.162945
7 40 9.6 9.13 0.4663 0.217430 Goodness of fit for these settings
8 50 12.9 12.27 0.6251 0.390704 Sum of sq. 4.910062
9 60 17.1 16.50 0.6035 0.364226
10 70 23.2 22.17 1.0301 1.061103
11 80 31.4 29.79 1.6055 2.577651
12 90 39.8 40.04 -0.2413 0.058230
So for a model of this data, the sum of squared deviations equals about 4.91.
[b] If the initial value for the model is increased by 0.1 million (to 2.9 million), the sum of squared deviations drops from about
4.91 to 3.24, a noticeable improvement. So the model can be considered slightly better.
A B C D E F G H I
1 x y y Residual Squared Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^x
2 Year-1780 Population Model values deviations y = 2.9 * (1.03^x)
3 0 2.8 2.90 -0.10 0.0100 2.9 a: Initial value at x=0
4 10 3.9 3.90 0.00 0.0000 0.03 r: Growth rate
5 20 5.3 5.24 0.06 0.0039
6 30 7.2 7.04 0.16 0.0259
8 50 12.9 12.71 0.19 0.0348 Sum of sq. 3.237818
9 60 17.1 17.09 0.01 0.0002
10 70 23.2 22.96 0.24 0.0568
11 80 31.4 30.86 0.54 0.2931
12 90 39.8 41.47 -1.67 2.7934
Further small adjustments to G3 might reduce the standard deviation further, but it would be very tedious to try all the settings
needed to find the very best fit, especially since we would need to explore values for the growth rate in G4 as well. Additionally,
since a change in one of the parameters will change the effect of the other parameter, several rounds of adjustment would be
needed. This process would be even more difficult for models that have three or more parameters.
But tedious tasks are what computers do best. Most spreadsheets have a built-in routine that will systematically adjust parameters
to a result you ask for (in this case, the minimum value for the goodness-of-fit indicator). We will use such a built-in routine,
Solver, as a way to automate the model-fitting process.
18.1: L1.02- Section 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
18.2: L1.03- Section 2
Section 2: Using Solver in the Tool menu to find the best-fit parameters for a model
The “Solver” add-in can be used with an appropriately-formatted spreadsheet to tell the computer to do automatically what you did
by hand in the earlier model-fitting exercises – adjust the parameters until the model is a good as it can be. Solver uses the
numerical value of the sum-of-squared-deviations indicator (computed in cell H8 in the example spreadsheet) to decide on the best
parameters.
When you use Solver for modeling, you will set up a modeling worksheet exactly as the previous example, then use Solver to tell
the computer to minimize the cell containing the goodness-of-fit indicator by adjusting the cells containing the parameters. The
software then systematically searches for the parameter settings that result in the smallest standard deviation.
The Solver routine does not know anything about modeling — it simply changes the numbers in the cells you identify (G3 and G4
in this case), searching for values that produce the result you ask for (minimization) in the target cell that you identify (H8). This
procedure finds the best model because of the way the worksheet is set up, with the sequence of connections where the parameters
in column G are used in the model formulas in column C, which determine the data-model deviations in column D and thus the
squared deviations in column E, which are added to form the sum of squared deviations indicator.
Since Solver will default to the last values used, once you start using it you will often find that the settings are already correct, so
that you can just press “Solve” to get the best-fit model parameters for the current set of data. If the computer does not find a
solution when fitting a model, this usually means that you forgot to set the “Min” option, so that the program is instead trying to
find a maximum, an impossible task in this case because there is no limit to how far away the model can get from the data.
Usually Solver will find a correct solution regardless of the initial values of the parameters. However, it will be more dependable if
you start with the parameters having values that put the model graph in the same general region as the data points. Otherwise the
formula may have a value so large or small that the computer cannot handle it correctly. In any case, it is important to look at the
graph of the fitted values to make sure Solver worked correctly—after the computer does the tedious part, it’s your turn to do the
thinking that is needed.
Example 3: Use Solver to find the formula of the best-fit exponential model for the worksheet modified in Example 1
to include a sum-of-square deviations value.
1. Select the cell containing the sum-of-squared-deviations value (cell H8).
2. Select Solver from the Tools menu (if it is not there, select Add-Ins and add it). The dialog box should show the selected cell
(e.g., “H8”) in the Set Target Cell section at the top. If not, enter it.
3. Choose the “Min” (for Minimum) option in the second line, since we want Solver to find the smallest possible value for the
indicator in H8.
4. Enter “G3,G4” into the “By Changing Cells” section on the fourth line. This tells Solver to adjust the cells that we are using as
model parameters when it is trying to minimize H8.
5. Press the “Solve” button at top right.
6. Check the graph (or the numbers in columns B and C) to see if the model now is close to the data, with some on each side. If it
is not, you have made a mistake and must repeat the process correctly.
7. If the graph is acceptable, press “OK” to accept the solution that is found. The parameters (and thus the “Model” values in the
column C) are now set to the best-fit values to a very high accuracy.
The best-fit exponential model formula for this data is y=3.11\cdot{{(1.0289)}^{x}} (with the parameters rounded off to 3 digits to match the
data). The sum of squared deviations for this model is about 1.72, which is only 53% of the 3.24 value found by hand in the
previous example, and only 35% of the value for the parameter setting we originally found by visual inspection.
A B C D E F G H I
1 x data y model y Data-Model Squared Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^x
2 Year-1780 Population Prediction deviation deviation y = 3.108069 * (1.028937^x)
4 10 3.9 4.134104 -0.234104 0.054804 0.028937 r: Growth rate
5 20 5.3 5.498797 -0.198797 0.039520
6 30 7.2 7.313983 -0.113983 0.012992
7 40 9.6 9.728374 -0.128374 0.016480 Goodness of fit for these settings
8 50 12.9 12.93977 -0.039770 0.001582 Sum of sq. dev. 1.721981
9 60 17.1 17.21127 -0.111268 0.012381
10 70 23.2 22.89281 0.307187 0.094364
11 80 31.4 30.44987 0.950128 0.902744
12 90 39.8 40.50156 -0.701561 0.492188
Note that the best-fit model has a starting value that is a bit higher than in the earlier models (3.11 instead of 2.8 or 2.9), but this is
balanced by the growth rate being slightly lower (0.0289 instead of 0.03).
Also note that the graphs of all three models are quite close to the data, so that any could be considered a good model, and it would
not be feasible to choose between them visually.
Example 4: Use Solver to find the best-fit linear model for the sediment depth data from the topic on linear modeling.
Solution approach:
[a] Use a spreadsheet as before, but now add the squared deviations into column E and compute their sum with a formula in G11,
then use Solver to find the best-fit parameter settings.
[b] Write the linear equation with those parameters used as intercept and slope values.
The best-fit linear model to the sediment data is y=1.759x+12.657 .
A B C D E F G
1 x y data y model Residual Squared Linear model: y = m * x + b
2 Days Depth Prediction deviation deviation y = 1.759286 x + 12.65714
3 10 29.9 30.25 -0.35 0.1225 12.65714 m: Intercept
4 20 48.0 47.84 0.16 0.0247 1.759286 b: Slope
5 30 60.5 65.44 -4.94 24.3613
6 40 88.6 83.03 5.57 31.0408
8 60 114.1 118.21 -4.11 16.9273 Sum of sq. 120.8929
9 70 141.1 135.81 5.29 28.0143
10 80 149.5 153.40 -3.90 15.2100
[/hidden-answer]
18.3: L1.04- Section 3
Section 3: Using the sum of squared deviations to compute the standard deviation for a model
While the sum-of-squared-deviations indicator works very well as the target for Solver to minimize, it does not directly provide
information about the typical deviation size because several terms are added together, and each term in the sum is squared. It would
be useful to have a standardized goodness-of-fit indicator that did not depend on the number of deviations and was expressed in the
same units as the data, model, and deviations. This would also be valid for comparing the quality of models with different numbers
of parameters that are fit to the same dataset.
We can compute such a standardized indicator by computing an average squared deviation, then taking the square root of that
value. The only difference from a regular average is that the divisor is made smaller by the number of parameters (i.e., the divisor
is n−2 instead of n for a linear or exponential model, where n is the number of squared deviations in the sum).
The number computed in this way is the standard deviation of the data from the model. This is the same kind of indicator as was
computed to measure the noise in repeated measurements — in that case the STDEV function adjusted the divisor to be n−1
because the deviation is from a single-parameter model, the average. For more complex models we have to make an explicit
adjustment rather than using the STDEV function. Since we are already computing the sum of squared deviations, this is not
difficult.
For the 8-value sediment data, for example, this computation could be accomplished by the formula “=SQRT(H8/6)”, since H8
already has been set to the sum of the 8 squared deviations from E3 to E10. For the 10-value population data, the formula to use
would be “=SQRT(H8/8)”. For the earlier 7-value quadratic basketball-path data, the formula would be “=SQRT(H8/4)”, because a
quadratic model has three parameters.
The adjustment to the divisor for the average is needed because if there are only two data points for a linear model, for example,
then the model can go through them exactly even when there would be scatter if more points from the same measurement process
were added. It is only when there are more points than the number of parameters that you know anything about what scatter can be
expected around the model predictions.
Example 5: Modify the worksheets from Examples 3 and 4 so they also compute standard deviation.
Solution approaches (any of these will give correct answers):
[A] Dataset-specific-formulas — Place the formulas “=SQRT(H8/8)” or “=SQRT(H8/6)”, respectively for Examples 3 and 4, into
an empty cell in the worksheet, such as H9. The disadvantage of this approach is that you are likely to forget to change the formula
(which is not visible) when the worksheet is re-used with a different number of data points.
[B] Visible count totals — Set H10 to the number of squared deviations summed in forming H8 (this will be the number of data
points unless you have excluded some as outliers). Then set H11 to the number of model parameters (e.g., 2 for linear &
exponential, 3 for quadratic). Finally, set H12 to the formula “=SQRT(H8/(H10-H11))”. If you re-use this spreadsheet with a
different dataset, all you have to change is the deviation count in H10 to the appropriate setting. The formula in H12 will not need
to be changed.
[C] Automatic count totals — Put the formula “=COUNT(E3:E99)” into cell H10. This will evaluate to the number of cells in
column E that have numeric values, indicating the presence of a deviation. Then follow approach B (set H11 to the number of
parameters, and set H12 to the formula “=SQRT(H8/(H11-H12))”. (Warning: approach C will cause errors if there are any
extraneous numbers in column E.)
Whichever approach is used, the respective standard deviation values, rounded to the usual two significant digits, are σ = 0.46
million people for Example 3 and σ = 4.49 mm for Example 4.
Here is what the census spreadsheet would look like after using approach B or C:
A B C D E F G H I
1 x data y model y Data- Squared Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^x

Model
2 Year- Population Prediction deviation deviation y = 3.108069 * (1.028937^x)
1780
3 0 2.8 3.108101 -0.308101 0.094926 3.108069 a: Initial value at

x=0
4 10 3.9 4.134104 -0.234104 0.054804 0.028937 r: Growth rate
5 20 5.3 5.498797 -0.198797 0.039520
6 30 7.2 7.313983 -0.113983 0.012992
7 40 9.6 9.728374 -0.128374 0.016480 Goodness of fit for these settings
8 50 12.9 12.93977 -0.039770 0.001582 Sum of sq. dev. 1.721981
9 60 17.1 17.21127 -0.111268 0.012381
10 70 23.2 22.89281 0.307187 0.094364 # of dev. 10

summed
11 80 31.4 30.44987 0.950128 0.902744 # of parameters 2
12 90 39.8 40.50156 -0.701561 0.492188 standard 0.463948

deviation

18.4: L1.05- Section 4
Section 4: Using Solver to choose the best kind of model
Sometimes data has a pattern for which more than one kind of model is a potential match. While visual inspection of the best-fit
graphs will usually show which one is best, you can also choose between candidates by seeing which model type has the smallest
best-fit standard deviation.
Example 6: Does a quadratic model fit the population data better than the model in Example 3? Why?
Solution approach:
[a] Use Solver with the Quadratic Model worksheet in Models.xls to fit the same data.
[b] Add the computation of standard deviation to the worksheet.
[c] Compare the standard deviation σ for the quadratic model with that of the exponential model.
An exponential model is a better fit to this data than a quadratic model, because the best-fit exponential model y=3.11\cdot{{(1.0289)}^{x}}
has σ = 0.46 million, while the best-fit quadratic model y=0.0051\cdot{{(x-6.536)}^{2}}+3.555 has σ = 0.85 million, which is almost twice as
large.
[/hidden-answer]
Can you think of another reason that a quadratic model is not likely to be appropriate for this data? (Hints: Where is the vertex of
the parabola? What does this imply about the quadratic model’s prediction for years before 1780, the first year given in this
dataset?)
18.5: L1.06- Section 5
Section 5: Identifying and Removing Outliers in Data
Some datasets include a few points that do not fit into the overall pattern. These points are called “outliers”, and require special
handling if a model is to be fit to the dataset. In general, the approach to modeling data with outliers is to exclude them from the
fitting process but report them separately along with the model formula.
Sometimes outliers are simply mistakes in the data. Measurement is not a perfect process, and errors in a measurement device or in
writing down the measurement results can lead to bad values in a dataset. One benefit of looking at the overall pattern of the data is
that it usually will reveal any substantial errors of this kind.
On the other hand, some outliers are accurate measurements but report anomalies, situations that are different from the typical
situation in which the other measurements were made. Measurements of Sunday pedestrian traffic in downtown Austin, for
example, would show an outlier each spring due to the Capital 10K race.
It is important to report outliers, so that people depending on measurements similar to those that produced the data are alerted to the
possibility of large deviations from the general trend of the data. Even if the outlier is a mistake, it is an indication that users should
watch out for similar mistakes. If the outlier is an anomaly, it is possible that it is the most important part of the data. For example,
we would want the people who design bridges to design for the maximum load and not the typical load.
When using Models.xls to find best-fit models, we can exclude outliers from the fitting process by erasing the content of the
column E cell for each row that contains outlier data. This means that the deviation associated with the outlier value is not counted
in computing the standard deviation, and thus does not influence the fitting process.
Example 7: Using the dataset shown to the right:

a. Fit and report on a linear model using all of the data
b. Fit and report on a linear model with the outlier excluded.
Solution approach:
i. Copy the data to a Linear Model worksheet in Models.xls.
ii. Spread columns C, D, and E down to match the data, as usual.
iii. Make a graph of the data and model together, as usual.
iv. Use Solver to find the best-fit parameters and standard deviation.
v. Erase cell E6, since the graph shows the data in row 6 is an outlier.
vi. Use Solver again, to find results with the outlier excluded.
Remaining fuel in engine tank
minutes liters
5 174.4
10 160.1
15 149.7
20 35.3
25 123.8
30 105.4
35 96.7
40 87.0
45 72.1
50 57.6

i. With all the data, the best-fit linear model is y=-2.20x+166.8, σ = 33.16
ii. Without the outlier at (x = 20, y = 35.3), the best-fit linear model is y=-2.56x+186.8 , σ = 1.91
[/hidden-answer]
Notice that removal of the outlier makes a great difference in the size of the standard deviation, since the way standard deviations
are computed emphasizes any large deviations.
Is this particular outlier a mistake or an anomaly? You can’t tell from the numbers, since any type of outlier consists of big
deviations. But in this case the caption for the data indicates a process that logically must change smoothly. Thus this outlier is a
mistake. Examination of the data suggests that the “35.3” y value for the outlier should have been about 100 higher, so perhaps an
actual measurement of “135.3” was copied incorrectly.
Example 8: For the U.S. airline-passenger data provided to the right below:
a. Report the best-fit linear model formula and its standard deviation, using all the data points provided.
b. Examine the graph and list of deviations in column D to identify any data points which are outliers from the data trend from
1990 to 2000.
c. Report the best-fit line and σ when the outliers are excluded.
d. In this case, are the outlier points mistakes or anomalies?
e. How many 2006 passengers would there have been (to the nearest million) if US air traffic had continued its 1990-2000 trend?
f. Has the airline industry fully recovered its 1990-2000 trend? Why?
US Airline Traffic
Years Passengers
since 1990 (millions)
0 465.6
1 452.2
2 473.3
3 487.2
4 528.4
5 547.4
6 581.2
7 598.9
8 612.9
9 635.4
10 665.5
11 622.1
12 612.9
13 646.5
14 702.9
15 738.6
16 744.6

a. The all-data model is y=17.6x+454.3, σ = 25.1 million passengers.
b. The points for the years 2001, 2002, and 2003 are clearly outliers. The points for 2004, 2005, and 2006 are also low but are
closer to the 1990-2000 trend; borderline cases of this kind are a matter of judgment, and either analysis is correct as long as
you describe what decisions you have made.
c. The best-fit linear model for the 1990-2000 data is y=22.1x+439.5, with σ = 12.4 million passengers.
d. These outliers are anomalies, which reflect a real change in conditions.
e. The trend for 2006 was 793 million (cell C19 of the 1990-2000 model).
f. Air business has not fully recovered, because actual 2006 air traffic of 745 million was 48 million passengers below the pre-
2001 trend, and all actual values since 2001 have been lower than the pre-2001 trend.
[/hidden-answer]
Worksheet showing the result of fitting the data:
A B C D E F G H
1 X y data y model Residual Squared Linear Model: y = m * x

+b
2 Year- Passengers prediction deviation deviation y = 22.06643 x +

1990 439.4858
3 0 465.6 439.49 26.11 681.9503 439.4858 b:

Intercept
4 1 452.2 461.55 -9.35 87.4647 22.06643 m: Slope
5 2 473.3 483.62 -10.32 106.4753
6 3 487.2 505.69 -18.49 341.6996
7 4 528.4 527.75 0.65 0.4205 Goodness of fit for these

settings
8 5 547.4 549.82 -2.42 5.8466 sum of sq. 1380.672

dev.
9 6 581.2 571.88 9.32 86.7801
10 7 598.9 593.95 4.95 24.4941 # of dev. used 11
11 8 612.9 616.02 -3.12 9.7174 # of 2

parameters
12 9 635.4 638.08 -2.68 7.2023 Standard 12.3858

deviation
13 10 665.5 660.15 5.35 28.6210
14 11 622.1 682.22 -60.12
15 12 612.9 704.28 -91.38
16 13 646.5 726.35 -79.85
17 14 702.9 748.42 -45.52
18 15 738.6 770.48 -31.88
19 16 744.6 792.55 -47.95
20
18.6: L1.07- Section 6
Section 6: Distinguishing between linear and gently-curved data by examining deviation values
While many data relationships are linear, it is also not unusual to have relationships that are close to linear, but have a slight curve
in the pattern, too small to be obvious in the graph, due to some small additional nonlinear effect. Linear-modeling spreadsheets
often make it possible to detect such a situation by looking at how positive and negative deviation values are distributed (in column
C in Models.xls) when the best-fit linear model has been found.
If such data is nonlinear and also low-noise, most deviations around the middle third of the input-value range will have the same
sign, with the deviations at each end of the input-value range mostly having the opposite sign. This is similar to the obvious visual
effect that fitting a line to strongly parabolic data would produce, but can work even when the deviations are small, as long as they
are larger than the noise.
Another way of looking for this effect is to do a scatter plot of the input values and the deviations (for spreadsheets like Models.xls,
this is columns A and D, with columns B and C left out). If such a residual graph of the deviations from the best-fit linear model
displays a curved line rather than random noise, this is a sign that the data is significantly nonlinear. However, the automatic-
scaling feature of spreadsheet graphs means that any outliers in the data will compress the scale so that most deviations look flat—
this is why looking at the distribution of the signs of the deviations can be less confusing.
18.7: L1.08- Section 7
Section 7: Adapting a modeling spreadsheet to use any modeling formula that is specified
The only important differences between the various templates in Models.xls are the formula that is put into cell C3, and the labels
that are put in column H next to the parameters that start at row 3 in column G. This means that a spreadsheet can easily be adapted
to any specified formula.
These are the formulas that are the same in every modeling spreadsheet that uses the Models.xls layout:
“=B3-C3” in cell D3 (this computes the deviation from the model)
“=D3^2” in cell E3 (the computed the squared deviation)
“=SUM(E3:E100)” in cell H8 (this is the sum of squared deviations, which Solver will minimize)
Cell C3 will have a different formula for each type of model. These formulas will use “A3” to refer to x (this will automatically
change to A4, A5, etc. as the formula in C3 is spread down to the other data rows. For the parameters of the model, the formula in
C3 will use absolute references to cells in column G: $G$3 for the first parameter, $G$4 for the second parameter, etc. For clarity,
each parameter should have a label put beside it in column H, but the labels do not affect Solver or the fitting process.
To make a spreadsheet apply to a specific model, the following three steps are essential (in addition to the standard formulas that
are entered into columns D and E, and into cell H8:
1. Identify the parameters in the model we intend to use.
2. Decide which parameter cell in column G (e.g., G3) corresponds to each parameter.
3. Enter an appropriate spreadsheet formula for the model into cell C3
(and spread it down beside all the data rows, along with the formulas in D3 and E3).
It will be easier to use the new model if we also take two additional steps:
4. Put labels in column H next to each of the chosen parameters in column G.
5. Describe the kind of modeling formula either in G1 or on the tab of the worksheet.
Once these modifications have been made, the worksheet is used in the same way as the other templates:
Make a graph of the data and model together, so that you can see if a good fit is found.
Set the parameters to initial values that ensure the model and data are in the same region.
Use the Solver tool to minimize H8 (the sum of squared deviations).
Often a new model formula is based on a combination or adaptation of models you already have used. For example, we earlier used
an exponential model to fit data showing the cooling of a liquid to a known room temperature. What if the room temperature had
not been known? We could have found it from the data by adding it as a parameter to the exponential model, which would now be
an exponential-plus-baseline model. The model suitable for that is shown in the example below.
Example 10: Fit the model y = a (1+ r)x + b to this dataset (a, r, and b are parameters)
Modify a spreadsheet to use this formula and the standard modeling components:
a. copy the data to columns A & B of a sheet, with the numbers starting in row 3.
b. assign cells G3, G4, and G5 to parameters a, r, and b, respectively.
c. set cell C3 to the formula “=$G$3*(1+$G$4)Â3+$G$5”.
d. set cells D3 to “=B3-C3” and E3 to “=D3^2”, as usual.
e. spread the formulas in C3, D3, and E3 down beside all the data rows.
f. set cell H8 to “=SUM(E3:E99)” to compute the sum of squared deviations.
g. tell Solver to minimize cell H8 by changing G3, G4, and G5.
The resulting parameter settings are a = 54.2, r = 0.13, and b = 75. These show that the liquid started at 54.2 degrees above the
room temperature of 75 degrees, and cooled at the rate of 13% of the difference per minute.
Minutes Degrees
0 127.2
1 116.4
2 107.7
3 100.8
4 95.3
5 91.0
6 87.7
7 85.3
8 82.9
9 81.3
10 79.9
11 78.9
[/hidden-answer]
18.8: L1.09- Section 8
Section 8: Using alternative goodness-of-fit indicators
The standard deviation (or the sum of squared deviations on which it is based) is an example of what is called a “cost” function, a
computed value that an adjustment or decision process tries to make as small as possible. While standard deviation is by far the
most commonly used cost function in modeling processes, there are other possible ways to measure a model’s quality that can be
more appropriate in some circumstances. Usually these different cost functions are designed to reflect differences in economic
costs of different errors (such as when an overestimate has more expensive consequences than an underestimate), to limit the effect
of big deviations on the fitting process (so that a single bad value will not change the model vary much), or to allow for cases
where the importance of a deviation depends on the size of the deviation relative to the data value (which is often true for
exponential models).
If you use an alternative goodness-of-fit indicator to find a “best-fit” model, make an explicit statement about what indicator was
minimized. This is needed both so that people can decide how to use the model, and so that they would be able to reproduce your
results from the same data.
Using the maximum deviation as an alternative goodness-of-fit indicator

Standard deviation is a good description of the size of the typical deviation between a model and its data. But in some situations
you may be more concerned about the maximum difference, rather than about the size of the typical difference. This can happen
when you want to be able to identify a deviation amount that people can confidently expect will not be exceeded (although in that
case you will usually need to allow some extra margin based on the typical random noise).
If you want to minimize the greatest difference between the population model and any individual population value, you would use
the indicator “=MAX(E3:E12)” (placed in a spare cell such as H9) rather than “=SUM(E3:E12)”. If Solver is asked to minimize a
cell with this formula (e.g., H9), it will adjust G3 and G4 (and any other parameters) in ways that may make the standard deviation
higher, but will make the maximum distance above or below the data as small as is possible for the chosen kind of model.
Example 11: Find the exponential model that minimizes the maximum deviation from the census data.
A B C D E F G H I
1 x y data y model Residual Squared Exponential

model: y = a *
(1+r)^x
2 Year- Population Prediction deviation deviations MODEL

1780 PARAMETERS
3 0 2.8 3.420962 -0.620962 0.385594 3.420962 a: Initial

value at
x=0
4 10 3.9 4.501465 -0.601465 0.361761 0.0278937 r: Growth

rate
5 20 5.3 5.923243 -0.623243 0.388432
6 30 7.2 7.794087 -0.594087 0.352939
7 40 9.6 10.25583 -0.655832 0.430116 Goodness of fit

for these settings
8 50 12.9 13.49511 -0.595114 0.354161 Sum of sq dev 3.592537
9 60 17.1 17.75752 -0.657517 0.432328 Max sq dev 0.432328
10 70 23.2 23.36619 -0.166189 0.027619
11 80 31.4 30.74635 0.653651 0.427259
12 90 39.8 40.45752 -0.657517 0.432328
Note that the best-fit parameters using this indicator are slightly different from those that arose from minimizing the sum of squared
deviations: a is now 3.42 rather than 3.11, and r is 2.79% instead of 2.89%. This would not make much visible difference in the
graph (since the slightly-higher starting value is mostly balanced by the slightly-lower growth rate), but the maximum squared
deviation has been cut about in half, to 0.43 rather than 0.95. On the other hand, the sum of squared deviations is more than twice
as large (3.59 rather than 1.72), resulting in a standard deviation that is 44% larger. Such trade-offs are typical with different cost
functions—the model will be better for what you focus on, but not quite as good for other purposes.
Relative standard deviation

A relative deviation is the data-minus-model difference divided by the value of the model. This ratio can be expressed as a decimal
fraction or a percentage – a few percent would be typical of most situations. Relative deviations can be useful when the model will
not have zero values (in which case the division would not work) and there is a natural zero to the data scale (so that the ratio has
corresponds to some real relationship).
If we wish to use relative deviations in a worksheet like Models.xls, we replace the formula “=B3-C3” in cell D3 (and similarly
other column-D cells) by the formula “=(B3-C3)/C3”. Nothing else in the worksheet need be changed. Now Solver will minimize
the sum of squared relative deviations, since that is now what is being computed in H8. The relative standard deviation can be
computed from that sum in same way as before, with the formula “=SQRT(H8/(10-2))” in this case, which has 10 data points and 2
parameters.
Example 12: Fit an exponential model to the population data, minimizing relative standard deviation; state the best-fit
formula and the relative standard deviation.
Solution approach:
a. Make a copy of the Exponential Model worksheet in Models.xls.
b. Set cell D3 to the formula “=(B3-C3)/C3” to make column D relative deviations
c. Copy the data to the worksheet and find the best-fit exponential model using Solver.
d. Set H12 (or some other cell) to “=SQRT(H8/(10-2))”, to compute standard deviation
e. Put appropriate labels in cells G8 and G10 to explain the contents of H8 and H10.
f. Report the resulting formula and relative standard deviation.
The best-fit exponential model for this data when minimizing relative standard deviation is y=2.91\cdot{{(1.0300)}^{x}} , whose relative
standard deviation from the data is 0.0231, or 2.31%.
[/hidden-answer]
The worksheet for the above example should look similar to this:
A B C D E F G H I
1 x y data y model Residual Squared Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^x
2 Year-1780 Population Prediction deviation deviations MODEL PARAMETERS
4 10 3.9 3.906720 -0.00172 2.96E-06 0.029997 r: Growth rate
5 20 5.3 5.250177 0.00949 9.01E-05
6 30 7.2 7.055627 0.02046 0.000419
8 50 12.9 12.74263 0.01235 0.000153 Sum of sq rel dev 0.004275
9 60 17.1 17.12461 -0.00144 2.06E-06
10 70 23.2 23.01348 0.00811 6.57E-05 Relative std dev 0.023117
11 80 31.4 30.92743 0.01528 0.000233
12 90 39.8 41.56287 -0.04242 0.001799
The reason that these model parameters are slightly different from those that Solver found when minimizing the absolute standard
deviation is that using relative standard deviation means that deviations from the smaller values count more in the fitting process
than they did before. This is because a deviation of 0.1 million is about 3.5% of the 2.8 million for 1780, while that same 0.1
deviation is only 0.25% of the 39.8 million population 90 years later.
Exponential models are good possible uses for relative standard deviation since such models are based on constant-percentage
relative growth or decay, and never have a zero value that would make it impossible to compute the ratio. However, absolute
standard deviation is still the most usual fitting method even for this kind of model, and should be used unless you have a specific
reason to use some other cost function.
Procedure for using Solver with a template from the Models.xls spreadsheet:
i. Set up an appropriate worksheet:
a. Make a copy of the template for the desired model, and put the data into columns A and B.
b. Spread the formulas in C3, D3, and E3 down to the same number of rows as the data.
c. Make a graph with a scatter plot that shows both the data and the model.
d. Set the model parameters to a rough estimate, so that the two graphs are nearby.
ii. Select Solver from the Tools menu and fill out the dialog box it displays:
a. Enter the name of the cell containing the standard deviation in the “Set Target Cell” section at the top of the Solver dialog
box (this the bottom computed cell in column G).
b. Choose the “Min” (for Minimum) option in the second line, since we want Solver to find the smallest possible value for the
standard deviation.
c. Designate the parameter cells (“G3,G4” for models with two parameters, “G3:G5” for models with three parameters, etc.) in
the “By Changing Cells” section on the fourth line.
d. Press the “Solve” button at top right.
iii. Check the graph to see if the model now is close to the data, with some on each side. If it is not, you have made a mistake
(probably in step [ii]) and must repeat the process correctly. If the model goes through the data but is the wrong shape, you are
probably using an inappropriate model.
iv. If the graph is acceptable, press “OK” to accept the solution that is found. The parameters (and thus the “Model” values in the
column C) are now set to the best-fit values to a very high accuracy.
Part I
Reproduce the results in Examples 1–12.
Part II—Work the assigned problems

[13] A bank balance earning a constant rate of compound interest has these values: $1550 after 5 years, $2002 after 10 years, $2585 after 15
years, $3339 after 20 years, and $4313 after 25 years. What was the original deposit amount (that is, the balance after 0 years), and what
annual interest rate was applied?
[14] The activity of a radioactive substance is measured on the same day each year for several years, with these results: 5.7 Curies after 1 year,
3.8 Curies after 2 year, 2.6 Curies after 3 years, and 1.7 Curies after 4 years. What is the decay rate of the substance? What will the activity be
after 10 years?
Problems 15–24 have the same instructions, applied to different datasets. Copy and paste the datasets from the course web site copy of this
topic into the Models.xls spreadsheet, rather than retyping them.
For each of the datasets listed below
a. Display the dataset and visually determine which of the models discussed in this topic is most suitable for this data.
b. Identify which points, if any, are outliers for this dataset.
c. Fit an appropriate model to the dataset, omitting the outliers (if any are present).
d. Report the best-fit model parameters and their standard deviation for this data.
[15] Dataset A [16] Dataset B [17] Dataset C [18] Dataset D [19] Dataset E
x y x y x y x y x y
5 457.4 0 172 0 314.27 1 239.7 1992 45,619
10 250.9 1 195 0.5 297.66 2 296.6 1993 49,529
15 138.7 2 216 1 282.01 3 386.6 1994 53,405
20 76.2 3 230 1.5 267.46 4 469.9 1995 57,228
25 41.4 4 244 2 249.19 5 597.6 1996 60,877
30 22.9 5 256 2.5 235.10 6 777.3 1997 65,003
35 12.6 6 261 3 218.96 7 952.2 1998 68,849
40 78.0 7 266 3.5 20.06 8 1180.0 1999 72,399
45 4.5 8 264 4 184.62 9 1424.4 2000 76,529
50 1.8 9 262 4.5 166.80 10 1682.6 2001 80,448
55 1.4 10 255 5 145.85 11 1980.3 2002 84,030
60 0.8 11 247 5.5 131.63 12 2309.7 2003 88,027
[20] Dataset F [21] Dataset G [22] Dataset H [23] Dataset I [24] Dataset J
x y x y x y x y x y
0 -68 0 10.65 5.7 740.79 0 50.9 232.27 448.127
1 -66.1 1 8.46 20.0 722.19 1 158.9 87.53 634.918
2 -62.6 2 7.10 44.4 690.51 2 63.9 307.27 346.181
3 -56.3 3 5.60 61.0 668.94 3 71.5 98.05 620.371
4 -47.3 4 4.74 76.8 648.33 4 77.7 312.34 342.395
5 -35.4 5 3.90 117.2 595.89 5 83.6 277.44 387.947
6 -23.4 6 3.09 125.9 684.50 6 87.9 462.19 147.666
7 -1.0 7 2.62 133.7 574.36 7 92.9 211.58 471.990
8 11.4 8 2.00 151.9 550.79 8 94.4 145.38 558.238
9 34.3 9 1.55 176.8 518.33 9 94.1 309.27 346.403
10 61.3 10 1.47 191.5 499.26 10 98.2 449.25 164.451
11 91.8 11 0.98 205.8 480.61 11 99.3 196.22 491.841
12 119.3 12 0.76 225.0 455.74 12 100.1 335.40 312.652
13 151.8 13 0.97 237.9 438.93 13 98.4 187.02 505.495
14 188.5 14 0.62 250.4 422.71 14 100 131.27 577.226
15 225.8 15 0.49 276.2 389.13 15 96.5 354.55 287.090
16 266.4 16 0.42 298.2 360.53 16 92.8 336.17 310.246
17 309.1 17 0.29 321.4 330.37 17 90.6 369.39 266.686
18 352.1 18 0.27 343.9 201.12 18 88 124.17 586.563
19 402.4 19 0.21 348.7 294.86 19 83.4 214.03 467.349
20 451.2 20 0.20 379.0 255.51 20 77.5 386.05 246.012
[25] Scientists have found that the total energy requirements of animals increase somewhat more slowly than body size. For example, a 1.2-
pound mongoose requires 47 kilocalories per day, a 10-pound fox requires 240, a 22-pound bobcat requires 440, a 100-pound wolf requires
1350, a 300-pound lion requires 3100, a 400-pound tiger requires 3850, and a 700-pound polar bear requires 5900.
a. What are the best-fit parameters to this data for a “power” model? [The general formula for a power model is y = a*x^b.]
b. What is the standard deviation of the data from the best-fit model?
c. Does this data support the idea that a power model is appropriate for predicting the energy requirements of animals?
d. What daily energy requirement can be expected for a 45-pound lynx?
[26] The frequency of earthquakes varies by their size, with stronger ones being less frequent. In a recent one-year reporting period, the
number of earthquakes detected at a particular facility was: 302,417 magnitude-2 quakes, 36,288 magnitude-3 quakes, 4,354 magnitude-4
quakes, 525 magnitude-5 quakes, and 60 magnitude-6 quakes.
a. What are the best-fit parameters to this data for an exponential model, where the magnitude is the input parameter and the earthquake count
is the output variable?
b. What is the standard deviation of the data from the best-fit model?
c. Does the data support the idea that this relationship is exponential?
d. How many magnitude-7 earthquakes does this model predict this facility will detect each year?
[27] For Dataset C, find the inverse model (that is, the model when the x and y columns are swapped).
[28] For Dataset J, find the inverse model (that is, the model when the x and y columns are swapped).
[29] For Dataset G, use Solver to find the best-fit parameters if the spreadsheet is modified to minimize the relative standard deviation.
Compare these parameters to those found in Exercise 21.
Exercise 30-34
Exercise Instructions
Exercise Exercise 32 Exercise Exercise The formulas supplied
30 31 Dataset 33 34
below (in both
Dataset Dataset M Dataset Dataset
K L N O algebraic form and as
the spreadsheet formula
x y
for C3) will fit the
x y x y x y x y
corresponding dataset
0 8
well as soon as the best
0 0.192 10 263 -3.0 0 -7 0.0
settings are found for
2 193
the parameters a and b.
0.25 0.171 20 378 -2.8 0 -6 0.2
For each formula
4 364
supplied, make a
0.5 0.152 30 453 -2.6 0 -5 0.9
worksheet that uses it
6 529
as a model. Then put
0.75 0.140 40 525 -2.4 1 -4 1.2
the specified dataset
8 657
into the worksheet and
1 0.129 50 585 -2.2 2 -3 3.0
use the Solver tool to
10 722
find the a and b values
1.25 0.117 60 646 -2.0 4 -2 5.0
that fit the dataset best.
12 725
For Dataset K, use
1.5 0.112 70 693 -1.8 11 -1 8.1
formula
14 678
y=\frac{1}{(a+bx)}
1.75 0.104 80 744 -1.6 17 0 12.2
=1/($G$3+$G$4*A3)
16 531
[Start with G3=5 &
2 0.098 90 789 -1.4 35 1 16.6
G4=1]
18 426
2.25 0.088 100 827 -1.2 60 2 19.7
For Dataset L, use
20 235
formula
2.5 0.087 110 871 -1.0 97 3 21.6
y=a\cdot{{x}^{b}}
22 61
=$G$3*A3^$G$4
2.75 0.081 120 908 -0.8 94 4 23.2
[Start with G3=1 &
24 -162
G4=1]
3 0.075 130 943 -0.6 187 5 23.8
26 -335
For Dataset M, use
3.25 0.073 140 985 -0.4 205 6 24.2
formula
28 -467
y=a\cdot\sin(b\cdotx)
3.5 0.069 150 1013 -0.2 236 7 24.3
=$G$3*SIN($G$4*A3)
30 -637
[Start with G3=1000 &
3.75 0.068 160 1052 0.0 237
G4=1]
32 -693
4 0.061 170 1081 0.2 228
For Dataset N, use
34 -721
formula
4.25 0.061 0.4 208
y=a\cdot{{b}^{-{{x}^{2}}}}
36 -670
=$G$3*($G$4^-
4.5 0.058 0.6 182
(A3^2))
38 -570
[Start with G3=100 &
4.75 0.057 0.8 118
G4=2]
40 -461
5 0.055 1.0 82
For Dataset O, use
42 -303
formula
1.2 51
y=\frac{a}{1+{{b}^{x}}}
44 -61
=$G$3/(1+$G$4Â3)
1.4 25
[Start with G3=10 &
46 98
G4=1]
1.6 15
48 300
1.8 9
50 468 [Optional: for each
2.0 1
model, choose names
52 579 for the a and b
2.2 2
parameters that are
54 688 suggestive of the effect
2.4 0
that parameter has on
56 735 the model.]
2.6 0
58 713
2.8 0
60 620
3.0 0
62 498
64 325
66 134
68 -57
70 -248
72 -437
74 -574
76 -683
78 -724
80 -743
82 -645
84 -513
86 -345
88 -182
90 13
92 216
94 405
96 540
98 660

18.9: L1.10- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Automated Fitting of Models, Comparative Goodness of Fit, and Outliers
Objectives:
1. Be able to adapt a modeling worksheet to compute a goodness-of-fit indicator from the deviation values between the data and
the model.
2. Be able to use the Solver add-in with to automatically find the model parameters which minimize the indicator, and thus fit the
data as well as possible as measured by that indicator.
3. Derive the standard deviation around the model from the sum of squared deviations, the number of deviation used in the sum,
and the number of parameters in the model.
4. Be able to use alternative goodness-of-fit measures such as maximum deviation.
5. Select between different kinds of model by comparing best-fit standard deviations.
6. Be able to use relative deviation to compute an alternative form of standard deviation
7. Be able to identify data points that are outliers to the model implied by most of the data points, and to remove identified outliers
from the model-fitting process when appropriate.
8. Be able to make and use a modeling spreadsheet to fit any specified function to a dataset.
Overview—getting the computer to do the tedious part so that models can be applied more easily
Splitting the work of modeling. The modeling process has two parts, one requiring thought and the other just requiring patience.
The thoughtful part is deciding what model makes sense to use, looking at the graphs to see if a better model is needed of if some
data points should be handled specially, and interpreting what the final parameter values imply about the situation in which the data
was taken. The second part of fitting is the tedious process of adjusting each parameter in turn until you find the best parameter
values for the chosen kind of model.
Tedious tasks are what computers do best. In this topic you will learn to use Solver tool that can makes the computer quickly find
the best-fit parameter values for a model. Choosing which kind of model to fit is still your job, but automation will give you more
time to do it. Using an automated fitting process will also make it easier to use models that have more parameters, permitting
models that are more realistic and can solve a wider range of problems.
What is the “best” fit? So far, we have relied on a person looking at the graph to decide when the parameter settings for a model
gave a good fit. People are good at this kind of visual assessment, but computers are not — they are much better at dealing with
numbers. So to automate the fitting task we will compute a number that measures how well a particular model fits the data we are
working with.
Handling stray data points. It sometimes happens that a small subset of the points in a data set deviate substantially from the
overall pattern. These “outlier” points sometimes convey important information, but other times simply reflect bad measurements.
In either case, it is usually best to exclude them from the model-fitting process and report them separately. We will discuss how to
do this without losing the efficiency of the automated-fitting approach.
Additional types of models. The model-fitting process that we have already applied to linear, quadratic, and exponential formulas
can be used with any type of modeling formula. All that is needed for a new type of model formula is to enter the in C3 in
spreadsheet format, with the parts that you wish to fit as parameters expressed as absolute references to column G cells. In this
topic we will see how to quickly adapt a modeling spreadsheet to fit many different formulas or to provide model enhancements
such as a non-zero baseline for an exponential model. In later topics we will extend our list of basic model formulas and discuss
how these combinations of these basic models can be used to make predictive formulas for a variety of realistic situations.
18.10: L1.01- Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
19: Topic M- Power Functions and Using Logarithmic Graphs
19: Topic M- Power Functions and Using Logarithmic Graphs is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated
by LibreTexts.
1
Learning Objectives
1. Be able to evaluate “power function” modeling formulas that give output values proportional to a constant power of the input
value.
2. Be able to find the best-fit power and scale parameters implied by a dataset.
3. Be able to find the best-fit inverse function of data with a power-function relationship.
4. Be able to use common logarithms to compress the range of one or both variables in a relationship so that a more informative
graph can be produced of data with a large dynamic range.
5. Be able to create semi-log and log-log graphs of data, to determine when such graphs are appropriate, and to read data that is
presented in such graphs.
6. Be able to determine whether data variables have an exponential relationship by examining a semi-logarithmic graph of the data
points.
7. Be able to determine whether data variables have a power-function relationship by examining a log-log graph of the data points.
Overview
Some situations exist in which all the input or output values are positive, but the ratio between the largest and smallest values (the
dynamic range) is very large. This usually makes it impossible to for a regular graph to show the details of the shape of the
relationship. Logarithms are a standard mathematical tool that has been developed to address this issue.
Graphing software usually supports modes in which one or both of the axes are graphed with logarithmic spacing rather than the
usual uniform spacing. Such graphs can display a much wider range of values, and are often used in application areas that produce
data with a large dynamic range.
Because of the way exponential and power functions make use of exponents in their formulas, appropriate logarithmic graphs of
data with such relationships form straight lines, which are very easy to recognize and use for estimation. This also makes it easy to
detect outliers in such relationships.
In addition to being a function that can be directly used in modeling, Logarithms have special connections to two other modeling
functions: the exponential function we have already discussed and the power function that often arises as a result of dimensional
relationships. This is be because the logarithm of an exponential function is a straight line, and a power function graphs as a
straight line if the logarithms of both the x and y values are used.
Graphs are often provided with semi-logarithmic and logarithmic scales to take advantage of these relationships, which make it
easy to recognize when data has an exponential or power-function relationship. Spreadsheet can produce such graphs automatically.
19.1: M1.01- Introduction is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 1: Dimensional relationships—the Power model y=\text{scale}\cdot{x}^{\text{power}}
Processes in which the relationship of input to output depends on volume, area, or distance often can be modeled by formulas in
which output is computed by raising the input variable to a particular exponent power, then multiplying the result by a scaling
factor. This differs from the earlier exponential formula because here the exponent is a parameter rather than being the input
variable x, while x is used as the base rather than the exponent.
In addition to obvious relationships such as those between size, area, and volume for geometric shapes, power-function models are
useful for many situations where the geometry involved is indirect. The rate at which animals use food, for example, depends on
size based on interactions between weight (which grows rapidly with size) and breathing rate (which slows down), resulting in
power-function relationships with fractional powers. The concentration of a fixed amount of a chemical dissolved in water has the
reciprocal power-function relationship (where the power equals –1) to the amount of water. If the power equals exactly 1, the
power function is a straight line through the origin; if the power is exactly 2, the power function is a parabola whose vertex is at the
origin.
The power parameter may have any value, including fractional and negative numbers. However, for fractional powers (such as the
x0.5 for square roots) power functions are well-defined only for values of x that are greater than or equal to zero. The scale
parameter can be any value, although it is usually positive (a zero value will make all output values zero and a negative value will
flip all values around the x axis); the effect of the scale parameter is to uniformly stretch or shrink the graph vertically.
Power models can take many shapes, depending on the value of the power.
Examples of power-formula models:

y = 122.3 x0.667 predicts the surface area of a steel ball in mm2 based on its mass in grams.
y = 0.018 x3 predicts the weight of a cantaloupe in pounds based on its diameter in inches.
y = 2×108 x-1 predicts daily visitors to web sites based on the order of popularity of the sites.
y = 1.80 x0.667 predicts a planet’s orbit radius in miles based on the length of its year in days.
The process of fitting a power model to a dataset is the same as for the other models you have studied—put the data into a
worksheet in Models.xls, then use Solver to find the best-fit parameters. But in this case you will not have a preset worksheet
template in which C3 already contains the right kind of formula. Instead, you will need to make a modeling worksheet yourself, or
modify a copy of one of the ones you used earlier in Models.xls. The description below assumes that you will use the same row and
column numbers as in Model.xls for the same kind of purposes, although you may vary them as long as you do so consistently.
19.2: M1.02- Power Models Part I is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
To make a worksheet to fit the y=\text{scale}\cdot{x}^{\text{power}} formula to data, we will make these changes (also put appropriate labels
above or beside the active cells to help remember how they are being used):
Decide on cells to use for each parameter. We will use G3 for scale and G4 for power
Put the following formula into cell C3 as the model formula: =$G$3*A3^$G$4
(This is the only step that is different between different types of model.)
Put the formula =B3-C3 into cell D3, to compute the Data-Model deviation.
Put the formula =D3^2 into cell E3, to compute the squared deviation.
Put the formula =SUM(E3:E100) into H8 (or some other unused cell).
To promote prompt convergence in the search process, set the initial values for the scale and power parameters so that the graph
of the model roughly similar to the graph of the data (see note below).
Now this modified worksheet is a power-function template that can be used to fit a power model in the same way as the Linear,
Quadratic, or Exponential templates—add the data, spread the formulas in C3, D3, and E3 down to match the data, make a graph
and adjust the parameters to make the model similar to the data, then use Solver to find the best-fit parameters by minimizing H8,
the sum of squared deviations.
Optional: a systematic way to set approximate initial values for power-function model parameters
i. Set the power parameter equal to zero; this will make the model into a horizontal line at y = scale.
ii. Set the scale parameter equal to about the middle of the range of output values; the graph of the model will now pass through
the data, with some data points above it and some below it.
iii. If the data is increasing as x increases, set the power parameter to 1; otherwise set it to -1.
iv. Repeat the sequence below until the graph of the model is roughly similar to the graph of the data:
a. If the data is more curved than the model, double the power parameter; if less curved, halve it.
b. If the data is all substantially smaller than the model (i.e., closer to the x-axis), double the scale parameter; if the data is all
substantially larger than the model, halve the scale parameter.
v. Once the model is roughly similar to the data, use Solver starting with these parameter settings.
Example 1:
[a] Use the dataset on the right to find a model formula for the length of a planet’s year in days Planet Distance Length
(millions of Year
based on its average distance from the sun in miles. of miles) (days)
[b] Use that model to find year length for the dwarf planet Ceres, whose average distance from
the sun is 256.1 million miles. Mercury 36.1 88
Solution approach:
[a] Make a power-law spreadsheet as described above, then put the distance data into column A and Venus 66.7 226
the year-length data into column B (don’t copy the names). Then use Solver to get the best-fit
model. Earth 92.6 365
Mars 140.8 687
Jupiter 481.8 4,332
[b] Once the model has been found, type the Ceres distance of 257.7 million miles into column A
in the next row below the data (i.e., A11). The model’s year-length prediction for Ceres will be in
C11.
Answers: [a] The best-fit model is y=0.410\cdot{{x}^{1.50}} [b] The predicted year for Ceres is 1,680
days.
Both the square-root function y = x0.5 and the square function y = x2 are power functions. For positive values of x they are also
inverse functions, since the square root of the square of a number reproduces the original number (and conversely). This occurs
because the numbers 0.5 and 2 are reciprocals of each other. This is true in general—the inverse of a power function is a different
power function in which the new power is the reciprocal of the original one.
Example 2:
[a] Use the data from Example 8 to find a good model for using the length of a planets year to Planet Length Distance
of Year (millions
predict its average distance from the sun. (days) of miles)
[b] Use that model to find the average distance from the sun of the asteroid Eros, whose year is
643 days long. Mercury 88 36.1
Solution approach:
[a] Make a power-law spreadsheet as described above, but this time put the distance data into Venus 226 66.7
column B and the year-length data into column A. Then use Solver to get the best-fit model.
[b] Once the model has been found, add the Eros year length of 643 days into column A in the next Earth 365 92.6
row (i.e., A11). The model’s prediction for Eros’s average distance to the sun will be in C11.
[reveal-answer q=”680787″]Show Answer[/reveal-answer] Mars 687 140.8
[a] The best-fit model is y=1.80\cdot{{x}^{0.667}} Jupiter 4,332 481.8
[b] The predicted average distance for Eros is 134.4 million miles.
[/hidden-answer]

19.3: M1.03- Power Models Part II is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 2: Compressing the range of values by using logarithms
Many types of measurements cover an extremely wide range of values. An example is the energy released in earthquakes — there
is a 100-billion-times difference between the energy of the smallest earthquake that a seismograph can measure and the largest ones
that occur. In chemistry, concentrations of hydroxyl ion can vary by more than 100 trillion times between strong alkalis and strong
acids.
Thus the same dataset might contain the relatively big value 4,200,000,000, the intermediate one 3,100, and the relatively small one
0.00025. In a regular graph of such a dataset, there is no scale that will show the data well—either the biggest number will be far
off the scale at the top, or the middle number (which is less than a millionth of the big number) will be at the bottom and
indistinguishable from the smallest number even though it is more than ten million times bigger.
The numbers above can be expressed as 4.2×109, 3.1×103, and 2.5×10-4, a style called scientific notation because it is used by
scientists who often need to deal with very large or very small numbers. The idea of base-10 logarithms (also called “common”
logarithms) carries this idea further by using decimal fractions in the exponents so that the initial number is not needed. Since
4,200,000,000109.623, we say that 9.623 is the logarithm of 4,200,000,000. Similarly, the logarithm of 3,100 is about 3.491 and
that of 0.00025 is about –3.602 (all numbers between 1 and 0 have negative logarithms). So when using logarithms, the original
range from 4,200,000,000 to 0.00025 becomes a compressed range from 9.623 to –3.602. On this scale, the intermediate value of
3.491 (the logarithm of 3,100) can be easily distinguished from both of the other values.
This is how our sense of hearing works. A whisper is a billion times less intense (in total energy into our ears) than a rock concert.
In order to handle this range of input, our senses have evolved so that our perceived response to a stimulus is approximately
proportional to the logarithm of its intensity. The use of logarithmic scales in mathematics and technology is a way of using this
same tactic to deal with any range of numerical values where the ratio of the largest to the smallest (the dynamic range) is large.
The base of a logarithm does not have to be 10 (although only base-10, or “common”, logarithms are used in this course and in
most application areas). The non-10 bases for traditional logarithmic scales are typically those that make the results into convenient
numbers (e.g., between 2 and 10 for earthquakes, between 1 and 6 for star brightness). A base of 2 is used in music because notes
with a frequency ratio of 2 are harmonious.
Examples of logarithmic measurement scales
Richter scale for earthquakes—each increase of one level means 32 times more energy
pH for acidity/alkalinity—each increase of 1 in pH means 10 times more hydroxyl ions.
Brightness of stars—each increase of 1 in stellar magnitude means a star is 2.51 times dimmer
Sound—on the decibel scale, each bel (= 10 decibels) means the sound is 10 times more intense
Music octaves—each one-octave increase in musical pitch means that vibration frequency doubles
[Optional additional information about logarithm bases: Any positive number except 1 can be used as a logarithmic base,
resulting in logarithms that differ from “common” base-10 logarithms by a ratio equal to the common logarithm of the base chosen.
Base-2 “binary” logarithms (3.322 times larger than common logarithms) are used mainly in computer-related fields. “Natural”
logarithms (2.303 times larger than common logarithms) are used in calculus and based on the special number called e
(approximately 2.71828). Natural logarithms are symbolized as “LN” on calculators, and calculated with the LN function in
spreadsheets. On calculators, the LOG key computes base-10 logarithms, but spreadsheets use the LOG10 function for that purpose
and use the LOG function only when the user is specifying which base to use. Thus the spreadsheet formula “=LOG(16,2)”
evaluates to 4. This specify-the-base spreadsheet LOG function is useful for answering questions such as “How many years would
it take for an investment at a 5% growth rate to double?” Since mathematically this is the same question as “What value of x will
make (1.05)x equal to 2?”, the answer 14.2 years is computed by the formula “=LOG(2,1.05)”.]

19.4: M1.04- Why We Use Logarithms is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Logarithms are useful when the measurements in a dataset have a wide range of values, all greater than zero. Positive values are
needed because only positive numbers have logarithms, since no exponent of 10 exists that gives a negative or zero result. Use of
a negative value in the LOG10 spreadsheet function, or with the LOG key on a calculator, will give an error message.
The logarithm values themselves can be zero, in which case the original value is exactly 1, or negative, in which case the original
value is less than 1 (e.g., -2 is the logarithm of 0.01 = 10-2).
Example 1: For each of the values listed below, use reasoning to answer these two questions: [i] Does the value have a logarithm
greater than 0? [ii] Does the value have a logarithm that is a whole number?
[a] 582 [b] 10,000 [c] 0.23 [d] -48 [e] 6.2×1026 [f] 493.57285 [g] 0.001
Solution approach:
The whole-number powers of 10 are obvious: 101 = 10, 102 = 100, 103 = 1000, etc., as are the whole-number negative powers: 10-
1 = 0.1, 10-2 = 0.01, 10-3 = 0.001, etc. The logarithm of any of these numbers is simply the corresponding exponent of 10. Also,
100 = 1 (any value to a zero power equals one), so numbers greater than 1 have positive logarithms and numbers less than one have
negative logarithms.
[a] The logarithm of 582 is positive and is not an integer.
[b] The logarithm of 10,000 is positive and is an integer.
[c] The logarithm of 0.23 is negative and is not an integer.
[d] This number -48 is not positive, and therefore it does not have a logarithm.
[e] The logarithm of 6.2×1026 is positive and is not an integer.
[f] The logarithm of 493.57285 is positive and is not an integer.
[g] The logarithm of 0.001 is negative and is an integer.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 2: For each of these logarithms, which two integer powers of 10 is the original value between?
[a] 1.634 [b] 4.195 [c] -2.593 [d] -0.345 [e] 0.683
Answers:
[a] 101 = 10 and 102 = 100 (since 1.634 is between 1 and 2).
[b] 104 = 10,000 and 105 = 100,000 (since 4.195 is between 4 and 5).
[c] 10-2 = 0.01 and 10-3 = 0.001 (since -2.593 is between -2 and -3).
[d] 100 = 1 and 10-1 = 0.1 (since -0.345 is between 0 and -1).
[e] 100 = 1 and 101 = 10 (since 0.683 is between 0 and 1).
Finding logarithms of values, or values from their logarithms

In spreadsheets, we compute the base-10 logarithm of a number with the LOG10 function. Thus a cell containing the formula
“=LOG10(3100)” will display the result 3.491361694. Note that logarithms, like trigonometric functions, almost always give
values that are non-repeating decimals, so the logarithm values used are approximate rather than exact. The exception is for whole-
number powers of the base, so that the base-10 logarithm of 1,000,000 is exactly 6, and that of 0.001 is exactly –3.
Since a logarithm is an exponent, you can always get back the original value by using the logarithm value as an exponent for the
base. Thus 103.491 (the formula “=10^3.491” in a spreadsheet) will evaluate to nearly 3100, although there will a small difference
due to rounding-error propagation because 3.491 is a rounded-off version of the logarithm. Most calculators have a LOG key that
has the same effect as the LOG10 spreadsheet function. The inverse function for a calculator’s LOG key is 10x, which coverts a
base-10 logarithm back to the original value.
Example 3: Find the common logarithms of these numbers, to three decimal places:
[a] 48,300 [b] 2 [c] 0.055 [d] 7.2 [e] 2.6×1013 [f] 1.9×10-5
Solution approaches (you can use either one):
[i] With a calculator, enter the value, then press the LOG key to see the logarithm. Use the EE or EXP key to enter the exponent of
the numbers stated in scientific notation.
[ii] In a worksheet, enter a LOG10 formula with the value in parentheses, such as “=LOG10(7.2)”. The numbers in scientific
notation can be entered in “E format” – in the case as “2.5E13” and “1.9E-5”; you may wish to use the Format > Cells option to
covert the format of result to Number or General.
[a] 4.684 [b] 0.301 [c] –1.260 [d] 0.857 [e] 13.415 [f] –4.721
[/hidden-answer]
Example 4: Find the values, to three significant digits, which have these numbers as logarithms:
[a] 2.321 [b] –2.763 [c] 0.632 [d] –12.485 [e] 5.364 [f]26.931
Solution approaches (also remember to round to three significant digits):
[i] With a calculator, enter the logarithm, then press the 10x key to see the value.
[ii] In a worksheet, enter a formula with the logarithm as the exponent of 10, such as “=10^2.321”.
Answers: [a] 209 [b] 0.00173 [c] 4.29 [d] 3.27×10-13 [e] 23,100 [f] 8.53×1026
[/hidden-answer]
19.5: M1.05- Finding Logarithms is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 3: Logarithmic graphs
Data that follows an exponential model is particularly well suited to logarithmic compression, because in that case the graph of the
logarithms of the output values will form a straight line. Also, exponential data that covers several half-lives or doubling times will
be more easily examined in the logarithmic form.
The display advantages of the logarithmic graph can be combined with the convenience in the original graph of having the scale on
the left in the same form as the data. This is done with semi-log graphs, in which the logarithmic graph is displayed but the
numbers shown in the y scale on the left are original, pre-logarithm values. The horizontal lines and numbers labeling them are
placed at the vertical position that matches the corresponding logarithm.
To make a semi-log graph, first make a regular graph, then format the y axis:
i. click on the vertical scale to select it,
ii. use Format > Selected Axis to display the Format Axis dialog box,
iii. click on the Scale tab to show the axis settings,
iv. put a check in the Logarithmic Scale box near the bottom.
Example 5:Make semi-log graphs of these three datasets.

x y x y x y
1 4.1 10 2 -20 67.9
2 5.5 20 5 -10 45.1
3 7.4 30 15 0 30.0
4 10.0 40 47 10 19.9
5 13.5 50 145 20 13.3
6 18.2 60 449 30 8.8
7 24.5 70 1,394 40 5.9
8 33.1 80 4,329 50 3.9
Example 6: For this exponential dataset, make a graph of the logarithms of the y data values and use that graph to estimate what y value is
to be expected for an x value of 65.

[hidden-answer a=”167574″] x y
i. Copy the data to a blank worksheet, putting x values in column A and starting the numbers in row 3. Then add a
third column of logarithm values by setting cell C3 to “=LOG10(B3)” and spreading that formula down beside all 0 26
the data rows.
ii. Now make a scatter plot of columns A and C (but not B). This will plot x on the horizontal axis against the 10 69
logarithm of y on the vertical axis, forming a straight line.
iii. By finding what place on that line is above the x=65 position, we can estimate that the logarithm of y for that case 20 181
is about 2.8. By evaluating 102.8 (with either a calculator 10x key or the “=10^2.8” spreadsheet formula), we find
that the answer is about 630. 30 482
[/hidden-answer]
40 1,279
50 3,393
60 9,002
70 23,885
Example 7: One of these datasets has an exponential-growth pattern, while the other has
a quadratic pattern (i.e., part of a parabola) whose shape is different but close enough that Dataset Dataset
it is difficult to tell just by looking at the graphs. Use graphs of the logarithms of the y A B
values to identify which dataset is exponential.
x y x y
[hidden-answer a=”308585″]For each dataset, copy the data to a worksheet, add a third
column that shows the logarithms of the y values, and make a scatter plot of the x values
and those logarithms. Examine the two graphs (copies shown below) to see which one is a 0 3.5 0 3.6
straight line, indicating that its original data was exponential. The graphs show that
dataset B is exponential and dataset A is not exponential. 2 4.1 2 4.8
4 6.1 4 6.4
6 9.3 6 8.4
8 13.7 8 11.1
10 19.5 10 14.7
12 26.5 12 19.5
[/hidden-answer] 14 34.9 14 25.8
16 44.5 16 34.1
18 55.3 18 45.0
20 67.5 20 59.6
22 80.9 22 78.8
19.6: M1.06- Logarithmic Graphs Part I is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Model-fitting using logarithms: It is possible, and sometimes useful, to fit models to the logarithms of the output values in a
dataset, rather than to the output values themselves. For example, a linear model might be fit to the logarithm of data that has an
exponential pattern. When this is done using minimization tools such as Solver, however, note that what is minimized is the
standard deviation of the logarithms, not of the original values. In the case of logarithms, this has the same effect as minimizing
relative standard deviation.
Log-log graphs: In situations where all x and y values are positive but there is a large dynamic range for both variables, it can help
to use the logarithms of x values as well as for y values. A graph where this is done is called a “log-log” graph. On log-log graphs,
straight lines indicate power-function relationships (in contrast to the exponential relationship indicated by straight lines on semi-
log graphs). The slope of the line (0.5 on the graph of logarithms, below center) matches the power parameter in the model, and the
intercept of the line (1.44 below) is the logarithm of the scale parameter 27.3.
Example 8:Use log-log graphs of each of these two datasets to determine whether their data
follows a power-function pattern. Dataset A Dataset B
x y x y
1.06 63.95 1 2.75
1.50 48.52 2 7.78
2.12 36.80 3 14.29
2.99 27.91 4 22.00
4.22 21.17 5 30.75
5.96 16.06 6 40.42
8.42 12.18 7 50.93
11.90 9.24 8 62.23
16.80 7.01 9 74.25
23.74 5.32 10 86.96
33.53 4.03
47.36 3.06
66.90 2.32
94.50 1.76

The straight-line log-log graphs show that both datasets come from power-functions (a
negative power for A, a positive power for B).
[/hidden-answer]
Using other functions of the output values: There are some situations in which it is convenient to apply other functions to the y
data so that the result is close to a straight line. For example, the power function y = x2 can be made linear by taking the square root
of the y values. This tactic was used more often before computers were widely available to fit nonlinear formulas, but such
“linerarizations” are still used in some areas because people are very good at judging the straightness of lines and at using linear
graphs for interpolation and extrapolation. You can tell when an axis has been transformed in this way because the gridlines of the
graph will be non-uniform in spacing, like those of semi-log graphs.
19.7: M1.07- Logarithmic Graphs Part II is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Part I
Repeat the Examples 1-8
Part II
9. State the logarithms of these numbers, to three decimal places:
a. 452.6
b. 0.2
c. 1,000
d. 4.5×1015
e. 0.00724
f. 6.4×10-8
g. 7.66
10. State the logarithms of these numbers, to three decimal places:
a. 15,250
b. 0.0001
c. 1.4×10-5
d. 1.11
e. 200
f. 7.5×1012
g. 0.000215
11. What values have the following logarithms (round answers to three significant digits):
a. 3.526
b. 0.01
c. -2.769
d. 10
e. -0.168
f. 5.728
g. 0
12. What values have the following logarithms (round answers to three significant digits):
a. -2
b. 1.592
c. 5.923
d. -4.511
e. -1.735
f. 0.301
g. 23.301
13. Which of these values has a logarithm greater than 1?
a. 45.8
b. 8.3
c. 195,680
d. -15.2
e. 0.783
f. 5.4×1012
g. 10
14. Which of these values has a logarithm less than 1?
a. 6.8
b. 55.5
c. 4.2×109
d. 0.00002
e. 75
f. 9.27×10-3
g. 10
15. Which of the graphs below indicate that the corresponding dataset follows an exponential pattern?
Graph A Graph B Graph C
16. Which of the graphs above indicate that the corresponding dataset follows a power-function pattern?
17. Use a semi-log graph to show whether dataset A is exponential.The point halfway between the x=1 and x=2 data points has a y
value that is about halfway between y=100 and y=200.
Dataset A
x Y
1 275.3
2 68.8
3 30.6
4 17.2
5 11.0
6 7.6
7 5.6
8 4.3
9 3.4
Dataset B
x y
20 4
40 16
60 36
80 64
100 100
120 144
140 196
160 256
180 324
18. Use a semi-log graph to show whether dataset B is exponential.

19. Use the Exercise 17 graph to interpolate an estimated value for x = 1.5.
20. Use the Exercise 18 graph to interpolate an estimated value for x = 170.
21. Use a log-log graph to tell if dataset A approximates a power function.
22. Use a log-log graph to tell if dataset B approximates a power function.
23. Scientists have found that the total energy requirements of animals increase somewhat more slowly than body size. For
example, a 1.2-pound mongoose requires 47 kilocalories per day, a 10-pound fox requires 240, a 22-pound bobcat requires 440,
a 100-pound wolf requires 1350, a 300-pound lion requires 3100, a 400-pound tiger requires 3800, and a 700-pound polar bear
requires 5900.
a. What model is appropriate for predicting energy requirement from weight? (You will need to decide on the type of model,
then find the best-fit parameters to this data for that type.)
b. What daily energy requirement can be expected for a 45-pound lynx?
Infant data averages for Exercises 24–28
Age Weight Length

(months) (pounds) (inches)
3 13.0 24.0
Infant data averages for Exercises 24–28
6 17.2 26.7
9 20.3 28.6
12 22.2 30.0
15 24.0 31.4
18 25.3 32.5
21 26.6 33.6
24 27.8 34.5
(US Natl Cen Health Stat)
24. Fit a power-function model to the infant data shown above, using age as the input variable and average weight as the output
variable.
a. State the best-fit scale and power parameters in an appropriate model formula.
b. Is this model a good fit to the data?
c. Compute the predicted average infant weight for an age of 20 months.
25. Fit a power-function model to the infant data shown above, using average weight as the input variable and age as the output
variable.
b. What is the relationship of the power parameter in this model with the power parameter of the model found in the previous
problem? Why?
26. Fit a power-function model to the infant data shown above, using age as the input variable and average length as the output
variable.
b. Is this model a good fit to the data?
c. Compute the predicted average infant length for an age of 20 months.
27. Fit a power-function model to the infant data shown above, using average length as the input variable and average weight as the
output variable.
b. Use the predicted average infant length for an age of 20 months (computed in section c of the previous exercise) as input to
the model found in this exercise, producing as output a predicted infant weight for an age of 20 months. What earlier
exercise also predicted this quantity? How well do the predictions match?
28. Using the results of the previous exercise (without doing any more fitting), use a single computation to estimate what the best-
fit power parameter would be for a model based on this data that predicts average length from average weight.
19.8: M1.08- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
20: Topic H- Linear Formulas – Word Problems
20.2: H1.02- Example 1
20.3: H1.03- Example 2
20.4: H1.04- Example 3
20.6: H1.06- Example 4
20: Topic H- Linear Formulas – Word Problems is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Topic H. Linear Formulas—Word Problems
Objectives:
1. Solve applications problems using linear models and interpret the results.
2. Re-define the input variable if needed to make the model easier to interpret in a useful manner.
Terminology:
We use the following instructions interchangeably:
Write a formula to express the linear relationship.
Write an equation to express the linear relationship.
Write an algebraic linear model to express the relationship.
Overview:
To solve the applications problems in this topic, follow these steps.
1. Variables:
a. What are the names of the two variables?
b. What are the units of each variable?
2. Prediction:
a. Which variable will we predict in the main question? (That’s the output variable, i.e. y-variable.)
b. What letters will we use for each of the variables in our linear model?
c. Are there any limits on the values of either variable? If so, what? Write them in mathematical notation.
d. What are some points, that is, values of both variables for more than one point? Write these in appropriate ordered pair
notation, with the x-variable first and the y-variable second.
3. Is a linear model appropriate? How do you know? (Use one of these three methods: (1) the problem says that a linear model
should be used, (2) graph the data given and see that it forms a straight line, (3) the problem says that a certain increase in the
input variable will always give the same increase in the output variable.)
4. Slope:
a. Find the slope.
b. Write a sentence to interpret the slope, using the units of each variable in the sentence.
5. Find the formula for the line.
6. Write a sentence to interpret the y-intercept, using the units of each variable in the sentence. If this value is out of the range of
the acceptable values for the y-variable, comment on that.
7. Use the formula for the line to answer the each prediction question. Do the algebra and write a sentence, naming the variable
and the units, interpreting your answer.
8. Graphing and checking your algebraic work.
a. Make a graph appropriate to answer the prediction questions.
(If you make the graph from only the information in the original problem, then you can check your work in developing the
model by determining whether the results of the model are consistent with the graph. If you graph the formula you obtained,
then you should check to be sure that the graph is consistent with the information given in the original problem.)
b. Use the graph to answer the prediction questions. Did you find the same answers as when you used the formula?
c. Do your answers to the prediction questions make sense? Explain something you looked at to see if they are reasonable.
20.1: H1.01- Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
20.2: H1.02- Example 1
Example 1: During the first and second quarters of a year, a business had sales of $42,000 and $58,000, respectively. If the growth
of sales follows a linear pattern for the next four years, what will sales be in the fourth quarter? In the 9th quarter? Use an algebraic
method of solution.
Solution:
1. What are the two variables and their units?
Ans. Quarter and sales. Quarter is in numbers and sales are in dollars.
2. What will we predict? (Make it y.) What are the limits? What are some points?
Ans. We will predict sales. So y = sales. Then x = quarter and x will go from 1 to 16, in increments of 1.
Quarter 1 has sales of 42,000. So x = 1 and y = 42000. Use the point (1, 42000)
Quarter 2 has sales of 58,000. So x = 2 and y = 58000. Use the point (2, 58000)
3. Is a linear model appropriate?
We are told to use a linear model here to see what it would predict.
4. Slope: Find the slope: m = rise / run
Let (1,42000) be the first point and (2, 58000) be the second point.
m=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}=\frac{58000-42000}{2-1}=\frac{16000}{1}=16000
Interpret the slope, using the units of the numbers in the problem:
(As x increases by 1, y increases by m.)
For each quarter that goes by, sales will increase by $16,000.
5. Write the formula of the linear relationship:
(Choose either point and use the point-slope form of the line. Then simplify it to the slope-intercept form of the line.)
Choose (1,42000) for the point and use the slope of 16000 that was just computed.
\begin{align}&\text{}y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y-42000=16000(x-1)\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y-42000=16000x-16000\\&y-42000+42000=16000x-
16000+42000\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y=16000x+26000\\\end{align}

(The value of y is b when .)
For quarter 0, the sales would be $26,000. This isn’t meaningful because the quarters start with the first quarter in this problem, not
the zero-th quarter.
7. Use the formula to make the requested prediction. Write the result in a sentence, with units.
For the fourth quarter, x=4 .
\begin{align}&y=16000x+26000\\&y=16000(4)+26000\\&y=64000+26000\\&y=90000\end{align}
So, in the fourth quarter, the linear model predicts sales of $90,000.
In a similar manner, for the 9th quarter, the linear model predicts sales of $170,000, because y = 16000(9)+26000 = 170000
8. Sketch a graph from the original problem information, use it to estimate the answers to the prediction questions, and
determine whether your answers from the algebraic formula are reasonable.
quarter sales
1 42000
2 58000
By hand, we plot these points, draw the line, and then extend it far enough to use it to estimate the answers to the questions.
On this graph, we see that, when quarters = 4, the y-value is 90,000.

We also see that when quarters = 9, the y-value is $170,000.
So the answers from the graph are consistent with the answers we by doing the algebra and arithmetic using the formula.
These two answers for the predictions are reasonable.
20.2: H1.02- Example 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
20.3: H1.03- Example 2
Example 2: Ajax Manufacturing bought a machine for $48,000. It is expected to last 15 years and, at the end of that time, have a
salvage value of $7,000. Set up a linear depreciation model for this machine and find the worth at the end of 10 years.
Solution:
Ans. Time and worth. Time is measured in years and worth in dollars.
2. What will we predict? (Make it y.) What are some points?
Ans. We will predict worth. So y = worth, which must always be above $7000. Then x = years and x will go from 0 to 15.
At zero years, the worth is 48000. So x = 0 and y = 48000. Use (0, 48000)
At 15 years, the worth is 7000. So x = 15 and y = 7000. Use (15, 7000)
Yes, because the problem asks for linear depreciation.
4. Slope
Find the slope: m = rise / run
Let (0,48000) be the first point and (15,7000) be the second point.
m=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}=\frac{48000-7000}{0-15}=\frac{41000}{-15}=-2733.333
For each year, the worth increases by -2733.33. But, of course, increasing by a negative amount means decreasing. So, for each
year, the worth decreases by $2733.33.
5. Write the formula of the linear relationship:
Choose (0, 48000) for the point and use the slope of -2733.333.
\begin{align}&y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&y-48000=-2733.333(x-0)\\&y-48000=-2733.333x\\&y=-2733.333x+48000\\\end{align}

At the beginning of the process, when time=0, the worth is $48,000.
7. Use the equation to make the requested prediction. Write the result in a sentence, with units.
At 10 years, x = 10:
\begin{align}&y=-2733.333x+48000\\&y=-2733.333(10)+48000\\&y=-27333.33+48000\\&y=20666.67\end{align}
So the worth of the machine at 10 years is $20,666.67.

8. Make a graph and use it to check the prediction.
time worth
0 48000
15 7000
By hand, we plot these points, draw the line, and use it to estimate the answer to the question.
Notice that the graph slants down, which means the slope is negative. And notice that you did get a negative slope using the
formulas. That’s good!
On the graph, look for time=10, and see that the worth is about $20,000.
That is consistent with the value obtained using the formula.
The prediction is reasonable.
20.4: H1.04- Example 3
Example 3: For a certain type of letter sent by Federal Express, the charge is $8.50 for the first 8 ounces and $0.90 for each
additional ounce (up to 16 ounces.) How much will it cost to send a 12-ounce letter?
Solution:
Ans. Weight and cost. Weight is measured in ounces and cost is measured in dollars.
Ans. We will predict cost. So y = cost. Then x = ounces and x must be greater than or equal to 8. Cost must be at least $8.50.
Eight ounces cost 8.50. So x = 8 and y = 8.50. Use (8, 8.50)
Nine ounces cost 9.40. So x = 9 and y = 9.40. Use (9, 9.40)
Yes, because the cost increases by the same amount for each additional ounce.
4. Slope
Find the slope: m = rise / run
Let (8, 8.50) be the first point and (9, 9.40) be the second point.
m=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}=\frac{9.40-8.50}{9-8}=\frac{0.90}{1}=0.90
For each additional ounce, the cost increases by $0.90.
(Notice that was given in the problem. So really we didn’t need to compute the slope. If we had recognized the interpretation of it,
we could have just picked it out of the statement of the problem and skipped step 8.)
5. Write the formula for the linear relationship:
Choose (8, 8.50) for the point and use the slope of 0.90.
\begin{align}&y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&y-8.50=0.90(x-8)\\&y-8.50=0.90x-7.20\\&y=0.90x+1.30\\\end{align}

(The value of y is b when x=0 .)
When the envelope weighs 0 ounces, the model says that the cost is $1.30. Since the model is stated to only be good for weights
of at least 8 ounces, then this is not a useful observation.
7. Use the equation to make the requested prediction. Write the result in a sentence, with units.
For 12 ounces, x = 12:
\begin{align}&y=0.90x+1.30\\&y=0.90(12)+1.30\\&y=10.80+1.30\\&y=12.10\\\end{align}
So a 12-ounce letter will cost $12.10.

weight cost
8 8.50
9 9.40
By hand, plot these points, draw the line, extend it to the limits for the variables, and use it to estimate the answer to the question.
Using the graph, the cost for a letter of 12 ounces is a little more than $12.
That is consistent with the result from using the linear formula.
Notice that the graph here only includes a line for the parts where the linear model is appropriate. In other words, it doesn’t extend
below a weight of 8 ounces. This helps illustrate why the y-intercept here is not very useful.

Alternative method of solution for Example 3:
Example 3 question: For a certain type of letter sent by Federal Express, the charge is $8.50 for the first 8 ounces and $0.90 for
each additional ounce (up to 16 ounces.) How much will it cost to send a 12-ounce letter?
We saw here that it is awkward for the value to be so far from any useful values for the variables. This suggests that we re-define
the variables to be more useful.
1-2. Define the variables and their units and possible values. List the points.
Let x = number of ounces above 8. So the possible values for x are 0 to 8 (which corresponds to the letter weighing 8 ounces to 16
ounces.)
Let y = cost. The possible values for y are $8.50 and larger.
A letter weighing 8 ounces costs $8.50. So x = 0. The point is (0, 8.50)
A letter weighing 9 ounces costs $8.50+0.90 = $9.40. So x = 1. The point is (1, 9.40)
Yes, because the cost increases by the same amount for each additional ounce.
4-5. Find the slope and the formula.
Using the points above, we have
When x = 0, the value for y is 8.50. Since x = weight – 8 ounces, that means that when the letter weighs 8 ounces, the cost is $8.50.
Notice that defining the x-variable in this manner has made the y-intercept more meaningful in the problem.
7. Make the prediction.
If the letter weighs 12 ounces, then we use x = 12 – 8 = 4. So y=8.50+0.90\cdot4=8.50+3.60=12.10 .
This agrees with the answer we found by the first method.
8. Graph and check whether you obtain the same results.
weight x = weight – 8 y=cost
8 0 8.5
9 1 9.4
By hand, plot these points, draw the line, extend it to the limits for the variables, and use it to estimate the answer to the question.
On the graph, look up a weight of 12 ounces, which is

x = 12 – 8 = 4.
The cost for x = 4 is a little larger than $12, which is consistent with the value we obtained from the formula.
20.5: H1.05- Example 3 Alternative Method is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
20.6: H1.06- Example 4
Example 4: Write a mathematical model for the population of this city over the given period of time and use that to predict the
population in 2010.
Year 1970 1980 1990 2000
Pop’n (thousands) 234 289.5 345 400.5
Solution:
1. What are the two variables? And what are their units?
Ans. Year and population. Year is in years and population is in thousands of people.
Ans. We will predict population. So y = population. Year is the input variable. However, as we saw Example 3, it will be more
convenient to have the input variable x = years since 1970. Then x is greater than or equal to zero. Obviously y must also be
greater than or equal to zero.
1970 has pop’n of 234. So x = 0 and y = 234. Use the point (0, 234)
1980 has pop’n of 289.5. So x = 10 and y = 289.5. Use the point (10,289.5)
year year – 1970 popn
1970 0 234
1980 10 289.5
1990 20 345
2000 30 400.5
The graph clearly indicates that a linear model is appropriate for this population growth over this time period.
4. Slope: Find the slope: m = rise / run
Let (0,234) be the first point and (10,289.5) be the second point.
m=\frac{{{y}_{2}}-{{y}_{1}}}{{{x}_{2}}-{{x}_{1}}}=\frac{289.5-234}{10-0}=\frac{55.5}{10}=5.55
For each year that goes by, population will increase by 5.55 thousand people.
5. Write the formula for the linear relationship:
Choose (0,234) for the point and use the slope of 5.55 that I just computed.
\begin{align}&y-{{y}_{0}}=m(x-{{x}_{0}})\\&y-234=5.55(x-0)\\&y-234=5.55x\\&y=5.55x+234\\\end{align}

x=0
When x=0, that is, in 1970, the population is 234 thousand people.
7. Use the formula to make the requested prediction. Write the result in a sentence, with units.
For 2010, .
x=2010-1970=40
\begin{align}&y=5.55x+234\\&y=5.55(40)+234\\&y=222+234\\&y=456\\\end{align}
So, in 2010, the model predicts that the population will be 456 thousand people.
We take the same graph as before and extend it to the right so that we can estimate a population value for x = 40.
The value we see from the graph is approximately 450 thousand people. That is consistent with the value we obtained from the
formula.
Students frequently have difficulty interpreting the slope and intercept in terms of the variables and units in the problem.
Following are additional examples of interpretations and comments.
Example 5. When cigarettes are burned, one by-product in the smoke is carbon monoxide. Data is collected to determine whether
the carbon monoxide emission can be predicted by the nicotine level of the cigarette. It is determined that the relationship is
approximately linear when we predict carbon monoxide, C, from the nicotine level, N. Both variables are measured in milligrams.
The formula for the model is C=3.0+10.3\cdot{N}
Interpret the slope: If the amount of nicotine goes up by 1 mg, then we predict the amount of carbon monoxide in the smoke will
increase by 10.3 mg.
Interpret the intercept: If the amount of nicotine is zero, then we predict that the amount of carbon monoxide in the smoke will
be about 3.0 mg.
Example 6. Reinforced concrete buildings have steel frames. One of the main factors affecting the durability of these buildings is
carbonation of the concrete (caused by a chemical reaction that changes the pH of the concrete) which then corrodes the steel
reinforcing the building. Data is collected on specimens of the core taken from such buildings, where the depth, d, of the
carbonation, in mm, and the strength, s, of the concrete, in mega-Pascals (MPa,) are measured. It is found that the model is
s=24.5-2.8\cdot{d}
Interpretation of the slope: If the depth of the carbonation increases by 1 mm, then the model predicts that the strength of the
concrete will decrease by approximately 2.8 MPa.
Interpretation of the intercept: If the depth of the carbonation is 0 mm, then the model predicts that the strength of the concrete is
approximately 24.5 MPa.
Comments: In this model, notice that the strength decreases as the carbonation increases, which is shown by the negative slope
coefficient. When you interpret a negative slope, notice that you must say that, as the input variable increases, then the output
variable decreases.
Notice that it isn’t necessary to fully understand the units in which the variables are measured in order to correctly interpret these
coefficients. While it is good to understand data thoroughly, it is also important to understand the structure of linear models and to
be able to practice this on applied problems, even if they are not problems in your field.
20.7: H1.07- Interpreting the Slope and Intercept is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Part I.
1. During the first and second quarters of a year, a business had sales of $42,000 and $58,000, respectively. If the growth of sales
follows a linear pattern for the next four years, what will sales be in the fourth quarter? In the 9th quarter? Use an algebraic
method of solution.
2. Ajax Manufacturing bought a machine for $48,000. It is expected to last 15 years and, at the end of that time, have a salvage
value of $7,000. Set up a linear depreciation model for this machine and find the worth at the end of 10 years.
3. For a certain type of letter sent by Federal Express, the charge is $8.50 for the first 8 ounces and $0.90 for each additional ounce
(up to 16 ounces.) How much will it cost to send a 12-ounce letter?
4. Write a mathematical model for the population of this city over the given period of time and use that to predict the population in
2010.
Year 1970 1980 1990 2000
Pop’n (thousands) 234 289.5 345 400.5
5. When cigarettes are burned, one by-product in the smoke is carbon monoxide. Data is collected to determine whether the
carbon monoxide emission can be predicted by the nicotine level of the cigarette. It is determined that the relationship is
approximately linear when we predict carbon monoxide, C, from the nicotine level, N. Both variables are measured in
milligrams. The formula for the model is C=3.0+10.3\cdot{N} .
a. Interpret the slope.
b. Interpret the intercept.
6. Reinforced concrete buildings have steel frames. One of the main factors affecting the durability of these buildings is
carbonation of the concrete (caused by a chemical reaction that changes the pH of the concrete) which then corrodes the steel
reinforcing the building. Data is collected on specimens of the core taken from such buildings, where the depth, d, of the
carbonation, in mm, and the strength, s, of the concrete, in mega-Pascals (MPa,) are measured. It is found that the model is
s=24.5-2.8\cdot{d}
a. Interpret the slope.

b. Interpret the intercept.
Part II.
In addition to learning to work applied problems, one point of this lesson is to increase your ease and flexibility in reading and
working problems. For that reason, some of the problems are stated somewhat differently than problems in the examples. Ask
questions as needed.
Notice that many of the following problems have parts labeled with letters. In your solution, you are required to label each of the
parts of your solution with the appropriate letter that shows which question you are answering.
Sometimes students prefer to work problems using exactly the same steps as the examples, numbering the steps in the same way. If
you would prefer to work the problems in that way, then first do that, numbering the steps just as in the examples. AFTER you
have completed that, then re-read the problem and go back and put additional labels onto your solution, to indicate where each part
of the stated problem is solved.
7. A college had linear growth in enrollment over the period from 1993 – 2003. In 1997 they had 6754 students enrolled and in
2000 they had 8117 students enrolled. If the same pattern in growth continues, how many students do you expect they will have
in 2010?
a. Let t = number of years since 1993. Let E = enrollment. Make a table by hand or in a spreadsheet that shows the relationship
of E to t over the given period of time.
b. Graph the relationship.
c. Write a linear model for the relationship of E to t.
d. Interpret the slope and y-intercept in the formula, using the units in the problem.
e. Use the formula to predict the enrollment in 2010.
f. Use your graph to predict the enrollment in 2010.
g. New question—not stated in the original problem: Approximately when do we expect the enrollment to be 11,380
students? Use either your graph or formula to do this. Explain which you used and how you did it.
8. A person deposits a certain amount of money in an account that pays simple interest.Thus the amount of money in the account
at any time is a linear function of time. After 2 months, the amount in the account is $759.After 3 months, the amount in the
account is $763.50.
a. Do all the steps necessary to find a linear model to relate the amount in the account, y, to the number of months, x. Be sure
to interpret the slope and intercept.
b. Use your formula for the linear model to find the amount that will be in the account after 36 months.
c. Use a spreadsheet to make a table of the amount in the account after each month up to 36 and check the answer you obtained
using algebra.
9. One can measure temperature in degrees Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit. The two measurements are linearly related. The
temperature at which water freezes is 0 degrees Celsius and 32 degrees Fahrenheit. The temperature at which water boils is 100
degrees Celsius and 212 degrees Fahrenheit. We want to predict the temperature Celsius.
a. Let C = degrees Celsius and F = degrees Fahrenheit. Do all the steps necessary to find a linear model to describe this
relationship.
b. Interpret the slope and y-intercept of equation, using the units in the problem.
c. When the temperature is 72 degrees Fahrenheit, what is the Celsius temperature?
d. Using your formula, make a table that shows the temperature Fahrenheit from –20 degrees to 120 degrees and the predicted
Celsius temperature for each of these. If you can use a spreadsheet for this, produce a table that goes in increments of 1
degree. If you are doing it by hand, produce a table that goes in increments of 10 degrees.
e. Graph this relationship.
10. In 1991, the number of outlet shopping centers in the US was 142. By 1993, the number had increased to 249.
(Hint: Let t = years since 1991 and then solve the problem using t.)
a. If the number of outlet shopping centers continued to increase in a linear pattern, what would have been the number in
1994? Find a linear model and use it to make the prediction.
b. In fact, the actual number of outlet shopping centers in 1994 was 300. Do you think that the increase in the number of outlet
shopping centers was approximately linear?
c. Make a graph of the data given in the initial set-up of the problem. Draw the line. Extend the line to 1994. What does your
line predict the number of outlet shopping centers will be in 1994? Does that agree with the prediction your formula gave in
part a?
For problems 11–14, write an algebraic linear model, interpret the slope and y-intercept, use the linear model to answer the
question, and make a graph to check your work.
11. A cellular phone company has equipment that can service 80 thousand customers. In 2000 they had 57 thousand customers and,
over the last few years, they have been adding about 3,000 customers per year. How many customers will they have in 2006? If
this rate of increase continues, when will they need additional equipment?
12. The manager of a supermarket finds that she can sell 1130 gallons of milk per week at $3.99 per gallon and 1470 gallons of
milk per week at $3.79. Assume that the sales, s, is a linear formula of the price, p. How many gallons would she expect to sell
at $3.92 per gallon? (Hint: When you interpret the slope, it may seem strange to you. You might want to re-work the problem
using cents instead of dollars for the price. That will make it easier to understand the interpretation of the slope.)
13. At 680 Fahrenheit, a certain species of cricket chirps 124 times per minute. At 400 Fahrenheit, the same cricket chirps 86 times
per minute. Assume the chirps per minute, C, is linearly related to the temperature Fahrenheit, T. How many times per minute
will the cricket chirp at 700 Fahrenheit? If you count the cricket chirps for a minute and find that it is 110 chirps, what is the
temperature, to the nearest whole degree?
14. A bicycle manufacturer has daily fixed costs of $1500 and each bicycle costs $80 to manufacture. What is the cost of
manufacturing 16 bicycles in a day? How many bicycles could be manufactured in one day for $3220?
15. Recall the example from Topic B. Formulas on “break-even” analysis. A company sells a catnip cat toy for $3 each and sells all
that are produced. The fixed cost of production is $6000 and the variable cost is $1.20 each.
a. Write a formula for the cost of producing x toys. [ANSWER:Cost = 6000 + 1.2 x]
b. Write another formula for the revenue produced by selling x toys. [ANSWER:Revenue = 3 x]
c. Use a spreadsheet to graph both formulas.
d. Look at your graph to find the value of x for which the cost is equal to the revenue? (The point on the graph is called the
“break-even” point.) [ANSWER: Breakeven is where cost and revenue lines cross.]
e. Use algebra to find the x-value of the break-even point and then use one of the formulas to find the y-value of the break-
even point. Write your conclusion in a sentence.
16. A contractor purchases a piece of equipment for $65,000. The operating cost is $4.63 per hour (electricity, maintenance, etc.)
and this year the operator is paid $15.37 per hour. That means that the total operating cost is $(4.63 + 15.37) per hour.
a. Find a formula for the cost of the running the machine, C, where the input variable is t = number of hours run. (Be sure to
include the purchase cost as the amount it will cost to run it zero hours. Do you see why that makes sense?)
b. If the product generated by the machine in per hour is sold for $50, write a formula for the revenue, R, where the input
variable is the number of hours run.
c. If the machine is run for 1500 hours, what will the cost of running it be?
d. If the machine is run for 1500 hours, what will the revenue from running it be?
e. Using a spreadsheet, graph both the cost and the revenue formulas on the same axes. (You will need to decide on an
appropriate set of t-values to use for your graph. You may need to do some and then extend it to more t-values.)
f. For what t-value do the graphs of the formulas intersect? (Find it on the graph. Then use algebra to confirm that you have
found it correctly.) Write a sentence to answer the question “How long will they have to run the machine to ‘break even,’
meaning that the revenue will equal the total cost?”
20.8: H1.08- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
21: Topic I- Linear and Quadratic Models
21.2: I1.02- Section 1
21.3: I1.03- Section 2
21.6: I1.06- Section 4
21.9: I1.09- Section 6
21.10: I1.10- Section 7
21.11: I1.11- Section 8
21: Topic I- Linear and Quadratic Models is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Topic I—Linear and Quadratic Models
Objectives:
1. Recognize when a dataset shows a relationship between the variables that is approximately linear.
2. Use a spreadsheet to adjust the intercept and slope parameters of a linear formula so that the graph of corresponding points on
the resulting line are close to the points graphed from a data set.
3. Use linear formula that best fits the data as a model for the data, predicting the output y value for any specified input x value.
4. Recognize when a dataset shows a relationship between the variables that is approximately quadratic.
5. Use a spreadsheet to adjust the location and scale parameters of a quadratic formula so that the graph of corresponding points
on the resulting parabola are close to the points graphed from a data set.
6. Use the quadratic formula that best fits the data as a model for the data, predicting the output y value for any specified input x
value.
7. Distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate extrapolation of a model.
Overview
In previous topics we have dealt with numbers produced from formulas, and separately with datasets showing the relationships
between two variables. Now we are going to combine these perspectives and find formulas that approximately match the
relationship between variables. Such formulas are models of the measurement data, and their graph will pass close to the data
points.
The model formula is used to predict output values. In this topic we will examine models that are linear (that is, their graphs are
straight lines), as well as one kind of non-linear model.
The models will not match the data exactly. There will always be some noise due to unavoidable random errors in the data-
measurement process. Also, sometimes the actual pattern underlying the data will not match the model’s formula (e.g., if the data
has a curved graph and the model is a straight line). In that case even the best linear model will have to go above the data in some
areas and below it in others.
Just as we computed deviations from the average when we analyzed the noise in repeated measurements, we will compute
deviations from the model when we are trying to decide how well a particular model fits a dataset. A standard deviation based on
these deviation values will be a numerical measure of how good the model is. We can also at the deviations to see if the model is
too simple, since in an over-simple model most adjacent deviation values will have the same sign, positive or negative (in the
correct model, the data will be randomly above or below the model values).
The data variable you want your model to predict should be used for the output y values in the dataset. Thus the other variable
should be used for the input x values. Occasionally it is reasonable to also make use of the inverse model, where the role of the data
variables is reversed and the second variable is used to predict the first one. If a model is linear, the inverse model for that data is
also linear.
Note that which data variable is modeled as output can be different for people with different goals. One person might want to use
temperature measurements to predict how long a metal bar will be, while someone else might to use the measured length of the bar
to estimate what the temperature is. Both people could use the same set of calibration data, but would assign different x and y roles
to the data variables when they make their predictive models.
In this topic we will focus on two simple models (linear and quadratic formulas), but the techniques shown will work in almost
exactly the same way for fitting any kind of mathematical model to data. Some other useful models will be discussed in later
topics.
21.1: I1.01- Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
21.2: I1.02- Section 1
Section 1: Graphing data and model together
In order to find a good model for a dataset, we need to be able to compare the actual data values with the predictions of the model.
This can be done by applying the model formula to each of the x values in Column A to compute “model y” values that are placed
in Column C next to the corresponding “data y” value in Column B. Then a scatter plot that is made with all three columns selected
will show both the data and the model predictions, in different colors. For a good model, the two kinds of points will be close to
each other, although the data points will usually also include some random noise.
Example 1—Adding a model to a dataset and setting up a comparison graph
The dataset to the left has a relationship between x and y that is approximated by the linear formula y = 1.4 x +
Input Output 7.3. This formula can be used to compute model y values for each of the rows of the dataset, which we will put into
column C next to the corresponding output data y value so that we can easily compare them.
x data y 1. Insert a new worksheet into a spreadsheet.
2. Copy the dataset so that the x and y values go into columns A and B, with the numbers starting in row 3.
0 6.6 (That is, cell A3 will be 0 and B3 will be 7.41)
3. Put the labels “Model” into cell C1 and “model y” into cell C2.
1 9.3 4. Put the formula “=1.4*A3+7.3” into cell C3. (The result for C3 should be 7.3)
5. Spread the formula in C3 down column C to C12, next to all the data values in column B. (The results should be
2 9.2 8.7 for C4, 10.1 for C5, 11.5 for C6, etc.)
6. Select the rectangle from A2 to C12, and make a scatter plot.
3 11.5
4 12.9
5 15.2
6 14.4
7 17.5
8 19.3
9 19.8
When you have followed the steps listed above, you should have results that look about like this:
A B C D E F G H I
1 Input Output Prediction
2 x data y model y
3 0 6.6 7.3
4 1 9.3 8.7
5 2 9.2 10.1
6 3 11.5 11.5
7 4 12.9 12.9
8 5 15.2 14.3
9 6 14.4 15.7
10 7 17.5 17.1
11 8 19.3 18.5
12 9 19.8 19.9
13
The graph above shows that y = 1.4 x + 7.3 is a good model for this dataset, since the data points are close to the model
points over the entire range of data, and the differences are randomly above and below the model.
But how did we know that the right model was y = 1.4 x + 7.3?
Good question. The example above shows how to recognize when a formula makes a good model, but does not show how to find a
good model formula. What we really want is a method that will permit us to take any dataset that seems linear and quickly find
what particular values for the slope and intercept parameters will make a linear formula that is a good model for that dataset (or a
similar process for an appropriate nonlinear formula if the data pattern is not close to a straight line). The next section introduces a
tool that provides an easy way to find the right parameter settings in a model formula.
21.2: I1.02- Section 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
21.3: I1.03- Section 2
Section 2: Using a spreadsheet model to predict values
The benefit for having a good model formula for a relationship is that you can predict what output value should be expected for any
input value, even if you have no data with that input value. This can be done simply by computing what y value the model
evaluates to when the input value is used as the x value. For example, the model from the previous section predicts an output 21.3
for an input value of 10, because when 10 is substituted for x, the formula y = 1.4 x + 7.3 becomes y = 1.4×10 + 7.3 = 21.3.
Predictions are particularly easy to produce from a model if you already have the model formula entered into a worksheet similar to
the one you made in the previous section. Whenever you enter a new x value into the cell in column A that is immediately below
the last data value (such as A13), the spreadsheet automatically extends the formula in column C to that same row, showing the
model’s prediction for the new input value. (This process can be repeated for additional input values as needed. If your spreadsheet
program does not automatically extend column C, you can spread the formula down by hand to get the same effect.)
Example 2: Using the worksheet from Section 1, predict the output (rounded to one decimal place) for these input values:
[a] x = 10 [b] x = 7.5 [c] x = -3 [d] x = 2.83 [e] x = 539 [f] x = -205[reveal-answer q=”356906″]Show Answer[/reveal-answer]
[hidden-answer a=”356906″][a] y = 21.3 [b] y = 17.8 [c] y = 3.1 [d] y = 11.3 [e] y = 761.9 [f] y = -279.7[/hidden-answer]
When adding values to columns A and C, what should be done to column B?
This is a natural question, since the empty cells (such as B13 and below) seem to leave a gap in the pattern of the worksheet. But
don’t add to column B when predicting with the model. You can make as many predictions with the model as you wish, but you
mustn’t make up data. Leave column B blank except for the data values that you are given to start with.
How reliable will the predictions of a model that closely matches the data be?
Notice that a model formula can be used both for interpolation for x values within the range of the data (such as in [b] and [d]
above) and for extrapolation, in which the predicted point is for an x value that is outside the data range (such as in [a], [c], [e], and
[f] above). Interpolation is generally dependable, although the noise in the relationship will usually keep it from exactly predicting
future measurements. Extrapolation is less reliable, especially when the prediction being made is for a point that is very far away
from the data on which the model is based. This is discussed in more detail in a later section.
Example of erroneous extrapolation : For a given child, one can record the child’s height and age in years. During the
elementary-school years, that is a fairly linear relationship, with a growth rate of about 3 to 4 inches per year. But you would get
very erroneous results if you use that model to estimate the typical height of 30-year-olds (who would be about 10 feet tall if the
youthful pattern continued).
Section 3: Using the Models.xls spreadsheet to find a linear model
The Models.xls spreadsheet available on the class web site is a template into which you can put any data values, then fit a
mathematical model to closely match that data. It has all the needed formulas preset, including a formula in C3 that is based on the
kind of model that is wanted (e.g., linear or quadratic). You will use this or similar spreadsheets as your main tool in this topic
and later modeling topics, so it will save you a lot of time if you become skilled at using it.
Models.xls has multiple sheets, each of them preset to fit a particular type of model. In this section we will use the “Linear Model”
sheet. Worksheets for Quadratic and Exponential are also included in Models.xls, and will be discussed in later sections and topics.
You will find that there is very little difference in the process used for finding different models, so when you learn to use the Linear
Model worksheet you will be able to quickly make use of any other model that turns out to be appropriate for the dataset you are
fitting.
Steps for using the Models.xls spreadsheet to find a good linear model for a dataset:
1. Insert a new worksheet with the Insert > Worksheet menu choice, and label the tab at the bottom of this new sheet with an
appropriate name (e.g., “Linear Model for Sediment Model”).
2. Copy the contents of the worksheet labeled Linear Model (select it and then use a Ctrl-A, Ctrl-C, Ctrl-V sequence to paste a
copy of its contents into the worksheet you inserted in step 1). (It will not work to use the Linear Model worksheet directly or to
use the Edit > Move or Copy Sheet menu option, because the model-template worksheets are protected from change so that they
are always available.)
3. Look at your data and decide which column you want your model to predict. That column of the data will be labeled as y
values and compared to the output of the model. The other column will be labeled as x values, and will be used in the model
formula to compute the model output. If you need to rearrange the columns to make the inverse graph or otherwise modify the
dataset, use the Data Scratch Pad worksheet in Models.xls to get the data ready for step 4.
4. Place the data into columns A and B, starting the numbers at row 3 (you can put column labels in row 1 if you wish). Use
column A for the input x data values and column B for the output y data values. Use as many rows as needed for the data; this
may be different for different data sets.
5. Spread the formula in cell C3 down to as many rows as the data. (In the Linear Model sheet, C3 has been preset to
“=$G$4*A3+$G$3”, a linear formula that uses the value in cell G4 as slope and the value in cell G3 as intercept.)
6. Spread the formulas in cell D3 and E3 down beside the data and model rows. The formula “=B3-C3” in D3 computes the
difference between the data and the model (called the residualdeviation), and the formula in E3 computes the square of that
deviation. These column E values are used to compute (in G13) a numerical average of how well the model fits the data, which
is called the standard deviation.
7. Make a graph of the data and model together. Select the data rows in columns A, B, and C, then select the Scatter Plot
option from the Chart menu. The data and model points will be different colors, with one of each kind at each horizontal
position.
8. Adjust the “parameter” values at the top of column G to move the model close to the data. Each type of model has
different parameters (e.g., intercept and slope for linear models), but a similar process of adjustment can used in all cases.
9. Decide if the model used is appropriate for the dataset. A good model will come close over the whole range of input values,
with deviations due mainly to noise in the data. If the best parameter settings cannot produce a good model (e.g., a line model
fitted to parabolic data), then that model should not be used for predictions. A different model (e.g., a quadratic one) should be
tried.
10. Write the mathematical formula for this set of model parameters (e.g., y = 1.4 x + 7.3).
21.4: I1.04- Section 3 Part 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Example 3: Using Models.xls to fit a linear model to a dataset
The table to the right gives data on the measured rate at which sediment built up in a factory holding tank during routine operation,
after a cleaning process that is repeated a couple of times per year. The factory operators want to use this information to make a
formula to predict sediment depth at any chosen time after a cleaning.
A preliminary graph of the data shows that the pattern of the points is reasonably close to a straight line. Therefore, the “Linear
Model” worksheet in Models.xls is the appropriate one to use.
Days Depth
since (mm)
cleaning
10 29.9
20 48.0
30 60.5
40 88.6
50 102.9
60 114.1
70 141.1
80 149.5
Solution:
In an earlier topic, you used a spreadsheet to adjust the intercept and slope of a linear equation and saw the resulting changes in the
position of the straight-line graph. We will now use that same technique to make a good linear model for this data with Models.xls.
1. Insert a new worksheet into Models.xls, labeling its tab “Linear Sediment Model”. Then copy into the new worksheet the
contents of the read-only worksheet labeled “Linear Model Template”.
2. In this case we want to predict sediment depth for any given number of days since the last cleaning. This means that we want to
use day as the input variable x and depth as the output variable y.
3. Copy the data to the spreadsheet (columns A and B, rows 3 to 10 for the numbers), then label the top of the data columns with
“Days” in A2 and “Depth” in B2.
4. Select C3 (which contains a preset linear formula based on the values in G3 and G4) and spread the formula down to row 10,
matching the data. At first, these model values will be zeros.
5. Also select and spread D3 and E3 down to row 10. The values in columns D and E will not be very meaningful until you adjust
the model to be a good fit.
6. Make a scatter plot of the data and model columns together (that is, the rectangle A1:C10). At first, the model points will lie on
a horizontal line along the x-axis.
7. Adjust the parameters in G3 and G4 so that the model points are as close as you can get them to the data points.
For a linear model, here is a good parameter-adjustment strategy:
1. Set the intercept to approximately where the data trend crosses the y axis (about 10 in this case, although you do not need
to be exactly right since you will adjust the intercept again in [c] below),
2. Adjust the slope to make the model line parallel to the data trend (in this case, 1 is too low a value for the slope, and 2 is
too high; 1.8 seems about right).
3. Now adjust the intercept to its best value, moving the model line without changing its slope until the model goes right
through the data (in this case, a value of 11 for the intercept works well).
8. Check to see if the model is good. In this case, the model points are close to the data points over the whole data range, showing
that a linear model is the correct type to use for this data.
9. Write the mathematical formula for the model you have found: y = 1.8 x + 11
The Linear Sediment Model worksheet should look about like this at the end of this solution process:
A B C D E F G
1 x y data y model Data-Model Linear model: y = m * x + b
2 Days Depth Prediction deviation y = 1.8x+11
3 10 29.9 29 0.9 11 b: Intercept
4 20 48.0 47 1 1.8 m: Slope
5 30 60.5 65 -4.5
6 40 88.6 83 5.6
7 50 102.9 101 1.9
8 60 114.1 119 -4.9
9 70 141.1 137 4.1
10 80 149.5 155 -5.5
11
12
13

21.6: I1.06- Section 4
Section 4: Adjusting the input variables to simplify the intercept parameter of linear models
For the sediment data, both parameters for the model have natural meanings: the slope is the daily rate of sediment build-up, and
the intercept is the sediment level immediately after cleaning. This is because the zero point of the input parameter, days since
cleaning, has a meaning that is naturally related to the situation—zero corresponds to the date the cleaning took place.
However, sometimes the zero point for an input parameter is artificial, and has no natural relationship to the situation. When this is
true, the intercept of a linear model for that data will not have a useful meaning. If the input parameter for a dataset of a company’s
annual sales is the calendar year, for example, then the intercept of a linear model fit to that data will be the model’s “prediction”
for the year 0, over 2000 years ago. This will probably be a very high or very low number that would be almost impossible to find
just by making guesses to adjust the intercept parameter of the model. Even if found, the resulting model formula would be difficult
to use because of the very large value it contains.
There are a couple of ways to avoid this problem. The one shown below, changing the input variable from “Year” to “Years since
1990”, is the same technique you used in an earlier topic on graphing. When the input is redefined in this way, it becomes as simple
to find the model as it was for the sediment data. In a later topic we will show how to adjust the model itself to give the same effect.
Example 4: Find a good linear model for this data, redefining the input parameter as needed, and use the model to
predict sales in 2010. Year House
Solution: Sales
1. Redefine the input parameter to “Years since 1990”, since that will cause the beginning of the data to have an
1990 426
input parameter of zero. To do this, copy the data from the table to a scratch-pad worksheet, make a column
containing the Year data with 1990 subtracted, and copy the modified table to a copy of the linear model
1991 517
template.
2. Since the first row now has a zero input variable, use the Sales figure for that row, 453, as the initial setting for
1992 500
the model intercept parameter in cell G3.
3. Adjust the slope parameter in cell G4 until the model points are parallel to the trend of the data. A slope value of
1993 558
26 is about right, but other nearby values would also be okay if the line looks correct.
4. Readjust the intercept value to ensure that the model goes through the middle of the data. Increasing it to 460
1994 611
improves the fit (but again, a nearby value is okay if the graph shows a good fit).
5. The implied linear model is y = 26 x + 460.
1995 558
6. Thus the prediction of the model for sales in 2010 (20 years after 1990) is 980.
1996 601
1997 596
1998 683
1999 693
2000 708
2001 761
2002 771
2003 831
2004 897
2005 822
2006 889
To see what trouble was avoided by redefining the input variable, use this model to “predict” sales in the year 0, which of course is
1990 years before 1990. Since 26·(−1990) + 460 = −51,280, the corresponding sales model for the unmodified input values would
be y = 26 x − 51,280, whose intercept value would be very difficult to guess.
An alternate way of dealing with this same problem is to modify the model formula itself, substituting (x − 1900) for x. If this were
done, then the same model would be y = 26·(x −1990) + 460. This approach has the advantage of not requiring a change in the data,
which means that the horizontal scale on the graph would show the year number. On the other hand, the model would have a more
complicated formula. Both techniques are used. We will examine this and other ways of modifying the model formula in a later
topic.
Section 5: Using Models.xls to find a quadratic model
If we wish to find a model for the data on the right, this quick scatter plot of the data shows that a straight line will
not be sufficient. Such parabolic shapes (similar to the path of a thrown ball) is instead represented mathematically time height
by a quadratic formula, in which the term that contains the input variable x is squared.
x y
0 0.0
1 8.6
2 16.8
3 24.4
There are several ways to write a quadratic formula, all of which can make the same curves. For use in fitting data, 4 31.5
the best kind of quadratic formula is y = a (x – h) 2 + v, where the parameters h and v are the x and y coordinates of
the vertex of the parabola (that is, its highest or lowest point), and a is a “shape” parameter that determines how 5 37.4
sharply (and in which direction) the parabola bends.
The quadratic formula pattern that is most convenient for fitting models: y=a\cdot{{(x-h)}^{2}}+v 6 43.8
a is a “shape” parameter controlling how much (and in which direction) the parabola bends
h is the x coordinate of the vertex (its horizontal distance from the origin) 7 48.9
v is the y coordinate of the vertex (its vertical distance from the origin)
Examples: y=3\cdot{{(x-2)}^{2}}+8 y=2.5\cdot{{(x-7)}^{2}}-33.4 y=-2\cdot{{(x+3.5)}^{2}}+37
8 54.4
9 58.9
10 63.3
11 66.5
12 69.7
13 72.2
14 74.5
15 76.2
16 77.8
17 78.1
18 79.0
19 78.5
20 78.0
21 76.9
22 75.6
23 73.0
24 70.3
25 67.3
26 63.7
27 60.0
28 55.0
Examples of graphs of various quadratic formulas
y=3\cdot{{(x-2)}^{2}}+8 y=-1.2\cdot{{(x-2.5)}^{2}}-50 y=18\cdot{{(x+3)}^{2}}-158 y=3\cdot{{(x+7)}^{2}}-300
Example 5: For each of the formulas above, state the location of the vertex of the parabola formed.
Solution: Since the vertex is at (h,v) when a formula is expressed in the form, the coordinates for the vertices are: (2, 8) (2.5,
−50) (−3, −158) (−7, −300)
Note that the sign of the x vertex coordinate is the opposite of the sign that the same number has in the formula, since the h value is
subtracted when forming the formula.
Quadratic models are somewhat more complicated than linear ones, as is indicated by the fact that a quadratic model has three
parameters instead of two. But there is really very little difference in the fitting process from what is done for straight lines: [1] put
the data in the appropriate worksheet, [2] spread the C3:E3 formulas down beside the data, [3] make a graph and adjust the vertex
(instead of the intercept) and the shape (instead of the slope) until the model and the data match, and [5] write down the formula or
use it to predict any values you have been asked for.
Example 6: Fitting a quadratic model
The height of a basketball above the floor is measured at 0.1-second intervals from when it leaves the player’s hand
until it reaches the basket, with the results shown to the right. Time Height
1. Find a quadratic model whose height predictions closely match this data. (secs) (feet)
2. How long after the shot begins does the ball reach the highest point in its path?
3. How high is the basketball above the floor at the highest point in its path? 0.0 7.2
4. How high was the basketball at 0.25 seconds into the shot?
0.1 10.6
0.2 12.8
0.3 13.9
0.4 13.8
0.5 12.5
0.6 10.0
Answer:
We will put this data into a copy of the Quadratic Model worksheet of Models.xls, then adjust the model parameters until the model
fits the data well.
1. Insert a new worksheet into Models.xls, labeling its tab “Basketball height model”. Then copy into this new worksheet the
content of the read-only Quadratic Model Template worksheet.
2. Change the label in A2 from “Input” to “Time” for this data. Change B2 from “Output” to “Height”.
3. Select the numbers from the dataset (not the labels), and paste them into A3. For this data, the numbers should fill columns A
and B from row 3 to row 9.
4. Select cells C3, D3, and E3. Then spread them (and the formulas they already contain) down to row 9, matching the data. All
three columns should now show numbers.
Make a scatter plot of columns A, B, & C. This will show the data and the model on the same graph. At first, the model points
will be on a horizontal line through the origin, but they will move as the quadratic model parameters (in G3, G4, and G5) are
adjusted.
5. Adjust G3, G4, and G5 to make the model approximately match the data.
1. Set the shape parameter G5 to a positive number (start with 1) if the data curves upward, and to a negative number (start
with –1) if the data curves downward. Adjust G4 to make the bend of the model similar to the bend in the data (larger
numbers cause sharper bends), but don’t try to match the shape exactly until step [iii] below.
2. Estimate x and y of the vertex of the data. Set G3 to the estimated x value and G4 to the y value.
3. Now adjust G5 until the shape of the model is as close as possible to the shape of the data.
4. Finally, adjust G3 and G4 to shift the model as needed so that it goes right through the data.
6. Now that you have a good model, you can add additional input values (e.g. 0.25 into A10), then read the result from column C
(spread the C9 formula down if a value does not appear in C10. (Because there is no data value for 0.25, B10 should remain
blank and D10 and E10 should be erased.)
When the instructions above are followed for this data, the result should be approximately the spreadsheet shown below. This
spreadsheet provides the information to answer the questions asked in the problem:
1. A quadratic model matching this data is y=-59\cdot{{(x-0.34)}^{2}}+14
2. The vertex of the graph is at x=0.34, so the ball reached its peak at 0.34 seconds into the shot.
3. The vertex of the graph is at y=14, so the height of the ball at its peak was 14 feet.
4. The model predicts that the ball will have a height of 13.5 feet at 0.25 seconds.
QUADRATIC-MODEL SPREADSHEET FILLED OUT WITH DATA FROM THIS EXAMPLE
A B C D E F G H
1 x y data y model Data-Model Quadratic model: y = –$G$5*(x-$G$3)^2+$G$4
2 Time Height Prediction deviation y = –59*(x-0.34)^2+14
3 0.0 7.3 7.1796 0.0204 0.34 x coordinate of vertex
4 0.1 10.7 10.6016 -0.0016 14 y coordinate of vertex
5 0.2 12.9 12.8436 -0.0436 -59 shape coefficient
6 0.3 14.0 13.9056 -0.0056
7 0.4 13.9 13.7876 0.0124
8 0.5 12.6 12.4896 0.0104
9 0.6 10.1 10.0116 -0.0116
10 0.25 13.5221
11
12
13
The shape of quadratic data can look different depending on where it is from on the parabola
A quadratic situation is easy to recognize when the data includes both sides of the peak or valley (as in the leftmost graph below),
but if the data is all on one side you may need to look carefully to choose between a quadratic model and other nonlinear
possibilities. Here are examples of how a quadratic model and data can match:
The above graphs are still quadratic if turned upside down, or uniformly stretched, compressed, or offset.
Each of the graphs below also shows data points from different quadratic models.

21.9: I1.09- Section 6
Section 6: Using models fitted with Models.xls to predict values
The main purpose of using data to make a model formula is that the formula can then be used to compute predictions of what the
output y would be for any input x. This can be used to predict the future, to make inferences about the past (prior to the first data
point), to find intermediate values between data points, and even to make a better estimate of what value you would get for the
same measurement if you repeated it at one of the input values you already used.
Extrapolation
The y = 1.8 x + 11 equation that fits the sediment-depth data well, for example, can be used to predict what sediment depth can be
expected after day 80, the last day for which actual data was given. Using data to predict what measurements for a process will be
outside the range of data input values is called extrapolation. (“extra” comes from a Latin word meaning “outside of”).
Example 7: What sediment depth does the y = 1.8 x + 11 model predict at 90 days after cleaning?
Answer: Evaluate the model formula at: \begin{align}&y=1.8x+11\\&y=1.8\cdot(90)+11\\&y=162+11\\&y=173\text{millimeters}\\\end{align}
Warning: Extrapolation can be very useful, but is not always dependable since its accuracy depends on whether the process
continues to change in the same way as it did during the time that the data for the model was taken. In general, people use
extrapolation only for values that are within a limited distance from the last data point. It would be reasonable to extrapolate the
sediment depth to 100 days, or perhaps even to 150 days, but not to 1000 days unless you have other information that indicates that
the rate of increase is constant for that period.
Interpolation
The most dependable use of a model formula is to estimate what the output measurement would have been for some input value
that is between two of the input values for the data. This process is called interpolation. Interpolation is dependably accurate if the
model is a good model.
Example 8a: What sediment depth does the y = 1.8 x + 11 model predict at 37 days after cleaning?
Answer: Evaluate the model formula at: x=37
\begin{align}&y=1.8x+11\\&y=1.8\cdot(37)+11\\&y=66.6+11\\&y=77.6\text{millimeters}\\\end{align}
Note that the computational process for interpolation is exactly the same as for extrapolation. This is characteristic of the use of a
model. You treat any input value the same way – just plug it into the formula and evaluate the result. You may decide you don’t
trust the answer (e.g., the 1000-day sediment-depth extrapolation), but the model gives answers the same way in all cases.
There is no need to limit interpolation or extrapolation to whole-number inputs when fractional inputs make sense. You could
estimate the sediment depth at 22.5 days, or at 98.765 days. But use some judgment here – you would not want to estimate
midnight traffic flow based on a history of measurements made at noon.
Example 8b: What sediment depth does the y = 1.8 x + 11 model predict at 56.73 days after cleaning?
Answer: Evaluate the model formula at: x=56.73
\begin{align}&y=1.8x+11\\&y=1.8\cdot(56.73)+12.7\\&y=102.114+11\\&y=113.114\\&y\cong113.1\text{millimeters}\\\end{align}
Note that the final value is rounded to a precision consistent with the precision of the data.
Backwards extrapolation
You could even compute the model’s answer for an input value that comes before any of your data. That does not make sense for
the sediment data (since we are told that the tank was changed abruptly by cleaning just before this data was taken), but in other
situations it is often possible to make good estimates of what conditions were before data was taken.
Example 9: An accumulated coating of rust on the siding of a building is measured on June 1 for 15 successive years, and the these
thickness measurements are found to fit a linear model, where y is the thickness in millimeters and x is the number of years since
the first of these measurements in 1987. Estimate what the thickness of the coating was on June 1, 1980.
Answer: Evaluate the model formula at x = –7, since that corresponds to the year 1980 in the formula.
\begin{align}&y=0.085x+1.52\\&y=0.08\cdot(-7)+1.52\\&y=-0.56+1.52\\&y=0.96\text{millimeters}\\\end{align}
As with forward extrapolation, you have to use judgment about how far away from the data you can depend on backward
extrapolation. Example 10’s 7-years-before extrapolation is reasonable, but using this model to estimate the rust thickness in 1950
would not be reasonable, since that would give a negative thickness (which implies that the building may have been built after
1950).
What if the same data points are measured again?

For the sediment-depth data, the prediction of the model for sediment depth at 40 days after cleaning is 83 mm, which is 4.4 mm
less than the actual data value of 88.6 mm. Which of these values would be best to use if we wanted to predict the depth at 40 days
after some subsequent cleaning?
Deviations between data values and model predictions can come from two different kinds of sources:
Noise: The deviations may just be random variations in the process, in which case we will do better to use the model, since next
time the deviation is just as likely to be in the other direction. In a sense, the model is more accurate than the data in this case.
The noise-suppressing smoothing effect that a model provides is an important benefit of the modeling approach.
Oversimplified models: The relationship between the input and output variables for the process may not quite be a straight
line, in which case even the best linear model will have errors that overestimate the data in some input ranges and underestimate
it in others. If the linear model is oversimplified in this way, we will do better to use previous measurements. Better yet, we
should use a non-linear model that has sufficient flexibility to follow the data more closely.
We can distinguish between these two cases by examination of the graph. If noise is the source of the deviations, the graph will
show random placement of data points above and below the model. The deviations in the sediment-depth data were random, as
shown by the graph from the fitting.
But when a straight-line model is used for data whose underlying relationship is curved, the model will pass above most data points
in some part of the range, and below most points in other parts. In making predictions for such poor-model situations you should
either use the previous measurements directly or, preferably, fit a more suitable model to the data and then use that model.
21.10: I1.10- Section 7
Section 7: Looking at the data in the other direction—making an inverse model
Often it is obvious which of the variables from the data set you want to be predicted by the model you intend to fit to the data. But
sometimes either choice makes sense, depending on what you are doing.
In the case of the sediment-depth data we started with the model that is appropriate if you want to predict the sediment depth at a
specified time after cleaning. This model uses days as input and depth as output. But an inspector might decide to measure the
sediment depth in order to estimate how long it has been since the last cleaning. He would need a model that uses depth as input
and produces days as output. This can be produced in exactly the same way as before, but the two columns of data switch their
roles.
Example 10: Describe the model to estimate days since cleaning from measurements of sediment depth.
Answer: Make a new copy of the spreadsheet with the data and the linear function settings, then:
1. Swap column A and column B, including the titles at the top, but still label A2 “x” and B2 “y”.
2. Find good settings for the intercept and slope by the methods discussed earlier in this topic.
3. An example of a good model for this reversed data is y=0.56x-6.7 .
This fitted model is the inverse of the y=1.8x+11 model fitted earlier that used days as input and depth as output. This is clearer if
names are used in the formulas rather than x and y:
\begin{align}&\text{depth}=1.8\tfrac{\text{mm}}{\text{day}}\times\text{days}+11\text{mm(original model)}\\&\text{days}=0.56\tfrac{\text{days}}{\text{mm}}\times\text{depth}-6.7\text{days(inverse
model)}\\\end{align}
In fact, we could have derived the inverse model from the original model by using algebra instead of model construction and have
gotten almost the same answers (they might differ slightly because noise in the input data affects the fitting process somewhat
differently than the same noise in the output data).
21.11: I1.11- Section 8
Section 8: Systematically finding parameter values that fit a model to a dataset
The Models.xls workbook (or a similar workbook derived from it) provides a way for a dataset of x and y values (in columns A
and B, respectively) to be matched to y predictions computed for that x value with a model formula (in column C). The model
formula makes use of the values of a few parameters in column G. Changes to these parameters will thus change all the column C
values. For all types of model, the model-fitting process consists of finding values for the parameters which make the column C
model values come as close as possible to the column B data values.
The simplest way to find reasonable parameter settings is to make a scatter-plot graph of columns A, B, and C together, which will
display the data and the model predictions on the same scale. When good parameter settings have been found, the two graphs will
overlap as closely as possible. Once the graphs match well visually, the numerical differences between the data y value and the
model y prediction (computed in column D) can sometimes be used to make fine adjustments to the parameter settings.
In general, even the best model will not fit the data exactly. If the deviations from the model are randomly above and below it, they
represent noise in the data — in such a case, probably no other model would do better. On the other hand if most positive and
negative deviations are grouped with several others of the same sign, this indicates the model does not fit the data well, perhaps
because the kind of model formula being used cannot produce a shape similar to that of the data.
Summary of systematic curve-fitting techniques

Make a graph showing the data and model points, so you can observe how good the fit is.
First set the position parameters to approximate values, based on the kind of model:
Linear — estimate the intercept as the data y value for the x value closest to zero.
(If no x value is close to zero, redefine the data or formula by subtracting the first x value)
Quadratic — estimate the vertex x and y parameters from the graph
Estimate a beginning value for the other parameter from the graph or first two data points.
Linear slope—set to the difference of the y values divided by the difference in x values.
Quadratic shape—positive if the ends curve up, negative if the ends curve down
Adjust the parameter values systematically to improve the initial estimates.
Change the first significant digit by 1, observing if this moves the model toward the data
Continue first-digit changes in the right direction until the model graph crosses the data.
Once the first digit is known, adjust the second digit.
Readjust the other parameter(s) to the same precision.
Part I.
Reproduce the results in the Examples 1–10.
Part II.
For each dataset in these problems, please do not type it in yourself, but find the text below on the course web page and “copy and
paste” it into the spreadsheet. This will save you quite a lot of work.
11. Which of these graphs indicate data in which the variables have an approximately linear relationship?
[a] [b] [c] [d]
12. For which of the datasets graphed in the previous exercise will a linear model probably be a better predictor of future
measurements than the corresponding measurements in the dataset?
13. A truck delivers loads of kerosene. The relationship between the gallons of kerosene it is carrying and the total weight in
pounds of the truck follows a y=6.23\text{}x+28540 linear model, where x is the number of gallons and y is the weight. What is the
expected weight of the truck when it is loaded with 5290 gallons of kerosene?
14. What linear model would be appropriate if you want to use the weight of the truck in the previous problem to predict how much
kerosene it is loaded with?
15. Which of these datasets has a relationship between the variables whose trend is linear?
[a] [b] [c] [d] [e]
x Y x Y x y x y x y
30 -122.02 -100 -182.39 -400 461.43 -45 -52.27 0 23.43
60 -112.01 -75 -154.87 -350 444.21 -40 -25.48 1 23.53
90 -105.19 -50 -141.15 -300 401.07 -35 -38.28 4 23.84
120 -92.76 -25 -122.83 -250 419.03 -30 -39.38 9 24.38
150 -72.19 0 -105.93 -200 348.53 -25 -39.21 16 25.03
180 -62.13 25 -87.78 -150 360.21 -20 -17.29 25 26.07
210 -50.07 50 -72.97 -100 275.67 -15 -21.08 36 26.69
240 -37.11 75 -60.00 -50 176.27 -10 -35.22 49 28.26
270 -21.60 100 -45.75 0 190.39 -5 -14.70 64 30.02
300 -12.85 125 -32.09 50 180.19 0 -15.89 81 31.07
330 -0.93 150 -28.36 100 119.80 5 1.54 100 32.47
360 7.75 175 -18.14 150 112.96 10 -11.43 121 35.04
390 19.88 200 -12.92 200 -19.65 15 -24.28 144 38.14
420 46.92 225 -0.25 250 41.88 20 -13.48 169 40.35
450 63.04 250 -0.05 300 -79.24 25 -20.92 196 43.69
480 73.17 275 4.71 350 -72.22 30 -16.29 225 46.46
510 86.94 300 12.82 400 -43.34 35 4.75 256 51.29
540 94.80 325 14.42 450 -125.61 40 9.65 289 55.22
570 100.27 350 12.15 500 -121.65 45 -7.65 324 58.98
16. For each of the datasets in the previous problem that was identified as having a linear relationship, find and report a good linear
model.
17. Use the model for dataset [a] above to predict the output y variable for input values of x at intervals of 100 from 0 to 600.
18. Use the model for dataset [e] above to predict the output y variable for input values of x at intervals of 50 from 0 to 350.
19. For each of the graphs below, identify where a linear or quadratic model would be appropriate, or whether neither of these. In
each case, write a sentence stating what reason you have for the choice you make.
[19a] [19b] [19c] [19d]
year Cable systems
1990 10,215
1991 10,704
1992 11,073
1993 11,108
1994 11,214
1995 11,215
1996 11,220
1997 10,943
1998 10,845
1999 10,700
2000 10,500
For each dataset in the following problems, please do not type it in yourself, but find the data text on the course web page and
“copy and paste” it into the spreadsheet. This will save you quite a lot of work.
20. For the dataset to the right about cable systems:
1. Identify the input and output variables for predicting cable system count.
2. Restate the input variable in terms of years since the first year given.
3. Use a spreadsheet to make a graph of the data and label the axes. (hand-labeling is okay)
4. Use the quadratic-model spreadsheet to find a good quadratic model and state its formula.
5. Using the model, predict the number of cable systems in 2003.
6. What year does the model imply that the most cable systems existed?
MPG MPH
17 10
25 20
30 30
32 40
31 50
28 60
22 70
21. For the dataset at the right about gas mileage (MPG) at different speeds (MPH):
1. Identify the input and output variables appropriate for predicting mileage.
2. Use a spreadsheet to make an appropriate graph and label the axes. (hand-labeling is okay)
3. Use the quadratic-model spreadsheet to find a good quadratic model and state its formula.
4. Using the model, predict the gas mileage for a speed of 25 mph.
5. At what speed does the model imply that gas mileage is best?
21.12: I1.12- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
22: Topic J- Exponential Models and Model Comparison Techniques
22.8: J1.08- Section 3
22: Topic J- Exponential Models and Model Comparison Techniques is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by LibreTexts.
1
Topic J—Exponential Models and Model Comparison Techniques
Objectives:
1. Recognize when a dataset shows an exponential relationship between the variables.
2. Use a spreadsheet to adjust the initial-value and slope parameters of an exponential formula so that the graph of corresponding
points are close to the points graphed from a data set.
3. Use the exponential formula that best fits the data as a model for the data, predicting the output y value for any specified input x
value.
4. Compare the extrapolation behavior of different types of model that fit the same data.
5. Choose among linear, quadratic, and exponential models based on a graph of the dataset.
6. Recognize the quality of a model based on whether positive and negative residual deviations are randomly distributed or
grouped together.
7. Modify a model formula to simplify the fitting process without changing the dataset.
Overview: Additional tools for modeling

In an earlier topic, you learned how to find good model formulas for data whose pattern is a straight line or a parabola. In both
cases, you used worksheets from Models.xls to find good parameters for the models. These worksheets were very similar, differing
only in the formula placed in the C3 cell and in the names and meanings of the parameters in cell G3, G4, etc. Other models are
just as easy.
In this topic we will add exponential models, useful when the output changes by the same percentage each step. We will also learn
how to compare and choose among types of models. Finally, we will learn to modify the model formula when needed to make the
graph or parameters more convenient.
22.1: J1.01- Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 1: Processes with constant-percentage growth/decay rates—exponential models
In situations where the cause of change in a quantity is the amount of that quantity that is currently present, the output variable
changes by the same percentage for each equal step in the input variable. Such situations have an exponential model formula,
which means that the input variable is used as an exponent in the formula. Accumulation of compound interest in a bank account is
an example of exponential growth, and radioactive decay is an example of exponential decay. Both are modeled by exponential
formulas, with the difference between growth and decay depending simply on whether the change rate is positive or negative.
Relationship of different exponential models to the x-axis
Exponential growth Faster growth rate Exponential decay Faster decay rate
Examples of exponential formulas:

y=275\cdot{{(1+0.05)}^{x}}\\y=65.08\cdot{{(1-0.03)}^{x}}\\y=-6400\cdot{{(1-0.25)}^{x}}\\y=0.00836\cdot{{(1+0.21)}^{x}}
Since any number raised to the power of zero equals exactly 1, the y-intercept of an exponential formula (i.e., the formula y value
when x equals zero) will be just the multiplier term (such as 275, 65.08, 6400, and 0.00836 above). This intercept is one parameter
of the exponential model, and reflects the starting value for processes that start at x=0.
The other parameter reflects the rate at which the value of the formula will change. The simplest way of expressing it is to use the
desired rate to make an appropriate base for the input parameter x as an exponent. This is the role of “1+0.05”, “1-0.03”, “1-0.25”,
and “1+0.21” in the examples above. The growth rates of 0.05, –0.03, –0.25, and 0.21 could instead be expressed as 5%, –3%, –
25%, and 21%.
A negative growth rate is actually a decay rate, since it will result in values closer to zero as x becomes larger. When the growth
rate is negative, the base of the exponent will be a number that is less than 1 but greater than 0. Thus the base for a –0.03 growth
rate (that is, a 3% decay rate) would be 0.97, and the base for a –0.25 growth rate (i.e., a 25% decay rate) would be 0.75.
Warning: An exponential decay rate can never be more than 100% (that is, have a growth rate of less than –1.0). Such a rate
would not correspond to a realistic situation, and would make the base of the exponent a negative number. Spreadsheets will give
error messages when negative numbers are used as a base in calculations with decimal exponents (unless the exponent is exactly a
whole number).
Exponential models include all y=a\cdot{{b}^{x}}forms such as:
y=InitialAmount\cdot{{(1+GrowthRate)}^{x}} or y=InitialAmount\cdot{{(1-DecayRate)}^{x}}
InitialAmount is the y value at x = 0

Note that some data may have inputs starting at non-zero values (e.g., 1975), in which case it will usually make the model simpler
if the inputs are redefined to start at zero (e.g., as “years since 1975”) or if the model is modified to adjust for a non-zero starting
value, as is illustrated in a later section.
GrowthRate is the relative increase in y when x increases by 1
The growth rate is usually expressed in formulas as a decimal number but is also often described as a percentage (e.g., 0.05 is the
decimal representing 5%). For exponential decay, the growth rate is negative but must be between zero and minus one (that is,
between 0% and –100%). A growth rate of zero would result in the output not changing from its initial value, since 1 raised to any
power is still 1.
Often the formula will have the growth rate already combined with the 1, so that the growth term becomes (1.05)x or (105%)x. For
negative rates, this term will be less than 1, such as (0.95)x or (95%)x.
Percentages must be changed to decimals when computing with them. Most spreadsheet programs will do this automatically if the
percentage number is followed by a % character.
22.2: J1.02- Section 1 Part 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Example 1: Fitting an exponential model to find the growth rate
Use this data from the first 10 U.S. censuses to make an exponential model of U.S. population growth, then use that model to
answer these questions: [Use the Exponential Model worksheet in Models.xls.]
a. Does an exponential model fit this data well? How do you know?
b. What was the average annual growth rate during this period?
c. What population does the model predict for 1900? For 2000?
Solution procedure:
[1] Redefine the input variable to “Years since 1780”, adjusting the x values in column A to start at 0.
Year Population
(millions)
1780 2.8
1790 3.9
1800 5.3
1810 7.2
1820 9.6
1830 12.9
1840 17.1
1850 23.2
1860 31.4
1870 39.8
[2] Copy the redefined data values into a copy of the Exponential Model template. The numbers should fill rows 3 to 12 in columns
A and B.
[3] Select cells C3, D3, and E3. Then spread them (and the formulas they already contain) down to row 12. All three columns
should now show numbers. [The formula in C3 is “=$G$3*(1+$G$4)Â3”.][2] Copy the redefined data values into a copy of the
Exponential Model template. The numbers should fill rows 3 to 12 in columns A and B.
[4] Make a scatter plot of columns A, B, & C. This will show the data and the model on the same graph. At first, the model points
will be on a horizontal line through the origin, but they will move as the exponential growth-rate model parameters (in G3 and G4)
are adjusted.
[5] Adjust G3 (initial value) and G4 (growth rate) to make the model approximately match the data.
i. Set G3 to 2.8, the first value in the table. (We can later adjust this to reduce standard deviation).
ii. Set G4 to 0.01 (which is 1%), then adjust it until the shape of the model is close to that of the data at about 0.03 (which is 3%).
[6] Adjust the parameters using feedback from the graph until further adjustments do not significantly improve the fit.
EXPONENTIAL-GROWTH WORKSHEET FROM Models.xls FILLED OUT WITH EXAMPLE 1 DATA
A B C D E F G H
1 x y data y model Data-Model Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^x
2 Year-1780 Height Prediction deviation y = 2.8 * (1+0.03)^x
3 0 2.8 2.80 0.0000 2.8 a: Initial value at x=0
4 10 3.9 3.76 0.1370 0.03 r: Growth rate
5 20 5.3 5.06 0.2429
6 30 7.2 6.80 0.4037
7 40 9.6 9.13 0.4663 Model and data value counts
8 50 12.9 12.27 0.6251 2 Number of parameters
9 60 17.1 16.50 0.6035 10 Number of data points
10 70 23.2 22.17 1.0301
11 80 31.4 29.79 1.6055 Goodness of fit of this model
12 90 39.8 40.04 -0.2413 4.910062 Sum of squared deviat
13 120 97.19 0.783427 Standard deviation
14 220 1867.87
Answers to questions asked:

[a] Yes, this model fits the data well, since the deviations are only a few percent of the typical population values.
[b] The model growth-rate parameter shows the average annual growth rate of U.S. population from 1780 to 1870 was about
3.0%.
[c] Evaluate the model at 120 (1900 is 120 years since 1780), and 220 (for 2000) to show that a model based on the 1780-1870
census data predicts a U.S. population of about 97 million in 1900 and 1,868 million in 2000. (Actual population was 76
million in 1900 and 281 million in 2000, showing that the rate of U.S. population growth slowed down substantially after 1870.)
Characteristics of exponential models
Doubling time and half-life: In an exponential model, equal steps in the input variable will always increase (or decrease) the value
of the output variable by the same percentage. When the input variable is time, it is often useful to describe the process by how
long it takes for the output to double (for growth) or decline to half (for decay) — these are called the “doubling time” or “half-
life”. These values can be estimated from the graph of the model by taking the y value in the model that is furthest from zero,
drawing a horizontal line at half that height, then noting the difference between the x values of the original point and the point
where the half-height line crosses the graph of the model.
Example 2: Estimate the doubling time of the model for the 1780-1870 U.S. census data.
Solution: The highest point on the graph of the model is (x=90, y=40.0), predicting a 1870 population (90 years after 1780) of 40.0
million people. Half that y value is 20.0, and we can see that the model graph crosses that value about x=65, halfway between the
x=60 and x=70 data points. Subtracting 65 from 90 tells us that the yvalues in themodel double in about 25 years.
Comments on this solution: Notice that the model predicts a population of 10 million at about x=40, then 20 million at about x=65,
then 40 million at about x=90 — this shows that the doubling time of 25 years is the same for different parts of the graph (this is
true only for exponential models). Using the highest point graphed on the model makes it easier to estimate the coordinates
(estimating the x position for y=5 would be harder, for example). For a decaying-exponential model, we still use the highest point
but it is the first point on the left, so the time to the half-height point is a half-life rather than a doubling time.
Convergence to zero: Exponential decay models have a negative “growth” rate, so that at each step the output becomes smaller by
a fixed percentage. This leads to output values that come closer and closer to zero but never quite reach it. But the difference from
zero can quickly become small enough to be negligible for practical purposes—a process whose output value decreases by half
every hour will be less than a ten-millionth of its original size a day later. Notice that if the initial value is negative, this
convergence to zero is from below the x-axis, with increasing values of y that come closer and closer.
Example 3:The intensity in Curies of a radioactive material that is used to make x-ray images of pipes is calibrated
every 15 days, giving the dataset shown to the right. Fit an exponential model to the data to determine if this Days Curies
intensity exhibits exponential decay. If it does, find the decay rate of the material.
Solution process: 0 159.9
1. Copy the data into the ExponentialModel.xls spreadsheet on the course website.
15 138.4
2. Make a scatter plot of the data and model (columns A, B, and C).
3. Set the InitialAmount parameter (in G2) equal to the first data y value.
30 120.2
4. Set the GrowthRate parameter to a small negative number (start with –0.02, which is a decay rate of 2% per
day), then adjust this parameter so that the model matches the data well. We find that a growth rate of –0.0094
45 104.7
gives the best fit.
Answers: 60 91.5
Since the data fits the model well, the intensity exhibits exponential decay.
The growth rate of the model is –0.0094, a decay rate of 0.94% per day. 75 78.6
Example 4:Estimate the half-life of the exponential decay process above.
Solution process:
Examine the model graph (or the values in column C) to find when the output declines to half the initial amount of 90 68.7
160 Curies. This time is the half-life of the decay process.
Answer: 105 58.9
Since the intensity is 78.6 Curies at day 75, the half-life is about 75 days. (Note that the intensity at day 150 is
about ¼ the original value, as it should be.) 120 51.2
135 44.8
150 39.6
165 34.1
180 29.0
195 25.8
210 22.1
225 19.6
240 17.1
255 14.3
270 13.1
Unbounded growth: Exponential growth models become very large surprisingly quickly. This is because each increase causes
later increases to be larger (since at each step the rate of increase depends on the current amount). An investment with a 7.2%
annual return will double to 10 years, then redouble each decade to reach 1000 times the original value in a century. Under
favorable conditions, bacteria can reproduce (and thus double their numbers) about every 30 minutes, leading to a million-fold
increase in ten hours. The process by which scientists amplify the genetic material DNA so that it can be detected chemically
doubles the number of DNA fragments every 2 minutes, leading in less than an hour to about 30 million copies of each original
piece. Most explosions start with exponential growth, as each small reaction causes several others, which in turn each cause more,
and so on. Notice that if the initial value is negative, the unbounded growth can be in a negative direction.
Such growth processes can not continue indefinitely. Although there are many natural processes that show exponential growth at
certain stages, the steady build-up of the speed of exponential growth ensures that some limit (often exhaustion of some essential
resource) is reached sooner or later. This should be kept in mind when modeling—data often show a pattern that will not continue.
Negative output values in exponential models: When the initial amount is a negative number (this usually happens when the y
value describes a difference from a reference value), the only difference is that all of the model’s output values will be negative and
the graphs will thus be reflected around the x-axis, “upside down” compared to models with positive initial values.
Relationship of exponential models with negative initial amounts to the x-axis
Exponential growth Faster growth rate Exponential decay Faster decay rate
Example 5: The table to the right shows the temperature of a soda can as it warms up in a room whose temperature is 75 ° F. Use
an exponential model to: [a] estimate the decay rate per minute of the difference between the can temperature and the room
temperature, [b] predict the can temperature at 20 minutes, and [c] estimate the half-life of the warming process.
Solution:
Since the temperature of the can is not converging on zero, we can’t directly use can temperature as a variable in an exponential-
decay model. Instead, we will subtract the room temperature from the can temperature and use that difference as the output variable
for the model.
Put this dataset into the exponential-model spreadsheet, then adjust the parameters to make the model fit the data. You will find that
the data is well matched by an exponential model whose initial-value parameter is -40 and whose “growth” rate is -0.09 (which is
really a decay rate since it is negative).
Original data
Redefined data
Minutes out Temperature
of cooler of can Minutes out Degrees
of cooler from 75° F
0 35
0 -40
5 50
5 -25
10 59
10 -16
15 65
15 -10
Evaluating the model for x = 20 gives a predicted difference at that time of 6.1 degrees below the room temperature of 75°F.
The data point whose y value is furthest from zero is the first one at (x=0, y=-40). The line halfway to the x-axis is at y=–20, which
crosses the model graph at between 7 and 8 minutes.
Answers:
a. The decay rate of the temperature difference is 8.8% per minute.
b. The predicted temperature at 20 minutes is 68.9°F.
c. The half-life of the warming process is between 7 and 8 minutes.
Symmetry of exponential growth and decay: Despite their different responses to large input valves (as described in the previous
two paragraphs) exponential growth and decay are basically the same process, as shown by the growth and decay graphs shown to
the right. These graphs are mirror images of each other, indicating that in this context growth is simply backwards decay, and vice
versa.
This is why the same mathematical formula can be used for both growth and decay—the difference is just whether the base that is
used is larger or smaller than 1.
Tip on fitting exponential models by hand: If you get strange results in an exponential-modeling problem, check to see if you have
made the rate too large (perhaps by entering a percentage without a percent character where a decimal was expected). This causes
particularly dramatic errors when a negative number is entered, since attempting to raise a negative number to a fractional power
will cause the spreadsheet to show an error message.
Section 2: Comparison of different models for the same data
This graph and its residual values below both show that even the best linear model fits this data poorly.
x y model deviation
0 16.6 26.891 -10.322
1 20.2 25.586 -5.432
2 23.0 24.280 -1.279
3 24.8 22.975 1.837
4 26.3 21.669 4.620
5 26.0 20.364 5.603
6 23.5 19.059 4.484
7 24.2 17.753 6.482
8 21.3 16.448 4.868
9 18.3 15.142 3.191
10 17.3 13.837 3.459
11 11.4 12.531 -1.088
12 4.3 11.226 -6.925
13 0.4 9.920 -9.499
Sometimes different kinds of model can be fitted to the same data reasonably well. In such cases, any of the models may be used
for interpolation. But different types of model give substantially different predictions when extrapolated, so it is important to have
ways of choosing among them if prediction of future values is intended, as it often is. This is more of an issue when you are aware
of the many different possibilities for model formulas, as you will be by the end of this course. Here are some of the ways that
people use to decide among models.
Examine how well the different models fit the graph: This is the basic test of a model, and you can eliminate any kind of
model whose best-fit graph is clearly inferior to that of another possibility. If none of the kinds of models you know about can
be made to fit the data well, you should avoid making predictions with those models for the process that produced that data.
Examine how positive and negative residual deviations are mixed: For the best model, the sequence of deviations will be a
random mix of positive and negative values, indicating that the data points are randomly scattered above and below the model
points. Big adjacent groups of positive or negative residual values that cannot be avoided by changing the parameters indicate
that the model does not match the data pattern.
Prior information: Make use of information you have about the process being modeled other than the data values themselves.
This may be your own knowledge about the kind of process that produced the data, or experts in the field may have already
identified what kinds of models are best for the kind of data you have.
Extrapolation behavior of the model: If extending the model a moderate distance forward or back from the data values gives
unreasonable predictions (such as negative values for population), that model should be avoided, especially if one of the other
possibilities has better extrapolation behavior.
Numerical measures: In a later topic you will learn how to use and interpret the standard deviation, a numerical measure of
how good the fit is between a dataset and a particular model. This value is based on the differences (in column D) between the
data (in column B) and the model prediction (in column C). The best model will usually have the smallest standard deviation.
Example 6: Comparing different models of sales-data history (when both fit the data)
The dataset below of total retail sales in the United States from 1992 to 1999 looks as if it could be fit pretty closely by a linear
model, in which sales increase by the same amount each year. However, most economic trends increase by about the same
percentage each year on the average, so an exponential model might be more appropriate and would also be a good fit. To choose
between these alternatives, we will find both best-fit models and examine what happens to them when extrapolated back 20 years.
Year Sales (B$)
1992 1,952
1993 2,082
1994 2,248
1995 2,359
1996 2,502
1997 2,611
1998 2,746
1999 2,995
Question: For this data, which model has more reasonable extrapolation behavior—linear or exponential?
Solution approach:
[1] Copy the dataset into the Data Scratch Pad worksheet in Models.xls and modify it so that the input variable is years since 1992.
This will make the model parameters easier to find. (The redefined dataset is shown to the right.)
[2] Use a copy of the Linear Model template to find the best linear model, which is about y=141x+1943
[3] Use the Exponential Model template to find the best exponential model, which is about y=1971\cdot{{(1.06)}^{x}}
[5] Note that the graphs of the two models both fit the data well.
Since 1992 Sales (B$)
0 1,952
1 2,082
2 2,248
3 2,359
4 2,502
5 2,611
6 2,746
7 2,995
In both the Linear Model and Exponential Model worksheets, follow these steps:
[a] Insert the values from -1 to -20 into column A below the existing data. These new input values correspond to the years
from 1991 back to 1972. [6] In both the Linear Model and Exponential Model worksheets, follow these steps:
[b] Spread the formula in column C down as far as the new input values. This will give the sales prediction of that model for
the previous 20 years. The results for the two models should look like the worksheet extracts shown below.
Extracts from Models.xls worksheets, with extrapolations back for 20 years
Linear Model y=141x+1943 Exponential Model y=1971\cdot{{(1+0.06)}^{x}}
A B C A B C
1 x y data y model 1 x y data y model
2 Year-1992 Sales (B$) Prediction 2 Year-1992 Sales (B$) Prediction
3 0 1,952 1943 3 0 1,952 1971.00
4 1 2,082 2084 4 1 2,082 2089.26
5 2 2,248 2225 5 2 2,248 2214.62
6 3 2,359 2366 6 3 2,359 2347.49
7 4 2,502 2507 7 4 2,502 2488.34
8 5 2,611 2648 8 5 2,611 2637.64
9 6 2,746 2789 9 6 2,746 2795.90
10 7 2,995 2930 10 7 2,995 2963.66
11 -1 1802 11 -1 1859.43
12 -2 1661 12 -2 1754.18
13 -3 1520 13 -3 1654.89
14 -4 1379 14 -4 1561.22
15 -5 1238 15 -5 1472.85
16 -6 1097 16 -6 1389.48
17 -7 956 17 -7 1310.83
18 -8 815 18 -8 1236.63
19 -9 674 19 -9 1166.63
20 -10 533 20 -10 1100.60
21 -11 392 21 -11 1038.30
22 -12 251 22 -12 979.53
23 -13 110 23 -13 924.08
24 -14 -31 24 -14 871.78
25 -15 -172 25 -15 822.43
26 -16 -313 26 -16 775.88
27 -17 -454 27 -17 731.96
28 -18 -595 28 -18 690.53
29 -19 -736 29 -19 651.44
30 -20 -877 30 -20 614.57
[c] Make a new graph of the data and model (the A1:C30 rectangle of cells). In the graphs below showing the extrapolations,
the scales have been set to equal and gridlines have been omitted, to make comparisons easier. But default-setting graphs will
have the same information.
[6] Compare the extrapolated models. In this case, the linear extrapolation back 20 years predicts negative sales totals in 1972,
which is obviously unrealistic. The exponential model remains positive regardless of how far back it is extrapolated, which shows
that the exponential model is a much better choice for a sales model.
22.7: J1.07- Section 2 Example 6 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
22.8: J1.08- Section 3
Section 3: Choosing a trial model based on the pattern of the data graph
In most cases, it will not be difficult to decide which type of model will best fit the trendline of the data. Each type of model has its
own characteristics, which usually means that only one of them, if any, will be capable of fitting the data well. If you identify a
good candidate for a model, you can test it by using the appropriate worksheet to find its best-fit parameters and see how good the
match is. If no model you know of fits the data, explain what aspect of the data pattern lets you know that model won’t work.
Example 7—for each graph below, is a linear, exponential, quadratic, or some other model appropriate?
[a] [b] [c]
[d] [e] [f]
Answers:
a. Linear. While the graph is noisy, the trendline cannot be quadratic because it shows no sign of bending. It cannot be exponential
since it isn’t showing any sign of bending to approach the x-axis. The best-fit straight line would leave only random noise, so it
is the best model in this case.
b. Quadratic. Since the graph changes direction from downward to upward as it goes from left to right, it cannot be linear or
exponential. The graph is symmetric enough that the parabola that a quadratic model produces a trendline would be a good fit.
c. A decaying exponential. The trendline is clearly not linear, and it approaches but does not cross the x-axis. A quadratic would
also fit reasonably well (in that case the curve would go up again if extrapolated to the right), but an exponential would fit better
and also is a simpler formula.
d. A growth exponential. The data trend starts with a positive intercept and about doubles for each five steps. This is a faster
increase than the best-fit quadratic, which would not quite follow the data
e. Linear, although with significant noise. The best-fit line is about horizontal, so its slope is close to zero. A dataset that consists
of repeated measurements of the same thing (as is often done to test the stability of the measurement process) would look
similar to this.
f. None of the listed models would work. This graph changes between upward and downward twice, while a quadratic can only
change once and the other listed models cannot make that much of a direction change at all. As we will see in a later topic, there
are other models to use in this case.
22.8: J1.08- Section 3 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 4: Building redefinition of variables into model formulas
Redefinition of input parameters
In several different modeling problems so far (including those using population and sales data in this topic), we have redefined the
input variable (e.g., to “Years since 1992” or “Years since 1790”) so that the parameter values for the model did not refer to
projected values at 0 AD. We did this by replacing the “Year” column with a “Years since …” column, changing the numerical
values appropriately by subtracting the first year in the dataset. This approach produces correct answers with reasonably-sized
parameter values for the model, but having to change back and forth between the “year” and the “years since” version of the
parameter is awkward, and graphs made with the “years since” version do not directly display the year, as would be convenient.
These problems can be avoided by some simple changes to the formula of the model. The basic idea is that for a
problem where we previously would have used “Years since 1992” and subtracted 1992 from each year listed in the US
Retail
data table, we will now leave the data table alone but instead replace each “x” in the model formula by the Sales
expression “(x–1992)”. The examples below use the retail sales data from an earlier section to show what effect this
model-modification strategy would have for linear and exponential models of that dataset. Remember that the Year Sales
formula in cell C3 is expressed in spreadsheet format, so that what we do there is replace “A3” with “(A3-1992)”. (B$)
[Note: Always include the parentheses shown, so that the subtraction is done before any other operation.]
1992 1,952
1993 2,082
1994 2,248
1995 2,359
1996 2,502
1997 2,611
1998 2,746
1999 2,995
Example 8: Modify the linear model for US Retail Sales so that the parameters are easy to find, without subtracting 1992 from
each of the input x values in column A.
1. Insert a new Linear Model worksheet.
2. Copy the data into columns A and B, leaving the year values as they are.
3. Set cell H3 to the phrase “Model output in 1992” (replacing the label “Intercept”).
4. Modify the content of cell G1 by replacing the “x” in the expression by “(x-1992)”.
5. Modify the content of cell C3 by replacing “A3” by “(A3-1992)”.
6. Spread the modified formula in cell C3 down to row 10 to match the data.
7. Spread the formulas in D3 and E3 down to row 10.
8. Make a scatter plot of columns A, B, and C (select the rectangle A1:C10) to show the model and the data together so that you
can watch how well they match while you adjust the parameters.
9. Adjust the model parameters, using the following steps:
a. Set G3 to 1,952, which is the dataset value for 1992 (this may be adjusted further in step [c]).
b. Adjust the G3 parameter until the model graph closely follows the shape of the data.
c. If needed for the best fit, make small adjustments to G3 so that the model moves up or down.
10. Use the model to predict sales for any specified year (e.g., 2000) by entering the year number for which you want a prediction
at the bottom of column A.
Resulting worksheet:
A B C D E F G H
1 x y data y model Linear model: y = m * (x-1992) + b
2 Year Sales (B$) prediction y = 140 * (x – 1992) + 1952
3 1992 1,952 1,952 1,952 b: Model output in 1992
4 1993 2,082 2,092 140 m: Slope
5 1994 2,248 2,232
6 1995 2,359 2,372
7 1996 2,502 2,512
8 1997 2,611 2,652
9 1998 2,746 2,792
10 1999 2,995 2,932
The formula in C3 is now “=$G$4*(A3-1992)+$G$3”
Things to notice about this process:

i. The values on the x-axis of the graph are the actual year numbers, not years since 1992.
ii. The final parameter values are the same values that were found by the subtract-1992 method.
iii. When making predictions with the model, there is no need to subtract 1992 from the x value.
iv. There is nothing in this process that makes use of the fact that the formula was linear—this means that exactly the same
instructions can be followed for any model whose G3 parameter gives the prediction of the model when x = 0.
Example 9: Modify the exponential model for US Retail Sales so that the parameters are easy to find, without subtracting 1992
from each of the input x values in column A.
Follow the instructions for Example 8, except use a copy of the Exponential Model worksheet
Top of the resulting spreadsheet:
A B C D E F G H
1 x y data y model Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^(x-1992)
2 Year Sales (B$) prediction y = 1952 * (1 + 0.06) ^ (x – 1992)
3 1992 1,952 1,952 1,952 a: Model output in 1992
4 1993 2,082 2,069 0.06 r: Growth rate
The formula in C3 is now “=$G$3*(1+$G$4)^(A3-1992)

Redefinition of output parameters
In the example discussed earlier where a soda can warms up in a 75º room, subtraction of the room
temperature from the column B temperature-data values was needed in order to use an exponential-decay model Soda-
can
to predict the process. This was necessary because the standard exponential-decay model can only converge on warm-
zero as its asymptotic value, so when using it we need to model the temperature difference, not the temperature up in a
itself. 75º
room
But we can avoid the need for changing the data if we modify the model formula to add on the room temperature
to the prediction. The exponential part of the formula will still converge on zero, but the formula as a whole will
Minutes Temp‐
now converge on the room temperature, as is needed for correct predictions.
out erature
of of can
cooler
0 35
5 50
10 59
15 65
Example 10: Modify the exponential model formula for the warming of a soda can in a room whose air temperature is 75 ºF,
without subtracting 75 from each of the data y values in column B.
1. Insert a new worksheet and label it “Adjusted soda warm-up model”, then copy into this new worksheet the content of the
Exponential Model Template worksheet.
2. Copy the data into columns A and B, leaving the temperature values as they are.
3. Set H3 to the phrase “Temperature at 0 minutes” as a reminder of what is being predicted.
4. Modify the content of cell G1 by adding “+75” at the end just before the last quotation mark.
5. Modify the content of cell C3 by adding “+75” at the end.
6. Spread the modified formula in cell C3 down to row 6 to match the data.
7. Spread the formula in D3 down to row 6.
8. Make a scatter plot of columns A, B, and C (select the rectangle A1:C6) to show the model and the data together so that you can
watch how well they match while you adjust the parameters.
9. Adjust the model parameters, using the following steps:
a. Set G3 to 35, which is the dataset value for 0 minutes.
b. Adjust the G4 growth-rate parameter until the model graph closely follows the shape of the data. The decay rate is the same
8.8% that was found by the subtract-room-temperature method.
c. If needed for the best fit, make small adjustments to G3 so that the model moves up or down.
10. Use the model to predict temperature for any specified time (e.g., 20 minutes) by entering the minute number for which you
want a prediction at the bottom of column A.
Resulting worksheet:
A B C D E F G H
1 x y data y model Exponential model: y = a * (1+r)^x + 75
2 Minutes Temperature Prediction y = –40 * (1 – 0.088)^x + 75
3 0 35 35.00 –40 a: Initial temperature difference
4 5 50 49.76 –0.088 r: Growth rate
5 10 59 59.08
6 15 65 64.95

Part I.
Reproduce the results in Examples 1–10.
Part II.
11 & 12. For each of the graphs below, identify where a linear, quadratic, or exponential model would be appropriate, or where
none of these three choices would work. In each case, write a sentence stating what reason you have for the choice you make.
[11a] [11b] [11c] [11d]
[12a] [12b] [12c] [12d]
For each dataset in the following problems, please do not type it in yourself, but find the data table shown below on the course
web page and “copy and paste” it into the spreadsheet. This will save you quite a lot of work.
Instructions on using modeling spreadsheets to build best-fit models (for use on exercises 13-20):
1. Copy the data into the Data Scratch Pad worksheet in Models.xls and make a scatter plot to look at to decide what kind of
formula (linear, quadratic, or exponential) to use for the model.
2. Copy the Models.xls template designed to fit the chosen kind of model into a new worksheet, labeling the new worksheet with
a reference to the problem.
3. Copy the data into the worksheet, putting the input data values in column A and the output data values in column B, with the
numbers starting at line 3.
4. Select C3:E3, then spread the formulas in these cells down to all the rows that have data values.
5. Make a scatter-plot of columns A to C, which should give you a graph of the data in one color combined with a graph of the
model values in a different color.
6. Adjust the parameters until the model graph is as close to the data as possible, indicating that the current parameter settings
for the chosen model fit the data about as well as a model of that kind can.
7. Examine the graph to see whether this is a good model (the data points are randomly above and below the model) or whether a
better model should be looked for.
Drug concentrations Coffee cool-off Number of web sites

in 70º room
Elapsed hours Concentration Month/Year Sites
(mg/ml) Minutes since pouring Coffee temp.
°F June 1993 130
1 17.4
0 112.7 Dec 1993 623
2 11.2
2 103.6 June 1994 2,738
3 7.5
4 96.8 Dec 1994 10,022
4 4.7
6 91.2 June 1995 23,500
5 3.2
8 86.7 Dec 1995 92,000
6 2.1
10 83.3
World Population Growth Stopping Distances UT Austin Tuition
Year Population Speed Distance Year Tuition

(mph) (feet)
1900 1,550,000 1989 410
20 41
1910 1,750,000 1990 440
30 71
1920 1,860,000 1991 510
40 118
1930 2,070,000 1992 590
50 176
1940 2,300,000 1993 715
60 240
1950 2,400,000 1994 770
70 316
1995 930
1996 1,085
1997 1,200
13. The concentration of a drug in the bloodstream is measured hourly after injection, giving the results shown in the “Drug
Concentrations” dataset above:
a. Identify the input and output variables.
b. Use a spreadsheet to make an appropriate graph and label the axes. (hand-labeling is okay)
c. Use the exponential-model spreadsheet to find a good exponential model and state its equation.
d. Using the model, predict the concentration at 9 hours.
e. How long after the injection does the model predict that the concentration will have fallen to 10.0 mg/ml?
f. What decay rate does the model imply for the concentration of the drug?
14. The temperature of a cup of coffee is measured every 2 minutes, giving the “Coffee cool-off” dataset shown above. The room
temperature is 70° F.
b. Restate the temperatures into a form suitable for an exponential model.
c. Use a spreadsheet to make an appropriate graph and label the axes. (hand-labeling is okay)
d. Use the exponential-model spreadsheet to find a good exponential model for the temperature difference and state its
equation.
e. What decay rate does the model imply for the temperature difference?
f. Using the model, predict the temperature 15 minutes after pouring.
g. About how long after pouring will the temperature be 80° F?
15. Solve the previous exercise by modifying the model formula rather than restating the temperatures.
16. The number of web sites grew rapidly once the world wide web was invented in 1993. Use the “Number of web sites” dataset
above to:
b. Restate the date variable in months since January 1993.
d. Use the exponential-model spreadsheet to find an exponential model that fits the data well and state its equation.
e. State the growth rate per month implied by this model.
f. How many web sites does this model predict for Dec 1997?
17. The population of the world for the first six decades of the twentieth century is given in the “World Population Growth” dataset
above.
b. Modify the data to restate the date variable in years since 1900.
d. Use the exponential-model spreadsheet to find an exponential model that fits the data well and state its equation.
e. State the growth rate per year implied by this model.
f. What world population does this model predict for 2000?
18. Solve the previous exercise by modifying the model formula rather than restating the date variable.
19. For the “Stopping Distances” dataset above giving the stopping distance of a car at various speeds,
b. Fit an exponential model to the data and state the model formula.
c. Fit a quadratic model to the data and state the model formula.
d. Which model better fits the data? How can you tell?
e. Use the better model to predict the stopping distance at 80 mph.
f. What stopping distance does the model predict for zero mph? Does this prediction make sense?
20. For the “UT Austin Tuition” dataset shown above,
b. Fit a linear model to the data and state the model formula.
c. Use the linear model to predict 2006 tuition.
d. Fit an exponential model to the data and state the model formula.
e. Use the exponential model to predict 2006 tuition.
f. State which model you think is better for the tuition dataset, and what arguments you could make to convince someone else
that your conclusion is correct.
21. What percentage growth or decay rate is implied by these exponential models?
a. y = 443.2 × (1.07)x
b. y = 0.134 × (1.025)x
c. y = 5.3 × (0.97)x
22. What percentage growth or decay rate is implied by these exponential models?
a. y = 3.52 × (0.94)x
b. y = 69 × (1.11)x
c. y = 0.825 × (1.075)x
23. What prediction does the model y = 3.52 × (0.94)x make for:
a. x = 10
b. x = 3.178
c. x = 0
24. What prediction does the model 443.2 × (1.07)x make for:
a. x = 10
b. x = 3.178
c. x = 0
22.11: J1.11- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
23: Topic C- Communicating Precision of Approximate Numbers
23: Topic C- Communicating Precision of Approximate Numbers is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or
curated by LibreTexts.
1
Topic C. Communicating the Precision of Measured Numbers
This topic includes
Section 1. Reporting measurements
Section 2. Rounding
Section 3. Precision of a number, including the concept of significant digits
Section 4. Identifying the interval of actual values for a rounded number.
Objectives:
1. Practice the usual rules for rounding.
2. Round a number to a given precision.
3. Determine the implied precision of a rounded number, giving it in words, or by a number, or by underlining the significant
digits.
4. Understand why we don’t do two sequential rounding operations on a number, but do all rounding in one step.
5. Understand that rounding numbers ending in exactly half is sometimes done in a different way.
6. On a number line, graph the interval of actual values which are consistent with a rounded value.
7. Use interval notation to give the interval of actual values which are consistent with a rounded value.
8. Use inequality notation to give the interval of actual values which are consistent with a rounded value.
9. For a given rounded number, find the maximum error due to rounding and express it as a percentage of the rounded number.
23.1: C1.01 Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 1. Reporting Measurements
The following examples use the metric system for measuring lengths. The ideas are applicable to measurement in other contexts,
such as volume or area, and using the English system as well as the metric system. These examples were chosen because it is easier
to convey precision with decimals than fractions, and the metric system makes it easy to use decimals. Look at your ruler and
notice that the centimeter is divided into tenths (each of those is called a millimeter) and the inch is divided into either eighths or
sixteenths. So when we want to make measurements with a ruler smaller than one centimeter, we can easily use decimals, but when
we want to make measurements smaller than one inch with a ruler, it is natural to use fractions rather than decimals.
Suppose we are using a ruler to measure the lengths of some pieces of cardboard and we give each measurement, along with a
phrase describing how precisely we measured it.
Measurement
12 cm, correct to the nearest cm.
18.2 cm, correct to the nearest tenth of a cm.
33 cm, correct to the nearest tenth of a cm.
30 cm, correct to the nearest cm.
Estimate of 20 cm, correct to the nearest ten cm.
Estimate of 300 cm, correct to the nearest hundred cm.
It would be more convenient to give each number in a way that conveys the precision instead of having to write the phrase
afterwards. The generally accepted method for doing that is to report exactly the same number of digits as were observed. That is
straightforward in many situations. It is somewhat less straightforward when the most precise digit observed is a “trailing zero.”
But that is also easily taken care of for the third number in our list, 33 cm, rounded to the nearest cm. Here we use a trailing zero
after the decimal place. In arithmetic courses, we learned that when we compute with the numbers 33 and 33.0, we will obtain the
same results. So if someone writes 33.0 instead of 33, they must be intending to convey something more than just the exact value
of 33. They are conveying that the number is approximately 33 and also conveying the precision of that approximation.
The fourth number in our list, 30 cm, correct to the nearest cm, can be written as 30. cm. When we explicitly include a decimal we
indicate that each of the digits before the decimal was measured precisely. I think of this as only a fairly clear report rather than a
clear report, because a decimal point at the end of the number is so easily overlooked or forgotten in copying the number.
Measurement Completely clear correct report Fairly clear correct report
12 cm, correct to the nearest cm. 12 cm
18.2 cm, correct to the nearest tenth of a cm. 18.2 cm
33 cm, correct to the nearest tenth of a cm. 33.0 cm
30 cm, correct to the nearest cm. 30. cm
Estimate of 300 cm, correct to the nearest hundred cm.
The next four numbers in our list are somewhat more difficult to report clearly without words. For a fairly clear correct report, we
could say that we will assume that all trailing zeros in the number that would be needed to indicate the size are NOT to be
interpreted as conveying precision. If we do that, then three of these four would be interpreted correctly.
Measurement Completely clear correct report Fairly clear correct report
12 cm, correct to the nearest cm. 12 cm
33 cm, correct to the nearest tenth of a cm. 33.0 cm
30 cm, correct to the nearest cm. 30. cm
Estimate of 20 cm, correct to the nearest ten cm. 20 cm
Estimate of 180 cm, correct to the nearest ten cm. 180 cm
Estimate of 300 cm, correct to the nearest hundred cm. 300 cm
We see that there is an advantage in having the most-precise digit in the number after the decimal point when we want to report the
number concisely and have the precision be clear. We could do that by changing our scale so that the relevant measurements are all
decimals. In this case, since 100 centimeters is 1 meter, we could simply change our measurements to meters from centimeters and
then use trailing zeros as needed to convey the precision completely clearly.
The conversion calculation needed for the first measurement in our table is
\begin{align}&12\\\text{cm}\,=\\&=\frac{12\,\text{cm}}{1}\cdot\frac{1\,\,\text{m}}{100\,\text{cm}}\\&=\frac{12\cdot1}{1\cdot100}\,\,\text{m}\\&=\text{0.12}\,\text{m}\end{align}
Review. It is important to be able to convert measurements between different types of units using the proportion method, as
illustrated above. Notice that the proportion method enables you to keep track of the units algebraically. This is an important skill.
See the course web pages for additional explanations and examples of this method of measurement conversion.
Measurement Completely clear correct report in Completely clear correct report in

centimeters meters
12 cm, correct to the nearest cm. 12 cm 0.12 m
2.7 cm, correct to the nearest tenth of a cm. 2.7 cm 0.027 m
18.2 cm, correct to the nearest tenth of a cm. 18.2 cm 0.182 m
33 cm, correct to the nearest tenth of a cm. 33.0 cm 0.330 m
30 cm, correct to the nearest cm. 0.30 m
Estimate of 20 cm, correct to the nearest ten cm. 0.2 m
Estimate of 180 cm, correct to the nearest ten 1.8 m

cm.
Estimate of 300 cm, correct to the nearest ten 3.0 m

cm.
Estimate of 300 cm, correct to the nearest 3m

hundred cm.

23.2: C1.02- Reporting is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 2. Rounding.
Suppose we want to make a graph to summarize the heights of a class of 50 people. And we have their heights measured to the
nearest tenth of an inch. The purpose of making this graph is to get a feeling for the variability of their heights. So the numbers as
measured are more accurate than we really need – heights to the nearest inch would be adequate and easier to handle. Here is a
portion of the dataset.
Original 61.3 68.5 71.4 65.8 64.3 63.4 67.2 72.3 69.5 70.1 62.8 63.7 65.2
Rounded 61 69 71 66 64 63 67 72 70 70 63 64 65
The usual rule for rounding is that, when the part you will drop is less than half, you “go down” and when the part you will
drop is equal to or more than half, you “go up.”
In a later section in this Topic, we will also learn to “think backwards” to see the interval of actual values that are consistent with a
particular rounded value.
Example 1. Round to the nearest hundredth.
a. (a) 3.14738 goes to 3.15
b. (b) 0.73372 goes to 0.73
c. (c) 0.0032 goes to 0.00
Example 2. Round to the nearest ten.
a. (a) 817 goes to 820
b. (b) –1123 goes to –1120
c. (c) 74.567 goes to 70
Example 3. Important idea: Sequential rounding does not always give correct results. You must do all the necessary rounding
in one step in order to obtain correct results.
Problem: Round 64.7 to the nearest ten.
Correct Solution: The nearest ten means that the answer must either be 60 or 70. Since 4.7 is less than half of ten, then when we
round to the nearest ten, we have 60.
Incorrect solution: If we round 64.7 to the nearest one first, it is between 64 and 65, and 0.7 is more than half, so it rounds to 65.
Then if we round that result to the nearest ten, it is between 60 and 70 and 5 is half of ten, so we round this to 70.
Notice that we did not obtain the same answer by these two solution methods. Yet, clearly, 64.7 is closer to 60 than to 70, so the
first solution method must be correct. This illustrates the incorrect answer that sometimes arises if we do our rounding in
sequential steps rather than all in one step.
Discussion. What about one-half?

Bookkeepers have noticed that, if you systematically round all numbers to the nearest dollar, rounding half-dollars up, and then
take sums of those rounded numbers to estimate the sums of the original values, those estimates are a bit too high to be accurate.
The problem is that there is some non-symmetry in the rounding rule. All those less than half “go down” and all those more than
half “go up.” So far that’s symmetric. The problem is that the ones that are exactly half all go the same direction, which is “up.” So
that’s not symmetric. So the rounded values are, on the average, overall, just a little bit higher than the original numbers.
Going deeper. In situations where dealing with one-half in a non-symmetric manner might be a problem, a more sophisticated
rounding rule is adopted. See the course web pages for additional discussion of more sophisticated rounding rules.

23.3: C1.03- Rounding is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 3. Precision of a number
In elementary school we learned that doing arithmetic with the number 18 and the number 18.0 gives the same results. But when
we are thinking of approximate numbers, those two ways of reporting a number do not imply the same thing. In particular, they
imply a different rounding precision for the number, so they imply a different set of actual values that could have led to this
rounded number. These are important distinctions when we work with measured numbers.
Review. Names of the places in a number.
Example 1. Consider the number 38,145. The places, from the right, are the ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands. So
this number is
\begin{array}{l}\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,5\text{ ones}\\\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,4\text{ tens}\\\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,1\text{ hundred}\\\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,8\text{ thousands}\\\underline{+3\text{ ten-
thousands}}\\\,\,\,\,\,38,145\end{array}
Example 2. Consider the number 1.2479. The left-most place, before the decimal point, is the ones place. Immediately after the
decimal is the tenths place, then the hundredths place, then the thousandths place, then the ten-thousandths place.
\begin{array}{l}1\text{ one}\\\,\,\,\,2\text{ tenths}\\\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,4\text{ hundredths}\\\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,7\text{ thousandths}\\\underline{+\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,9\text{ ten-thousandths}}\\1.2479\end{array}
Precision: We can define the precision of a number in three different ways.

1. State it in words.
2. State it with a number.
3. Imply it by how the number is written.
Example 3: The amount $5200 is measured to the nearest hundred dollars. That can be stated as
1. The amount $5200 is measured to the nearest hundred dollars.
2. The amount $5200 is measured to the nearest 100 dollars.
3. The value $5200 has the obvious implied precision.
Example 4: The number 73.123 is rounded to the nearest one-thousandth. That can be stated as
1. The number 73.123 is rounded to the nearest one-thousandth.
2. The number 73.123 is rounded to the nearest 0.001.
3. The number 73.123 has the obvious implied precision.
Example 5: Round 18.038 to the nearest tenth.
Solution: Since we need to cut off everything past the tenths place, we must cut off the marked-out part here 18.038. Since the 3 at
the beginning of the 38 is less than 5, we round down and the answer is 18.0. We could communicate that as “The answer is 18,
rounded to the nearest tenth.” But no one would do that because it is confusing. It is much less confusing if we always include the
tenths digit when we report the result of rounding to the nearest tenth. So here we could say “the answer is 18.0, rounded to the
nearest tenth.” In fact, technical people would not give the words here because everyone would understand that the number 18.0
implies that it is rounded to the nearest tenth.
Example 6. Round 2.1397354 to the nearest 0.001.
Solution. Since we need to cut off everything past the thousandths place, we cut off the marked-out part here 2.1397354 and notice
that the first digit of the 7354 that we need to cut off is greater than half, so we must round up. But the previous digit is 9, so to
round up we must go to 10. That means the answer is 2.140 since the 3 in front of the 9 must go up 1. The answer is 2.140.
Example 7: We measured the length of pipe as 6.30 meters. What is the implied precision of that number?
Solution: Since this number is given in hundredths of a meter, and there is no reason to write the zero on the end except to give the
hundredths place, this implies that the number is measured to the nearest hundredth, that is, the nearest 0.01.
Example 8: In this summary of a financial report of a small business, the amount spent on utilities last year is given as $13,000.
What is the implied rounding precision of that number?
Solution: The implied rounding precision is that the number is rounded to the nearest thousand dollars.
Caution: (Extending the previous example.) If the actual value was $12,973.37 and we wanted to round to the nearest hundred
dollars, the answer would also be $13,000. In our previous examples, where we were doing all the rounding somewhere after the
decimal point, we could easily communicate the rounding precision by extra zeros as needed, so the rounding precision could
always be given unambiguously. But when we have large numbers, where the extra zeros are not after the decimal, then the
rounding precision cannot always be given unambiguously by just writing the number. In those cases, if we want to be
completely clear in reporting a rounded number, we must state the rounding precision in words or numbers and not rely on our
readers just using the implied rounding precision. When we are reading rounded numbers reported by others, we should look at
other information given besides the actual number to see whether the implied rounding precision is consistent with that.
When scientists and others working in technical fields report approximate numbers, they sometimes use the concept of identifying
significant digits. The significant digits in a number are those which give an actual value that was measured or recorded, as
opposed to the digits in a number which merely to indicate the size of the number. (Think of the usual meaning of the word
“significant.” These digits are significant because they are actually measured.) Identifying the significant digits is simply another
way of identifying the implied precision of the number.
Number Implied precision in words Implied precision in numbers Significant digits underlined
17.3 Tenths 0.1 17.3
18 Ones 1 18
18.0 Tenths 0.1 18.0
100.6 Tenths 0.1 100.6
83.20 hundredths 0.01 83.20
97.1080 Ten-thousandths 0.001 97.1080
13000 Thousands 1000 13000
20800 Hundreds 100 20800
In identifying significant digits, we have focused here mainly on identifying the right-most significant digit to be consistent with
the implied rounding precision. However, when we change the units of a measurement after the measurement has been made, we
don’t want that to change the number of significant digits. Specifically notice the second number in our previous table.
Measurement and Completely clear correct Fairly clear Not a Completely clear correct # of sig
its precision report in centimeters correct report clear report in meters digits
report
12 cm, 1 12 cm 0.12 m 2
2.7 cm, 0.1 2.7 cm 0.027 2
18.2 cm, 0.1 18.2 cm 0.182 m 3
33 cm, 0.01 33.0 cm 0.330 m 3
30 cm, 1 30. cm 0.30 m 2
Estimate of 20 cm, 20 cm 0.2 m 1

10
10

10
Estimate of 300 cm, 300 cm 3m 1

100
Some books give “rules for identifying significant digits.” These include
1. leading zeros in a decimal number less than 1 are not significant
2. trailing zeros in a number greater than 1 are not significant
The reason behind these rules is that, unless you are specifically told otherwise, these zeros are in the number just to indicate the
size of the number and not to indicate an actual measured value. The second and last rows in the table are examples of these
situations.
Going Deeper:
In scientific and technical work, the measurement units will usually be chosen so that the rounding precision is either to the nearest
whole number or is in the decimal portion so that it can be given unambiguously. Sometimes they will use scientific notation to
convey the rounding precision unambiguously. See the course web pages for supplemental information for this Topic. This includes
a discussion of how scientists and other technical workers usually choose measurement units so that the implied precision is almost
always at the level of 1, 0.1, or 0.01, so that the numbers’ implied precision is easy to read and unambiguous. Some discussion of
the use of scientific notation is also included.

23.4: C1.04- Precision is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 4. Write an interval of actual values that are consistent with a rounded value.
We can represent all possible real numbers on a number line. We can only label a few of the points because if we tried to label
more, the picture would become confusing. But you should think of being able to graph on a number line any particular number
you are given. (When doing these problems, estimate distances rather than trying to measure them exactly.)
Example 1. Draw a number line that includes the values from 0 to 3. On that number line, label the points corresponding to the
three numbers 0.1, 1.56, and 2.478.
Example 2. Draw a number line that includes the values from 2.0 to 3.0 and label the points corresponding to these numbers: 2.0,
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, and 3.0.
Example 3. Draw a number line that includes the values from 2.2 to 2.4, and label 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4.
(We will now take some numbers in that range with more decimal places, graph them on the number line, and then consider how to
round each of those numbers to the nearest tenth.)
Consider the two numbers 2.347 and 2.372. Place each of them reasonably correctly on the number line.
Round each of these numbers to the nearest tenth and use an arrow to show which number it is rounded to.
What is the cut-off value that separates the numbers that are rounded to 2.3 and those that are rounded to 2.4? Indicate that value
on the number line and label it.
Notice that the cut-off value separating the numbers that are rounded to 2.3 and those rounded to 2.4 is 2.35, which is halfway
between 2.3 and 2.4.
Example 4. We will draw the interval of actual values that are consistent with the rounded value of 2.3.
Procedure:
Think of numbers near 2.3 that have the same precision. Since the precision of 2.3 is one-tenth, then other nearby numbers are
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, etc.
Choose numbers with the same precision—the given 2.3 and the ones on either side, which are 2.2 and 2.4. Put them on a
number line.
What is the cut-off value that separates the number that are rounded to 2.2 and the numbers that are rounded to 2.3? Indicate
that value on the number line.
To label that value, it is easiest to go back and put an extra zero on all the other values, so you have 2.20, 2.30, and 2.40. That
helps clarify that the value half-way between 2.20 and 2.30 is 2.25. Label it.
What is the cut-off value that separates the numbers that are rounded to 2.3 and the numbers that are rounded to 2.4? Indicate
that value on the number line and label it.
Indicate the interval of values that are rounded to 2.3.
23.5: C1.05- Interval Part 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Discussion: What about the end points of this interval?
By drawing these intervals and end points, we see that numbers between 2.25 and 2.35, when rounded to the nearest tenth, are
rounded to 2.3.
But, of course, we remember that the exact value 2.35, when rounded to the nearest tenth, goes to 2.4. So we really shouldn’t
include 2.35 in the interval.
So how far back should we go? Well, what about rounding 2.349999 to the nearest tenth? That goes to 2.3.
So we need all numbers less than 2.35 to be rounded to 2.3. We need some illustration or notation to indicate all the numbers up
to, but not including 2.35.
These are several different ways of indicating this:
Each of these indicates that the left endpoint is included and the right endpoint is not included.
In this course, when we discuss the interval of values of the actual data that are consistent with a rounded value, it will be adequate
for you to merely give the endpoints and not specifically indicate that the left end point is included and the right end point is not.
Example 5. Consider numbers rounded to the nearest hundredth.
a. Write several numbers between 7.6000 and 7.6500 and round each of them to the nearest hundredth.
b. Draw a number line and use it to illustrate which numbers are to be rounded to 7.63.
c. Suppose we report a number as 7.63, rounded to the nearest hundredth. Write an interval that gives the actual values that are
consistent with a rounded value of 7.63
Solution:
a. b. and c.
7.6278 goes to 7.63 7.6251 goes to 7.63

7.6421 goes to 7.64 7.6250 goes to 7.63
7.6189 goes to 7.62 7.6249 goes to 7.62
7.6317 goes to 7.63
7.6048 goes to 7.60
Example 6: If a measured number is reported as 63 feet, rounded to the nearest foot, what interval of possible actual values are
consistent with that?
Solution: (All numbers here are in feet.)
Method: To determine what range of actual values are consistent with a given rounded number,
a. Write the given rounded number and several numbers near it with the same precision as the given number.
b. Graph a number line with the next-smaller and the next-larger number with the same precision on either side of the given
rounded number.
c. If the numbers end in decimals, then add a zero at the end of each number in order to make it easier to label the numbers
halfway in between.
d. On that number line, cut the intervals between the two rounded numbers in half.
e. Label those two cut-off points.
f. Mark the interval between those two cut-off points as the range of actual values that are consistent with the rounded number.
g. To be completely accurate in writing the interval, indicate that the smaller of the two cut-off values is included in the interval
and the larger of the two cut-off values is not included in the interval.
Precision of end points: The numbers at the ends of the interval of actual values will always have exactly one more decimal place
of precision than the given rounded number.
Discussion: Notation.
In the examples below, the same answer is given with several different forms of notation. You do not have to write all of those
different ways for every answer. You must understand all the ways, but pick the one you prefer and write your answers with just
that one form of notation.
Example 7: A measured number is reported as 0.03724 kilometers
a. state the implied precision as a number
b. state the implied precision in words
c. underline the significant digits
d. find the interval of possible actual values consistent with this rounded number.
Solution:
a. The precision here is implied to be 0.00001
b. The precision is one hundred-thousandth.
c. The significant digits are underlined: 0.03724 kilometers
d. The next-smaller number with the same precision is 0.03723 and the next-larger number with the same precision is 0.03725.
Write those as 0.037230 and 0.037240 and 0.037250. Then find and label the half-way points.
The actual number is between 0.037235 and 0.037245 kilometers.

Example 8: A measured number is reported as 1.27 liters.
d. what interval of possible actual values are consistent with that and what are several ways this might be reported?
Solution:
a. The rounding precision here is implied to be 0.01.
b. The precision is one-hundredth.
c. The significant digits are underlined: 1.27 liters.
d. The next-smaller number with the same precision is 1.26 and the next-larger number with the same precision is 1.28. Write
those as 1.260, 1.270, and 1.280. Then find and label the half-way points.
Or it might be reported as 1.27\pm0.005 liters
Another method of reporting it would be 1.27_{+0.005}^{-0.005} liters, which is usually only used if the distances on the two sides are not
equal.
Example 9: If a measured number is reported as 52700 feet, rounded to the nearest hundred feet, underline the significant digits
and identify the interval of possible actual values.
Solution: (All numbers here are in feet.) The significant digits are underlined: 52700 feet
This might also be reported as 52700\pm50 feet.
Another method of reporting it would be 52700_{+50}^{-50} feet, which is usually only used if the distances on the two sides are not
equal.

Another method of reporting it would be 52700_{+50}^{-50} feet, which is usually only used if the distances on the two sides are not
equal.
Example 10: If a measured number is reported as 0.30 meters, what is the rounding precision, underline the significant digits,
and find the interval of possible actual values.
Solution: The rounding precision is 0.01, which is one-hundredth. The significant digits are underlined: 0.30 The next-smaller
rounded number is 0.29 and the next-larger rounded number is 0.31. We’ll write those as 0.290 and 0.300 and 0.310. (All numbers
here are in meters.)
This might also be reported as 0.30\pm0.005 meters

Another method of reporting it would be 0.30_{+0.005}^{-0.005} meters, which is usually only used if the distances on the two sides are
not equal.
Example 11: If a measured number is reported as 12 meters,
a. what is the interval of actual values consistent with that,
b. what is the maximum amount that the actual value could differ from the reported value
c. what is the maximum amount of error as a percentage of the reported number?
Solution:
a. The interval of actual values is between 11.5 and 12.5 meters.
b. The maximum amount that the actual value could differ from the reported value is 0.5 meters.
c. To find the percentage of the maximum error as a percentage of the reported value, we must write it as a fraction, and then do
the division and get a decimal fraction. Then convert that decimal to a percentage. \frac{0.5\text{m}}{12\text{m}}=0.041666667, which is
4.16666667%.
So the maximum error is about 4% of the reported value. This is called the relative error.
Example 12: If a measured number is reported as 12.0 meters,

Solution:
a. The interval of actual values is between 11.95 and 12.05 meters.
b. The maximum amount that the actual value could differ from the reported value is 0.05 meters.
c. To find the percentage of the maximum error as a percentage of the reported value, we must write it as a fraction, and then do
the division and get a decimal fraction. Then convert that decimal to a percentage. \frac{0.05\text{m}}{12\text{m}}=0.0041666667, which is
0.416666667%.
So the maximum error is about 0.4% of the reported value. This relative error is one-tenth of the relative error in Example 11,
reflecting the increased precision of the reported number.

In the examples 7-12 above, the same answer was given with several different forms of notation. You do not have to write all of
those different ways for every answer, unless you are explicitly asked to give several different forms of the answer. You must
understand how to write all the forms, of course.
Part I.
1. Round to the nearest hundredth. (a) 3.14738 (b) 0.73372 (c) 0.0032
2. Round to the nearest ten. (a) 817 (b) –1123 (c) 74.567
3. Round 64.7 to the nearest ten.
a. Do it in one step, correctly.
b. Illustrate the error that occurs if you try to do it in two steps – first rounding to the nearest one and then rounding that result
to the nearest ten.
4. For each of the following numbers, fill in the blanks in the table.
Number Implied precision in words Implied precision in numbers Significant digits underlined
17.3
18
18.0
100.6
83.20
97.1080
13000
20800
5. Draw a number line that includes the values from 0 to 3. On that number line, label the points corresponding to the three
numbers 0.1, 1.56, and 2.478.
6. Draw a number line that includes the values from 2.0 to 3.0 and label the points corresponding to these numbers: 2.0, 2.1, 2.2,
2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, and 3.0.
7. Draw a number line that includes the values from 2.2 to 2.4, and label 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4. Then find the cut-off values for the
numbers that would round to 2.3.
8. Consider numbers rounded to the nearest hundredth.
a. Write several numbers between 7.6000 and 7.6500 and round each of them to the nearest hundredth.
b. Draw a number line and use it to illustrate which numbers are to be rounded to 7.63.
c. Suppose we report a number as 7.63, rounded to the nearest hundredth. Write an interval that gives the actual values that are
consistent with a rounded value of 7.63
9. If a measured number is reported as 63 feet, rounded to the nearest foot, what interval of possible actual values are consistent
with that?
10. A measured number is reported as 0.03724 kilometers
d. find the interval of possible actual values consistent with this number.
11. A measured number is reported as 1.27 liters
d. find the interval of possible actual values consistent with this number and what are several ways this might be reported?
12. Pay careful attention to when trailing zeros are conveying precision.
a. If a measured number is reported as 52700 feet, rounded to the nearest hundred feet, underline the significant digits and find
the interval of possible actual values that are consistent with that.
b. If a measured number is reported as 0.30 meters, rounded to the nearest hundredth of a meter, underline the significant digits
and find the interval of possible actual values that are consistent with that.
13. If a measured number is reported as 12 meters,
14. If a measured number is reported as 12.0 meters,
Part II.
15. Consider 12.1464.
a. Round 12.1464 to the nearest hundredth.
b. Round 12.1464 to the nearest tenth.
c. Round 12.1464 to the nearest hundredth and then round that result to the nearest tenth. Is this a good method of getting a
rounded number for 12.1464 to the nearest tenth? Explain.
16. Consider 8.5478
a. Round 8.5478 to the nearest hundredth.
b. Round 8.5478 to the nearest tenth.
c. Round 8.5478 to the nearest hundredth and then round that result to the nearest tenth. Is this a good method of getting a
rounded number for 8.5478 to the nearest tenth? Explain.
For each of the given numbers in problems 17-24,
a. state the implied rounding precision as a number
b. state the implied rounding precision in words
d. find the interval of possible actual values consistent with this rounded number.
e. what is the maximum amount that the actual value could differ from the reported value?
f. what is the maximum amount of error as a percentage of the reported number?
17. The rounded number 0.71
18. The rounded number 8.93
19. The measured number $54,000
20. The measured number $157,000
21. The measured number 2.347 liters
22. The measured number 18.978
For each of the given numbers in problems 25-28,
a. underline the significant digits
b. find the interval of possible actual values consistent with this rounded number.
29. Consider these three rounded numbers
a. For the measured number 7 meters, underline the significant digits and find the interval of actual values.
b. For the measured number 7.0 meters, underline the significant digits and find the interval of actual values.
c. For the measured number 7.00 meters, underline the significant digits and find the interval of actual values.
d. Do these three reported rounded numbers convey identical information?
30. Consider these three rounded numbers.
a. For the measured number 82 meters, underline the significant digits and find the interval of actual values.
b. For the measured number 82.0 meters, underline the significant digits and find the interval of actual values.
c. For the measured number 82.00 meters, underline the significant digits and find the interval of actual values.
d. Do these three reported rounded numbers convey identical information?
23.9: C1.09- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
24: Topic E- Using a Spreadsheet
24.8: E1.07- Section 4
24.9: E1.08- Section 5
24: Topic E- Using a Spreadsheet is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Exercises: For each of the following problems, after you have completed it on the spreadsheet, print the spreadsheet to turn it in
with your homework.
a. Organize your work so that everything you want to print appears in Columns A-I. Material that appears to the right of that will
not print on the same piece of 8.5 by 11 paper.
b. If you have the graph selected when you choose “Print” it will only print the graph. Since you need to show the numerical work
as well as the graph for these, before you print, make sure that nothing is selected.
c. Never print long columns of numbers. These are only useful to view or compute with—not to read.
Part I.
1. Graph y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} on the values 0\le{x}\le12 and, on the same axes, graph .
y=10x
a. Determine what range of x-values has the first formula value smaller than the second formula value. (Where is the curved
graph below the straight line?)
b. Use the graph to estimate the y-value of y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} when x=14.
2. Use the graph to estimate which x gives the lowest value for y when y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} on the values 0\le{x}\le12.
3. Use a spreadsheet to graph y=\sqrt{12x+3} for input values between 0 and 6.
4. In the spreadsheet, put =PI() into a cell. See that it gives 3.14… with high precision.
5. Use a spreadsheet to compute the average of these six test grades: 72, 85, 69, 79, 92, 71. Then change the first score to 102 and
see how the average updates to give a new value.
6. Use a spreadsheet to find the maximum of all the data values from the set of data below. Then replace the first value in the
“Men” column, 67, with the number 85. Notice that the computed maximum changes to 85 as soon as you do this.
Men Women
67 62
57 55
63 59
49 68
52 42
7. Use copy and paste to get the data from column A in Example 17 to put into column A of a spreadsheet. Use formulas to find
the average, standard deviation, maximum, and minimum of the set of values, putting the appropriate formulas into column C
and labels in column D describing what the formula cell to the left is computing.
8. Use the STDEV function to compute the standard deviation of these grades: 72, 85, 69, 79, 92, 71 (the same values listed in
Exercise 5 above).
9. Use the MAX and MIN formulas to compute the largest and smallest grades in Exercise 5.
10. Consider the formula y=2{{(x-3)}^{2}}+4. Make a spreadsheet to graph that formula in a more general way, as y=a{{(x-h)}^{2}}+k.
a. Then use it to investigate the effects of changing h on the shape and position of the graph.
b. Then use it to investigate the effects of changing k on the shape and position of the graph.
c. Then use it to investigate the effects of changing a on the shape and position of the graph.
Part II.
In 11-14, graph each of the following formulas using a spreadsheet. In 11 & 12, use input values from 0 to 20, with an increment of
1. In 13 & 14, use input values between 0 and 5, with an increment of 0.25.
11. y=3{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{4}\right)}^{4x}} 12. y=3{{x}^{1.8}} 13. y=\frac{12x}{4{{x}^{2}}+7} 14. A=\frac{5}{1+8\cdot{{3}^{t}}}
15. Use the AVERAGE function to find the average of these 8 quiz scores: 7, 9, 10, 5, 8, 9, 6, 7
16. Set up a spreadsheet to calculate the standard deviation for the set of quiz grads shown to the right. Once you have the
spreadsheet set up, explore the effects of the numbers on the standard deviation by making at least three changes in grades. Grades
Report what changes you make, and what standard deviation results after each change.
74
72
90
84
86
95
97
72
17. Using the set of measurement values listed to the right:

[a] Calculate the average, standard deviation, and maximum for the set of measurement values listed to the right. Measurements
[b] Does the maximum differ from the average by more or less than the standard deviation?
433
442
439
436
436
447
439
440
427
18. Calculate the average, standard deviation, and maximum for the set of measurement values listed to the right.
Measurements
1,330
1,344
1,365
1,337
1,322
1,327
1,347
1,342
1,325
19. Calculate the average, standard deviation, maximum, and minimum for the set of measurement values listed to
the right. Measurements
0.398
0.376
0.423
0.416
0.355
0.422
0.360
0.416
0.374
0.379
0.446
20. Use the SQRT function to graph M=2+\sqrt{8x-7} for values of x between 1 and 12.
21. For Topic B. Formulas and Graphing problem in Part II about the drug dosage, use a spreadsheet to make a more
comprehensive graph to estimate more accurately the time for the concentration to be reduced to 2 ml/l. Give your estimate in
hours with decimals, not in hours and minutes.
22. For Topic B. Formulas and Graphing problem in Part II about the landing speed, use a spreadsheet to make a more
comprehensive graph in the appropriate part of the graph to estimate the weight which will have a landing speed of 100 ft/sec.
to the nearest hundred pounds.
23. For Topic B. Formulas and Graphing problem in Part II about the logistic formula, use a spreadsheet to make a more
comprehensive graph in the appropriate part of the graph to estimate the time when the value of P will be 900.
24. For Topic B. Formulas and Graphing problem in Part II about the break-even point, use a spreadsheet to make a more
comprehensive graph so that you can estimate the break-even point to the nearest hundred thermometers.
25. Consider the formula y=2{{(1.5)}^{x}}. Make a spreadsheet to graph that exponential formula in a more general way, as y=a{{(b)}^{x}}
for values of x between -6 and 6. Use that spreadsheet to investigate the effect of changing the value of the base, b, where b>0.
Choose some values for the base less than 1 and some greater than 1. In your solution, write a summary of what you found and
give at least three graphs to support your summary.
26. Consider the formula y={{x}^{2}}. Make a spreadsheet to graph that power formula in a more general way, as y={{x}^{p}} for
values of x between 0 and 6. Use that spreadsheet to investigate the effect of changing the value of p, where 0.3<p<4. Choose
some values for the power, p, less than 1 and some greater than 1. In your solution, write a summary of what you found and
give at least three graphs to support your summary.
24.1: E1.11- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Topic E. Using a Spreadsheet
The illustrations in this Topic are from Excel, but all spreadsheets work similarly on the basic topics. Practice on whatever
spreadsheet is available to you. Expect to have questions. Please allow time for that and make a place in your notebook to write
those questions and the answers you find. And NEVER SPEND MORE THAN 5 MINUTES STUCK on something involving
computer software. Instead, write down your question and ask it during the next class or office hours.
Objectives:
1. Learn the details of the particular computer you’re using. Turn it on, find and open the program, open it.
2. Basics:
a. Enter data by typing it in.
b. Enter patterned data efficiently (usually for the input values, or the x-values)
c. Enter a formula (usually for the output values, or the y-values)
d. Copy a formula into other cell.
e. Print and/or save the worksheet.
f. Copy a set of data from a table on the web into the spreadsheet.
g. Relative cell locations versus absolute cell locations.
3. Graphs
a. Make a graph of a formula onto a rectangular coordinate system.
b. Make a graph of two different formulas on the same axes, so that they can easily be compared.
c. For a given input value, use the graph to estimate the output value.
d. For a given output value, use the graph to estimate the input value that would give that output.
e. Use the spreadsheet to look “more closely” at some particular portion of the graph.
f. Optional: Changing the titles, labels, and scale along the axes.
4. Formulas and functions.
a. Know when and how to insert extra parentheses into formulas to make Excel compute correctly.
b. Use these built-in functions: SQRT, AVERAGE, MAX, MIN, STDEV.
5. Explore how the graphs of formulas change as the parameters change.
Section 1. Starting the program.

You’ll use the computer in the classroom and then a computer at home or in a computer lab to do your homework. Fill in this chart.
Classroom Where I do homework
Location
Login (Username / password)
Name of the spreadsheet program

24.2: E1.01- Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 2: Basics
Example 1. Entering data.
When you put data into the worksheet, it is important to include labels and explanations.
Often we will want to graph data. In that case the columns of numbers should be next to each other. If there are more than two
columns of numbers, it is must useful if they are all together. That is, if there are other things to include, such as explanations, or
other constant values, etc., those should be completely separated from the columns of data by at least one blank column.
A B C D E F G
1 G L
2 Goat 151 12
3 Lion 108 10
4 Pig 115 10
5 Cat 63 11 G = Gestation period (days)
6 Dog 63 11 L = Life Expectancy (years)
7 Squirrel 44 9
8 Rabbit 31 7
9 Duck 28 10
10 Chicken 22 7.5
11 Parakeet 18 8
When you enter data into the spreadsheet, if you will use it later, it is a good idea to include some explanations, as indicated here.
Notice that, when you are typing the names of the variables, they are typed into one cell each, but since they are longer, they show
spread over several cells.
Example 2. Enter a patterned set of numbers efficiently.
In graphing, we often need a long sequence of x-values and it is tedious to type them in one by one. They can be entered more
quickly.
Label the first column as the x variable, and then we will enter the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, …, 20 quickly.
Start by typing in the x and then entering the first two numbers in the next two cells. (This sets up the pattern.)
A B
1 x
2 0
3 1
Next, select those TWO CELLS at the same time by clicking on the first cell, holding down the left mouse button and then moving
to the second cell, and then letting up the left mouse button. There will be a small rectangle at the bottom left corner of the bottom
cell. Move your mouse on top of that and see a + symbol appear. Left-click on that small rectangle and drag it down several cells.
Then let up on the left mouse button and the cells will fill in with the next numbers in the sequence.
Continue by selecting the bottom two cells and extending it further, until you have completed the task.
Spend about 2 minutes practicing this. If you can’t make it work, ask for help.
Example 3. Notice the cell locations.
Notice that, in the worksheet, all the cells are labeled. Along the top is a letter and along the side is a number. Can you find the cell
A2? Can you find the cell D15? In other spreadsheet programs, they might be labeled differently, but they will still have labels.
This is a very important aspect of spreadsheets.

24.3: E1.02- Section 2 Part 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Example 4. Entering a formula into a spreadsheet.
We will set up the data that will allow us to graph the formula y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} on the values 0\lex\le9 .
Set up the x-values from 0 to 20 as in the previous example, with the label x at the top of that column.
Label the second column as y and then enter the following formula into the second cell in that column. The spaces aren’t
needed. I show this with spaces only to make it easier to read.
=4+2*(A2–3)^2 (Enter) (It isn’t necessary to type capital letters for the cell locations. Excel will change them to
capital letters automatically.)
Notice that after you punched Enter, the formula disappeared in the cell and was replaced by the value of the formula when x=0
. That’s because, in place of the x in the formula, you entered a cell location, so the spreadsheet used the value in that cell
location and evaluated the formula. Did it evaluate the formula correctly? You should check it. Since
y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(0-3)}^{2}}=4+18=22, the value for cell B2 should be 22. Is it?
When you put your cursor on the cell where you typed the formula, which has a number in it now, notice that the formula itself
appears in a line above the spreadsheet, so that you can still see it.
Put the formula into the next cell. Copy the formula by highlighting the cell (left-click on the cell, then Edit>Copy.) Move the
cursor to the next cell and then choose Edit>Paste. That should put the formula into the second cell. Notice that the second cell
has a number, but the updated formula is in the line above the spreadsheet. How is the formula updated? Do you see that now
it has the cell location A3 in it? So it’s using the next value for x, which is exactly what you want.
Continue copying and pasting the formula until you have completed the spreadsheet. You can do that one cell at a time or
you can copy into several cells at once by selecting several cells before you Paste. Experiment with this. Write notes about
how to do it here.
A B
1
x y
2
0 22
3
1 12
4
2 6
5
3 4
6
4 6
7
5 12
8
6 22
9
7 36
10
8 54
11
9 76

Summary. Saving the worksheet and printing the worksheet.
If you have spent much time preparing a worksheet, it is a good idea to save it. I recommend that you keep a folder on your
computer and in a “cloud” location or on a flash drive for these files. Name the folder for this class and the files by the name of the
topic and then by the page number or problem number. Examples: Dpage3, Dproblem9.
When you are doing classwork, there is no need to print. I prefer that you not print then, because all the computers in the room
share the same printer and it will cause problems for us if everyone tries to print at the same time. Also, the printers in the
classrooms are often not working well. When you are doing homework, you will need to print some of your output. If you don’t
have a printer at home, you can bring your file to computer lab to print it. Be conservative about how much you print. Generally
speaking, don’t print until you have finished the problem and are confident it is correct. If you need to ask questions about your
work, an electronic file is much more useful than a printout.
1. Organize your work so that everything you want to print appears in Columns A-I. Material that appears to the right of that will
not print on the same piece of 8.5 by 11 paper.
2. If you have the graph selected when you choose “Print” it will only print the graph. To print your numerical values as well as
your graph, make sure that nothing is selected.
3. Never print long columns of numbers. These are only useful to view or compute with – not to read. When you have used long
columns of numbers, then copy and paste the material you actually want to print to another page before you print.
4. To save a file choose File > Save As
5. To print a file choose File > Print
Example 5. Copying data from the web to a worksheet.
If you find data in an electronic file that is already organized into a table, you can just “Copy and Paste” it into a worksheet. This is
very convenient!
Practice this by going to this course web page, open this document (in the .rtf file) and go to the animal data from Example 1 in this
section. Copy and paste it into your worksheet.
Example 6. Relative cell locations versus absolute cell locations
In Example 4, when you copied a formula and pasted it into another cell, you noticed that it updated the reference to another cell to
keep it in the same “relative location.” This is a very important aspect of spreadsheets, because it enables you to easily input a
formula into a whole series of cells. Occasionally, however, in a formula you will want to use a cell reference that doesn’t get
updated. Do that by using dollar signs. So A3 is a relative cell location, but $A$3 is an absolute cell location and does not get
updated when you copy and paste a formula including it to another place.
Make a worksheet that will enable me to look at any of y={{x}^{2}} or y={{x}^{3}} or y={{x}^{6}} very easily.
The formula in cell B3 is =A3^$D$1. Below on the left is the worksheet as I originally entered it. On the right is the same
worksheet after I changed the entry in cell D1 to the number 6.
A B C D A B C D
1 2 1 6
2 x y = xêxponent 2 x y = xêxponent
3 0 0 3 0 0
4 1 1 4 1 1
5 2 4 5 2 64
6 3 9 6 3 729
7 4 16 7 4 4096
8 5 25 8 5 15625
9 6 36 9 6 46656

Section 3. Graphs
First we’ll investigate how to use a spreadsheet to graph one formula onto a rectangular coordinate system, just like the graphs you
have done by hand in algebra classes. You MUST put the values for the input variable and the output variable in two
columns, with the input variable on the left. Some of the details of exactly what menus to use after that may vary from one
spreadsheet program to another. The description here is for Excel. Ask for help about the exact sequence to use if you have a
different spreadsheet program, such as Open Office. (The Microsoft Works spreadsheet program will not graph.)
Then, in Excel, choose the Insert > Chart
Example 7. Graph y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} on the values using a rectangular coordinate system and connecting the points with a line/curve.
Solution:
First enter the x-values in the first column, including the label at the top of the column. There is no clear answer about exactly
how many values to enter here, but be sure they include some at each end of the range of x-values.
Second, enter the formula as described in Section 2, Example 4, including the label at the top of the column. (Look back at that
example to see the values.)
Select the cells that contain the labels and the data to graph.
In the menus at the top of the page, choose Insert>Chart to begin a graph.
Choose X-Y Scatter for the type. (Gives the rectangular coordinate system that we want.)
You’ll have a choice of connected or unconnected lines. In this case, choose the connected lines. Sometimes in this course
we’ll choose unconnected lines.
Go through the rest of the choices quickly, not changing anything, and click Finish.
Check: In this course, you will graph many formulas that you haven’t seen before, so you won’t know what they are supposed to
look like. The best way to check this is to evaluate at least one of the values by hand (using a calculator) as we did when entering
the formula, just to be sure you have done what you intended when you put the formula in. But, if you have entered the formula
correctly, then those values will be correct and this will be the correct graph.
Example 8. Graph y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} on the values 0\le{x}\le12 and, on the same axes, graph y=10x. Determine what range of x-values
has the first formula value smaller than the second formula value. (Where is the curved graph below the straight line?)
Solution:
Repeat the first few steps in the previous example to obtain the first formula values. This time extend the x-values to 12.
In the third column of the spreadsheet, put the values for the formula y=10x.
Select all three columns of numbers, as far down as you have values.
Use Insert>Chart and choose X-Y Scatter. Choose the connected lines. I encourage you to experiment a bit.
A B C
1 x y=4+2(x- y=10x
3)^2
2 0 22 0
3 1 12 10
4 2 6 20
5 3 4 30
6 4 6 40
7 5 12 50
The range of values is about x=1 to x=10 for which the values of the curved graph are below the
8 6 22 60 values of the straight-line graph.
9 7 36 70
10 8 54 80
11 9 76 90
12 10 102 100
13 11 132 110
14 12 166 120

24.6: E1.05- Graphs Part 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Example 9. Just by sketching some more of the graph, estimate the y-value of y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} when x=14 .
Solution: Extend the graph a bit and find that it appears to give y=250 .
Check: Check this by plugging x=14 into the formula, y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(14-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(11)}^{2}}=246
Example 10. Use the graph to estimate which x gives the lowest value for y when y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} on the values .
0\le{x}\le12
Solution: That x-value is clearly between 0 and 5. It appears to be a bit above halfway. So we estimate that it is about x=3 .
Example 11. Let’s “magnify” the portion of the graph near x=3 in order to see very precisely where the minimum value is.
Actually, we leave the old dataset and graph alone and produce a new one. This time, we’ll just use x values near 3. So we’ll graph
y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}} on the values 2\le{x}\le4 where we increase the x-values in increments of 0.1. Use the same technique as before. Here
is the middle part of the data table and the graph. This makes clear that x=3 gives the minimum value for y.
A B
1 x y
2 2.5 4.5
3 2.6 4.32
4 2.7 4.18
5 2.8 4.08
6 2.9 4.02
7 3 4
8 3.1 4.02
9 3.2 4.08
10 3.3 4.18
Check: To see that this is right, plug in and find the y-value. Then plug in a couple of other x-values close by and see if their y-
values are lower or higher.
So x=3 and then y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(3-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(0)}^{2}}=4
Now x=3.02 and then y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(3.02-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(0.02)}^{2}}=4.0008
Now x=2.99 and then y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(2.99-3)}^{2}}=4+2{{(0.01)}^{2}}=4.0002
These make it clear that the value of y at is smaller than the value of y at values for x near 3. Putting that together with what we
saw on the graph, it is very clear now that x=3 is the correct answer.
Example 12. Optional: Changing the titles, labels, and scale along the axes.
In Example 4, we might prefer to have a graph with more labels, more grid lines, and different scales for the axes. Here is the result
we want and how to obtain it in Excel. This may be done differently or may not be possible in other spreadsheet programs.
While making the graph, in Step 3 of 4, click on some of the tabs at the top and change something.
Titles: Put the labels you want.
Gridlines: Check all four boxes for major and minor gridlines for both variables.
Legend: Uncheck “Show Legend.”
After the graph is made, move your cursor on top of some value on the x-axis and double click. In the
resulting box, choose the Scale tab and then fill in the four boxes. I used 2 to 4, with major gridlines at 0.5 and
minor gridlines at 0.25.
Then do the same thing for the y-axis, but from 1 to 7, with major gridlines at 3 and minor gridlines at 1.

24.7: E1.06- Graphs Part 2 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
24.8: E1.07- Section 4
Section 4. Formulas and functions
We have similar issues about order of operations when we enter formulas into a spreadsheet as when we enter them into a
calculator. In these two types of problems below, it is necessary to insert parentheses. When we write these by hand, the order of
operations is implied by the placement of the expressions, so that when we type them in, we must use parentheses to compensate
for that.
Evaluate each expression In a spreadsheet, if the x-value is in cell A2
, where x=3 =3^(2*A2)
\frac{{{x}^{2}}-6x}{4x+2}, where x=3
=(A2^2-6*A2)/(4*A2+2)
\sqrt{4x+9} =SQRT(4*A2+9) or =(4*A2+9)^0.5
In addition to the usual mathematical operations, there are various named functions you may use in spreadsheet formulas.
Named function Example (usual notation) Example (spreadsheet

notation)
Square Root \sqrt{4x-5} =SQRT(4*A2-5)
Average (of a set of five numbers, in cells A2 \frac{{{x}_{1}}+{{x}_{2}}+{{x}_{3}}+{{x}_{4}}+{{x}_{5}}}{5} =AVERAGE(A2:A6)

through A6)
Maximum (of a set of seven numbers, in B2 through \max({{x}_{1}},{{x}_{2}},{{x}_{3}},{{x}_{4}},{{x}_{5}},{{x}_{6}},

{{x}_{7}})
=MAX(B2:B8)
B8)
Pi (the value 3.14…) \pi =PI()
To find additional functions, in Excel, choose Insert > Function and explore the dialog box. Many of the functions will be things
you don’t know about, but some will have familiar names. Explore them.
Example 13. Use a spreadsheet to graph y=\sqrt{12x+3} for input values between 0 and 6.
Solution: Put in the values for x, then insert the formula. Then graph.
A B The formula in cell B2 is

=SQRT(12*A2+3)
1 x y
Then that formula was copied to cells B3 through
2 0 1.732051 B8.
3 1 3.872983
4 2 5.196152
5 3 6.244998
6 4 7.141428
7 5 7.937254
8 6 8.660254
Example 14. Put the formula for the value into the spreadsheet and see what number it gives.
Solution. In cell A1, put =PI(). Enter that. See that it gives the value 3.14 … with high precision, as does the key on a calculator.
Example 15. Use a spreadsheet to compute the average of these six test grades: 72, 85, 69, 79, 92, 71
Solution: First, type the scores into a blank spreadsheet. (In this case, copying and pasting doesn’t work because the scores
above are not in separate cells of a table in the original document.) If you put them in the upper left corner, they will
A
be in cells A1 through A6.
1 72
Next choose another cell to put the formula in. If you choose cell C4, then in C4, put this formula
=AVERAGE(A1:A6)
2 85
As soon as you enter that formula, the average of the six numbers, which is 78, will appear in the cell.
3 69
To “play” with this, go back to the cells with the data and replace the first value of 72 with 102. Notice that the
4 79
average in cell C4 changes to 83.
5 92
6 71
Cell C4:
78 average
Example 16. Use a spreadsheet to find the maximum of all the output data values in the dataset below.
Solution: First, copy and paste these data values into a blank spreadsheet. If you paste the whole set into the
upper left corner, the output data will be in cells B2 through C6
A B C
Next choose another cell to put the formula in. If you choose cell F3 then, in cell F3, put this formula
1 Year Men Women
=MAX(B2:C6)
2 2000 67 62
As soon as you enter this formula, that cell should show 68, which is the maximum of these
numbers.
3 2001 57 55
Now, to “play” with this, go back to the cells with the data and replace the first value in the “Men”
4 2002 63 59
column, 67, with the number 85. Notice that the maximum, over in cell F3, changes to the new
maximum 85.
5 2003 49 68
6 2004 52 42
Cell F3:
68 maximum
Note: well-organized data will have all the data in a single column (or sometimes a single row), except when there are
subcategories like those shown here.
24.8: E1.07- Section 4 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
24.9: E1.08- Section 5
Section 5. Using spreadsheets to compute values describing sets of measurement data.
Several of the functions provided in spreadsheets are designed specifically for providing summary information about sets of
measurement data (such summaries are called statistics). In particular, the AVERAGE function provides information on the typical
value for a set of measurements, and the STDEV function provides information about the typical amount that individual
measurements differ from the average. The MAX and MIN functions can also be used to find the measurements that are furthest
from the average in each direction (i.e., the maximum and minimum measurement values).
All of these functions are computed in the spreadsheet in the same way. A cell is set to a formula where the function name is
followed by a range of cells in parentheses, as was shown in the examples above for “=AVERAGE(A1:A6)” and “=MAX(A1:C3)”.
The range contains the values used in the computation, and can be as large as desired, meaning that once they are in the spreadsheet
it is just as easy to compute the average of 1000 values as the average of 10 values.
Average, maximum, and minimum are familiar concepts that are often used with numbers. The STDEV function will be new to
many students. It computes the standard deviation of the values in the range. Standard deviation is a function that was specifically
designed for use with measurements, and is the main way used in mathematics and science to describe how much a set of
numerical values differ among themselves. For situations where the same object is being measured multiple times, the value of
STDEV reflects the amount of noise in the measurement process.
The mathematical process used to calculate standard deviation is rather complicated, and is described in a later topic. But you will
never need to calculate standard deviation by hand, since all spreadsheets have a function like STDEV. We will discuss standard
deviation more in several later topics, but here is an example of a spreadsheet using it and the other statistical functions.
Example 17: Describe the average, standard deviation, maximum, and minimum for a measurement set.
A B C D E
1 Flow rate
2 8.475 8.432128 Average — C2 contains the formula =AVERAGE(A2:A20)
3 8.179
4 8.660 0.332176 Std. dev. — C4 contains the formula =STDEV(A2:A20)
5 8.483
6 8.304 9.148 Maximum — C6 contains the formula =MAX(A2:A20)
7 8.599
8 8.981 7.896 Minimum — C8 contains the formula =MIN(A2:A20)
9 8.004
10 8.080
11 8.368
12 8.287
13 9.148
14 8.218
15 8.549
16 8.071
17 7.896
18 8.419
19 8.708
20 8.780
Note that the average and the standard deviation show many decimal places, even though the data used only has three decimal
places. This is typical of computer calculations. In the later topics we will discuss how to decide how many digits should be
reported for such results.
If you copy the data and make a similar spreadsheet, you can “play” with it by varying the data values.
Example 18: Compute the standard deviation of the six text grades in Example 15: 72, 85, 69, 79, 92, 71
Solution: First, type the scores into a blank spreadsheet (or start with the spreadsheet you already made for Example 15,
making sure the values are reset when you played with changing them). If you put the scores in the upper left
A
corner, they will be in cells A1 through A6, as shown to the left.
1 72
Next choose another cell (such as C6) to enter the formula “=STDEV(A1:A6)” into. As soon as you enter the
formula, 9.077445, which is the standard deviation of the six grades, should appear in that cell. This indicates
2 85
that about 9 points is the typical amount of variation of this student’s test scores from his or her average.
3 69
To “play” with this, go back to the cells with the data and replace the first value of 72 with 42. Notice that the
standard deviation in cell C6 almost doubles, changing to 17.44706. The standard deviation is particularly
4 79
sensitive to large deviations from the average value.
5 92
6 71
Cell C6:
9.077445 Standard
deviation
Example 19: Use a spreadsheet formula to compute the maximum and minimum grades in Example 18.
Solution: You already have put the data into a spreadsheet (although you need to restore any data values you changed while
“playing”. The all you need to do is put “=MAX(A1:A6)” into one cell (such as C8) and “=MIN(A1:A6)” into another cell (such as
C10). This should give the correct values of 92 and 71, respectively.
Of course for a set of six grades you can easily find the maximum and minimum grades just by looking at the list. But what if you
needed to find the maximum of a list of hundreds of grades? An advantage of spreadsheets is that they work just as easily for large
amounts of data as for small amounts.

24.9: E1.08- Section 5 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 6. Explore how the graphs of formulas change as the parameters change.
Example 20. Consider this formula y=a{{(x-h)}^{2}}+k, which is a generalization of the formula we have graphed in several examples
in this topic. That example is y=4+2{{(x-3)}^{2}}=2{{(x-3)}^{2}}+4, so there a=2, h=3, and k=4. In this section, we will use the spreadsheet to
graph this in a way that will make it easy to explore what happens when we change one or more of (which we call parameters.)
Setting up the spreadsheet:
1. We will graph this for values of x from -6 to +6. So put the label x in cell A1 and then start in A2 with these values and continue
through A14.
2. Instead of putting the formula directly into column B, we will enter the three initial values a=2, h=3, and k=4 in cells over to
the side. Please put the values in column G, cells G2, G3, and G4, respectively and the labels in column H.
3. Label column B as y. That is, enter y into cell B1. Then enter the formula in cell B2. Notice that the cell references for a, h,
and k must be entered with absolute references, so the formula that would have been =2*(A2-3)^2+4 is, instead =$G$2*
(A2-$G$3)^2+$G$4
4. When this is entered correctly, the numerical value will be 166.
5. After the formula is entered correctly, then copy and paste it into the remainder of the cells in column B, which is through B14.
6. Then select the data, with the labels. Highlight it. Then choose Insert > Chart and XY Scatter. Choose one of the options that
connects the data with curves. Then keep clicking on “Next” until you click on “Finish.” This will produce a graph of the
formula with the given values in it.
A B C D E F G H
1 x y
2 -6 166 2 a
3 -5 132 3 h
4 -4 102 4 k
5 -3 76
6 -2 54
7 -1 36
8 0 22
9 1 12
10 2 6
11 3 4
12 4 6
13 5 12
14 6 22
15

Start exploring. How does changing h change the graph?
Start by changing h to -2.
That makes the spreadsheet look like the illustration below.
A B C D E F G H
1 x y
2 -6 36 2 a
3 -5 22 -2 h
4 -4 12 4 k
5 -3 6
6 -2 4
7 -1 6
8 0 12
9 1 22
10 2 36
11 3 54
12 4 76
13 5 102
14 6 132
15
16
Now we can notice that, when , the lowest point on the graph is at
h=3 , and when
x=3 h=-2 , then the lowest point on the graph is at
x=-2.
This suggests that maybe the value that is subtracted from x in the original formula is the one that determines where the lowest y-
value is – that is, where the lowest point on the graph is.
Try h=0 , , and

h=4 h=-3 .
h=0 h=4 h=-3
(leaving a=2 and k=4 ) (leaving a=2 and k=4 ) (leaving a=2 and k=4 )
Do these results support the conjecture we made in the previous sentence? Answer: Yes.
Example 21. Using the same formula and spreadsheet as in Example 18, use the values a=1 , h=0 , and explore the effect of
changing k.
k=4 k=0 k=-7
(leaving a=1 and h=0 ) (leaving a=1 and h=0 ) (leaving a=1 and h=0 )
We find that changing k alone changes how far up or down the lowest point on the graph is. It appears that the y-value of that
lowest point is k.
Example 22. Using the same formula and spreadsheet as in Example 17, use h=0 and k=0 , and explore the effect of changing a.
a=1 a=3 a=-3
(with h=0 and k=0 ) (with h=0 and k=0 ) (with h=0 and k=0 )
We find that changing a from a positive to a negative number makes the graph change from opening upward to opening downward.
Making a larger (from 1 to 3) changes how large the y-values are, so that the y-values for a=3 are three times as large as those
when a=1.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
25: Topic O- Combining Modeling Formulas
25.4: O.04- Section 2
25.5: O.05- Section 3
25.6: O.06- Section 4
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1
Modeling, Part VI. Combining Modeling Formulas
Objectives:
1. Be able to make and use compound models, in which two basic models are added together.
2. Detect and avoid confounding of parameters in compound models.
3. Construct and use composite models by combining formulas with IF, MAX, or MIN functions.
4. Use compound or composite models to separate different effects reflected in a dataset.
Overview
Combining models by addition:
Nine different kinds of basic models have been discussed in this course so far: constant average, linear, quadratic, exponential,
logistic, normal, sinusoidal, power and logarithmic functions. Each reflects a particular type of relationship that frequently occurs
between two variables. Thus often the best-fit settings of one of these basic models will fully match a measurement set, except for
random noise.
But sometimes more than one type of process significantly influences the relationship between two variables. In such cases,
combining two or more basic models is needed to provide a formula that fits the data well. This increases the number of model
parameters, but the automated fitting that Solver supplies makes it almost as easy to fit a six-parameter combined model as a two-
parameter basic model.
Most often the combination is just the sum of two basic model formulas (such as an exponential model plus a baseline value, as
would be appropriate to model the temperature of an object cooling off to an unknown room temperature). It may even be useful to
combine two models of the same type but with different parameter settings – a model of outdoor temperature might consist of one
sinusoid with a one-day wavelength (matched to day/night effects) added to another sinusoid with a one-year wavelength
(reflecting seasonal changes). Occasionally what is needed for a good fit is more complicated, such as when the output of one basic
model is used as the input to another type of model.
Examples of compound models, formed by addition of two basic models
The main potential difficulty that can arise from combining models is that sometimes particular parameters in the two models
control the same thing (e.g., vertical offset), a situation called confounding. When Solver searches for a fit in such a case, it is
unpredictable which of these parameters it will change, or what final values they will reach. The solution to this difficulty is to drop
one of the parameters from the compound model – which one is usually obvious when the meaning of the parameters is considered.
Combining models by composition (using different models for different ranges of input values):
Sometimes a relationship between two variables matches different formulas for different parts of the range of input values. One
way this may be modeled in a spreadsheet is by using the different formulas with the IF function – for example, if C3 contains
“=IF(A3>100,400*A3,4*A3^2)”, the model function will change from linear to quadratic for values of x greater than 100. In a real
modeling formula, the two formulas used in the IF function would also include parameter references such as $G$3 and $G$4. If the
transition point is not known from the problem, it can be made a parameter, and thus deduced from the data (such a formula might
begin “=IF(A3>$G$3,…” ).
Another way that different formulas can be used in different regions is to use the MAX (or MIN) functions so that the larger (or
smaller) result of two formulas is used. This is often appropriate in situations where two separate processes are acting to limit the
relationship. An example is the speed of a car as it brakes to a stop as fast as it can, where the rate of deceleration is limited by
whichever of two effects is smaller: the friction of the tires with the road, and how much heat the brakes can dissipate.
Examples of composite models, formed by using different model formulas for different input ranges
An abrupt change in slope or value in graphs of models produced by these composition methods generally makes it obvious where
the model switches from one formula to the other.
25.1: O.01- Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 1: Compound models—adding two model formulas to model combined effects
Compound-model application 1: Modeling mixed populations
In an earlier topic we discussed normal-distribution models, whose graph is a “bell-shaped” curve with a single peak. This model is
appropriate in many situations where some characteristic of a group of generally-similar objects is distributed around an average
value. But when two groups with different averages are mixed, the resulting distribution may have two partially-overlapping peaks,
as illustrated below by a dataset on the height of a combined population of male and female students. A single normal distribution
will not do a good job of modeling this data.
Example 1:
Height data from a co-educational population
The data that produced the above graph is shown in a table to the right. A plausible model for data of
this kind is the sum of two normal distributions. This will entail six parameters: total, average, and width for Height Students
each normal. The formula to be placed into C3 will thus be “=$G$3*NORMDIST(A3,$G$4,$G$5,FALSE)+
$G$6*NORMDIST(A3,$G$7,$G$8,FALSE)”; as always, it should be spread down column C beside all the
48 0
data rows.As usual, we will set the initial values for the parameters to reasonable approximations before using
Solver. In this case, we can do that by setting each “total” parameter to 5,000 (half the overall total), setting the
“average” parameters to the approximately the x positions of the two peaks (64 and 70 are close enough), and 49 0
setting both “width” parameters to a value, such as 2 or 3, that gives a model that is reasonably similar to the
data. Then use Solver to minimize the sum of squared deviations, answering “G3:G8” in the “By changing cells”
50 0
entry field so that all six parameters will be used. As shown below, a good fit is found.
Parameters (two-normal sum) 51 0
5529.128 Total 1 52 0
63.72487 Average 1 53 0
2.685645 Width 1 54 0
4569.312 Total 2 55 2
70.38119 Average 2 56 12
2.728443 Width 2 57 29
58 79
Goodness of fit of this model 59 180
1710.994 Sum of squared deviations 60 326
7.429222 Standard deviation 61 481
This best-fit model does more than give a formula for describing the height distribution of the combined male- 62 673
female population. Because it fits the data so well, we can confidently deduce the characteristics of the male and
female distributions from the parameters for the two normal distributions, even though we do not have any data 63 813
that identifies gender, and even though both males and females contribute to each height total. Clearly the first
normal describes the height distribution of females and the second normal describes the height distribution of 64 864
males. Thus we can use these results to see that 45.7% is the answer to the question “How much of this data
came from males?”, and that 63.7 inches is the answer to the question “What was the average height of the 65 825
female part of this sample?”.
66 751
67 717
68 677
69 700
70 735
71 658
72 568
73 424
74 280
75 167
76 75
77 25
78 13
79 7
80 0
81 1
82 1
83 0
84 0
If we individually graph the two normal distributions found here along with their sum we can see the components that combined to
form the data distribution:
This same sum-of-two-normal-distributions approach can be used in a variety of situations. Sometimes the component distributions
have about the same average but greatly different widths, so that the resultant distribution has “fat tails”. Other times the
distributions have substantially different totals but nearby averages, so that the result looks like the larger distribution with a bump
added on one side. It is often the case that an investigator is interested in only one of the component distributions, with the other
values being ignored after the fitting process. An example of each of these kinds of two-normal situations are given below, with the
components shown (thin lines) as well as the sum (dots) that reflects the data that would be observed.
Examples of the sum of two differing-parameter normal-distribution functions

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Compound-model application 2: Determining the contents of a mixture of radioisotopes
Materials with small amounts of radioactivity can be used in medical diagnosis and treatment. The way these are made (irradiation
in a nuclear reactor) often results in a mixture of different radioisotopes. Each type of radioisotope has an exponential decay pattern
with a specific decay rate. Thus the best model for the overall radioactivity of the material at each time is the sum of two or more
basic exponential models. Fitting the data with such a compound model will then show the decay rates and the relative amounts of
each radioisotope formed. Since scientists have identified the decay rates of all the different radioisotopes, the fitting results usually
are enough to identify them.
Example 2:The data to the right show radioactivity measurements taken at one-hour intervals. Even though the
data graph (the solid dots in graph below) has a shape similar to that of a decaying exponential, a single Hours Activity
exponential-decay model (the circles in the graph below) does not fit the data well. Test whether the data could be
fit well by the sum of two exponential models. If so, report the two decay rates and the relative activity of the two 0 1333
components.
1 799
2 513
3 359
4 270
5 220
6 191
Solution:
7 173
To fit the data to a model based on the sum of two basic exponential-decay models, four parameters will be
needed (the initial value and growth/decay rate for each of the basic models), so the formula placed in C3 will be
8 154
“=$G$3*(1+$G$4)Â3+$G$5*(1+$G$6)Â3”, which will be spread down column C beside all the data values.
Set the initial-value parameters G3 and G5 to about 600 (half the first data value). Set the growth-rate parameters
9 145
G4 and G6 to different negative values (such as –10% and –30%) that make the model roughly match the data.
Then use Solver to minimize the sum of squared deviations in H12 by changing the G3:G6 range of parameters.
10 137
This produces the results below:
11 134
12 122
13 113
14 109
15 104
16 95
17 94
18 88
1108.925 Initial value 1
-47.40% Growth rate 1
227.0572 Initial value 2
-5.11% Growth rate 2
30.6017 Sum of squared dev.
1.428325 Standard deviation
Clearly, the sum-of-two-exponentials model fits this data much better than the one-exponential model. The best-fit parameters
show that the measured radioactivity is produced by a fast-decaying component (a decay rate of 47.4% per hour) that starts out
producing 83% of the activity, as well as by a slower-decaying component (a decay rate of 5.1% per hour) that starts out producing
17% of the activity.
Now that the parameters of the two components are known, the exponential model for each
component can be graphed individually, showing how the slower-decay component becomes the main
source of activity after about three hours.
If the model had not fit the data well, this would imply that there are more than two radioactive components, either in the initial
mixture or because one or both of the components are decaying to a additional radioisotope. Such a situation would require a more
sophisticated analysis to fully understand, but the analysis process above would still be enough to determine whether a two-
radioisotope explanation is adequate.
If the oversimplified one-exponential model had been used, it could lead to some dangerous decisions, even though the values of
that model were moderately close to the data over much of its range. The danger is because one of the most important issues about
radioisotopes is how long a radioactive sample needs to be shielded before it is safe. The best-fit single-exponential model for this
data has a decay rate of 30% per hour, which will predict about the true level of activity at 5 hours, but at 24 hours will predict an
activity level that is over 300 times smaller than the actual one, since by that time the activity is almost completely due to the
component whose decay rate is only 5.1% (99.99999% of the other component has already decayed by that time). Even at 18 hours
(the last data point), the actual activity is more than 50 times the level predicted by the single-exponential model.
25.3: O.03- Section 1 Part 2 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
25.4: O.04- Section 2
Section 2: Avoiding confounded parameters—don’t use two parameters to control the same thing
Models formed by adding two basic models together are very useful, but in some cases a problem arises because both models have
parameters that control the same thing (e.g., vertical offset). When this is true, there is not any “best-fit” solution for these
parameters, since any combination of vertical-offset values that gives a good fit could be replaced by other values which add up to
the same thing. In such a situation, what values Solver will find for these “confounded” parameters depends unpredictably on their
initial settings.
This problem can be avoided by eliminating one of the confounded parameters. If the compound model is the sum of a linear model
and a sinusoidal model, for example, the linear intercept parameter and the sinusoidal baseline parameter both control the vertical
offset. In this case, it would be best to leave out the sinusoidal baseline parameter (use only wavelength, amplitude, and phase),
because the natural way to think about data of this kind is as a straight line with sinusoidal deviations.
Example 3:A series of monthly calibration measurements of the bias in pounds of an outdoor scale produces the
data shown to the right. An examination of the graph of the data (shown below) indicates that its pattern is a Month Bias
combination of a gradual multi-year trend (probably due to wear of some part) and a repeating seasonal variation
(probably due to temperature variation). Use a compound model combining a linear model with sinusoidal 1 0.712
variation to [i] determine the annual rate of change shown by the multi-year trend and [ii] to predict the bias 8
months after the last data point shown. 2 0.749
3 0.800
4 0.895
5 0.937
6 0.998
7 1.015
Solution: 8 0.966
The compound model should have the two linear parameters of intercept and slope, but it should use only three of
the four sinusoidal parameters, since the average parameter is added on to the result in the same way as the 9 0.950
intercept. So the formula of the model is y = intercept + x * slope + amplitude*sin(2π*(x+phase)/wavelength), so
C3 needs to be “=$G$3+A3*$G$4+$G$6*SIN(2*PI()*(A3+$G$7)/$G$5)”, which is to be spread down beside the 10 0.847
data as usual.
Once the spreadsheet is set up, we can use Solver to minimize the sum of squared deviations by changing the five 11 0.788
parameters G3:G7.
When you have a lot of parameters, it becomes more important to start Solver with initial values that ensure that are 12 0.752
reasonably correct, so that Solver does not get lost in its search for the best-fit values. This is not difficult if you use
the data+model graph for feedback, and make some simple estimates from the data. There is no need to start with a 13 0.783
close match – Solver will do that work – but you want to avoid situations where Solver tries a very incorrect value
for a parameter like wavelength, for example. 14 0.794
In this case, it will work to use values such as 1.0 for the intercept, 12 for the wavelength (since the temperature
variations should have a 12-month cycle), and about 0.1 for the amplitude (since the valley-to-peak variation is 15 0.857
about 0.2. An initial slope of zero is okay, since the true value is a small positive number, and an initial phase value
of about 8 looks about right on the graph. 16 0.933
17 0.992
18 1.071
19 1.072
20 1.031
21 1.006
22 0.895
23 0.871
24 0.797
25 0.825
26 0.841
27 0.861
28 0.982
29 1.050
30 1.116
31 1.136
Solver produces these results:
Line+Sinusoidal Parameters
0.837518 Intercept
0.004593 Slope
12.14912 Wavelength
0.143756 Amplitude
8.580468 Phase offset
Goodness of fit of this model
0.006831 Sum of squared dev.
0.016209 Standard deviation
Answers: The fitting results show that the multi-year trend in the bias is 0.004593 pounds per month (the linear slope parameter),
which is about 0.055 pounds per year. Evaluating the model at 39 months (8 months after the last data value) gives a prediction
for bias at that time of about 0.945 pounds.
Note that the predicted bias value at 39 months is lower than the bias shown in the last data value, indicating that between these
times the seasonal variation is larger than the long-term upward trend. Another interesting aspect of this problem is that simply
fitting a linear model to the data would not have given good results; since the 2½-year pattern includes three upward-sloping
segments and only two downward-sloping segments, a plain linear model would give a result more than 20% too large for the long-
term trend.
Secs Depth
20.0 28.46
20.1 28.47
20.2 28.50
20.3 28.58
20.4 28.61
Confounded-parameter problems can usually be avoided by thinking about the meaning of each parameter in the
context of the data. If the information it conveys is already being supplied by an earlier parameter, leave it out. In the 20.5 28.69
example below, a three-stage process (with two transitions) can be modeled by adding two logistic models. Since a
logistic model has four parameters (rate, center, height, and floor), one might expect eight parameters in the 20.6 28.63
compound model. But are any of these parameters redundant?
Example 4:The data to the right record the depth of the cut of a milling machine during a portion of a production 20.7 29.89
run. Fit an appropriate model to the data to make estimates of the time, to the nearest millisecond, of the midpoint of
each transition. 20.8 38.27
Solution:
Step transitions can be modeled by logistic functions; for this data, the sum of two logistic functions would be 20.9 56.00
suitable.
The horizontal asymptotes in a logistic graph are controlled by the floor and height parameters. But in this sum-of- 21.0 61.44
logistics model, floor2 (the floor of the second logistic) will equal floor1+height1, and does not need a separate
parameter in the model. 21.1 62.05
In this case, it appears that the model can be further simplified by using the same height and rate parameters for both
transitions, leaving the model with five parameters: floor, height, rate, center1 ,and center2, (use cells G3–G7 for 21.2 62.34
these).
21.3 62.35
21.4 62.37
21.5 62.22
21.6 62.19
21.7 62.37
21.8 62.43
21.9 62.49
22.0 64.81
22.1 78.21
22.2 92.96
22.3 95.77
22.4 95.95
22.5 95.93
22.6 95.99
22.7 96.08
22.8 96.06
22.9 96.20
23.0 96.25
The model to be used is thus

y = floor + height / (1+0.018316^(rate*(x–center1))) + height / (1+0.018316^(rate*(x–center2)))
This means that the formula to be placed into C3 (and spread down beside the data) should be =$G$3+$G$4/(1+0.018316^($G$5*
(A3-$G$6)))+$G$4/(1+0.018316^($G$5*(A3-$G$7)))
Set initial values for the parameters from the data, checking them by looking at the data+model graph. In this case, the floor is
about 30, the step height is about 30, and the transition centers are at roughly 21 and 22. The rate is positive, so start with 1 (which
the graph shows is too slow) and adjust it to 10.
Answers:
The best-fit results produced by Solver are shown to the right. The parameters relevant to the question asked are 28.4643 Floor
center1 and center2 , so the times of the middle of the two transitions are 20.837 seconds and 22.105 seconds.
33.8087 Height
5.8546 Rate
20.8371 Center
1
22.1047 Center
2
An extreme case of confounding parameters can occur when the effect of all of the parameters in one of the models can be
replicated by adjustments in the parameters of the other model. In such a case, there is no need for a compound model. Of the basic
modeling functions we have discussed in this course, this situation arises when linear models and/or quadratic models are
combined.
The sum of two or more linear models can always be expressed as a single new linear model that will give exactly the same output.
The sum of two or more quadratic models, or the sum of linear and quadratic models, can be expressed as a single new quadratic
model. Similar combinations occur for other polynomial models, with the result matching the highest-order polynomial used in the
sum.
25.4: O.04- Section 2 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
25.5: O.05- Section 3
Section 3: Composite models—Using different formulas for different parts of the graph
Compound models add two or more modeling functions together. The other main way in which models are combined is to
“compose” a new model by using different modeling formulas depending on what the input values are. The graphs of such
composite models will usually have a sharp break, in value or slope or both, at each point in the input range at which there is a
switch from one function to another.
Income taxes due are described by a composite model with a change in slope for each tax bracket. In this case each piece of the
model is a straight line segment starting at the end of the previous one.
Each segment of a composite model can be built of any kind of modeling formula. The model output can have abrupt jumps in
value, although it is more usual for changes at the transition values to be in the slope, since few processes have big output changes
for small input changes. Sometimes the position of the transition between formulas is a parameter of the model, so that the fitting
process lets the data tell you where the transition is. In the common situation where the transition is at the intersection of two fitted
formulas, the transition can usually be deduced algebraically by setting the two formulas equal to each other (using the fitted
parameters as coefficients) and solving for the x and y of the crossing point.
Two main approaches are used to “composing” a composite model. The simplest approach is to use each input value to evaluate
two or more formulas, then pick the largest of the results to use as the output value. The effect is to make a model whose graph
follows the top of the graphs of each of the component formulas. This can be implemented in a spreadsheet with the MAX
function, whose value is equal to the largest of its arguments (e.g., the value of “=MAX(14,22,-30,5)” is 22).
The graph and table below show the output of a model formula that uses two linear formulas (y=3x+23 and y=7x+2) as arguments
to the MAX function. The solid circles are the output of the composite model that results from the MAX function, while the empty
triangles and squares show the portions of the two linear formulas that are not used because the other formula is larger at that x
value.
x y
0 23
1 26
2 29
3 32
4 35
5 38
6 44
7 51
8 58
9 65
10 72
Example 5:
A cylindrical water tank drains through two outlets, one near the bottom of the tank and the other near the Minutes Depth
middle. Each outlet pumps at a steady (but different) rate until the water drops below the opening to its
outlet. The dataset to the right shows the water depth measured in feet at one-minute intervals during 0 53.3
drainage. Based on this data, find the answer to these questions:
[a] What percentage of the total pumping capacity is provided by the outlet at the bottom of the tank? 1 45.0
[b] What is the depth of the tank at its upper outlet?
2 36.8
3 28.6
4 24.0
5 21.6
6 19.2
7 16.9
8 14.5
Solution:
Steady drainage of a cylindrical tank is a linear process, so it should work to model this situation with two straight lines – one to
match the part of the process where the tank is being emptied through both outputs (the left part of the data graph), and the other
line for the part of the process where the tank is emptying only through the outlet at the bottom (the right part of the graph). As the
model to fit, we will use the MAX function with two linear formulas.
This model will have four parameters: intercept1, slope1, intercept2, and slope2; if cells G3:G6 are used, the formula in C3 should
be “=MAX($G$3+$G$4*A3,$G$5+$G$6*A3)” (this should be spread down beside the data as usual).
Use a graph of the data to choose and check initial values for the parameters. The intercept for the first segment is near 50, and its
slope is roughly –10; the second segment has an intercept of roughly 30 (extend the points after the bend back to the y-axis), and
the second slope is less steep, roughly –3 or so.
[a] Since pumping capacity is proportional to the slope of the lines, the percentage requested in the problem can be computed from
the ratio of slope2, which reflects the activity of the bottom pump, to slope1, which reflects the activity of both pumps together.
This ratio is 0.28797, so the bottom pump is 28.8% of total capacity.
[b] To determine the height of the higher outlet, we need to know the location of the point at which the two lines cross. This can be
done with algebra by solving the equation that results from equating the two linear formulas to each other, using the best-fit
numerical coefficients that were found with Solver.
\begin{align}&\text{At the crossing point,}{{y}_{cross}}=53.27-8.23{{x}_{cross}}\text{ and }{{y}_{cross}}=33.46-2.37{{x}_{cross}}\\&\text{Therefore: }53.27-8.23{{x}_{cross}}=33.46-
2.37{{x}_{cross}}\\&\text{}-8.23{{x}_{cross}}+2.37{{x}_{cross}}=33.46-53.27\\&\text{}-5.86{{x}_{cross}}=-19.81\\&\text{}{{x}_{cross}}=3.3805\text{ minutes}\\&\text{So}{{y}_{cross}}=53.27-
8.23{{x}_{cross}}=53.27-8.23\cdot3.3805=53.27-27.82=25.45\text{ feet}\\\end{align}
Best-fit Solver results
53.27 Intercept 1
-8.23 Slope 1
33.46 Intercept 2
-2.37 Slope 2
The same approach can be used with the MIN function, which evaluates to the lowest value among its arguments (e.g., the value of
“=MIN(14,22,-30,5)” is –30), but in this case the graph of the resulting model follows the bottom of the graphs of the component
formulas, rather than the top.
The other main approach to creating a composite function is to explicitly test the input x value and select between two different
formulas based on whether the test is true or false. This is done with the IF function, which uses the format IF(test_expression,
formula_if_true, formula_if_false). For example, the formula “=IF(A3<6,4*A3,A3^2)” will use the 4*A3 formula (evaluating to
20) if A3=5, but will use the A3^2 formula (evaluating to 49) if A3=7. This approach is most useful when the test expression uses a
model parameter that is also used in one or both of the formulas, since otherwise it is simpler to simply divide the data into several
sections based on x values and to separately model each section.
25.6: O.06- Section 4
Section 4: Miscellaneous advanced modeling issues and topics for further study
Unnecessary parameters: The ability to add more parameters by adding basic models together raises the question of where to stop
this process. The additional parameters almost always enable the model to come closer to the data points, thus reducing the sum-of-
squared-deviations figure—if the number of parameters is increased until there are as many parameters as data points, it is likely
that the model can go exactly through every point. However, such a model is usually not better than some simpler one at
predicting other output values.
The way to assess this is to find the model that produces the minimum standard deviation. Since the standard deviation is
computed by an averaging process that increases the result when more parameters are used, using more parameters than are needed
to follow the non-random trend of the data will result in a larger standard deviation.
A model that has more parameters than are needed is said to be over-fitted. This can be especially misleading for some kinds of
modeling formulas whose extrapolation behavior is poor, such as high-order polynomials, because it results in the model
replicating some of the noise in a particular data set rather than extracting the repeatable aspects of the process being measured.
An example of an over-fitted model is show to the right.
Multiple and local solutions: Solver finds solutions by making small changes in each of the indicated parameters and keeping any
changes that result in a smaller value for the goodness-of-fit indicator chosen (usually the sum-of-squared-deviations or the
standard deviation). This process is continued until none of the changes improves the quality of the fit, even for very small changes.
The search thus stops in a “valley” (actually more like the bottom of a bowl), where changing any parameter in any direction will
make the fit worse.
Usually this process gives good model parameters even if the initial parameter values are quite different from the best-fit values
(the search keeps moving downhill until it reaches the bottom of the bowl). But for some functions the fitting process has more
than one solution; in such cases, the solution that is found depends on the initial conditions (and to a lesser extent on the details of
the search process). If all the solutions are of equal quality, the search is said to have multiple solutions. But it is sometimes
possible to have a “local minimum” solution, in which an answer is found that is better than any other nearby parameters settings,
but still is significantly larger than some other solution.
Splines: A spline is a complex type of composite function that is often used during mechanical design processes to create
smoothly-varying curves that do not match a simple mathematical formula. Splines break up the points along the desired path into
overlapping groups, then fit modeling formulas to each group, with added provision to ensure that the slope of the curve changes
gradually in the overlapping parts. Although splines are now generated by complex software using advanced versions of techniques
similar to those introduced in this course, they were originally made by inserting thin flexible pieces of wood between pegs placed
along the desired path, with the path of the bent wood measured or traced to produce a natural-looking curve.
Stability of solutions: Since best-fit parameter values are often used to explain aspects of the situation that was measured, it is of
interest to know how dependable they are. How much will the best-fit parameters change if a new set of measurement (with new
noise, as always) is taken? One way to find out is to add a small amount of random noise to the data and then re-fit the model.
Doing this several times and observing the effects will provide information about the sensitivity of each parameter to noise.
It is possible to have parameters that are quite sensitive to noise even though the predictions of the model are much less sensitive.
This can occur when small changes in the data lead the fitting process to change two different parameters in ways that almost
cancel out in the result of the prediction formula. This is a milder version of the “confounding” that was discussed in Section 2 of
this topic.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
26: Topic N- Additional Useful Modeling Formulas
26.2: N1.02- Section 1
26.8: N1.08- Section 4
26.9: N1.09- Section 5
26: Topic N- Additional Useful Modeling Formulas is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
1
Topic N. Additional Useful Modeling Formulas
Objectives:
1. Be able to use and understand the parameters of normal, logistic, and sinusoidal models.
2. Be able to use logarithmic models to make inverse models for exponential data.
3. Be able to select appropriate models based on the nature of the process producing measurements.
Overview
Additional useful modeling formulas:
While there are a great many types of mathematical functions that could be used for modeling in addition to the types discussed
previously (constant, linear, quadratic, exponential, and power-function), three more types are particularly useful in practical
applications: normal, logistic, and sinusoidal.
Normal models produce the “bell-shaped curve” graph that usually is a good fit to the distribution of some characteristic around its
average value for a population (e.g., the distribution of adult heights). Normal models are particularly relevant to measurement
because the distribution of noise values usually follows such a model. The parameters we will use for normal curves are the
population size, the average value, and the width of the peak.
Logistic models describe a smooth transition from one steady value to a different steady value (e.g., the temperature of water
coming from the hot water faucet when the heater is far from the faucet). A process that shows exponential growth at some times
must eventually level off—a logistic model can often be used to describe the entire process in such a case. The parameters of a
logistic model are the starting and ending output values, the center (the input value at which the output is halfway between the two
limits), and the rate of change at the center.
Sinusoidal models (based on the sine function discussed in the trigonometric topics) can be used to describe a great many processes
that involve waves, vibrations, or rotation. This is the only model we will discuss that has a repeating pattern, and most repeating
pattern in nature match some sinusoidal model. The parameters for a sinusoid are its wavelength (how often the pattern repeats), its
baseline (the average output value over a full wavelength), its amplitude (how far output varies above and below the average), and
its phase (the relative position of the peaks and valleys).
We will examine one additional type of model, even though it is used less often. Logarithmic models are the inverse of exponential
models, and are thus appropriate in situations where equal-percentage changes of the input variable result in equal-amount changes
of the output variable. The parameters used for a logarithmic model are closely related to those for the corresponding exponential
model that would apply if x and y columns were exchanged: growth rate (or decay rate, if negative) and an x-intercept value (which
would be the y-intercept value in an exponential model).
Illustrative graphs of the additional models discussed in this topic
26.1: N1.01- Overview is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
26.2: N1.02- Section 1
Section 1: Bell-shaped curves—Normal distribution models
It is often useful to model how some property is distributed among a collection of objects that are similar but not exactly alike.
Such models are the mathematical answers to questions such as How tall are college students, to the nearest inch? or If you weigh
soda cans to the nearest gram, how many have each weight? One good way to answer these questions is to fit a smooth model to
data telling how many items have each value. Very often such a model will be close to the bell-shaped curve that mathematicians
call a “normal” distribution because it usually results when many independent effects are combined.
A typical application of normal models is the distribution of demographic information
Normal-curve model for heights to the nearest inch Normal-curve model for heights to the nearest inch
parameters: total =13,379, average = 5’10”, width = ±3″ parameters: total =16,708, average = 5’5″, width = ±3″
Formula used: =13379*NORMDIST(A3,70,3,FALSE) Formula used: =16708*NORMDIST(A3,65,3,FALSE)
Normal-distribution models are particularly interesting for measurements because noise usually results in repeated measurements
of the same object having a normal distribution around the average value. The standard deviation of the noise corresponds to the
width of the normal distribution.
Spreadsheets provide a predefined NORMDIST function that can be used in making normal-distribution models. The arguments
supplied to the NORMDIST function are the average value for all items (this is the x value where the peak of the graph will be) and
the width value that indicates how close a typical item is to the average. (NORMDIST also requires a logical constant as a third
argument; this will always be FALSE for the way we are using the function.)
Math note: It is possible to compute the normal distribution with a standard mathematical formula, but it is more convenient to use
the predefined NORMDIST function. Judge for yourself — the corresponding spreadsheet formula would be =0.3989*$G$3/$G$5*
(0.6065^(((A3-$G$4)/$G$5)^2))
Example 1:Distribution of weights in a manufactured product

The exact weight of standard manufactured products often varies slightly due to small random changes in the Weight
Distribution
machinery that makes them. Measurements of how the weights of a large test sample of individual items are
distributed provides information about how dependable the declared weights are. The dataset to the right
Weight Percent
shows the percentage breakdown of measurements rounded to the nearest gram for a product whose intended
(grams) of total
weight is 915 grams (about 2 pounds).
[a] Fit a normal-curve model to this data and report the parameters found.
911 1
[b] Do you think that it is accurate for the manufacturers to put a statement on the package of this item that
says “Weight 915 grams”? Why or why not?
912 3
[c] Can you think of way to describe this weight distribution using two numbers that is more informative that
just stating the average?
913 8
914 17
915 25
916 23
917 15
918 6
919 2
Solution approach:
[i] Make a normal-curve template from the General Model template in Models.xls, with appropriate parameters: G3 for Total (label
in H3), G4 for Average (label in H4), and G5 for Width (label in H5).
[ii] Put this formula in C3: =$G$3*NORMDIST(A3,$G$4,$G$5,FALSE)
[iii] Place the weight-distribution data in the template, then as usual spread the formulas in columns C, D, and E down to match the
data (to row 11).
[iv] Make a graph of the data and model so that you can see how well the model and data match.
[v] Set the Average and Width parameters in G4 and G5 to values that are approximately correct, such as 915 and 1 in this case. (A
close match for the graphs is not needed – just get close enough that you can see the peak in both the model and the data. Rough
parameter settings are a good idea in all fitting processes, but they are essential for normal-curve models because a Width value of
zero gives a computation error in NORMDIST, and if Average is far away from the correct value all the modeled points will be
zero, giving Solver nothing to work with.)
[vi] Use Solver to find the best-fit parameter values for this model.
Answers:
[a] The best-fit normal curve has parameters Total=99.8, Average=915.4 gm, and Width=1.58 gm.
[b] Since 915 grams is less than 0.1% away from the average and most values are within a fraction of a percent of it, 915 seems to
be the best way to describe the weight using a single number. But since different people might use the weight information in
different ways, it would be better to make it clear that the number is an average, so that they are warned that some items will be
heavier and others lighter.
[c] The best description of a characteristic that has a normal distribution is to report both the average and the width of the
distribution. In this case we might say: “These items weigh 915.4 ±1.6 grams.”
The worksheet for this example should be similar to this
A B C D E F G H
1 Weight Percent y model Residual Squared
2 (grams) of total prediction deviation Deviation Normal-curve parameters
3 911 1 0.542948 0.457052 0.208897 915.3682 Average
4 912 3 2.575238 0.424762 0.180423 1.576364 Width
5 913 8 8.167791 -0.167791 0.028154 99.76079 Total
6 914 17 17.32288 -0.322883 0.104253
7 915 25 24.56767 0.432333 0.186911 Model and data value counts
8 916 23 23.29893 -0.298926 0.089356 3 Number of parameters
9 917 15 14.77529 0.224708 0.050494 9 Number of dev. averaged
10 918 6 6.265626 -0.265626 0.070557
11 919 2 1.776729 0.223271 0.04985 Goodness of fit of this model
12 0.968896 Sum of squared dev.
13 0.401849 Standard deviation

26.2: N1.02- Section 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Section 2: Gradual transition between two steady values—Logistic models
Basic logistic formula: y=\frac{1}{1+{{0.018316}^{(rate\cdot{x})}}}
Even though the formula above looks somewhat strange, its graph is actually rather simple. The graph starts by being almost
horizontal barely above zero at the far left, then smoothly transitions through a midpoint to again become almost horizontal barely
below one on the far right. The basic logistic function has its largest rate of change at the midpoint, where its slope equals the rate
parameter.
[Optional math fact: Where does the 0.018316 in the formula come from? Actually, any positive number except 1.0 could be used
as the base of the exponent and you would still get a logistic graph – it would just have a different slope at the center. The value
0.018316 is used because it makes the slope at the center equal the rate parameter.]
In the basic logistic formula, the only parameter is the rate of change at the center. Here are some examples of the effect of different
values for that slope. In all cases, the x-axis scale is from –2 to +2.
Spreadsheet formula for basic logistic: =1/(1+0.018316^($G$3*A3)

26.3: N1.03- Section 2 Part 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Making the logistic formula more versatile, stage one—shifting right or left
While it is useful to be able to control the rate of transition by using the rate parameter, more adjustability is needed to make this
formula a good match to typical transition situations whose graphs have shapes similar to the basic logistic. We can handle this by
adding more parameters to control the size and position of the curve.
So in addition to the rate/slope parameter, we will add a center parameter that tells the x value where the midpoint occurs, enabling
us to shift the curve to the right (with positive center values) or to the left (with negative center values). Since the logistic formula
equals ½ when the exponent is equal to zero, the way to put the center parameter into the formula is to subtract center from the x
value before multiplying by the rate. This leads to the following version of the logistic formula, in which both slope and left-right
position can be controlled:
Simple logistic formula (with center adjustment): y=\frac{1}{1+{{0.018316}^{rate\cdot(x-center)}}}
The advantage of having the center parameter is that we can use it for data where we can see that there is a logistic transition from
zero to one, but we don’t know exactly when that transition occurred. By fitting a simple logistic model to the data, we can have
the data tell us both when the transition occurred (the best-fit value for the center parameter) and what its maximum rate of change
was (the best-fit value for the rate parameter).
Example 2: Wine fermentation time
As wine matures, a small amount of yeast grows and converts the sugar in the grapes to alcohol. At first growth is rapid
because there is plenty of sugar and no alcohol; as more alcohol accumulates, the rate slows down as the increasing amount of
alcohol and decreasing amount of sugar interferes with yeast metabolism, finally stopping when the maximum alcohol level for that
type of wine is reached..
For the data shown below, [a] When was half the alcohol produced? [b] How fast was the percentage of alcohol compared
to the saturation alcohol level increasing at that time?
Solution approach:
The data shows a transition from zero to one (since 100% = 1), so it can be modeled with the simple logistic model constructed
from the General Model template. The appropriate spreadsheet formula to put in cell C3 is =1/(1+0.018316^($G$3*(A3-$G$4)))
if we use cell G3 for the rate parameter and cell G4 for the center parameter.
Answers:
[a] Half the alcohol was produced by 8.68 days of fermentation (from the best-fit value of the center parameter).
[b] At the midpoint of fermentation, the alcohol level was growing at the rate of 16.5% of the saturation level per day (from the
best-fit value of the rate parameter).
Days of fermentation Saturation level %
0 0%
3 2%
6 15%
9 55%
12 90%
15 99%
18 100%
21 100%
The worksheet for this example should be similar to this:
A B C D E F G H
X y data y model Residual Squared y = 1/(1+0.018316^($G$3*(x-$G$4)))
1 Days Saturation prediction deviation deviation Simple-logistic parameters:
2 0 0% 0.003294 -0.003294 1.09E-05 0.164513 Rate
3 3 2% 0.023243 -0.003243 1.05E-05 8.680789 Center
4 6 15% 0.146279 0.003721 1.38E-05
5 9 55% 0.552322 -0.002322 5.39E-06 Model and data value counts
6 12 90% 0.898822 0.001178 1.39E-06 2 Number of parameters
7 15 99% 0.984607 0.005393 2.91E-05 8 Number of deviations averaged
8 18 100% 0.997834 0.002166 4.69E-06
9 21 100% 0.999699 0.000301 9.09E-08 Goodness of fit of this model
10 7.59E-05 Sum of squared deviations
The data and model match well, but it would be difficult to give an accurate value for the midpoint or the rate of change at the
center by visually reading the graph. This is where the numerical aspect of the model is particularly useful.
Didn’t we do something like this before? The technique used here of implementing a shift in x position by subtracting the amount of
the shift from the x value used in the formula should be familiar. It is essentially the same approach that we used in an earlier topic
when we subtracted the year 1992 from x in the model formula rather than subtracting it from the input values in the dataset. But
the difference here is that the amount of the shift is a parameter, so we don’t have to know its value in advance—we can instead
get the model-fitting process to tell us the exact amount of shift that the data implies.
Making the logistic formula more versatile, stage two—different step sizes, up/down shifts
Transitions that follow a logistic pattern need not involve only steps from zero to one. To complete our generalization of the
logistic formula, we will add parameters that let us adjust the curve to take other step sizes, and to have other baselines.
Both new parameters are straightforward to implement mathematically. To make the amount of vertical change something different
than 1, we will multiply the simple formula by a scale factor. We will call this the height parameter since the curve will now have y
values ranging from zero to height.
Moving the baseline up or down is even simpler mathematically. We will add a floor parameter to the scaled formula. Positive
values for floor will move the curve up; negative values for floor will move the curve down. (Note that we add floor at the very
end. It is not multiplied by height.)
So the full logistic model we have constructed has four parameters, and lets the data (via the model-fitting process) determine what
their values are:
rate (cell G3) — The controls the slope of the graph at the midpoint, which reflects how fast (and in which direction) the
transition occurs. The slope at the midpoint equals rate×height.
center (cell G4) — The midpoint of a transition is not usually at an input value of zero, even though the midpoint of the graph
will be when the exponent expression is equal to zero. The formula can be made to reflect this by subtracting a center parameter
from the input variable x.
height (cell G5) — The amount of change in output will not always be 1.0. Multiplying the basic logistic model by a height
scaling parameter will make its values go from zero to height instead of from zero to one.
floor (cell G6) — Not all transitions have zero as the lower limit for the output value. We can allow for this with a floor
parameter that is always added to the basic logistic formula.
The resulting full logistic model formula is y=\frac{height}{1+{{0.018316}^{rate\cdot(x-center)}}}+floor
Corresponding spreadsheet formula:=$G$5/(1+0.018316^($G$3*(A3-$G$4)))+$G$6

Example 3: Fit a full logistic model to the dataset to the right showing water temperature during the first 10 seconds after a hot-
water faucet is opened, then answer these questions about the model:
[a] What real-world quantity corresponds to the floor parameter? What is its value for the best-fit model for this data?
[b] What real-world quantity corresponds to the center parameter? What is its value for the best-fit model for this data?
[c] How can you compute an estimate of the hot-water temperature from the best-fit parameters? What is its value in this case?
[d] How fast was the water warming up when the water temperature was halfway through the transition?
Water Temperature
Seconds Degrees F
1 68.8
2 68.7
3 70.9
4 86.9
5 115.5
6 124.5
7 125.4
8 125.5
9 125.7
10 125.7
[i] Use the General Model template to make a logistic worksheet, using the formula shown above.Solution approach:
[ii] Copy the data to the worksheet and make a graph of data and model.
[iii] Preset to approximate values to speed up Solver’s search: rate=1, floor=70, height=55, center=4
[iv] Use Solver to find the best-fit parameters.
Answers:
[a] The floor parameter corresponds to the temperature of the cooled-off water that has been standing in the hot-water pipes. In this
case, that temperature was 68.5 °F.
[b] The center parameter corresponds to the time in seconds from when data-taking was started until the water temperature had
risen halfway to the hot-water temperature. In this case, the midpoint was at 4.31 seconds.
[c] In this model, the hot-water temperature is the sum of the floor and height parameters, 125.6 °F.
[d] This is the product of the rate and height parameters, which is 31.9 °F/second in this case.
A B C D E F G H
1 X y data y model Residual Squared
2 Secs Deg F prediction deviation deviation Logistic parameters
3 1 68.5 68.56844 -0.068438 0.004684 0.559017 Rate
4 2 69.1 68.85719 0.242814 0.058959 4.310686 Center
5 3 71.2 71.42354 -0.223536 0.049968 57.05165 Height
6 4 87.6 87.53105 0.068945 0.004753 68.53369 Floor
7 5 115.5 115.5249 -0.024861 0.000618
8 6 124.2 124.3091 -0.109083 0.011899
9 7 125.5 125.4462 0.053849 0.0029
10 8 125.4 125.5704 -0.170428 0.029046 Model and data value counts
11 9 125.8 125.5837 0.216258 0.046767 4 Number of parameters
12 10 125.6 125.5852 0.014834 0.00022 10 Number of dev. averaged
13
14 Goodness of fit of this model
15 0.209814 Sum of squared deviations

Section 3: Sinusoidal Models
Repeating behavior is very often encountered in the world, with examples such as ocean waves, heartbeats, vibrations of a spring,
rotation of wheels, the phases of the moon, and the pattern of the seasons. Because none of the modeling functions we have
discussed so far have repeating features, we need something more to be able to model repetitive phenomena.
For most repetitive situations, models based on the same sine function used in trigonometry will serve our needs. This may seem
surprising—what do triangles and waves have to do with each other? One reason that mathematics is so powerful is that the same
patterns show up in a great variety of different situations, which means that mathematical tools that were developed for one
purpose often turn out to be useful in other contexts.
For modeling, we will want to be able to modify the shape of the standard sine function in several ways. First, we want to control
how often the pattern repeats—the wavelength—so that we are not limited to the wavelength of the sine function (2π, or about
6.2832). Secondly, we need to be able to shift the pattern to the right or left so that the peaks and valleys of the model match the
peaks and valleys of the data—this shift is called the phase of the model. Thirdly, we need to be able to match the amount of up-
and-down variation in the model—the amplitude—to the amount of variation in the data. When the average value is not zero, we
will also need to add a constant baseline to the model. The mathematical formula that serves these modeling needs will thus make
use of four parameters:
y=amplitude\cdot\sin((x+phase)\cdot2\pi/wavelength)+baseline
If the wavelength, phase, amplitude, and baseline parameters are in G3, G4, G5, and G6, respectively, then the corresponding
spreadsheet formula to be put into cell C3 of the model template is:
=$G$5*SIN(6.2832*(A3+$G$4)/$G$3)+$G$6
Summary of sinusoidal parameters
Wavelength—How often does the pattern repeat? Wavelength is in the same units as the x data, and the ratio of x to the model
wavelength is multiplied by 2π because that is the natural wavelength of the SIN function. When the x values are based on time,
the wavelength is sometimes referred to as the period or as a cycle of the sinusoid.
Phase (or phase shift)—Where in the pattern is the x = 0 point? The basic pattern (which has a phase shift of zero) can be
shifted to the left or the right. Note that because the pattern repeats, a shift to the left of ¼ wavelength would result in the same
pattern as a shift to the right of ¾ wavelength.
Amplitude—This is simply a scale factor that determines how far the maximum and minimum y are from the average. While it
is mathematically possible to use a negative amplitude (the pattern turns upside down), this is not done since the same effect can
be obtained by a half-wavelength phase shift.
Baseline—The average around which the pattern varies. This can be modeled by addition to the result of the SIN function after
multiplying by the amplitude.
Example 4: Report and interpret the best-fit sinusoidal model for the dataset to the right, which records the amount
that the average Fahrenheit temperature for a month is above or below the average temperature for the entire two-
Month Temp
year period. The months are numbered starting with 1 for January 2003.
Solution approach:
1 47.8
[i] Copy the dataset to the Data Scratch Pad worksheet and display a scatter plot.
[ii] From the graph, make rough estimates of the amplitude and wavelength for the data, so that you will have
2 45.3
values to use as initial parameter settings.
[iii] Use the model formula explained in this section to create a sinusoidal model worksheet from the General
3 54.0
Model template in Models.xls, with parameters for wavelength, phase, and amplitude. Set the wavelength and
amplitude parameters to the values you estimated in step [ii] above (leaving these parameters blank or zero will
4 72.6
cause errors or confuse Solver).
[iv] Copy the dataset to the worksheet, then spread the formulas in columns C, D, and E down to match the data, as
5 83.4
usual.
[v] Use Solver to find the best-fit parameters, and report your results.
6 91.9
Answer:
The best-fit sinusoidal model to this data has a wavelength of 11.9 months, a phase shift of 4.0 months, an
7 92.9
amplitude of 23.3 degrees F, and a baseline average of 69.1 degrees F. The standard deviation for the fit is 2.8
degrees F.
8 84.8
Interpretation: The monthly temperature-difference averages at the location this data came from range by about 23
degrees above and below the yearly average of about 69 degrees. The pattern repeats about every 12 months, with
9 79.5
the maximum-positive-slope point (i.e., spring) in April (month 4). Individual monthly averages can be expected to
be within 2.8 degrees of this model about 2/3 of the time.
10 69.1
11 60.1
12 46.4
13 50.8
14 47.4
15 62.8
16 71.9
17 83.1
18 91.2
19 93.4
20 88.4
21 75.5
22 67.0
23 59.6
24 44.3
The final worksheet should look similar to this:
x y data y model Residual Squared y = $G$5 * SIN((x-$G$4)*6.2832/$G$3)
Input Output prediction deviation deviation Sinusoidal parameters
1 47.8 46.37 1.43 2.0577 11.85328 Wavelength
2 45.3 49.43 -4.13 17.0726 3.960422 Phase shift
3 54 58.07 -4.07 16.5328 23.28311 Amplitude
4 72.6 69.89 2.71 7.3542
5 83.4 81.64 1.76 3.0990
6 91.9 90.08 1.82 3.3073 Model and data value counts
7 92.9 92.89 0.01 0.0002 3 Number of parameters
8 84.8 89.28 -4.48 20.0901 24 Number of dev. averaged
9 79.5 80.26 -0.76 0.5799
10 69.1 68.31 0.79 0.6226 Goodness of fit of this model
11 60.1 56.72 3.38 11.3938 169.8698 Sum of squared deviations
12 46.4 48.70 -2.30 5.2707 2.844124 Standard deviation
13 50.8 46.44 4.36 19.0293
14 47.4 50.57 -3.17 10.0663
15 62.8 59.96 2.84 8.0596
16 71.9 72.01 -0.11 0.0132
17 83.1 83.41 -0.31 0.0974
18 91.2 91.01 0.19 0.0357
19 93.4 92.72 0.68 0.4664
20 88.4 88.06 0.34 0.1155
21 75.5 78.32 -2.82 7.9745
22 67 66.19 0.81 0.6531
23 59.6 55.01 4.59 21.0864
24 44.3 47.85 -3.55 12.6379
Sinusoidal cycles and phases

Cycles: There is a close relationship between sinusoids and rotation. A spinning object repeats its sequence of positions every
rotation, and the height of a point on a circle rotating at a constant speed varies over time according to a sinusoidal pattern. The
wavelength of this sinusoid equals the rotation time of the circle, and the amplitude equals the radius of the circle. The phase is
how long it has been since the point last passed the midpoint in an upward direction. The baseline is the height of the center of the
circle.
Left-right shifts of the sinusoidal pattern: The standard sinusoid crosses the y axis where the curve has the steepest upward
slope, where it is increasing past the average value. But the curve can be shifted right or left so that it crosses the y axis at some
other point of the cycle. The distance from the nearest standard steepest-slope point to the actual crossing point is called the phase
or the phase shift of the sinusoid. The phase shift is added to the x value before it is used inside the SIN function.
Two sinusoidal processes with the same wavelength can be in phase, in which case they will add together if they apply to the same
measurement, or be out of phase, in which case there may be partial cancellation. Sometimes phase shifts are talked about in terms
of angular degrees (e.g., “The electric and magnetic waves are 90 degrees out of phase”); this is based on taking a wavelength as
being 360 degrees due to the analogy with rotation), so a phase shift of 90° means a phase shift of ¼ of the wavelength.
26.8: N1.08- Section 4
Section 4: Logarithmic models (the inverse model for exponential data)
The last basic models we will introduce in this course are logarithmic models. These are based on the LOG spreadsheet function
discussed in an earlier topic. The main reason that logarithmic models are useful is that they are the inverse of exponential models
—for a logarithmic model, equal-percentage changes in the input variable x result in equal-amount steps in the output variable y.
An example of a common use of a logarithmic model is in computing how old an archeological object is from how much
radioactive Carbon-14 remains in it. The radioactivity of several objects of known age (such as tree rings) is measured, and then a
model that predicts age from radioactivity level is fit to this data. Finally, measurements are made of the radioactivity of other
similar objects (such as wooden tools) for which the age is unknown, and the model is used to estimate their age. (If you wanted to
predict the level of radioactivity from the age you would use an exponential model, but here the roles of the variables are reversed.)
The two parameters of a logarithmic model are closely related to those for exponential models. The growth rate (or decay rate, if
negative) parameter is the same as for exponential models, although in this case it is used as the second parameter (the logarithmic
base) of the spreadsheet LOG function. Since the roles of x and y have been reversed, the initial-value (i.e., y-intercept) parameter
from the exponential model become an x-intercept parameter in the logarithmic model. While there are several different ways that a
logarithmic modeling formula could be written, the most convenient for our purposes will be , which implies a formula in C3 of
“=LOG(A3/$G$3,1+$G$4)”.
Example 5: For a particular measurement apparatus and technique, radiation readings of 1274, 1085, 865, 697, and 276 were
observed for objects with known ages of about 1100, 2400, 4300, 6100, and 13800 years, respectively. Use this data to create a
model that predicts the age of similar objects, and use that model to estimate the age of such an object whose radiation
measurement is 515.
Solution:
[i] First, we must make an appropriate data table. Since we will be using the radiation readings to predict age,
Radiation Age in
we will put the radiation readings into the column A and the respective age values to the right in column B. years
reading
[ii] Make a modeling spreadsheet, setting C3 to =LOG(A3/$G$3,1+$G$4) and spreading that model formula
down to row 7 beside the data. Put the labels “x-intercept” and “rate” to the right of the parameter cells G3 and
1,274 1,100
G4.
[iii] As usual, include deviations in column D and squared deviations in column E, and enter a sum-of-squared-
1,085 2,400
deviations formula into a cell such as H8.
[iv] Adjust the parameters in G3 and G4 to initial values that make the model graph roughly match the data
865 4,300
(example: G3 = 2000 & G4 = −0.0001)
[v] Use Solver to find the best-fit parameters: G3 = 1451 and G4 = −0.0001203; the implied model formula is
697 6,100
age = LOG(radiation/1451, 1−0.0001203).
[vi] Enter the radiation level 515 into A8, giving an estimated age of 8,612 years.
276 13,800
NOTE: What is the real-world meaning of these model parameters? The growth/decay rate of −0.0001203 implies that 0.01203%
of the Carbon-14 atoms decay each year. The “x-intercept” parameter shows what radiation-reading input would give an age output
of zero; that is, what the radiation reading would be for a brand-new object.
26.9: N1.09- Section 5
Section 5: Recognition of appropriate models
Many other model formulas exist (including many possible combinations of models, as will be discussed in a later topic), but the
set of basic models that have been discussed in this course cover the most important patterns that arise in application settings. This
will be useful to you even if you do not do more model-fitting yourself, since it gives you ways to talk about patterns you encounter
and to know what is being referred to in written material.
Example 6: For each of these graphs, which of the basic models discussed in this course best matches it: linear, quadratic,
exponential, power-function, normal, logistic, sinusoidal, or logarithmic?
[a] [b] [c] [d]
[e] [f] [g] [h]
Try to identify the type of model in each case before looking at the answers.
[reveal-answer q=”721610″]Answers to Example 6:[/reveal-answer]
[a] exponential. [b] logistic [c] quadratic [d] sinusoidal [e] normal [f] linear [g] power [h] logarithmic
[/hidden-answer]
Part I
Reproduce the results in Examples 1 – 6.
Part II
Work the assigned problems.
[7] The water temperature at a faucet was measured (on the Fahrenheit temperature scale) each second after the hot-water tap is
turned on. The results were: 72° at 1 second, 72° at 2 seconds, 75° at 3 seconds, 82° at 4 seconds, 95° at 5 seconds, 103° at 6
seconds, 105° at 7 seconds, and 105° at 8 seconds.
a. What type of model is appropriate for this situation?
b. At what time is the temperature changing most rapidly?
c. About how fast is the temperature changing when it changes fastest?
[8] The weight of babies at birth to the nearest pound is tabulated from birth records, with these results: 1% weigh 2 pounds or less,
1% weigh 3 pounds, 2% weigh 4 pounds, 5% weigh 5 pounds, 19% weigh 6 pounds, 36% weigh 7 pounds, 26% weigh 8 pounds,
8% weigh 9 pounds, 1% weigh 10 pounds or more. If a normal-distribution model is fit to this data, what is the best-fit value for
the width parameter?
[9] A bank balance earning a constant rate of compound interest has these values: $1550 after 5 years, $2002 after 10 years, $2585
after 15 years, $3339 after 20 years, and $4313 after 25 years. Find a model formula to compute how long it took for the balance to
equal $2,938.
[10] Because the earth’s orbit around the sun is an ellipse, the distance between them varies according to the time of year. The table
to the right shows the distance in miles at 50-day intervals (the first data point is the 50th day of the year, February 19th). Fit a
sinusoidal model to this data, and then use the parameters of the model to compute the closest distance that occurs.
Day Distance
50 91,907,193
100 93,146,982
150 94,243,003
200 94,460,990
250 93,660,185
300 92,366,382
350 91,477,551
Problems 11–20 have the same instructions, applied to different datasets. Copy and paste the datasets from the course web site
copy of this topic into a spreadsheet, rather than retyping them.
For each of the datasets listed below (copy and paste it from the course website and)
a. Display the dataset and determine which model type discussed in this course is most suitable.
b. Write the best-fit formula that shows how to compute the y values from the x values.
[11] Dataset A [12] Dataset B [13] Dataset C [14] Dataset D [15] Dataset E
x y x y x y x y x y
1 26.52 0 172 0 66.8 1 239.7 1992 45,619
2 26.41 1 195 2 65.3 2 296.6 1993 49,529
3 26.12 2 216 4 64.2 3 386.6 1994 53,405
4 25.43 3 230 6 63.6 4 469.9 1995 57,228
5 23.91 4 244 8 63.6 5 597.6 1996 60,877
6 21.05 5 256 10 64.2 6 777.3 1997 65,003
7 17.03 6 261 12 65.4 7 952.2 1998 68,849
8 13.16 7 266 14 66.9 8 1180.0 1999 72,399
9 10.60 8 264 16 68.4 9 1424.4 2000 76,529
10 9.29 9 262 18 69.7 10 1682.6 2001 80,448
11 8.70 10 255 20 70.6 11 1980.3 2002 84,030
12 8.46 11 247 22 70.9 12 2309.7 2003 88,027
13 8.37 24 70.5
14 8.33 26 69.6
15 8.31 28 68.2
16 8.30 30 66.7
[16] Dataset F [17] Dataset G [18] Dataset H [19] Dataset I [20] Dataset J
x y x y x y x y x y
1991 0.5% 0 10.65 0 0.0% 0 0.00 0 0
1992 1.1% 1 8.46 1 0.1% 10 52.18 2 0
1993 2.2% 2 7.10 2 2.2% 20 73.57 4 2
1994 4.5% 3 5.60 3 15.0% 30 90.41 6 4
1995 8.8% 4 4.74 4 36.8% 40 104.30 8 9
1996 16.5% 5 3.90 5 33.3% 50 116.60 10 17
1997 28.9% 6 3.09 6 11.1% 60 127.82 12 32
1998 45.5% 7 2.62 7 1.4% 70 138.09 14 48
1999 63.2% 8 2.00 8 0.1% 80 147.46 16 61
2000 77.9% 9 1.55 9 0.0% 90 156.65 18 67
2001 87.9% 10 1.47 10 0.0% 100 164.93 20 69
2002 93.7% 11 0.98 11 0.0% 110 172.89 22 62
2003 96.8% 12 0.76 12 0.0% 120 180.86 24 48
2004 98.4% 13 0.97 26 33
2005 99.2% 14 0.62 28 19
2006 99.6% 15 0.49 30 11
16 0.42 32 5
17 0.29 34 2
18 0.27 36 1
19 0.21 38 0
20 0.20 40 0

26.10: N1.10- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
27: Topic B- Solving Equations, Evaluating Expressions, and Checking Your Work
27.2: B1.02- Section 1
27.3: B1.03- Section 2
27.4: B1.04- Section 3
27.5: B1.05- Section 4
27: Topic B- Solving Equations, Evaluating Expressions, and Checking Your Work is shared under a not declared license and was authored,
remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
1
Objectives
1. Use additional resources to practice algebra, as needed.
2. Learn to check answers in some way other than looking “in the back of the book.”
3. Use the distributive property and other properties to simplify algebraic expressions and check your work.
4. Solve and simplify linear equations and check solutions of equations by plugging them back in.
5. Solve equations with variables in the denominator and check solutions by plugging them in.
6. Solve equations of those two types with multiple variables for one variable, resulting in a formula for that one variable.
7. Evaluate variable expressions when given the value of each variable, using the correct order of operations.
Overview
The prerequisite for these materials includes mastery of basic math skills and some algebra, as needed to achieve “college-level” on
Texas’ TSI test. Many students who have learned math at this level forget it easily, so this review section of some algebra is
provided. Some students in the class will go through this material quickly and others will need to go much more slowly and do
more review work. Additional optional practice problems are provided on the course web pages. The next few topics in the do not
use this algebra, so it isn’t necessary to master everything in this topic immediately.
A major difference between this course and most other math courses involves “checking your answer by looking in the back of the
book.” In standard algebra classes, students practice quite a lot of similar problems and are expected to check many of the answers
by looking in the back of the book. When we use mathematics in applications in the real world, there is no “back of the book.” In
this course, we will learn methods for independently checking our results to see if they are correct, or at least reasonable, without
having to rely on answers that someone else gives us. Most students find this awkward at first, but when they persist in practicing
the checking methods, develop more confidence in using mathematics and in their problem-solving skills. Even when a solution is
provided in the “back of the book” we expect you to pay attention to other ways of checking your work, and to use those frequently
(including on test questions.)
27.1: B1.01- Introduction is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
27.2: B1.02- Section 1
Use the distributive property and other properties to simplify expressions and check your work.
Distributive Property:
For any real numbers a, b, and c: a(b + c) = ab + ac.
For any real numbers a, b, and c: a(b – c) = ab – ac
The fact that two expressions are equal means that they are equal for any values of the variable. So you can check by taking a few
values for the variable and making sure that those do make the two sides equal. Usually we don’t use the values 0 or 1 or 2 as the
value for the variable and it is best to avoid numbers that already appear in the problem.
Example 1
Simplify 10(4x+5) .
Solution: Partial Check: Use

10(4x+5)=40x+50 \begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,10(4x+5)=40x+50\\&10(4\cdot3+5)\,\,?=?\,40\cdot3+50\\&\,10(12+5)\,\,\,?=?\,\,120+50\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,10(17)\,\,\,?=?\,\,170\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,170\,\,\,\,=\,\,\,\,170\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 2
Simplify -6(x+9) .
Solution: Partial Check: Use x=5
-6(x+9)=-6x-54 \begin{align}&\,\,\,\,-6(x+9)=-6x-54\\&-6(5+9)\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,-6*5-54\\&\,\,\,-6(14)\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,-30-54\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,-84\,\,=\,\,-84\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 3
Simplify 2(3x-7) .

\begin{align}&2(3x-7)=2\cdot3x-2\cdot7\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,=6x- \begin{align}&2(3\cdot5-7)\,\,\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,\,6\cdot5-14\\&\,\,2(15-7)\,\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,30-
14\\\end{align} 14\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,2(8)\,\,\,=\,\,\,16\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 4
Simplify 17-5(4x-12) .

\begin{align}&17-5(4x-12)=17-20x-(-60)\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,=17- \begin{align}&17-5(4\cdot3-12)\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,77-20\cdot3\\&\,\,\,17-5(12-12)\,\,\,?=?\,\,77-
20x+60\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,=77-20x\\\end{align} 60\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,17-0\,\,\,=\,\,\,\,17\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Caution: Checking your work on problems like these is not completely satisfactory, because students who make a mistake in the
original solution often make a corresponding mistake in the checking process. So the fact that it checks does not provide complete
confidence that the solution is correct. But it’s still a good idea to check because you’ll catch most of your mistakes.
27.2: B1.02- Section 1 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
27.3: B1.03- Section 2
To solve equations, write a simpler equivalent equation using the following rules. Keep writing simpler equivalent equations until
you have simplified it enough that one side has the variable alone and the other has a number. That gives the solution.
1. Add or subtract the same number or expression to both sides of the equation.
2. Multiply or divide both sides of the equation by the same nonzero number or expression.
You can check the solution to an equation by plugging the number into the original equation and seeing if the resulting statement is
true.
For additional explanation and examples, see the course web page for links. These include links to instructional materials and a link
to an equation solver, where you can enter any equation and have it find the solution. You can use that to check your work on as
many problems as you have the time and energy to work.
Example 1
Solve 3x-4=11 .
Solution: x Check:
\begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,3x-4=11\\&3x-4+4=11+4\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,3x=15\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\frac{3x}{3}=\frac{15} \begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,3x-4=11\\&\\&3\cdot5-4?=?11\\&\,\,\,15-4?=?
{3}\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,x=5\\\end{align} 11\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,11=11\\\end{align}
.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 2
Find a formula for y (that is, solve for y in terms of x): y-7=-4(x-2)+12

Discussion: This is more complicated than a problem like Example 1. However, it uses exactly the same techniques. Problems like
this arise when we begin to investigate graphing lines. Probably you have done problems like these in a previous algebra course,
but maybe you haven’t done many of them. We will practice many problems like these in the first few weeks of the course. Don’t
practice these until you can do problems like Example 1 fairly easily.
Solution: Check by plugging in the answer for y:

\begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y-7=-4(x-2)+12\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y-7=-4x+8+12\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y- \begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y-7=-4(x-2)+12\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,(\,\,\,)-7=-4(x-2)+12\\&(-4x+27)-7\,\,?=?
7=-4x+20\\&y-7+7=-4x+20+7\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,y=-4x+27\\\end{align} \,\,\,-4(x-2)+12\\&-4x+27-7\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,-4x+8+12\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,-4x+20\,\,\,=\,\,-4x+20\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 3
Solve 0.75-0.08t=1.22 .
Discussion: This is basically like Example 1, except that the coefficients are decimals and the variable is t rather than x. In your
previous algebra classes, you may not have done much work with decimal numbers, but we will use them often in this class. We
will practice many problems like these in the first few weeks of the course. Don’t practice these until you can do problems like
Example 1 fairly easily.
Solution: Check:
\begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,0.75-0.08t=1.22\\&0.75-0.08t-0.75=1.22- \begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,0.75-0.08t=1.22\\&\\&0.75-0.08\cdot(-5.875)\,\,?=?
0.75\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,-0.08t=0.47\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\frac{-0.08t} \,\,1.22\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,0.75+0.47\,\,?=?
{-0.08}=\frac{0.47}{-0.08}\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,t=-5.875\\\end{align} \,\,1.22\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,1.22=1.22\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
27.4: B1.04- Section 3
Example 1
Solve \frac{14}{3}=\frac{8}{x} .
Discussion: Sometimes students learn to solve problems like this one by “cross-multiplying.” That is correct. However, most math
teachers prefer to think of solving this by multiplying both sides by the same thing—in this case the product of the two
denominators. The result is the same. Both methods are shown below.
Solution Method: Alternate Solution Method: Multiply by Check:

Cross-multiply: common denominator
\begin{align}&\frac{14}{3}=\frac{8} \begin{align}&\frac{14}{3}=\frac{8} \begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\frac{14}{3}=\frac{8}{x}\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\frac{14}

{x}\\&14x=3\cdot8\\&14x=24\\&\frac{1 {x}\\&3\cdot{x}\cdot\frac{14}{3}=3\cdot{x}\cdot\frac{8} {3}\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,\frac{8}{1.7143}\\&4.66667\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,4.66663\\\end{align}
4x}{14}=\frac{24} {x}\\&\frac{3}{3}\cdot{x}\cdot14=\frac{x}
{14}\\&x=1.7143\\\end{align}
{x}\cdot3\cdot8\\&1\cdot{x}\cdot14=1\cdot3\cdot8\\\end{align} Here, the two sides aren’t exactly equal. But that isn’t
\begin{align}&14x=24\\&\frac{14x}{14}=\frac{24} surprising, because we rounded the final answer to the original
{14}\\&x=1.7143\\\end{align}
problem, so we don’t expect the two sides here to be exactly
equal.
Notice that the quotient, which is the final answer, didn’t come out even, so I had to round off. I chose to round off to four decimal
places. We’ll talk more specifically about how exactly answers should be given later in the course. For now, when you have to
round in the final computation, always keep at least three decimal places. That will ensure that your checking will produce answers
close enough that you can recognize them as being essentially the same, so your checking is useful.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 2
Solve \frac{7}{33}=\frac{x}{5}
Discussion: Here the variable isn’t in the denominator, but this illustrates that the basic principle of multiplying both sides by the
same non-zero expression works here too.

Cross-multiply:
\begin{align}&\frac{7}{33}=\frac{x} \begin{align}&\frac{7}{33}=\frac{x}{5}\\&33\cdot5\cdot\frac{7}{33}=33\cdot5\cdot\frac{x} \begin{align}&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\frac{7}{33}=\frac{x}

{5}\\&33x=7\cdot5\\&33x=35\\&\frac{33x} {5}\\&\frac{33}{33}\cdot5\cdot7=\frac{5} {5}\\&\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\,\frac{7}{33}\,\,\,?=?\,\,\,\frac{1.0606}
{33}=\frac{35}{33}\\&x=1.0606\\\end{align} {5}\cdot33\cdot{x}\\&1\cdot{x}\cdot35=1\cdot33\cdot{x}\\&33x=35\\&\frac{33x}{33}=\frac{35} {5}\\&\,\,\,0.21212\,\,\,\,=\,\,\,0.21212\\\end{align}
{33}\\&x=1.0606\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 3
Solve \frac{12}{x}=6

Solution Method: Solution Method: Multiply by common denominator Check:

Cross-multiply:
\begin{align}&\frac{12}{x}=\frac{6}{1}\\&6x=12\\&x= \begin{align}&\frac{12}{x}=6\\&x\cdot\frac{12}{x}=x\cdot6\\&\frac{x} \begin{align}&\frac{12}

{}^{12}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{6}\;=2\\\end{align} {x}\cdot12=6x\\&12=6x\\&x={}^{12}\!\!\diagup\!\!{}_{6}\;=2\\\end{align} {x}=6\\&\,\frac{12}
{2}\,\,=\,6\\\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 4
Find a formula for h (that is, solve for h.) \frac{h}{36}=\frac{m}{k} .

\begin{align}&\frac{h}{36}=\frac{m} \begin{align}&\frac{h}{36}=\frac{m}{k}\\&36k\frac{h}{36}=36k\frac{m}
{k}\\&hk=36m\\&\frac{hk}{k}=\frac{36m} {k}\\&hk=36m\\&\frac{hk}{k}=\frac{36m}{k}\\&h=\frac{36m} \frac{h}{36}=\frac{m}{k}
{k}\\&h=\frac{36m}{k}\end{align} {k}\end{align}
Substitute
\begin{align}&\frac{\frac{36m}{k}}{36}=\\&\frac{36\cdot{m}}
{k}\div36=\\&\frac{36\cdot{m}}{k}\cdot\frac{1}{36}=\\&=\frac{m}
{k}\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
Example 5
Find a formula for d (that is, solve for d.) \frac{a}{0.37}=\frac{r}{d} .

\begin{align}&\frac{a}{0.37}=\frac{r}{d}\\&0.37r=
{a}\cdot{d}\\&d\frac{0.37r}{a}=\frac{a\cdot{d}} \frac{a}{0.37}=\frac{r}{d}
{a}\\&\frac{0.37r}{a}=d\\&d=\frac{0.37r}{a}\end{align} \begin{align}&\frac{a}{0.37}=\frac{r}{d}\\&0.37d\cdot\frac{a}
{0.37}=0.37d\cdot\frac{r}{d}\\&d\cdot{a}=0.37r\\&\frac{d\cdot{a}} Substitute for d on the right.
{a}=\frac{0.37r}{a}\\&d=\frac{0.37r}{a}\end{align}
\begin{align}&\frac{r}{d}=\frac{r}{\frac{0.37r}{a}}\\&=r\div\frac{0.37r}
{a}\\&=\frac{r}{1}\div\frac{0.37r}{a}\\&=\frac{r}{1}\cdot\frac{a}
{0.37r}\\&=\frac{ra}{0.37r}\\&=\frac{a}{0.37}\end{align}
[/hidden-answer]
27.5: B1.05- Section 4
Evaluate variable expressions when given the value of each variable, using the correct order of operations.
Recall these rules about order of operations. Do them in this order.
1. All operations inside symbols of grouping (parentheses) from the inside out.
2. All operations of exponents or roots.
3. All multiplications and divisions, in order from left to right.
4. All additions and subtractions, in order from left to right.
The best method I know is to write the expression first with the variable, then with parentheses in place of the variable, and then
with the values inserted into the parentheses.
Then you can remove any of those parentheses that aren’t needed to keep the negative numbers clear and to keep the products of
two numbers clear.
Then, begin to evaluate the expression according to the order of operations, doing one operation per step.
For problems in this course, the most important of these rules are to do exponents first and then to do multiplications/divisions
before additions/subtractions.
Example 1
Evaluate y=6+2x when x=7 .
Solution: Notice that the 7 here is in parentheses, but it is not an OPERATION

\begin{align}&y=6+2x\\&y=6+2\cdot(\,\,\,)\\&y=6+2\cdot(7)\\&y=6+2\cdot7\\&y=6+14\\&y=20\\\end{ali
gn}
in parentheses, so there is no need to think about that first rule in the
order of operations.
Discussion: Later in the course, some students frequently do problems like this incorrectly because they do the addition before the
multiplication. It is important to learn this rule well.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 2
Evaluate y=u{{x}^{4}} when x=2\,\,\,and\,\,\,u=9 .
\begin{align}&y=u{{x}^{4}}\\&y=(\,\,)\cdot{{(\,\,)}^{4}}\\&y=(\,9)\cdot{{(\,2)}^{4}}\\&y=9\cdot{{2}^{4}}\\&y=9\cdot16\\&y=144\\\end{align}
Discussion: Later in the course, some students have trouble remembering not to do the multiplication of 9 times 2 here first. Many
of our formulas will include exponents such as this, so it is important to learn this rule well.
[/hidden-answer]
Checking your work

When evaluating expressions, the only clear method to check your work is to simply re-work it. That’s not completely satisfactory
because if you have a mistake in understanding, you’re likely to make it both times.
However, in this course, most of the times when we will evaluate an expression, it is in the context of a larger problem for which
there is a good method of checking available.
After you work each of these problems, use some method of checking your answer and show that check right beside your solution.
Don’t forget to prepare and fill out the homework cover sheet as you do the problems.
Part I
1. Simplify 10(4x+5)
2. Simplify -6(x+9)
3. Simplify 2(3x-7)
4. Simplify 17-5(4x-12)
5. Solve 3x-4=11
6. Find a formula for y (that is, solve for y in terms of x): y-7=-4(x-2)+12
7. Solve 0.75-0.08t=1.22
8. Solve \frac{14}{3}=\frac{8}{x}
9. Solve \frac{7}{33}=\frac{x}{5}
10. Solve \frac{12}{x}=6
11. Find a formula for h (that is, solve for h.) \frac{h}{36}=\frac{m}{k}.
12. Find a formula for d (that is, solve for d.) \frac{a}{0.37}=\frac{r}{d}.
13. Evaluate y=6+2x when x=7
14. Evaluate y=u{{x}^{4}} when x=2 and u=9
Part II
1. Solve 8x+7=31
2. Solve 6x-14=40
3. Simplify 13(x+2)
4. Simplify 8(x-2)
5. Solve \frac{5}{2}=\frac{35}{x}
6. Solve \frac{9}{r}=\frac{54}{30}
7. Solve \frac{7}{5}=\frac{x}{35}
8. Solve 17=-3x+2
9. Find a formula for y (that is, solve for y): y-7=4(x-3)
10. Find a formula for y (that is, solve for y): y-15=3(x-7)
11. Find a formula for k (that is, solve for k.) \frac{m}{2.1}=\frac{k}{t}.
12. Find a formula for m (that is, solve for m.) \frac{b}{m}=\frac{w}{17}.
13. Evaluate L=A\cdot{{r}^{t}} where A=10,\,\,\,\,r=2,\,\,\,\,t=5
14. Evaluate y=7x-3 where x=5
27.6: B1.06- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
28: Topic D- Formulas—Computing and Graphing
28.2: D1.02- Examples 2–5
28.3: D1.03- Examples 6–9
28.4: D1.04- Examples 10–11
28: Topic D- Formulas—Computing and Graphing is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by
LibreTexts.
1
Objectives
1. Distinguish between input values and output values in formulas.
2. Use the order of operations correctly evaluating formulas.
3. Choose an appropriate scale for each axis and graph the formula by hand.
4. Use the graph to find what input value will give a particular output value.
5. Use numerical methods to check that answer and to refine it to get a somewhat more accurate answer. (After learning to graph
using a spreadsheet.)
6. Use formulas with several different variables as input.
7. Understand the use of subscripts in formulas.
Many formulas are used in geometry and other applications. It is important to be able to correctly plug in values and compute the
result. In this course we will also learn to graph some of these formulas so that we can investigate the patterns more fully.
Definition: Usually when people refer to an equation as a formula it has the output variable alone on one side of the equation.
When the equation is written in that form, it is easy to evaluate the output variable at different input values and to easily graph the
formula. When we use the word “formula” in this course, we will always mean that the output variable is alone on one side
of the equation.
Example 1
Example 1. In Canada and Mexico, weather reports report temperature using the Centigrade (or Celsius) scale. In the US,
temperature is reported using the Fahrenheit scale. To convert temperature C to temperature F, we use the formula F=\frac{9}{5}C+32.
When the temperature C is 23°, what is the temperature F?
\begin{align}&F=\frac{9}{5}C+32\\&F=\frac{9}{5}(23)+32\\&F=41.4+32\\&F=73.4\\\end{align}
Thus the temperature F is 73.4°.

Notice that we used the correct order of operations here, performing the multiplication before the addition.
Here we call the 23° the input value and the 73.4° the output value. (In algebra class, we call the set of input values the “domain”
and the set of output values the “range”.)
When we graph a formula, we will put the input value on the horizontal axis, sometimes called the x-axis, and the output value on
the vertical axis, sometimes called the y-axis. We can use different letters for the variables besides x and y, but when we think of the
formula graphically, we must be clear about which variable plays the role of x and which plays the role of y. (You should be able to
do these graphs by hand as well as with a spreadsheet.)
Formula input and output
C F
23 73.4
0 32
10 50
20 68
30 86
40 104
[/hidden-answer]
Mathematics for Measuring. Authored by: Mary Parker and Hunter Ellinger. License: CC BY: Attribution
28.1: D1.01- Introduction is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
28.2: D1.02- Examples 2–5
Example 2
If we invest $750 at 6% annual interest, compounded quarterly, the formula for the amount A that the investment is worth after t
years is A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{4}\right)}^{4t}}. Find the amount the investment is worth after five years. Then evaluate this for several
values of t between 0 and 30 years, and sketch a graph of this formula.
First, recall how to get an exponent in your calculator. On most calculators, it’s a ^ key or a
key. Find that key and practice using it to evaluate . When you can do that correctly, then evaluate the following expression,
writing these intermediate values as indicated below.
A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{4}\right)}^{4t}}=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{4}\right)}^{4\cdot5}}=750\cdot{{\left(1.015\right)}^{20}}=750\cdot1.346855007=1010.141255
So the investment is worth $1010.14 after 5 years.
It is more convenient to be able to put all of these values into the calculator at the same time rather than writing intermediate steps.
We will learn to do that in this course, but that’s not the point of this lesson. The point here is to practice making graphs. This will
be useful to you in checking your work when you evaluate formulas. If one of the values you compute doesn’t seem to fit the
pattern of the others, that warns you to check your computation again.
Formula input and output
t A
5 1010.141
0 750.000
10 1360.514
20 2467.997
30 4476.992
We can use the graph to estimate at what time the amount of the investment will
be about $4000. Look at the graph to find 4000 on the vertical axis and then notice that the corresponding value on the horizontal
axis is about 27.5. So at approximately 27.5 years, the amount of the investment will be $4000.
Check that by plugging it into the formula. A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{4}\right)}^{4\cdot27.5}}=\,\,\,\text{etc.}\,\,=3857.68
This is as close as we could reasonably expect from using a graph to approximate the input value.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 3
Consider our approximation from Example 2. We wanted to find the number of years to leave the money in so that the amount of
the investment would be $4000. The graph suggested that t=27.5 years. But then we found that after 27.5 years, the amount was
only $3857.68. Clearly we should leave the money in somewhat longer. How much longer?
If we know how to do some complicated algebra (using logarithms) we can quickly obtain an answer to “how long should we leave
the money to earn $4000?” We will not do that particular type of algebra in this course. Instead we will use numerical work to get
refine our estimate from the graph. Here, when we look at the graph and the numbers, it is clear that 30 years is too long and 27.5
years is too short. So we try some value in between. Let’s try 28 years. A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{4}\right)}^{4\cdot28}}=\,\,\text{etc.}\,\,=\,\,3974.28.
This is much closer to the $4000 which was our goal. If we wanted to try to get it even more accurately, we would use a value
larger than 28 years, but only very slightly larger. Since the amount is compounded quarterly, the next time the amount will
increase is at 28.25 years, so let’s try that. A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{4}\right)}^{4\cdot28.25}}=4033.89. That is further away from $4000 than the
value for 28 years, so the best answer for this question is that the amount of the investment will be at about $4000 at 28 years.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 4
Following Example 2, we’d like to have a formula that allows us to vary the interest rate and number of times per year it is
compounded as well as varying the number of years of the investment. So let r be the interest rate, converted to a decimal and n be
the number of times per year it is compounded, and, as before t is the number of years and A is the amount of the investment.
Then the formula is A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{r}{n}\right)}^{n\cdot{t}}}. This is an example of a formula with several input values. Use this
formula to find the amount of the investment after 5 years if the interest rate is 8% and it is compounded monthly.
A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{r}{n}\right)}^{n\cdot{t}}}=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.08}{12}\right)}^{12\cdot5}}=750\cdot{{\left(1.006666667\right)}^{60}}=750\cdot1.4898457=1117.384281
So after 5 years, this investment is worth $1117.38.

We can’t graph this easily, because we would need more than a two-dimensional graph. We need one dimension for the output
value and one dimension for every input value and investigating four-dimensional graphs is beyond the scope of this course!
However, in most practical applications, technicians and scientists isolate one or two input variables that they are most interested in
and then analyze the problem with a two-dimensional graph (for one input variable) or a three-dimensional graph (for two input
variables.) We will look at some three-dimensional graphs later in the course.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 5
Following Example 3, suppose we want to allow the initial amount of the investment to change. So we need a variable for that.
Since it is an amount, we’d like to call it A, but we already have an A in this formula that means something else. We could use a
different letter, but in applications problems we often choose to call both values A and distinguish between them by a subscript. In
this problem, we would usually call the original amount of money
and the final amount of money after t years . So the formula is . Use this formula to find the amount of an investment after 6 years
if the initial amount is $900, the annual rate is 0.07 and it is compounded twice a year.
\begin{align}&{{A}_{t}}={{A}_{0}}\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{r}{n}\right)}^{n\cdot{t}}}\\&{{A}_{6}}=900\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.07}
{2}\right)}^{2\cdot6}}=900\cdot{{(1.035)}^{12}}=900\cdot1.511068657=1359.961792\\\end{align}
So, after 6 years, this investment is worth $1359.96.
[/hidden-answer]

28.2: D1.02- Examples 2–5 is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
28.3: D1.03- Examples 6–9
Example 6
Find the area of this trapezoid, where the numbers represent feet.

The formula is A=\frac{1}{2}h\left({{b}_{1}}+{{b}_{2}}\right) where h is the height,
and are the lengths of the two bases, and A is the area. Notice that the subscripts are used because both these sides are called bases,
so b is a reasonable letter to use, but there are two different ones. We use subscripts on the b’s to distinguish between the two
different bases.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 7
Find the volume of a sphere with radius 3 inches. The formula is V=\frac{4}{3}\pi{{r}^{3}} .
[hidden-answer a=”603839″] V=\frac{4}{3}\pi{{r}^{3}}=\frac{4}{3}\pi{{\left(3\right)}^{3}}=\frac{4}{3}\pi\cdot27=113.097.
So the volume of this sphere is 113.097 cubic inches.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 8
Graph the formula V=\frac{4}{3}\pi{{r}^{3}} for the values of r from 0 to 6 feet and use the graph to approximate what radius will give a
volume of 400 cubic feet.
Notice that r is the input value and V is the output value.
r V
0 0
1 4.188787
2 33.51029
3 113.0972
4 268.0823
5 523.5983
6 904.7779
Using the graph, we follow the line for 400 on the vertical axis across to the graph and then down to see the corresponding r value,
which is approximately r=4.5 feet. We can check this by plugging in and finding that V=\frac{4}{3}\pi{{(4.5)}^{3}}=381.7
If we wanted to get a better estimate, we would try a somewhat higher value for r.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 9
Consider the problem of Example 8. Use graphical and numerical methods to find a value for the radius that will give a volume of
400 cubic feet, correct to within 10 cubic feet.
The graph tells us that a good estimate for the radius is 4.5 feet. Next we check that by plugging in and finding that
V=\frac{4}{3}\pi{{(4.5)}^{3}}=381.7cubic feet. That’s a bit too low, so let’s try a slightly larger value for the radius. Let’s try 4.6 feet.
V=\frac{4}{3}\pi{{(4.6)}^{3}}=407.72 cubic feet. That’s an adequate answer, according to the tolerance level stated in the problem. Of
course, if we wanted a more accurate answer, we could continue to work numerically by taking a value for the radius just a bit
smaller than 4.6 feet and finding the volume for that.
[/hidden-answer]
Perhaps you have noticed that you could use algebra (involving cube roots) instead of the graph on the problem of Examples 8 and
9 to obtain a quite exact answer for the radius needed to obtain a volume of 400 cubic feet. And that’s a fine thing to do. But, in this
course, we are practicing this technique that will allow you to solve problems of this kind even if the formula is so complicated that
the algebra needed to “invert” the formula is harder than anything you’ve learned in your algebra courses. In fact, some formulas
are so complicated that even mathematicians find these values in just the same way you’re learning here. Using graphs in this way
is a very powerful and important tool in working on technical problems!
28.4: D1.04- Examples 10–11
Example 10
A certain river in Georgia is polluted with coliform bacteria. This has been blamed primarily on the dairy farmers whose farms are
in the watershed of the river. This formula is used to model the cost in dollars, y, to remove p% of the bacterial pollution from the
river. How much of the pollution can be removed if $1.0 million is available to spend on this? y=\frac{380,000p}{100-p}
We must graph this formula over the range of values 0\le{p}<100 and then see for what values of p the y value is less than or equal to
$1.0 million.
Use parentheses when putting this formula into your calculator. When we write this by hand it is obvious that the entire numerator
and entire denominator should be evaluated separately before dividing. But when we enter it into a calculator, we have to use
parentheses to indicate that.
For p = 20, use (380000*20)/(100 – 20) =
p y
0 0
10 42222.22
20 95000.00
30 162857.1
40 253333.3
50 380000.0
60 570000.0
70 886666.7
80 1520000.0
90 3420000.0
We graphed the formula and then put a line across at $1 million. This crosses the cost graph at a bit more than. So we estimate that
about 72% of the pollution can be removed for $1.0 million.
We could expand the scale or do more numerical computation to estimate this more precisely. That would be tedious to do by hand,
but would be easy to do with a spreadsheet.
[/hidden-answer]
Example 11
A certain kind of appliance is sold for $10 each and the manufacturer can sell all she produces at that price. To produce these
appliances requires a fixed cost of $14,220 per month (equipment depreciation, salaries, utilities, etc.) and the variable cost per
appliance is $2.10.
1. Write a formula for the cost of producing x appliances.
2. Write another formula for the revenue produced by selling x appliances.
3. Graph both formulas for 0\le{x}\le2500.
4. For what value of x is the cost equal to the revenue? (That point on the graph is called the “break-even” point.)
Let C = total cost of x appliances. C = fixed cost + variable cost times number of appliances.
Thus C=14220+2.10\cdot{x}
Let R = total revenue from x appliances. R = price per appliance times number of appliances
Thus R=10.00\cdot{x}
x C R
0 14220 0
500 15270 5000
1000 16320 10000
1500 17370 15000
2000 18420 20000
2500 19470 25000
Notice that these are equal for some x-value about halfway between 1500 and 2000. So we plot
more values in this range and find that they are equal at x=1800.
We plot more values in this range and find that the cost and the revenue are equal at x=1800 .
So, for 1800 appliances, both the cost and the revenue are $18,000. That means that, if we make 1800 appliances, we will “break
even.”
[/hidden-answer]
Use a calculator and make the graphs by hand to work the following problems. Don’t calculate very many points—use those given.
In this class we will usually use a spreadsheet to automate the calculations. The work in this lesson is mainly to help you recall how
to graph formulas by hand so that you will fully understand the graphs you produce with a spreadsheet.
Part I
1. If we invest $750 at 6% annual interest, compounded quarterly, the formula for the amount A that the investment is worth after t
years is A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{0.06}{4}\right)}^{4t}}.
1. Find the amount the investment is worth after five years. Then evaluate this for two more values of t between 0 and 30
years. Use the rest of the values that were given in the example, and sketch a graph of this formula.
2. For the previous problem, how long should we leave the investment so that it will be worth $4000? Estimate the time,
correct to the nearest year.
2. Then the formula is A=750\cdot{{\left(1+\frac{r}{n}\right)}^{n\cdot{t}}}. This is an example of a formula with several input values. Use this
formula to find the amount of the investment after 5 years if the interest rate is 8% and it is compounded monthly.
3. Find the area of a trapezoid with bases 5 feet and 9 feet and height 7 feet. A=\frac{1}{2}h\left({{b}_{1}}+{{b}_{2}}\right)
4. Graph the formula for the volume of a sphere, V=\frac{4}{3}\pi{{r}^{3}}, for the values of r from 0 to 6 feet and use the graph to
approximate what radius will give a volume of 400 cubic feet, correct to within 10 cubic feet. Evaluate about three values by
hand/calculator and then use the rest from the example.
5. A certain river in Georgia is polluted with coliform bacteria. This has been blamed primarily on the dairy farmers whose farms
are in the watershed of the river. This formula is used to model the cost in dollars, y, to remove p% of the bacterial pollution
from the river. How much of the pollution can be removed if $1.0 million is available to spend on this? Evaluate about three
values by hand/calculator and then use the rest form the example. y=\frac{380,000p}{100-p}
6. A certain kind of appliance is sold for $10 each and the manufacturer can sell all she produces at that price. To produce these
appliances requires a fixed cost of $14,220 per month (equipment depreciation, salaries, utilities, etc.) and the variable cost per
appliance is $2.10.
1. Write a formula for the cost of producing x appliances.
2. Write another formula for the revenue produced by selling x appliances.
3. Graph both formulas for 0\le{x}\le2500.
4. For what value of x is the cost equal to the revenue? (That is called the “break-even” point.
Part II
7. The concentration of a particular drug in a patient’s blood is given by the formula C=\frac{7}{0.3{{t}^{2}}+1.1} where t is the number of
hours after the patient takes the medicine and C is the concentration in milliliters per liter of blood. Of course, t\ge0. (Hint:
When you are using your calculator to evaluate this, be sure to put parentheses around the entire denominator of the fraction.)
t C a. Use your calculator to confirm at least one of the values of C in the table of values and then fill in the missing
value.
0 6.363636 b. Which is the input variable? (When you graph this, put that along the horizontal axis.)
c. Using graph paper, graph this formula by hand.
1 5.000000 d. It is recommended that the patient not take another dose until the concentration is less than 2.0 ml/l. According to
your graph of the formula, approximately how long will that take? (Estimate to the nearest hour.)
2 3.043478
4 1.186441
5 0.813953
8. The landing speed S , in feet per second, of a particular type of small plane can be modeled by the formula S=\sqrt{1.496w} where w
is the weight in pounds of the plane.
w S a. Use your calculator to confirm at least one of the values of C in the table of values and then fill in the missing
value..
6000 94.74175 d. What weight would correspond to a landing speed of 100 ft/sec? Use your graph to estimate this to the nearest
thousand pounds.
8000
10000 122.3111
9. The logistic formula can be used to describe population growth in a situation with limited resources. Consider this logistic
formula P=\frac{1000}{1+10\cdot({{2}^{-t}})}, where P is the population at time t. (Hint: When you are using your calculator to
evaluate this, be sure to put parentheses around the entire denominator of the fraction.)
t P(t) a. Use your calculator to confirm at least one of the values of P in the table of values and then fill in the missing
value.
1 166.6667 d. What time would we expect to have a value for P of 900? Use your graph to estimate this.
2 285.7143
3 444.4444
5 761.9048
6 864.8649
8 962.4060
9 980.8429
10. A certain kind of thermometer is sold for $5 each and the manufacturer can sell all she produces at that price. To produce these
thermometers requires a fixed cost of $3500 per month (equipment depreciation, salaries, utilities, etc.) and the variable cost per
thermometer is $1.50.
1. Write a formula for the cost of producing x thermometers.
2. Write a formula for the revenue produced by selling x thermometers.
3. Graph both formulas for 0\le{x}\le2500 in increments of 500.
4. For what value of x is the cost equal to the revenue? (That point on the graph is called the “break-even” point.)
5. What is the total cost of making that many thermometers?
6. What is the total revenue earned from that many thermometers?
28.5: D1.05- Exercises is shared under a not declared license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts.
Index
Glossary
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BOOK: MATHEMATICS

FOR THE LIBERAL ARTS

This text was compiled on 08/10/2022

4: Module 1- General Problem Solving

8: Topic F- Using a Calculator

12: Module 3- Set Theory

13: Module 4- Logic

14: Module 5- Numeration Systems

15: Module 6- Consumer Math

16: Topic G- Linear Equations – Algebra and Spreadsheets

17: Topic K- Finance

19: Topic M- Power Functions and Using Logarithmic Graphs

20: Topic H- Linear Formulas – Word Problems

21: Topic I- Linear and Quadratic Models

23: Topic C- Communicating Precision of Approximate Numbers

24: Topic E- Using a Spreadsheet

25: Topic O- Combining Modeling Formulas

28: Topic D- Formulas—Computing and Graphing

Requesting an Instructor Account in MyOpenMath

Reading Assignments and Videos

To do the calculations, we write the percent as a decimal.

Absolute and Relative Change

Relative change: \displaystyle\frac{\text{absolute change}}{\text{starting quantity}}

Absolute change has the same units as the original quantity.

Proportions and Rates

which we could also write as \displaystyle{20}\frac{\text{miles}}{\text{gallon}}\\, or just 20 miles per gallon.

\displaystyle\frac{\frac{1}{2}}{3}\cdot{x}=\frac{9}{4}\\ Multiply both sides by 3

\displaystyle\frac{1}{2}x=\frac{27}{4}\\ Multiply both sides by 2 (or divide by ½)

1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) 1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)

1 mile = 5,280 feet

1000 millimeters (mm) = 1 meter (m) 100 centimeters (cm) = 1 meter

1000 meters (m) = 1 kilometer (km) 2.54 centimeters (cm) = 1 inch

Weight and Mass

1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz) 1 ton = 2000 pounds

1000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g) 1000 grams = 1kilogram (kg)

1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds (on earth)

1 cup = 8 fluid ounces (fl oz)[4] 1 pint = 2 cups

1 quart = 2 pints = 4 cups 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 16 cups

1000 milliliters (ml) = 1 liter (L)

Now we can multiply by the 15 miles/hr

Now we can convert to feet

Other quantities just don’t scale proportionally at all.

Multiply both sides by 201

Problem Solving and Estimating

Problem Solving Process

\displaystyle\frac{3000\text{ calories}}{20\text{ mini-muffins}}=\text{ gives }150\text{ calories per mini-muffin}\\

\displaystyle4\text{ mini-muffins}\cdot\frac{150\text{ calories}}{\text{mini-muffin}}=\text{totals }600\text{ calories consumed.}\\

Hybrid: \displaystyle{332.1}\text{ gallons}\cdot\frac{\$3.50}{\text{gallon}}=\$1162.35\\

Topic A. Solving Equations and Evaluating Expressions

Partial Check: Use

Partial Check: Use

Partial Check: Use

Partial Check: Use

Solution: Check by plugging in the answer for y:

Section 3. Solving equations with variables in the denominator.

Solution Method: Alternate Solution Method: Multiply by common denominator Check:

Solution Method: Solution Method: Multiply by common denominator Check:

Solution Method: Alternate Solution Method: Multiply by common denominator Check:

Example 5: Find a formula for d (that is, solve for d.) .

Solution Method: Alternate Solution Method: Multiply by common denominator Check: