Computer Programming for

Beginners
- 3 Books in 1 -
Step by Step Beginners’ Guide to
Learn Programming, Python For
Beginners, Python Machine Learning

By
Kevin Cooper
Books In the “PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE” Series by Kevin Cooper
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Copyright 2019 by Kevin Cooper - All rights reserved.

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 Table of Contents

BOOK 1: Step by Step Beginners’ Guide to Learn

Programming

Chapter One: Introduction to Programming

What is a Programming Language?
Building a Foundation for Writing Codes
Chapter Two: Learning C Programming Language
Introduction
Features of C Programming Language
Why Learn C Programming Language?
Uses of Programming Language
Setting Up the Environment
Pre-requisite for Learning C
Understanding the Basics
Data Types
Basic Data Types
Float Data Type
Enumeration Data type
Derived Data Type
Void data type
Keywords, Identifiers (Variables), and Literals
 Literals
Operators in C Programming Language
Arithmetic Operators
Relational Operators
Logical Operators in C Programming Language
Bitwise Operators
Assignment Operators
Decision Making in C
If Statement
If … else Statement
If…else if…else statement
Conclusion
Chapter Three: C# Programming
Introduction
Prerequisite for Learning C#
Features of C# Language
Understanding the Basics of C#
Data types
Integer
Double
Boolean
String
Variables
Variable Modifiers
Constants
 Operators in C#
Arithmetic Operators
Logical Operators
Relational Operators
Unary Operators
Bitwise Operators
Ternary Operator
Array
Arrays Definition for Different Data Type
Categories of Array in C#
Single-Dimensional
Multi-Dimensional
Chapter Four: Beginners Guide to Learning C++
Brief History
Is there anyone using C++?
Why use C++ today?
Difference between C and C++
Structure of C++ Program
Data Types, Variables and Operator
Identifiers
Data Types in C++ Programming Language
Variable Declaration
Variable Scope
Variable Initialization
Strings in C++ Programming
 Constants
Integer numerals
Floating-point number
Character and string Constant
Defining Constant in C++
Operators in C++ Programming Language
Arithmetic Operators
Logical Operators
Relational Operators
Bitwise Operators
Assignment Operators
C++ Capabilities
C++ Limitations
Chapter Five: SQL
Introduction
Pre-requisites for Learning SQL
What can you do with SQL?
Topics to Cover in SQL
What is SQL?
Basic Terms
What is Relational Database?
Definition Data
Definition Database
Definition Database Management System
Types of Database Management System
 Setting Your SQL Work Environment
SQL Syntax
Case Sensitivity in SQL
SQL Comments
Database Creation
Creating Tables in SQL
Constraints In SQL
Inserting Data in Tables
Selecting Data in a Table
SQL WHERE Statement
Filtering records using WHERE clause
The AND operator
The OR Operator
SQL UPDATE STATEMENT
SQL DELETE
Chapter Six: Introduction to Java Programming
Pre-requisite for Learning Java
Concepts of Java Programming
Encapsulation
Polymorphism
Inheritance
Understanding the Java Environment
Running Your First Java Program
Variables
Declaring Variables in Java
 Convention in Variable naming in Java
Types of Variables
Data Types
Java Programming Primitive Data Types
Operators in Java Programming
Arithmetic Operators
Assignment Operator
Logical operator
Conclusion
Chapter Seven: JavaScript Programming for Beginners
Introduction
What is JavaScript?
Why should I Study JavaScript?
Importance of JavaScript for Websites
Pre-requisites for learning JavaScript
Variables in JavaScript
JavaScript Identifiers
Scope of JavaScript Variable
Data Types in JavaScript
Operators in JavaScript
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Mod
Basic JavaScript on the Browser side
 Browser-Side JavaScript Features
JavaScript Framework
Top JavaScript Framework
Chapter Eight: Introduction to PHP
Pre-requisite for learning PHP
Getting Started
PHP Syntax
Variables in PHP Programming
Variable Rules in PHP
Operators in PHP Programming
Assignment operators
Logical Operators
Arithmetic Operators
Comparison Operator
Conditional Statements in PHP Programming
If Statement
The If…else statement
The if … else if…else statement
Conclusion
Chapter Nine: Python Programming Language
Introduction
Features of Python
Uses of Python
How to Install Python Programming Language
Installation of PyCharm IDE
 Launching PyCharm
Python Program Beginning
Comments in Python
Python Variables
Variable Name Convention in Python
Python Variable examples
Data Types in Python
Numbers
Strings
Tuple
Control Statement in Python Programming
If Statement
If-else statement
Conclusion on Python Programming
Glossary
Exercises for all Languages
Summary of the Book
BOOK 2: Python For Beginners

Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction to Python
What is Python?
Python and its History
Python and Its Features
First Python Program
Building Development Environment
Use of Interactive Command Line
Python Development Tools
Python Under Different Platforms
Chapter 2: Variables and Constants in Python
Why Variables are needed?
Variable Naming and Assignment
Static Type and Dynamic Type
Python's Numeric Data Types
Decimal Module
Constant
Formatting Input and Output Function
Hands-on Practice Exercise
Chapter 3: Operators in Python
Why are Operators Necessary?
What are Operands and Operators?
 Operator Precedence
Hands-on Practice Exercise
Chapter 4: Conditional and Loops in Python
What is a sequence in Python?
Selection Process Control
If...Else Conditional Statement
Multiple Choices
The Loop Repeat Structure
Practical Exercises
Chapter 5: Modules and Functions in Python
Python Program Structure
Module Creation
Module Import
Properties of Modules
Custom Packages
Function
Chapter 6: Object-oriented Programming in Python
What Is Object-Oriented Programming?
Overview of Object-Oriented Programming
Categories and Objects
Chapter 7: Files in Python
What are Files in Python?
Conclusion
BOOK 3: Python Machine Learning

Introduction
Chapter 1: What is Data Science and Deep Learning?
Why Data Science Is Important
What is Data Science?
Predictive casual analytics:
Prescription analytics:
Making predictions through machine learning:
Machine learning for the discovery of the pattern:
Data Science vs. Business Intelligence (BI)
Data Science Lifecycle
Phase 1 – Discovery:
Phase 2 – Preparation of data:
Phase 3 – model planning:
Phase 4 – Building the model:
Phase 5 – Operationalize:
Phase 6 – Communicate results:
Secret Sauces of Data Scientists
An In-depth Look into Deep Learning
Chapter 2: Data Science and Applications
Banking and Finance
Fraud detection
Customer data management
 Investment banks risk modeling
Personalized marketing
Health and Medicine
Analysis of medical image
Genomics and genetics
Drugs creation
Virtual assistance for customer and patients support
Industry knowledge
Oil and Gas
Immediate drag calculation and torque using neural networks
Predicting well production profile through feature extraction models
Downstream optimization
The Internet
Targeted advertising
Website recommendations
Advanced image recognition
Speech recognition
Travel and Tourism
Customer segmentation and personalized marketing
Analysis of customer sentiment
Recommendation engine
Travel support bots
Route optimization
Chapter 3: Probability – Fundamental – Statistics – Data Types
Real-Life Probability Examples
 Organize around the weather
Strategies in sports
Insurance option
Recreational and games activities
Statistics
Statistics in data analysis
Data Types
Categorical data
Nominal data
Ordinal data
Numerical Data
The Importance of Data Types
Statistical Methods
Nominal data
Ordinal data
Continuous data
Descriptive Statistics
Normal Distribution
Central tendency
Chapter 4: Linear Algebra
The Importance of Linear Algebra
Example 1:
Example 2:
Example 3:
Example 4:
 Linear Algebra Problems Representation
Visualize the Problem
Complicating the Problem
Planes
Matrix
Matrix’s related words
Chapter 5: Understanding the Fundamentals of Machine Learning
Prerequisites to start with machine learning
The semantic tree
Six Jars of Machine Learning
Learning
Loss
Task
Data
Evaluation
Model
Supervised learning
Machine Learning Roadmap
Linear Regression
Logistic Regression
Naive Bayes Classifier
K – Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
K – Means
Support Vector Machine (SVM)
Decision Trees
 Random Forest
Gradient Boosting
Chapter 6: Types of Machine Learning
Types of Machine Learning Algorithms
Algorithms of supervised machine learning
Use cares of supervised learning algorithms
Algorithms of unsupervised machine learning
Unsupervised learning machine used cases
Algorithms of semi-supervised machine learning
Use cases of semi-supervised machine learning
Algorithms of Reinforcement Machine Learning
Reinforcement machine learning algorithms use cases
Pattern Recognition and why it Matters
What is pattern recognition?
Pattern recognition models
How pattern recognition works
Pattern recognition use cases
Chapter 7: What is Python? Setting Up the Environment in Python
The Use of Python
Benefits of learning Python
Python Environment Setup
Text File vs. Python Shell
The Best Place to Start
How to get Python
The version of Python to use
 Features of Python
What is Django?
The Difference between Python and Other Languages
The use of the languages
Chapter 8: Guide to Machine Learning With Python
The basic need for machine learning
When and why making machines learn?
Machine Learning with Python – Ecosystem
Python’s strengths and weaknesses
Why Python for Data Science?
An extensive set of packages
Easy prototyping
Collaboration feature
Many domains with one language
Machine Learning Techniques with Python
Machine learning regression
Classification of machine learning
Clustering
Anomaly detection
Data Loading for Machine Learning Projects
Consideration while loading CSV data
Methods of loading CSV data file
Load CSV with Python standard library
Load CSV with MumPy
Load CSV with Pandas
 Applications of Machine Learning with Python
Virtual personal assistants
Social media services
Online customer support
Online fraud detection
Product recommendations
Refining search results
Fighting web spam
Automatic translation
Video surveillance
Chapter 9: K – Nearest Neighbor Algorithms – K – Means Clustering
K – Nearest Neighbors
The KNN Algorithm
Selecting the right value for K
KNN in practice
How to Implement K – Nearest Neighbors in Python
Handle data
Similarity
Neighbors
Response
Accuracy
Main
K – Means Clustering
Clustering
K – Means Algorithm
 Data assignment step:
Centroid update step:
Choosing K
Business Uses
Behavioral segmentation:
Inventory categorization:
Measurements of sorting sensor:
Anomalies and bots detection:
Chapter 10: Neural Networks – Linear Classifiers
Neural Network Elements
Deep Neural Networks Key Concepts
Feedforward Networks
Multiple Linear Regression
Different Types of Classifiers
Conclusion
Step by Step Beginners’ Guide to
Learn Programming
The Complete Introduction Guide for
Learning the Basics of C, C#, C++,
SQL, JAVA, JAVASCRIPT, PHP, and
PYTHON.
A Pratical Programming Language
Course
 By
Kevin Cooper
 Chapter One: Introduction to
Programming
Thank you for buying this book because it is the best investment you will
make in improving your skill as a programmer. The book contains
information on the basics of programming in various programming languages
including PHP, JavaScript, Java, Python, SQL, C+, C#, and C.
I am Kevin Cooper and if you are a beginner, do not worry because I started
the same way as you are about to do. I will be your driver and guide for this
wonderful journey of the beginners’ guide to learning programming.
The book is geared towards you understanding the aforementioned
programming languages in its simplicity. I will teach you in a way that you
will not forget. The book contains exercises, which is important for you to
practice if you want to be a productive and successful programmer.
Today, we have seen hundreds of programming languages created for
different purposes. However, we have also seen some of these programming
languages gaining more popularity over others.
No matter what your quest is, welcome to the world of programming where
everything is possible. Programming is simply the act or process of writing
programs to instruct the computer what actions to perform or not. These
programs use various series of instructions in a particular language (all
language have different instruction). Nevertheless, in this book, you learn the
fundamentals of seven programming languages. These languages include C,
C++, C#, SQL, Java, PHP, and Python.
Programming isn’t complicated as many try to portray it. If that has been
your perception, this step by step beginners’ guide to learn programming will
change that perception. It is surely going to be a fun ride as long as you stick
to what is contained in this book. I am confident this book contains
everything you need as a beginner, who is looking forward to going into
advanced coding. Let’s crack the nuts together.

What is a Programming Language?

In layman’s term, this is an artificial language aimed at controlling the
operation and functionality of a computer. It is akin to our English language,
which we use to express our ideas. Just like there are rules in the English
language, so it is with programming languages. They have rules (syntactic
and semantic rules), which programmers must adhere to
To understand it better, an example will clarify everything. Assuming you
met someone on the way and he/she asked for the nearest bank. What would
be your response to the person? How will you describe the direction in such a
way that the person never forgets? Obviously, you will do something like
this:
Take the straight path towards you for 1 kilometer
Take the right turn at the traffic light
Then drive for another half kilometer
At your right-hand side is the bank
This is an instruction in the English language and it followed a particular
sequence for the person to follow in order to get to the bank. For a moment,
what will be the situation if the same case scenario is a computer program?
As simple as the direction is, you can write programs for this example using
any programming language of your choice. However, you won’t use your
daily English language words but those understood by the computer.
A program, also called software sometimes contains a couple of lines to
millions of lines with each providing different instructions. The instructions
are called source code whereas the act of writing codes is known as program
coding. It doesn’t matter how the body of a system looks, without a program,
the computer can do nothing. The program gives life to the computer when
you power it on.
Just as we have different languages in the world, computer scientists have
developed various languages but with the primary purpose of writing
computer programs. There are over a hundred programming languages
available for anyone to learn. It is hard to learn everything but it is important
to have basic knowledge of the important once.

Building a Foundation for Writing Codes

Programming languages are geared towards solving a particular problem.
Yes, you want to be a problem solver by creating important product and
services but irrespective of how you practice, there are essential skills you
must possess. Learning programming will offer you numerous job
opportunities and increase your wages while working for fewer hours. Coders
or developers spend time making applications, websites, and systems work
together in order to improve the experience of their employers and end-users.
Welcome to the Programming industry where there is no impossibility as
long as you can envision it. However, there are important skills you must
have before starting this journey.
Self-Reliance – This skill is huge because as a beginner, you may
feel overwhelmed. You will be confronted with various decisions
to make such as what language to learn? Should I focus on the
back end or front end? Where do I start? At times, you will feel
like giving up after hours of no sleep without any significant
progress. However, you do not have to give up. Success doesn’t
come cheap, there is a price to pay. To be a successful
programmer, you have to master distraction, frustrations,
impatience, and be self-reliance to accept the responsibility at
hand.
Attention to details – If you want to excel as a beginner, you must
have attention to the minimum detail. Everything matters in
programming. A single spelling can cause your program to go
wrong if you are not painstaking in paying attention to details. You
don’t have to work round the clock; take some time off and refresh
yourself in you want to up and doing. Make your own research,
make your own notes, and continue to improve yourself.
Abstract thinking – Programmers are thinkers, who think outside
the box. They are not confined to a particular solution. They have
their perspective on a global level, seeing things from a different
angle in order to find ways of improving on what already exists.
Patience – Whoever tells you coding is easy is lying because you
have to dedicate time, resource to come up with solutions. At some
stage, you should expect some level of frustration because things
may not go the way you wanted. At times, you may feel useless
and the project isn’t worth the time, however in such a situation,
you have to be patient. Every successful programmer has
undergone through these challenges. Patience is the key to writing
codes. According to Steve Jobs, “ It’s worth waiting to get it right”
Therefore, no matter the challenge, let patience be the key.
 Chapter Two: Learning C Programming
Language

Introduction
The C programming language is one of the most commonly used languages
with various versions developed over the years. The C language is the
fundamental language to understand before considering learning the C# and
C++ language. My goal in this chapter is to enable you to have the
fundamental knowledge concerning the basics of C programming language
including the various data types.
Before starting, it is important to familiarize yourself with the language. The
C programming language is also referred to as a general-purpose because
programmers can use it for varieties of application. Its popularity is linked to
its efficiency despite how old it has been in existence. Most C programs are
portable, which means that a code written in a particular system can work in
another operating system.

Features of C Programming Language

It is significant to identify certain features of the C language.
Fast – New programming languages including Java and Python
provides more features than C language. Nevertheless, in terms of
performance, they are lower to C.
Modularity – This feature is unique as you can store C code in the
form of libraries for future purposes. The language comes with its
own standard libraries that you can use to solve various problems.
 Assuming you want something to display on the screen, you can
use the “studio.h” library, which enables you to use the print f()
function.
Portable – Have you heard the statement, “Write once, compile
everywhere.” Yes, it is true with C programs because a program
written in one system with Mac OS can be compiled in another
system for instance Windows 7 without any change to the
program.
Other features include reliability, interactivity, efficiency, and effectiveness.

Why Learn C Programming Language?

Perhaps, you are thinking, of what use is the C programming language today?
Is it the only accessible programming language to users? Definitely, there are
other languages you can learn, which are way higher and modern when
compared to the C language.
However, there are important reasons most people choose to learn this
programming language. Firstly, the C programming language preexisted
before most of the computer languages you have thought about. There are
unlimited resources to tap from the program with numerous functions to meet
every programming need.
Secondly, most people still learn the language because it is hard for anyone
not to get the solution they desire. It doesn’t have to take you years to learn a
particular programming language. The internet has even made it easier as
there are thousands of free tutorials to learn the language.
Thirdly, the C programming language is the language used by UNIX.
Interestingly, UNIX is one of the leading computer software in the world.
Besides, other operating systems also take advantage of the simplicity of the
programming language. Importantly, the way the language expresses ideas to
make it easier for anyone to implement the language without requiring any
aid.
If you are not still convinced, then it is imperative for me to indicate that the
C programming language is the foundation for other programming languages,
which is why we started this book with the language. For instance, there are
certain commands and principles you will see here that are applicable to other
programming languages.
For a newbie, C programming is the best to start your programming learning
process. However, for an easier language to understand, you can go for
Python, which I will talk about towards the end of this book.

Uses of Programming Language

Interestingly, you can use the C language for creating various system
applications, which is an integral aspect of several operating systems
including Linux, Windows, and UNIX. The following are areas where C is
used.
Interpreters
Network drivers
Spreadsheets
Graphic packages
Operating system development
Database systems
Compiler and assemblers

Setting Up the Environment

In learning a new language, you have to set up the environment to run the
programs. In learning the C programming language, one should start from the
basics before going to the complex aspects.
If you want to take this quest seriously, then you should begin by
downloading and installing the C compiler. In computer programming,
compilers are simply programs that read code and generate executable
programs that a computer can understand. The compiler is necessary as it
reads the code you input and converts it to a computer-friendly signal.
There is no universal compiler because some programs can work in a certain
operating system while the same cannot be said for others. However, the
following suggestions will help you. If you are using a Window computer,
you can install MinGW or Microsoft Visual Studio Express. However, for
Mac and Linux operating system, you can use XCode and GCC respectively.
Besides a compiler, you will need a text editor to start coding. The compiler
and text editor has different roles.
The role of the text editor is for you to type your program. There are various
text editors available such as notepad, Emacs, OS Edit, etc. if you use a text
editor, you create a source file, which has the source code. C programs have
their file extension as “.c”
Once you complete your program in the text editor, the next thing is to save
it. After undergoing the compilation process, you can execute it. The role of
the compiler is to make the file you created usably. The compiler will make
the source code created in the text editor readable for human.

Pre-requisite for Learning C

Unlike some programming languages that require you to study another
language, C language is different. There is no prerequisite for learning the C
programming the language. You don’t require a preknowledge of data
structures, algorithms, or even Boolean logic. However, with the basic
knowledge of computers and logical skills, it is enough to begin your journey
of learning C. Get the compiler installed on your computer and stay dedicated
and surely you will be good at it over time.
As a professional programmer, I will advise you before beginning with this
book, you should endeavor to understand basic computer programming
terminologies as it will fast track your learning process.

Understanding the Basics

It is essential to identify the structure of a C program because without that
your foundation in this language will be shaky. Getting yourself set up with
these basics will help you a lot, as it will be a reference point to certain things
I will explain in this book. The following are the basic structures:
Documentation section – This section provides comments
concerning the program, the author’s name, the date it was created,
the modification date, etc.
Link Section – This includes header files necessary to execute
program
Definition Section – In this section, variable declaration and
assignment of values are done.
Global Declaration Section – Global variables are usually
highlighted here. When you want to use a variable throughout the
program, you define them at the global declaration section.
Function prototype declaration section – This section gives
details about the various function such as parameter names, return
types used within the function
Main function – All C programs must originate from the main
function. Primarily, it comprises of two different sections – the
execution and the declaration sections.
User-defined function – These sections contain functions defined
by the users to perform a certain task.
Don’t worry because it may look “foreign” to you as a beginner. However, I
like to use examples to highlight my points. Assuming you want to write
“Hello, Welcome to C Programming Language for Beginners” what code will
you use to produce these words?

C Program Commands Explanation

#include<stdio.h> This preprocessor command
contains the standard input-output
header contained in the C library
before the compilation of the
program.
int main () This function indicates where the
program execution begins
{ This specifies the starting point of
a function
/* comments*/ Whatever is written between the
/*…*/ is disregarded by the
compiler because it serves as an
explanation or comments.
Printf(“Hello, Welcome to C The Printf command displays
Programming Language for “Hello, Welcome to C
Beginners”); Programming Language for
Beginners” to the screen
Getch(); The command waits for the user
to input any character of their
choice from the console
Return 0; This ends the main function of the
 program while returning 0
} The closing brace specifies the
ending point of the main function

Let’s assume you want the following statement to show on the screen.
“Hello, Welcome to C Programming Language for Beginners” on the screen,
it will be as follow.
#include <stdio.h>
/* the int main () is the part where the execution of the program
begins*/
Int main ()
{
/* Performing the First Programming Sample in C language*/
Printf(“Hello, Welcome to C Programming Language for
Beginners”);
Getch();
Return 0;
}

Output

To ensure you write a program in C language and get the output, there are
important steps to follow. There is no exception to these steps as far as it is a
C program. It doesn’t matter if it is a small or large program. These involve
the creation, compilation, execution (running), and outputting of the program.
For you to do this there are certain prerequisites
You must have a C compiler installed on your system. With this,
you can execute programs.
It is not compulsory to install one on your system as you can
instead use an online compiler to compile and execute your
programs. Just search for online compilers for C and you will get
more details.

Data Types
A data type is a very simple but important concept to understand in any
programming language. It is a representation of a particular type of data,
which is processed through a computer program. A particular data type
determines a storage space along with the manner the bit pattern is
understood when processing the data.
In C language, data types are categorized into four different groups
Types Data Types
Enumeration data type Enum
Basic Data Int, float, char, double
Derived data type Pointer, array, union, structure
Void data type Void

Basic Data Types

Integer Data Type
This data type enables a user to use a variable to store numerical values. It is
represented by the keyword “int” with storage size ranging from 2, 4, or 8
bytes. However, the integer data type varies depending on the processor you
are using. For instance, if the computer is a 16-bit processor system, the int
data type will be allocated 2-byte memory.
Character Data Type
This type of data type allows the variable to store only a character. Unlike the
int, the char data type has a storage size of 1. This means that you can only
store a particular character for the data type. The character keyword is
represented by the “char” keyword.

Float Data Type

These comprise of two types – the float and double data type
Float – this allows you to store decimal values with a storage size of 4.
However, the storage size varies from one processor of a computer to
another. On the other hand, the double is identical to the float data type. After
the decimal value, the double data type allows as far as -10 digits.

Enumeration Data type

This data type comprises of named integer constants in the form of a list. By
default, it begins with 0 with the value increasing by 1 for the consecutive
identifies within its list. The syntax for Enum in C programming language is:
enum identifier [{enumerator-list}];

Derived Data Type

These data types include array, structure, pointer, and union.

Void data type

This type of data type does not have a value and used in pointers and
functions.

Keywords, Identifiers (Variables), and Literals

In C language, we have a character set, which includes a set of alphabets,
letters, and some special characters. The alphabets comprise of those in upper
and lower case. Note that the alphabets “A and a” are not the same – C
language is case sensitive.
Keywords are reserved words in programming that has its own distinct
connotation to the compiler. They are an integral aspect of the syntax of the
language that cannot be used as an identifier. For instance:
int number;
In this example, the word “int” is a reserved keyword, which indicates that
number is a variable of integer type. The table below shows the keywords
allowed in C language
volatile void unsigned while
typedef struct union switch
size signed short static
register int return long
goto for float if
enum double extern else
default continue const do
case auto char break

Identifiers are names given to entities like functions, variables, structures, etc.
They are unique and created to an entity within the execution of the program.
For instance,

In the example above, money and accountable are identifiers. Remember

identifiers must not be the same as keywords. How then do you form an
identifier?
An identifier can have letters, digits, and underscore. Letters can
be both lowercase and uppercase.
The first letter for an identifier must be an underscore or letter.
A keyword cannot be used as an identifier
There is no particular length for an identifier

Literals
These are values whose value cannot be changed in the course of the
program. The term is used in place of constant, so when you see constant
they mean the same thing. Constants comprise of various data types including
integer, character, floating, and string.
An integer constant on no situation must have an exponential or fractional
part. We have three integer literals in C programming. These are:
Decimal (example: 54, -98, 11)
Octal (example: 042, 089, 044)
Hexadecimal (example: 0x9f, 0x345, 0x7a)
Floating-point literals are numerical literal with an exponent or fractional
part. For instance, -4.0, 0.0000345, -0.44E-9.
Characters are literally formed by enclosing them with a single quotation
mark. For instance: ‘t’, ‘h’, ‘8’, etc;
Finally, a string literal comprises of a sequence or collection of characters
encircled in double quotation marks. For instance, “love”, “C Programming”,
“Professional”

Operators in C Programming Language

Operators are symbols, which tell the compiler what particular operation to
carry on a particular variable. In C language, we have long-range operators,
which are used to execute several operations on variables or operands. I will
explain the basic operators you should know as a beginner learning
programming.

Arithmetic Operators
In C programming language, these operators perform mathematical operators
namely addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. These can be executed
on various numerical values.
Operator Meaning Example
+ Addition A + C = 50
* Multiplication A * C = 10
- Subtraction A – C = 20
/ Division A/C= 5
% Modulo division C/A =0
++ Increment by 1 C++
-- Decrement by 1 C--

Example 1
#include <stdio.h>
 main()
{
int day1 = 31;
int = day2;
int day3 ;
final = day1 + day2;
printf("First Line - Value of day3 is %d\n", day3 );
day3 = day1 – day2;
printf("Second Line - Value of day3 is %d\n", day3 );
day3 = day1 * day2;
printf("Third Line - Value of day3 is %d\n", day3 );
day3 = day1 / day2;
printf("Fourth Line - Value of day3 is %d\n", day3);
day3 = day1 % day2;
printf("Fifth Line - Value of day3 is %d\n", day3 );
day3 = day1 ++;
printf("Sixth Line - Value of day3 is %d\n", day3 );
day3 = day2--;
printf("Seventh Line - Value of day3 is %d\n", day3);
}

If you compile this program and it executed successfully, your output will be
as follows: First Line - Value of day3 is 51
Second Line - Value of day3 is 11

Third Line - Value of day3 is 620

Fourth Line - Value of day3 is 1
Fifth Line - Value of day3 is 5
Sixth Line - Value of day3 is 32
Seventh Line - Value of day3 is 19

Relational Operators
The role of these operators is to verify the relationship or association that
exists between two different operands. The table below shows the basic
relational operators in the C language. Assuming the value for loss and profit
are “25” and “35” respectively.
Operator Meaning Example
== This operator loss==profit is
evaluates whether the evaluated as not true
value is equivalent or
not to the second
value on the right. If
it is true, the condition
turns out to be true.
> The operator verifies From the value, loss
if the left operand >profit is false true
greater than that on
the right side
< The operator verifies loss < profit is true
if the left operand is
less than that of the
right side
!= The operator verifies loss !=profit returns
if the operand on the true
left side fulfill the
condition by not being
equivalent to the one
on right side
>= This verifies if the left loss>=profit returns
operand is either not true
greater or equivalent
to the right operand
 <= This verifies if the loss<=profit is true
operand on the left is
either less or
equivalent to the right
operand

The example below will make it clearer.

#include <stdio.h>
main()
/*Variable declaration and operations on the variables*
{
int days = 31;
int week = 20;
int month ;
if( day== week )
{
printf("First Line - day is equal to week\n" );
}
Else
/*This evaluate the first condition*/
{
printf("First Line - day is not equal to week\n" );
}
if ( day < week )
{
printf("Second Line - day is less than week\n" );
}
else
{
printf("Second Line - day is not less than week\n" );
}
if ( day > week )
{
printf("Third Line - day is greater than week\n" );
}
 else
{
printf("Third Line - day is not greater than week\n" );
}
/* Lets change value of day and week */
day = 5;
week = 20;
if ( day <= week )
{
printf("Fourth Line - day is either less than or equal to week\n" );
}
if ( day >= week )
{
printf("Fifth Line - y is either greater than or equal to week\n" );
}
}

Program output:
First Line - day is not equal to week
Second Line - day is not less than week
Third Line - day is greater than week
Fourth Line - day is either less than or equal to week
Fifth Line - day is either greater than or equal to week

Logical Operators in C Programming Language

There are three basic logical operators used in C. The purpose of this operator
is to evaluate variables and returns either a 0 or 1 depending on whether an
expression is false or true. If you want to write a program that requires
making decisions, then you have to use the logical operators.
Operator Meaning Example
&& Logical AND. This If a =4 and b = 2; the
 operator evaluates to expression ((a==4)
true only when both && (a<4)) is
expressions or equivalent to 0.
conditions on the
operands are true.
|| Logical OR. This If a =4 and b = 2; the
evaluates to true if expression ((a==4)
one condition && (a<4)) equals to
operated on the 1.
operands is also true.
! Logical Not. This If a=5 then, the
returns true only if the expression! holds
operand is 0 true.

Bitwise Operators
These special operators are used in manipulating data at the bit level. It is
used to shift bits from the right position to the left. Nevertheless, they don’t
work with double float variables.
Bitwise Operator Meaning
| OR
^ Exclusive OR
& AND
<< Left Shift
>> Right Shift
Truth Table for bitwise operator
Y Z Y^Z Y|Z Y&Z
 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1

The table above to explain the bitwise operator will make no sense if you are
a beginner; the following explanation will clarify it for you. For instance, Y =
60 and Z = 13, the binary format of Y and Z will be 0011 1100 and 0000
1101 respectively
Y = 0011 1100
Z = 0000 1101
From the truth table,
Y | Z = 0011 1101
Y&Z = 0000 1100
Y ^ Z = 0011 0001
I know you may be thinking about how we came about the values below;
well it is very simple to understand. Using the Y & Z as an example, the
value for Y is 0011 1100 while that of Z is 0000 1101. From the truth table,
we go under the Y & Z section. When Y is 0 and Z is 1, what is the value
under Y & Z (What you are doing is matching the first binary number of Y
with that of Z? obviously, you get a 0. If you continue with that patter, you
will get 0000 1100 for Y & Z.

Assignment Operators
The table below will give a better view of what assignment operators work in
C programming.
Assignment Operators Meaning Example
= This allocates the V=B+D
value of the right In his situation, the
operand to left value of B + D will be
operand assigned to V
*= The left operand gets V* = B is equal to
multiplied V= V*B
by the right operand.
furthermore, the
product is then
allocated to the left
operand.
-= This deducts the value V -=B
of operand on the This is equivalent to
right from the left V=V-B
before assigning it to
the left.
+= This adds the value of V+= is equivalent to
the right operand from V=V+B
the left before
allocating the value to
the content on the left
/= In this, the value of V/= is equivalent to
the operand on the left V = V /D
is divided by the right
before assigned to the
left
Decision Making in C
It is hard to write a complete program without using decision in C language.
What do you think decision-making involves in the context of programming?
Well, it is a way of executing certain statements as long as they meet the laid
down conditions. However, you will learn the statement, format, and an
example to explain the decisions. The diagram below shows a typical
decision-making process in C.

If Statement
This mentions a particular condition and specifies a particular thing will
happen if the stated condition or statement becomes true. However, if the
condition doesn’t turn out true, then the thing suggests will not happen.
Format:
if (boolean_condition){
/* expression (s) that will perform the action if the Boolean condition
stated is true */
}

Diagrammatic representation

Program to exemplify the “If Statement”

#include <stdio.h>
/* Beginning of the main program*/
int main ()
{
/* Definition of local variables in the program */
int x = 15;
 /* Evaluates the boolean condition */
if( y < 30 )
{
/* if the condition (y < 30) is true then display the outcome */
printf("y is less than 30\n" );
}
printf("value of y is : %d\n", a);
return 0;
}

Once you finish and the program is executed, your output will look like this:

If … else Statement
This decision making statement uses an If, which is accompanied by an
optional statement that performs the action when the “IF” condition turns
false.
Format:
if(expression or condition){
/* this statement here will be executed as far as the condition is met */
}
Else{
/* expression (s) will be implement if the expression is not true */
}
Diagrammatic Representation

Sample Program for If…else Statement

#include <stdio.h>
/* beginning of the execution of the program*/
int main ()
{
/* definition of local variable */
int length = 200;
/* Evaluates the expression or statement*/
if( length< 40 )
{
/* if the expression or statement is true then display the output as
stated */
 printf("length is less than 40\n" );
}
else
{
/* if the condition is not true (false) then display the output as stated
*/
printf("length is not less than 40\n" );
}
printf("value of length is : %d\n", length);
return 0;
}

Output:
length is not less than 40;
value of length is: 200

If…else if…else statement

This decision is similar to a situation where you have to make a decision after
another decision.
Format:
if(Statement1)
{/* if statement1 is evaluated as true, then evaluate the statement */}
else if( statement 2)
{ /* Evaluates statement when statement 2 is true */}
else if( statement 3)
{/* Evaluate when statement 3 is true */}
 else
{/* Evaluate all conditions are false */}

Let’s consider a program

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
/* Program execution starts here*/
{
/* Definition of variable */
int x = 90;
/* verify the expression */
if( x == 9 )
{
/* if the expression above is true then print what is requested */
printf("Value of x is 9\n" );
}
else if( x == 15 )
{
/* if else if condition is true */
printf("Value of x is 15\n" );
}
else if( x == 60 )
{
}
else
{
/* if none of the conditions is true */
printf("The values don’t match\n" );
 }
printf("The Precise value of x is: %d\n", x );
return 0;
}

Once executed, the output is:

The values don’t match
The Precise value of x is: 90

Conclusion
The c programming language is not a hard language to learn because it is
fundamental for any beginner. If you have completed reading this chapter, I
can guarantee that you have the basic knowledge of C programming.
However, it is important to dive deeper if you want to perfect your skill with
this language.
 Chapter Three: C# Programming

Introduction
Did you know that C# is an object-oriented language? Actually, Microsoft
developed the language as part of its inbuilt .NET initiative. This
programming guide on C# will take you through the basics of C# while
equipping you with every concept, you need to understand and relevant
programs to explain the language better.

Prerequisite for Learning C#

While there is no standard prerequisite when it comes to learning C#, it is
important that as a beginner you have a basic knowledge of computer and
programming. However, if you already have previous knowledge on C or
C++ language, it will be great. Importantly, before beginning, you have to
install Visual Studio. If you are considering space in your system and looking
for a way to overcome the hassles of installing the Visual Studio IDE, why
not opt to use online compilers.

Features of C# Language
While C# is narrowly similar to various high-level languages such as C and
C++ with strong resemblance with Java, however, it does still have a strong
programming feature that makes it popular among many programmers in the
world. The features include:
Integration with Windows
Indexers
Simple multithreading
 Standard library
Boolean conditions
Easy to use generics
Properties and events
Assembly versioning
Automatic garbage collection

Understanding the Basics of C#

To begin, let us start with the simplest program you will come across in any
programming language. Yes, it’s the simple “Hello World!” program. This
involves displaying some text directly to the output screen. The primary aim
of this program is to familiarize you with the requirement and syntax of C#.
// Hello World! Beginners’ Program
namespace Hello
{
class World {
static void Main(string[] args)
{
System.Console.WriteLine("Hello World, Welcome to My
First C# Programming!");
}
}
}
Output
Hello World, Welcome to My First C# Programming!

Explanation of the Hello World program

// Hello World! Program
Whenever you see a line beginning with “//”, it indicates the starting point of
a comment in C#. These comments are exempted when the compiler executes
the codes in the program. The purpose of comments is to make developers
have a better understanding of their codes.
namespace Hello{...}
This line uses the keyword “namespace” to define our own unique
namespace. In the example above, our namespace is Hello. Perhaps, it looks
abstract. Well, consider namespace as a container that comprises of methods,
classes, and other namespace.
class World{...}
The statement above creates a new class “World.” Creating a class is
compulsory in C# because the language is object-oriented.
static void Main(string[] args){...}
This line must be included in every single program. Main() is a method of
class World. The program begins execution from the beginning of the Main()
method. Therefore, all programs in C# must contain have a Main() method.
System.Console.WriteLine("Hello World Welcome to C# Programming
Language!");
This prints the word in quotes to the screen.
Points to remember
There must be a class definition for every C# program
Execution of the program begins from the Main() method
Comments are not compulsory but necessary
The program above is an introduction for beginners. Later in this chapter, you
will see other programs that may seem complex. However, the secret is
compiling them on your own while making some changes. If nothing makes
sense so far, don’t worry with time, everything will be clearer.

Data types
Nothing should be new to you at this point, because some of these terms have
been explained in previous chapters. However, it is important to throw more
light on them once a while. The C# language has its own basic data types,
which we will discuss in this section. You can use data types in C# to build
values that will be used in the course of the program or application. Let us
expound on these data types with example.

Integer
Integer data types work with numbers, which are normally whole numbers.
C# uses the reserves word “Int32” to declare a variable as an integer type. For
instance, if I declare the variable number1 as an integer. After this, I will
further allocate a numerical value to number1
using System;
namespace DemoProgram
{
class Program
//This part creates a new class, which we call Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
Int32 number1=50;
Console.Write(number1);

Console.ReadKey();
 }
}
}

The outcome of the program above will be:

50
Explanation: We declare the variable “number1” to be of integer type
(Int32) with the value “50” assigned to the variable. Then the result is
displayed to the console.

Double
This data type is used when decimal numbers are involved. Examples include
10.58, 25.98, or 45.01. In C#, the keyword “Double” is used to denote a
double data type. In the example below, the variable “number1” is defined as
double and a value assigned to it.
using System;
namespace DemoProgram
{
class Program
// This part creates a new class, which we call Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
// Declaration of the variable “number” to be of double data type
double number1=45.01;
Console.Write(num);
 Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

The output of the program will display

45.01

Boolean
The Boolean data type works with Boolean values, which can only be false or
true. The keyword “Boolean” is used to declare this kind of datatype. For
instance, the program below declares “OFF” as Boolean with the value
“False” assigned to it. Eventually, the console display “False” as the output.
using System;
namespace DemoProgram
{
class Program
// We create a new class call Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
// Here is the declaration of the variables as Boolean
Boolean OFF=false;
Console.Write(status);

Console.ReadKey();
}
}
 }

String
At times, when writing a program, you may choose to write a specific
message shown on the screen. To do this, the “string” data type allows text to
be displayed. It uses the keyword “String”
using System;
namespace DemoProgram
// The goal of this program is to display a string on the screen
{
class program
// We create a new class called Program
{
static void Main(string[] args)
{
String statement1="This is C# Programming for Beginners’.";
Console.Write(statement1);

Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

The output will be:

This is C# Programming for Beginners’.

Variables
In C#, it is a memory location that contains a data type that determines the
kind of value to store in the variable. Variables are declared in the format
below:
[modifiers] data type identifier;
The modifier in the format above represents an access modifier. On the other
hand, the identifier represents the variable name. The first example below
shows a variable declaration where the public is the modifier, number1 is an
identifier name, and int is the data type. However, the second example
indicates that the second variable type is a local variable.
Public int number1; // First example
Int number1; // second example

Variable Modifiers
A modifier allows a programmer to specify some features, which is applied to
the identifier. A local variable has a scope, which is defined within the block
in the program.

Modifier Meaning
Internal Accessible only by the current
program
Public Accessible as a field anywhere in
the program
Protected Accessible within the class it is
defined
Private Accessible within the type in
which it is defined
Constants
Constants are values whose values don’t change throughout the program time
frame. C# uses the keyword “const” and it always comes before the data type
and variable. If you decide to allocate value to a particular constant, it will
return compilation error. For instance,
const int number1 = 45;
number1 = 89;
// This will be a compilation error because the assignment towards the left
side has to be an indexer, variable or property.
Note that local variables can be declared as constants. These constants are
usually static, even if they don’t use any static keyword.

Operators in C#
You should be familiar with operators even if you are a beginner. These are
symbols used in programming to perform various operations on an operand.
Operands can be either constants or variables. For instance, in 3 * 6, * is an
operation used to perform multiplication operation whereas 3 and 6 are the
operands. You can use operators in C# to manipulate values and variables in
the course of a program. However, C# supports numerous operators
depending on the operation type they perform. Without much time, let us
begin with the operators in C#.

Arithmetic Operators
These operators are used for various numeric data types, which includes
arithmetic operations including addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication
(*), and division (/). Furthermore, C# has another unique arithmetic operator
known as the %, which is the remainder after a division operation is
performed.
Importantly, unlike other languages, the operator + (addition) operate
differently when used with string and number types. For instance, the result
of the expression 7 + 4 is 11. However, when used with strings, the result of
the expression, “7 +4” is “74”. Therefore, with the number type, it acts as an
addition whereas with strings, it is a concatenation operator. A simple
program can be helpful to set things in order.

using System;

namespace Oper
{
class ArithmeticOper
{
// Always remember you have to create a new class by using the class
statement
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
double income = 12.20, expenses = 2.30, res;
int loss = 21, profit = 4, ; dem
// Addition operator (+)
res = income + expenses;
Console.WriteLine("{0} + {1} = {2}", income, expenses,
res);
 res = income - expenses;
Console.WriteLine("{0} - {1} = {2}", income, expenses,
res);

res = income * expenses;

Console.WriteLine("{0} * {1} = {2}", income, expenses,
res);

res = income / expenses;

Console.WriteLine("{0} / {1} = {2}", income, expenses,
res);

dem = loss % profit;

Console.WriteLine("{0} % {1} = {2}", loss, profit, dem);
}
}
}

When you properly compile this program without any error, you will get the
following output.
12.2 + 2.3 = 14.5
12.2 – 2.3 = 9.9
12.2 * 2.3 = 28.06
12.2 / 2.3 = 5.30434782609
21 % 4 = 1
Logical Operators
You can use these operators to perform logical operations and they include
AND, OR. These operators operate on Boolean expression and return the
same Boolean values. The result can only be true (T) or false (F) as illustrated
in the table below.
Operand Y Operand Z AND (&&) OR (||)
T T T T
F T F T
T F F T
F F F F

From the table, the OR operator evaluates to true (T) only in a situation
where one operand is true (T). However, for the AND operator, once one
operand is false (F), the operation is also False.

Sample program
using System;

namespace Operator
{
class Logical
// Here, we name the class we created as Operator
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
 // Declaration and giving variables values
bool outcome;
int income = 20, expenses = 30;
// OR operator
outcome = (income == expenses) || (income> 5);
Console.WriteLine(outcome);
// AND operator
outcome = (income == expenses) && (incomeb > 5);
Console.WriteLine(outcome);
}
}
}

The outcome of the program above should be:

True
False
Note: These programs are for explanatory purposes. It is important for you to
try it on your own. If you want to learn to program effectively, you must be
ready to practice frequently and this is a way to improve your programming
skill.

Relational Operators
These operators in C# return either a true or a false result. If you want to
compare variables or expression, the best option is the relational operator.
Additionally, they have a lower priority in comparison with arithmetic
operators. Besides this, you can use them in loop and decision-making. The
table below shows the basic relational operators in C#.
 Relational Operators Name of Operator Example
== Equal to 6 == 7 return false
!= Not equal to 5 != 7 return true
> Greater than 7 > 5 returns true
< Less than 8 < 9 evaluates true
<= Less than or 9<= 7 evaluates true
(equivalent) equal to
>= Greater than or equal 5 >= 7 returns false
to

Sample Program
using System;

namespace Oper
{
class Relational
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
// Declaration of variables
int outcome;
int day1 = 21, day3 = 23;
outcome = (day1==day3);
Console.WriteLine("{0} == {1} returns {2}",day1, day3,
outcome);
outcome= (day1 > day3);
Console.WriteLine("{0} > {1} returns {2}",day1, day3,
 outcome);
outcome = (day1< day3);
Console.WriteLine("{0} < {1} returns {2}",day1, day3,
outcome);
outcome = (day1 >= day3);
Console.WriteLine("{0} >= {1} returns {2}",day1, day3,
outcome);
outcome = (day1 <= day3);
Console.WriteLine("{0} <= {1} returns {2}",day1, day3,
outcome);
outcome = (day1 != day3);
Console.WriteLine("{0} != {1} returns {2}",day1, day3,
outcome);
}
}
}

Output:
20 == 30 returns False
20 > 30 returns False
20 < 30 returns True
20 >= 30 returns False
20 <= 30 returns True
20 != 30 returns True

Unary Operators
These operators unlike the ones we have discussed so far operate on one
operand instead of both. The unary operators in C# include
 Operator Name Description
- Unary Minus Inverts the operand
sign
+ Unary Plus Leaves the operand to
sign the way it is
-- Decrement Decreases value by 1
++ Increment Increase value by 1

Sample Program for Unary Operator

using System;

namespace UnaryOperator
{
class UnaryOpe
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
// Declaration of variables in the program
int num = 25, outcome;
bool flag = false;
outcome = +num;
Console.WriteLine("+num = " + outcome);
outcome = -num;
Console.WriteLine("-num = " + outcome);
outcome = ++num;
Console.WriteLine("++num = " + outcome);
 outcome = --num;
Console.WriteLine("--num = " + outcome);
Console.WriteLine("!flag = " + (!flag));
}
}
}

The output is as follows:

+num = 25
-num = -25
++number = 26
--number = 25
!flag = True

Bitwise Operators
In our last operators in C# is the bitwise operator, which performs bit
manipulation similar to what I have explained in the preceding chapter. Since
you are familiar with the operation, I will simply highlight the operators and
a simple program to demonstrate how they work. For more, you can check
“Chapter Two” to refresh your memory.

Operator Operator Name (Bitwise)

& AND
^ Exclusive OR
| OR
 ~ Complement
<< Left Shift
>> Right Shift

Look at the program below.

using System;

namespace OperBit
{
// Creating a new class known as BitOpe
class BitOpe
{

public static void Main(string[] args)

{
// Declaration of variables with values
int income = 20;
int expenses = 30;
int outcome;
outcome = ~income;
Console.WriteLine("~{0} = {1}", income, outcome);
outcome = income&expenses;
Console.WriteLine("{0} & {1} = {2}", income,expenses,
outcome);
outcome = income | expenses;
Console.WriteLine("{0} | {1} = {2}", income,expenses,
outcome);
outcome = income ^ expenses;
 Console.WriteLine("{0} ^ {1} = {2}", income,expenses,
outcome);
outcome = income<< 2;
Console.WriteLine("{0} << 2 = {1}", income, outcome);
outcome = income>> 2;
Console.WriteLine("{0} >> 2 = {1}", income, outcome);
}
}
}

If the program doesn’t contain any error, your output should be as follows:
~20 = -21
20 & 30 = 0
20 | 30 = 50
20 ^ 30 = 50
20 << 2 = 40
20 >> 2 = 2

Ternary Operator
This operator will be strange because it is the first time I am mentioning it in
this book. The ternary operator “?” operates on three operands and functions
like the “if… then… else” statement.
Format:
Variable = condition? Statement1: statement2;
The operation works this way. If the condition stated is true, then the
outcome of statment1 is allocated to the variable. However, if it turns out to
be false, the value is allocated to statement2. Consider the program below.
using System;

namespace OperTer
{
class Ternary
// The new class name for this program is Ternary
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
// Declaration of variables as integer and string
int num = 21;
string outcome;
outcome = (num % 2 == 0)? "Even Number" : "Odd
Number";
Console.WriteLine("{0} is {1}", num, outcome);
}
}
}

The output will be:

21 is Odd Number

With this, I believe you have an excellent understanding of operators in C#.

You are surely making progress in your quest to be an around programmer.
Array
An array in C# is simply a data structure, which stores a group or sequence of
fixed-size elements. All elements have the same size. In a simple way, it is a
storage position for a sequence of data, which is considered as a group or
collection of variables having a similar data type.
For instance, you intend to have array but with an integer value, you have to
first declare it.
Int [5];
In the example above, the total number of elements will be 5 i. An array is
very efficient, especially when you need to store a group of values with a
similar data type. Therefore, rather than declaring the variable one after the
other, you can decide to use one declaration for them all. The variable will
reference the list of array elements in the program. An example will make
things easier for you.

namespace demoProgram {
class programArray
{
// Study the program carefully how the array is declared
Static void main (string[] args)
Int [] Table;
}
}
}
In the example above, you have an idea of the line – Int [] numbers;
So far, you should know that we are using an integer data type. The [] is the
placeholder, which specifies the array rank. It identifies the exact number of
elements contained in that array we want. Lastly, the array has a name, which
in this example is “Table”
Let’s go further with this example, consider the next line of codes.
using System;

namespace demoApplication {
class ArrayProgram
{
Static void main (string[] args)
Int [] Table;
Table = new Int [5];
Table [0] = 8;
Table [1] = 9;
Table [2] = 10;
Table [3] = 11;
Table [4] = 12;
Table [5] = 13
}
}
}

What we did here is to initialize the array by specifying the number of

“Table” the array will accommodate. Furthermore, I assigned values to each
array element. In array, the index position always begins at 0.
Let us assume you want to display the full content of the program. It will
look like this.

namespace DemoApplication
{
class ArrayProgram
{
static void Main(string[] args)
// Declaration of variables begins here
{
Int[] Table;
Table=new Int[3];

Table [0] = 8;
Table [1] =9;
Table [2] = 10;
Table [3] = 11;
Table [4] = 12;
Table [5] = 13;

Console.WriteLine(Table[0]);
Console.WriteLine(Table[1]);
Console.WriteLine(Table[2]);
Console.WriteLine(Table[3]);
Console.WriteLine(Table[4]);
Console.WriteLine(Table[5]);
 Console.ReadKey();
}
}
}

In C# programming language, you can declare the array as fixed or dynamic

length. For the static length, you can store array on a pre-defined number of
items as shown in our examples above. However, a dynamic array doesn’t
have predefined size rather the size increases as new items are added. It is
also possible to alter a dynamic array after defining it.

Arrays Definition for Different Data Type

In our previous examples, all the arrays are of integer type. However, it is not
limited to an integer data type as you can use various data types including
string, character, and double. Importantly, arrays are objects in C# language.
This signifies that after the declaration of the array, it doesn’t mean that the
array is now created. You have to instantiate the array through the “new”
operator.
Check out the examples below to know how to define arrays of string, char,
and double.

using System;

namespace demoProgram {
class program
// Beginning of the program
{
 Static void main (string[] args)
// Declaration of elements in the array
string [] stringArray = new string [20];
bool [] boolArray = new bool [2];
char [] charArray = new char [7];
double [] doubleArray = new double [4];
}
}
}

Categories of Array in C#
You can categorize arrays into four groups. These include single-dimensional
arrays, rectangular arrays or multidimensional arrays, jagged, and mixed
arrays. My focus will be on the first two arrays because jagged and mixed
arrays will be complicated for you to understand as a beginner.

Single-Dimensional
These set of arrays are the simplest and easiest to understand in C#. You can
use single-dimensional arrays to store items of an array with an already
predefined data type. The items in the array are stored continuously
beginning from 0. So far, all the arrays I have explained in this chapter are
single-dimensional arrays.
The code below declares and sets an array containing five items, with all
having an integer data type. First is to declare the array before instantiating
the array using the new operator.
int [] numberArray;
numberArray = new int [5];
C# uses a straightforward way of declaring arrays by putting the items in
curly braces. Note that if a program forgets to initialize the array, the items
are inevitably initialized to its definite original value for that array type. The
code below should explain it better.
1 int [] staticIntArray = new int [5] {2, 4, 6, 8, 10};
2 string [] strArray = new string [4] {“Johnson”, “Mikel,
“Frederick”, “Mahesh”};
3 string [] strArray = {“Johnson”, “Mikel, “Frederick”, “Mahesh”};

From the three different codes, you will observe that the first example
declares an array with 5 items. The second declares an array with string data
type having 4 string items. However, the second and third examples are the
same with the only difference being that we directly assigned the values to
the array without using the new operator.

Multi-Dimensional
This kind of arrays contains more than one dimension. Most beginners tend
to run away from this kind of arrays because they look complex. It has the
form of a matrix. This type of array can be of fixed or dynamic size.
However, to declare a multi-dimensional array, the format is as follows:
string [,] mutliDimStringArray

Initializing multi-dimensional arrays

The code below shows two different multi-dimensional arrays. It defines an
array with a matric of 3x2 and 2x2 respectively. It is possible to store 6 items
in the first array while 4 on the second. You should initialize both arrays
during declaring it.

int[,] Mynumbers = new int[3, 2] { { 4, 2 }, { 5, 2 }, { 1, 3 } };

string[,] names = new string[2, 2] { { "Queen", "Ben" }, { "Paul",
"Irene" } };

What if you are unsure the items the array will contain?. The code below
clarifies that by creating two-dimensional arrays without any limit to the
number of items.

int[,] numbers = new int[,] { { 4, 2 }, { 5, 2 }, { 1, 3 } };

string[,] names = new string[,] { { "Queen", "Ben" }, { "Paul", "Irene"
} };

Similar to the single-dimensional array where we omit the new operator, you
can also do the same in multi-dimensional arrays by directly assigning the
values.

namespace demoApplication {
class programArray
{
// Don’t forget we always have to create a new class
Static void main (string[] args)
int[, ] MyTable = {
 {
4,
2
},
{
5,
2
},
{
1,
3
}
};
string[, ] names = {
{
"Queen",
"Ben"
},
{
"Paul",
"Irene"
}
};
}
}
}

The code above may look complicated but we can make it simpler by
initializing the array items one after the order. Look at the code below
int [, ] numb = new int [3, 2];
numb [0, 0] = 4;
numb [1, 0] = 2;
numb [2, 0] = 5;
numb [0, 1 ] = 2;
numb [1, 1] = 1;
numb [2, 1] = 3;

To access a multi-dimensional array items, you have to specify the dimension

of the matrix. For instance, item (1, 2) exemplifies an array item on the
second row and third column of the matrix. For you to access the “numb”
array, you have to use the “Console.Writeline”
1. Console.WriteLine(numb[0, 0]);
2. Console.WriteLine(numb[0, 1]);
3. Console.WriteLine(numb[1, 0]);
4. Console.WriteLine(numb[1, 1]);
5. Console.WriteLine(numb[2, 0]);
6. Console.WriteLine(numb[2, 2]);

Note: You can perform various manipulations on arrays such as sorting,

searching, reversing, and clearing an array list. So far, you have learned the
basics of arrays including their various types. Don’t forget to try some
exercises on your own.
Chapter Four: Beginners Guide to Learning
C++
Yes, you have graduated after finishing your first course in this “Step by Step
Beginners’ Guide to Learn Programming” book. If you did go through the C
programming language explained in the previous chapter, give yourself a
treat because you have accomplished what many cannot do in a lifetime.
Welcome back from your treat. It is time to improve yourself in diversifying
your programming skill in key languages. By the time you are through with
this chapter, you will be better equipped to write codes using C++ language.
In the end, you will roll your sleeve and program like a “badass”
programmer.
C++ will help you understand the modern approach to software development.
For a new developer, the essential thing is to understand the theories of
programming, which will help you by not wasting your precious time with
the technical details of the language.

Brief History
In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup developed C++ Programming language.
Originally, the language was known as “C with classes” before the name was
changed to C++ in 1983. The name is a demonstration that the language
comes from the C programming language. Today, the language has evolved
with C++14 as the standard C++. This version comes with added feature
including the fixing of some bugs. The introduction of the C++14 took place
on March 2014.
Is there anyone using C++?
The language is relevant in various sectors in the software industry. it may
surprise you to know that the OS of your favorite Apple laptop is written in
C++. Besides it, operating systems such as Windows 95, 98, Me, 2000, and
the once-popular Window XP were also written in this language.
Applications such as Internet Explorer, Microsoft Office, applications of
Adobe Systems (Illustrator, ImageReady, Flash, Photoshop, Acrobat, etc.) are
developed using C++. Furthermore, not forgetting the renowned Chromium
Web Browser, and Google Search engine, these are just a few to mention.

Why use C++ today?

Today, many software developers use C++ when the application requires
efficiency and high performance. This has made many recognize C++ as a
flexible and efficient language. Additionally, if you want to develop a big
application but want less resource to use, then C++ is the best option.

Difference between C and C++

Hardly can you talk about C++ without considering the difference with C
programming language. Most beginners tend to find out what makes these
two languages differ. C is a procedural language but doesn’t support classes
and objects. However, C++ is not only a procedural programming language
but also an object-oriented language. There are other differences that exist
between these two languages, which are shown below in the tabular form.
Differences C Programming C++ Programming
Language Language
Developers AT&T Bell Labs by Bjarne Stroustrup in
Dennis Ritchie in 1969 1979
Division Subset of C++ Superset of C. This
 means you can run C
programs in C++
environment
Language Procedural language Procedural and Object-
support oriented language
Multiple Multiple global Not allowed
Declaration declarations are
allowed
Overloading Function and operator Supports operators and
support not supported function overloading
Reference Not supported Supported
Variables
Namespace Not available Available
feature
Inheritance Not possible Allowed
Exception Not supported Supported
handling
Input Scanf Cin
Output Printf cout

Structure of C++ Program

Since you already have a basic understanding of programming, I will teach
you C++ by using a different strategy. Perhaps, the best way to learn any
programming language is y writing a program. Does that sound interesting?
Of course, I will start with a simple program, which you can modify. If you
want to learn to program faster, always experiment with some addition.
From the sample of this program, I will explain the structure of the C++
program. So let us begin with our first C++ program.

The panel on the left side represents the source code while the right side
shows the result of the program after compilation and execution.
// First Programming in C++
Whenever you see a line starting with “//” in the C++ program, it
indicates a comment line. They don’t have any effect on the course of the
program. however, the reason behind them is for the programming to make
some observation or explanations. It allows you to make a short description
of what the program is all about
#include <iostream>
Lines starting with # are directives for the preprocessor. Although they are
not normal code lines with expressions, however, are indications for the
compiler’s preprocessor. In the program above, the directive tells the
preprocessor to add the iostream to the standard file.
Using namespace std;
Every element in the standard C++ library is usually declared in a namespace.
Therefore, for one to access its functionality, you must declare use this
expression to do that.
Int main ()
This line indicates the beginning of the main function definition. The main
function is the starting point of any C++ programs and their execution begins
here. For any program, a pair of parentheses () always follow the word
“main” What differentiates a function from other types of expression is the
parentheses that follow the name.
cout << “Welcome to C++ Programming!”;
This line is a C++ statement. The cout is a standard output stream in C++,
which is followed by a sequence of characters enclosed in quotes. If you
observe clearly, the statement ends with a semicolon (;).
Return 0;
The return statement makes the main function (int main ()) to terminate.

Data Types, Variables and Operator

Perhaps, you will question the usefulness of the program above. We had to
write some lines containing statements, compile and execute them to produce
a simple output on the screen. Why even compile it when you can produce it
quickly without having to run the program. Interestingly, C++ programming
is not limited to printing text on the screen. You can perform other activities.
In this section, I will introduce you to the concept of variables, data types,
and operators in C++ language.
Assuming I ask you to store the number 9 in your memory. After a while, I
ask you to memorize any number 8. With this, you have to store two different
numbers in your memory. Let us assume that I ask you to add 3 to the first
number I asked you to store. For now, you have to retain a new number,
which is 10 (9 +1) in addition to the second number 3. Furthermore, subtract
the first number from the second, which will be 7.

This whole process you have just

completing using your memory is similar to what a computer with two
variables. The same action can be executed using the following
instruction.

This is very simple, right. Assuming you have to store millions of numbers,
can your brain accommodate it? Emphatically, No! However, a computer can
store much more than that and perform sophisticated mathematical
operations. A Variable is part of a memory that stores a determined value.
Every variable requires an identifier, which differentiates it from others. For
instance, in the example above, the variable identifiers include a, b, and
results. You can call the variable any name you like.

Identifiers
An identifier is valid if it has a sequence of one or more letters, underscore
character (_), or digits. However, there shouldn’t be any symbols,
punctuation marks or space when naming an identifier. The only valid
characters are letters, digits and underscore. Additionally, every variable
identifier must start with a letter. Besides this, you can also use an
underscore; however, in certain situations, they are reserved as specific
keywords.
When naming an identifier, another important thing to consider is that they
should not be keywords. Keywords are specific words used only by the
compiler.
The standard reserved keywords in C++ language include asm, auto, bool,
break, case, catch, char, class, const, const_cst, continue, default, delete, do,
double, dynamic_cast, else, enum, explicit, export extern, false, float, for,
friend, goto, if, inline, int, ling, mutable, namespace, new, operator, private,
protected, public, register, reinterpret_cast, return, short, signed, sizeof, static,
static_cast, struct, switch, template, this, throw, true, try, typedef, typeid,
typename, union, unsigned, using, virtual, void, volatile, wchar_t, while
Note – Like C language, the C++ language is case sensitive. This means that
when you write an identifier in capital letters, it is not equivalent to another
having the same name in small letters. For instance, the variable HOUSE is
not the same as using “house” or “House” as a variable. The three examples
are different identifiers.

Data Types in C++ Programming Language

In programming, variables are stored in computer memory; however, the
computer must know the particular data you want it to store because it is not
going to be the same amount of memory using in storing a letter or a number.
Besides this, they are not interpreted in the same way.
Memory is organized in bytes. A byte is the smallest amount of memory,
which can be managed in C++. The table below highlights the basic data
types available in C++ along with their size and range.

Data Type Description Size (byte) * Range *

Char Character 1 -128 to 127
and 0 – 255
Short int Short integer 2 -32768 to
32767 for
signed while
unsigned is 0
to 65535
Int Integer 4 -2147483648
to 2147483647
for signed
while
unsigned is 0
to 4294967295
Long int Long integer 4 Signed
-2147483648
to 2147483647
while
unsigned is 0
to 4294967295
 Float Floating point 4 +/- 3.4e +/-38
number
Bool Boolean value 1 True or false
Double Double precision 8 +/- 1.7e +/-
floating point 308
number
Long double Long double- 8 /- 1.7e +/- 308
precision
floating-point
number
Wchar_t Wide character 2 or 4 1 wide
character

** The values of the size and range of the data types depends on the
preprocessor of the system that the program is compiled. However, the above
table shows the values for a 32-bit system.

Variable Declaration
You cannot use a variable in C++ unless you declare it. When you hear of
variable declaration, it means stating the particular data type you want that
variable to be. the syntax for variable declaration involves writing the
particular data type and followed by a valid variable identifier. You must
adhere to the rule of variable number in order not to have issues when writing
your program.

For instance

In C++, these two are valid variables declared. The first one declares “ab” as
a variable of integer type while the second declares the word “newNumber”
as a variable type of float. Once these variables have been declared, you can
use them within the program. however, instead of declaring a different
variable of the same type on different lines, you can decide to put them on the
same line and separate them using a comma.
For example, if you were to declare a, b, c, d, and e as an integer, you can
declare them like this:
Int a, b, c;
Rather than
Int a;
Int b;
Int c;
Since you are new to the language, I will use an example to demonstrate with
a variable declaration in a program.
// Declaring Variable
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
 int main ()
{
int A, B;
int Outcome;

// The Process of Variable declaration

A = 5;
B = 14;
A = A + 1;
Outcome = A * B;
// Print the outcome of the process
cout << Outcome;
// End the Program
Return 0;
}

Output
84

Is there anything looking strange in the above program? Obviously, it

shouldn’t because we have covered most of the areas in the program.
However, the only line that may look strange is the “A = A +1; else
everything looks good.

Variable Scope
A variable in C++ can be in a global or local scope. When you declare a
variable within the body of the source code is it global; nevertheless, a local
variable is one declared within the body of a block or function. If you look at
our program above, you will observe that the variables were declared along
with the data type was declared at the beginning of the main function (int
main ()). Global variables can be referenced from anywhere in the program, it
does not matter if it is inside a function. However, local variables are limited
to enclosed braces {}. The diagram below is self-explanatory for you.
Variable Initialization
When you declare local variables, by default its value is undetermined.
However, you may decide to store a value when you are declaring the
variable. For this to happen, you would have to initialize the variable. There
are two ways of variable initialization in C++.
The first one involves appending and equal sign (=) followed by the value,
which the variable will initialize. For instance, I want to declare a variable
“A” of data type integer while initializing it to the value 5 at the moment.
This will be:
Int A = 5;
The second means of initializing variables is through a process called
“constructor initialization”, which involves enclosing the initial value
between parentheses (()). For instance,
Int A (0);
In C++, both ways of variable initialization are valid and acceptable.
Strings in C++ Programming
Variables with non-numerical value and longer than a single character are
known as a string. The C++ has its own standard library that allows strings
operation. Although it is not a fundamental data type, it does behave in a
similar fashion as data types.
To be able to use a string in C++, you have to include an additional header in
your program.

This is quite enough to understand string, as I will not dive deep into its
operation. With this, you can display a string with various characters.
Remember, you have to declare the variable with the string keyword (string
myName = “My Name is Johnbull Cosmos.”;)

Constants
By now you will understand what constants or literals are if you go through
the C programming in chapter two. It has the same operation in C++;
constants are used to express the value of a variable in the course of the
program. Remember our previous program where we declare A = 5. In this
situation, 5 is a literal constant. Literal constants are categorized as follows

Integer numerals
These numerical constant specify integer decimal values. To use a numerical
constant you don’t require any special character or quote attached to them.
Examples of integer numerals include
1176
45
-404

Floating-point number
These numbers have decimal or exponents. They include a decimal point or e
character or both attached together. For instance,
3.1578
2.25e23
16.5e-19

Character and string Constant

At times, you may have non-numerical constants such as:
‘e’
‘Hello World’
‘My C++ Programming Lesson’

Defining Constant in C++

You may decide to define your own constant in the course of a process
without having to consume memory. You can do this by using the #define
preprocessor directive. The format is as follow
#define variable value
For example:
#define Pi = 3.142
#define newline ‘\’
From the example above, the #define defines two new constants with variable
name Pi and newline.
Operators in C++ Programming Language
Now you have the basic knowledge of data types, variables, and constants, it
is time to start operating with them. C++ has its own integrated operators to
perform such activity. Most programming languages have their operators as
keywords but in C++, you can use your normal signs on the keyboard. It
depends on English words to perform various operations. Additionally, you
don’t have to memorize anything in this section.
C++ offers various types of operators to use with literals and variables to get
a result. Perhaps you know the basic operators from your C programming
section. However, there are other operators that C++ language has. I will take
them one after another while using examples to explain how they work.

Arithmetic Operators

I don’t have to explain much about this operator since you

already know them. However, the basic arithmetic operators in C++ include
+, -, *, /, and % (modulo). Modulo is the remainder when you divide two
numbers. For instance, in a program, you wrote

The variable b will contain 1 since that is the remainder when you divide 21
between 5.
Besides this, there are two additional operators known as the decrement (--)
and increment operators (++). These two operators can be used before
(prefix) or after (postfix or suffix) a variable. In as much as expressions such
as b++ and ++b have the same meaning; however, in a situation where the
result of the decrease or increase is evaluated in as a value in an outer
expression, the meaning will be different. In the scenario where the increment
operator is the prefix (++b), the value of the variable “b” is increased before
you evaluate the result of the expression
On the other hand, where the increment operator is the postfix (b++) the
value of the variable “b” is increased after the evaluation of the operation.
Does it sound confusing? Well, an example will make it clearer for you.
Example 1 Example 2
B=4; B=4;
C = ++B; C=++B
//A contains 4 while B contains 4 //C contains 3 while B contains 4

Does it make any sense now? Of course, it should be if you are not clear, here
is the explanation.
In the first example, the content of B is first increased before the value is
copied to A whereas in the second example, the value of B is copied A before
the value of B is increased.
Study the Program below, what do you think will be the output?
int main()
{
 int i = 0;
while(i < 10)
{
cout << i++; //post increment
}
cout << endl;
i = 0;
while(i<10)
{
cout << ++i; //pre increment
}
return 0;
}

Logical Operators
There are three logical operators in C++, which are the conjunction (&&),
disjunction (||), and the negation (!) operators. You can also refer to them as
the AND, OR, and NOT operator.
The table below shows the AND and OR logical operators
A B A&&B A||B
True True True True
True False False True
False True False True
False False False False
Table for NOT
Logical Operator NOT
True False
False True

Relational Operators
The relational operator is used to evaluate a comparison between two values
or expression. The result of the relational operation is normally a Boolean
value, which can only be true or false (0 for true and 1 for false). The format
is as follows:
Operand1 (operational operator) operand2
The operands can be a literal or a variable. The following are the relational
operators in C++
Relational Description Meaning
Operators
== Equal to Returns true if both
operand 1 and 2 are
equal
!= Not Equal to Returns true if both
operands are not equal
> Greater than Returns true if
operand 1 is greater
than operand 2
< Less than Returns true if
operand 1 is less than
operand 2
 >= Greater than or equal Returns true if
to operand 1 is greater
than or equal to
operand two, else it is
false
<= Less than or equal to Returns true if
operand 1 is less than
or equal to operand
two, else it is false

Example of Relational Operators

// Example of Relational Operators

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
int four = 4;
int six = 6;
cout << " 4 is equal to 6 = " << (four == six) << endl;
cout << " 4 is not equal to 6 = " << (four != six) << endl;
cout << " 4 is less than 6 = " << (four < six) << endl;
cout << " 4 is greater than 6 = " << (four > six) << endl;
cout << " 4 is not less than 6 = " << (four >= six) << endl;
cout << " 4 is not greater than = " << (four <= six) << endl;
return 0;
}
If you compile and execute this program properly, you will see the output as:

4 is equal to 6 = 0
4 is not equal to 6 = 1
4 is less than 6 = 1
4 is greater than 6 = 0
4 is not less than 6 = 0
4 is not greater than 6 = 1

Bitwise Operators
This operator is similar to the logical operators we just discussed. However, it
performs logical operations on bits. Unlike the logical operators, that use true
or false, the bitwise operators return the output as either 0 or 1.
Operator ASM Equivalent Description
& AND Bitwise AND
^ XOR Bitwise Exclusive OR
| OR Bitwise Inclusive OR

A B A&B A|B A^B

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
Now, are you wondering how come about the 1’s and the 0’s? I didn’t
perform any magic here. Here is the secret. For the bitwise “&”, the bit is 1
only when both variables (A and B) have 1 as their corresponding bit. For the
XOR, the resulting bit is 1f only one variable has the corresponding bit
whereas the OR must have at least a variable with 1 in its corresponding bit.

Assignment Operators
The function of this operator is to assign a value on the right-hand side to the
variable on the left. It uses the “=” as the operator in C++. You can also
combine assignment operators with the different operators mentioned so far
in this chapter. If you combine them, they form a composite or compound
assignment operator. Composite operators include +=, -=, *=, /=, >>=, <<=,
%=, |=, ^=, and &=.
Consider the following expression
Expression Meaning
Number1 += number2; Number1 = Number1 + number2;
b-= 10; b = b – 10;
cost *= profit + 2; cost = cost * (profit +1);

Example of all Composite Assignment operators

Let A = 20 initially for the below examples
Composite Assignment
Example Is Equivalent to Result
Operator
+= A += 2 A=A+2 22
 -= A -= 2 A=A-2 8
*= A *= 2 A=A*2 20
/= A /= 2 A=A/2 5
%= A%= 2 A=A%2 0
<<= A <<= 2 A = A << 2 40
>>= A >>= 2 A = A >> 2 2
&= A &= 2 A=A&2 2
^= A ^= 2 A=A^2 8
|= A |= 2 A=A|2 10

Let’s apply everything we have learned in this chapter by creating a

Fibonacci program for up to 12 numbers.
#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

main()
{
int a, b, n1 = 0, n2 = 1, next;

cout << "Enter the number of terms of Fibonacci series you want"
<< endl;
cin >> a;

cout << "First " << a << " terms of Fibonacci series are :- " << endl;
 for ( b = 0 ; b < a ; b++ )
{
if ( b <= 1 )
next = b;
else
{
next = n1 + n2;
n1 = n2;
n2 = next;
}
cout << next << endl;
}

return 0;
}

Depending on your input, the result will differ. Run the program and discover
what the output will look like.

C++ Capabilities
Considering the uniqueness of the C++ programming language, it has the
following capabilities
An object-oriented language supports aggregation, multiple
inheritance, and dynamic behavior.
It is highly portable
It supports operator overload to work naturally with user-defined
classes
 It gives developers a whole lot of choices in terms of design and
coding.
It doesn’t require any graphic environment
It is compatible with C

C++ Limitations
It is difficult to debug when used for complex web application
It does have security
Normally used for specific platform application
It doesn’t support garbage collection
Doesn’t support built-in threads
It is not secure because it has friend function, pointer, global
variable
 Chapter Five: SQL

Introduction
Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard language designed for a
relational database management system to help manage data effectively. It is
a programming language precisely designed for the storage, retrieval,
managing, and manipulation of data relational database management system
(RDBMS).
It is hard to perform any database activity without using SQL because it is
supported by various prominent relational database systems such as Oracle,
SQL Server, and MySQL. Furthermore, some features available in the
standard SQL are implemented differently in various database systems.
IBM developed this query language originally in the early 1970s. Originally,
it wasn’t called SQL but SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language)
before it was changed to SQL. You are in for a wonderful adventure because
this aspect of this book will help you learn and understand the basics of SQL.

Pre-requisites for Learning SQL

Since this book is for beginners, I am assuming that you don’t have any
knowledge about the database. My goal is to help you understand the basic
concepts of SQL Languages. however, SQL is a declarative query language
used for creating and manipulating databases. It doesn’t require rocket
science to understand the basic concepts because its syntax is simple and easy
to understand when compared to other programming languages.
Nevertheless, foundational knowledge of relational database management
system and a keen interest to study the language is my own prerequisites you
need to start your journey of learning SQL.

What can you do with SQL?

You can use SQL for a whole lot of things, which includes:
Create a database
Create tables in a database
Request or query information from a database
Insert records
Update or modify records in a database
Delete records from a database
Establish permissions or full control access in the database
The list below is just the tip of the iceberg of what you can do with SQL.

Topics to Cover in SQL

This chapter covers all fundamental concepts of SQL language like creating
database and table, adding records to tables, using constraints, selecting
records from tables, updating and deleting records in a table. The list is
endless.
Once you have familiarized yourself with the basics, you will learn the
methods of retrieving records by searching records, joining multiple tables,
etc. In the end, I will highlight some advance concept in SQL such as
performing aggregations and modifying an existing table structure.
What is SQL?
SQL is a computer language used for storing, manipulating, and retrieving of
data stored in a relational database management system. A query language as
stated earlier is used for accessing and modifying data in a database.
Before you can begin experimenting with SQL, you must have access to a
database system. There are various online SQL editors you can use to
evaluate or test SQL statements I have provided as examples in this book.
However, you need a full-fledged database management system in order to
execute SQL statements.

Basic Terms
What is Relational Database?
A relational database is a type of database categorized into tables with each
table relating to another within the database. It allows data to be divided into
smaller, logical, and manageable units for better performance and easier
maintenance. To relate one table to another, you need to create a common
field or key in a relational database system.

Definition Data
Data is a fact that relates to a particular object under consideration. For
instance, your name, weight, height, weights are unique to you. You can also
consider a file, image, or picture as data.

Definition Database
A database is a systematical collection of data. Through a database, you can
manipulate and manage data easily. For instance, your electricity supply has a
database to manage your billing, address, and other relevant information.
Another example is your famous Facebook account; it contains information
relating to your friends, messages, member activities, pictures, etc.

Definition Database Management System

DBMS is a collection of programs enables users to access database, report,
manipulate, and represent data. Furthermore, it allows users to control access
to the database. DBMS is not a new concept and was first implemented in the
1960s.

Types of Database Management System

Hierarchical DBMS – this uses a “parent-child” relationship in
storing data. People hardly use them nowadays. However, it has
the structure of a tree with nodes representing records. An example
of this type of DBMS is the registry used in Windows XP
Network DBMS – This DBMS allows many-to-many relationship.
For beginners, this is a complicated database structure. An
example is the RDM server.
Relational DBMS – This kind of DBMS defines a database
relationship in terms of tables. Unlike the network DBMS,
relational DBMS doesn’t allow many-to-many relationship.
Example of relational DBMS includes a Microsoft SQL Server
database, Oracle, and MySQL.
Object-Oriented Relation DBMS – This allows the storage of
new data types. Data are stored in the form of objects

Setting Your SQL Work Environment

Peradventure you don’t have any database management system in your
computer, you can opt for various free open source database management
system. You can decide to opt for the famous MySQL, which can be
downloaded for both Windows and Linux operating systems.
Furthermore, you can install SQL Server Express, which is a free version of
Microsoft SQL Server. Otherwise, you can decide to install XAMPP or
WampServer. The WampServer is a Windows web development environment
that allows you to create a MySQL database, PHP, and Apache2.

SQL Syntax
SQL Statements – These statements are simple and straightforward like your
normal English language. However, they have specific syntax. Don’t form
your own meaning when you see some of the common English words you are
conversant within this chapter.
An SQL statement comprises of a series of keywords, identifiers, etc. and
ends with a semicolon (;). The following is an example of a SQL statement:
SELECT stu_name, DoB, age FROM studentFile Where age > 20;
The statement may look clumsy but for better readability, you can rewrite it
in this format.
SELECT stu_name, DoB, age
FROM StudentFile
WHERE age > 20;
The purpose of the semicolon is to submit the statement to the database
server or terminates the SQL statement.

Case Sensitivity in SQL

Keywords in SQL are not case sensitive like the previous languages
discussed in this book. For instance, the keyword SELECT is the same as the
select. However, depending on the operating system, the table names and
database can be case-sensitive. Generally, Linux and UNIX platforms are
case-sensitive, unlike Windows platforms that are not case-sensitive.
The example below retrieves records from the studentFile table
SELECT stu_name, DoB, age FROM studentFile;

select stu_name, DoB, age from studentFile;

The first one capitalizes the keywords whereas the second isn’t capitalized. It
is better to write SQL keywords in uppercase in order to differentiate it from
other text.

SQL Comments
Similar to other programming languages, SQL comments are ignored and
provide quick explanations concerning the SQL statements. You can either
use a single-line or multi-line comments when writing comments in SQL.
The two examples below will distinguish both comment writing formats.
--Select all the students
SELECT *FROM studentFile;

To write a multi-line comment, you use the /* with the statements followed
by the */.
/* Select all the students
whose age is greater than 20*/
SELECT *FROM studentFile
WHERE age > 20;
Database Creation
Before you can work with data, the first thing to do is to create a database. I
am assuming you have installed the SQL Server or have MySQL in your
system. Furthermore, ensure to allow every necessary privilege needed.
There are two ways of creating a database
Using the simple SQL query
Using MySQL
Simple SQL Query
The syntax for creating a database in SQL is
CREATE DATABASE databaseName;

For the examples illustrated earlier, to create the table, we have to use:
CREATE DATABASE studentFile;

Note: You can also use CREATE SCHEMA rather than using CREATE
DATABASE to create a database. Additionally, creating a database doesn’t
make it available for use. To select the database, you have to select the
database using the USE statement. For instance, the USE studentFile;
command will set the StudentFile database as the target database.
MySQL Database Creation
I will use a command line tool to create a database in MySQL.
Step 1: Invoking the MySQL command-line tool
To do this, you have to log into your MySQL server. You have to log in as a
root user and enter your password when asked. If everything goes right, you
will be able to issue SQL statements.
Step 2: Creating the database
To create the database “studentFile”, you have to execute the following
command.
mysql> CREATE DATABASE studentFile;
If the database was successful, you will see – Query OK, 1 row affected (0.03
sec). However, if the database already exists, an error message will display.
Therefore, to avoid such situation, you can include an optional clause – IF
NOT EXISTS. To apply it to the example, it will be written as:
mysql> CREATE DATABASE IF NOT EXISTS studentFile;

Step 3: Selecting the Database

If the database already exists and you use the IF NOT EXISTS statement, to
select this new database as the default database, you have to select it.
mysql > USE studentFile;

Tip – in order to see all the list of existing databases when using MySQL
server, you can use the “SHOW DATABASES” keyword to execute it.

Creating Tables in SQL

So far, I am convinced you now know how to create a database. It is time to
upgrade your knowledge in SQL by creating a table inside our database. The
table will hold the data in the database. The purpose of the table is to organize
your data or information into columns and rows.
The syntax for table creation
CREATE TABLE tableName (
 Column1_name data_type constraints,
Column2_name data_type constraints,
Column3_name data_type constraints,
);
For better understanding, I will create a table in our studentFile database
using the MySQL command-line tool. The code below simplifies that.
-- Syntax for MySQL Database
CREATE TABLE studentRecord (
id INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
Studname VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
DoB DATE,
phoneNum VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL UNIQUE

-- Syntax for SQL Server Database

CREATE TABLE studentRecord (
id INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY IDENTITY(1,1),
Studname VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
DoB DATE,
phoneNum VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL UNIQUE
);
The code above creates a table named studentRecord with five columns id,
Studname, DoB, and phoneNum. If you observe, a data type declaration
succeeds each column name.
In a database table, every column must have a name followed by a data type.
The developer decides on the particular to use, depending on the information
to store in each column. From the example above, some statement looks
“foreign” and requires explanations. Later, I will talk about the various data
types but to familiarize yourself with them, they include:
Exact numeric
Approximate numeric
Date and time
Character strings
Unicode character strings
Binary strings
Other data types

Besides the data type, there are constraints used in the code. Constraints are
rules defined concerning the values permitted in columns. The following
constraints were mentioned.
The PRIMARY KEY constrains, which marks the corresponding
field as the primary key for the table
The NOT NULL constraints, which make sure fields cannot accept
an unacceptable value
The AUTO_INCREMENT attribute, which automatically assigns a
value to a field left unspecified. It increases the previous value by
1 and only available for numerical fields.
The UNIQUE constraint ensures every single row contains a
unique value in the table
In a similar fashion, you can use the IF NOT EXIST statement we used when
creating a database to overwrite an existing table. This is important as it
avoids any already existing table. Alternatively, if you want to display
available tables, you can use the SHOW TABLES statement.
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS studentRecords (
id INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
Studname VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL, DoB,
 phoneNum VARCHAR(25) NOT NULL UNIQUE
);

Constraints In SQL
As the name implies, it is a restriction or limitation imposed on a column (s)
of a table in order to place a limitation on the type of values the table can
store. They provide a better mechanism to retain the reliability and accuracy
of the data contained in the table. We have several categories of constraints,
which includes:
NOT NULL Constraint – This statement states that NULL values will not
be accepted at the column. What it means is that a new row cannot be added
in a table without the inclusion of a non-NULL value for such a column.
For instance, the statement below creates a table “studentRecords” with four
columns and three of these columns (id, Studname, and phoneNum) do not
accept NULL Values.
CREATE TABLE studentRecords (
id INT NOT NULL,
Studname VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
DoB DATE,
phoneNum VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL
);
Tip: A null value is not the same as blank, zero (0), or a zero-length character
string. The meaning of a NULL is that there hasn’t been any entry made in
that field.
PRIMARY KEY Constraint – This classifies a column (s) with
values that distinctively recognize a row in the table. You cannot
have two rows simultaneously in a particular table having the same
 value for its primary key. The example below shows a SQL
statement creating a table named “studentRecords” and identify the
id column as the primary key.
CREATE TABLE studentRecords (
id INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Studname VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
DoB DATE,
phoneNum VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL
);
UNIQUE Constraint – if you want to restrict a column (s) to
contain unique values in a table, the UNIQUE statement is used.
While the PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE constraint enforce
uniqueness in a table; however, the UNIQUE constraint is used
when your goal is to enforce the exclusivity on a particular column
(s). I will use our previous example to specify the phone column as
unique. With this, the phone column won’t allow duplicated
values.
CREATE TABLE studentRecords (
id INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
Studname VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
DoB DATE,
phoneNum VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL UNIQUE,
country VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL DEFAULT 'England'
);
FOREIGN KEY Constraint – This particular kind of constraint
is a column (s) used to set up and implement a relationship among
data in two different tables.
CHECK constraint – The purpose of this statement is to restrict
 values in a column. For instance, the range of student age column
can be restricted by creating CHECK constraint, which allows
values only 16 to 45. This hinders ages entered from exceeding the
age range. Here is an example to illustrate it.
CREATE TABLE studentRecords (
stu_id INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
stu_name VARCHAR(55) NOT NULL,
stu_date DATE NOT NULL,
age INT NOT NULL CHECK (age >= 16 AND age <= 45),
dept_id INT,
FOREIGN KEY (dept_id) REFERENCES departments(dept_id)
);

Inserting Data in Tables

In previous examples, I created a table with the name “studentRecords” in
our “studentFile” database. Now, we need to add information into the table.
To do this, SQL has a unique keyword, which is the “INSERT INTO”
statement.
Format:
INSERT INTO NameOfTable (columnA, columnB, columnC,…) VALUES
(value1, value2, value3,…);
The syntax is self-explanatory but if you are unclear, the tableName is the
name of your table. In our examples so far, we have used “studentRecords.”
However, the column1, column2, column3,… represents the name of the
table columns with value1, value2, value3 the parallel values for the columns.
To insert records to our “studentRecords” table, we will use the following
statement.
INSERT INTO studentRecords (FullName, Age, Sex, PhoneNum) ;
VALUES ('Donald Williamson', '30', ‘Male’, '0722-022569’) ;
If you observe, there is no value inserted for the id field. Do you remember
when we created the table (studentRecords), we mark the id field with an
AUTO_INCREMENT flag. Let’s add another record to our table.
INSERT INTO studentRecords (FullName, Age, Sex, PhoneNum) ;
VALUES ('Jefferson Peterson', '45', ‘Male’, '0252-027948’) ;
Why don’t you add another one?
INSERT INTO studentRecords (FullName, Age, Sex, PhoneNum) ;
VALUES ('Mariah Lawson', '50', ‘Female’, '0722-457906’) ;

If you were to display the output of this table, it will look like this
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum
1 Donald 30 Male 0722-022569
Williamson
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252-027948
Peterson
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722-457906
Lawson

So far, I am convinced without any doubt that creating a database shouldn’t

be an issue. The same applies to create a table and inserting records.
However, what if you want to retrieve the content of a table, how will you go
about that? The next section will clarify that.
Selecting Data in a Table
If you want to retrieve data in a table, the “SELECT” statement is what you
will use. This statement can retrieve all information in the rows in one time as
long as it satisfies the condition stated.
Format
SELECT column1_name, column2_name, FROM tableName;
Note: This system is for specific columns. However, if your goal is to select
the entire, consider the syntax below:
SELECT *FROM tableName;
Note: Whenever you see an asterisk (*) in SQL, just know it is a wildcard
character, which signifies everything. It copies all the content.
Let’s use the information we inserted when we used the “INSERT INTO”
statement.
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum
1 Donald 30 Male 0722-022569
Williamson
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252-027948
Peterson
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722-457906
Lawson

If we use the “SELECT *FROM studentRecords;” it will display the

following information.
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum
1 Donald 30 Male 0722-022569
 Williamson
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252-027948
Peterson
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722-457906
Lawson

Perhaps, you only need certain information in the table, you use specific
columns. Assuming we want to select only the id, FullName, and sex. It will
look like this.
SELECT id, FullName, Sex
FROM studentRecords;
After executing this statement, the output will be
id FullName Sex
1 Donald Male
Williamson
2 Jefferson Male
Peterson
3 Mariah Lawson Female

SQL WHERE Statement

By now, I know you can fetch records in a table column or all the records in
the table. However, in a real-world situation, we need to delete, update, or
select records that fulfill certain criteria such as those in a particular age,
country, or group. In this section, I will expound how we can use the
“WHERE” clause.
Syntax
SELECT columnList FROM tableName WHERE condition;
The columList include fields/column like name, country, age, phone, etc. of a
table. Furthermore, if you want all the values of the various columns, you can
use the syntax below.
SELECT * FROM tableName WHERE condition
Let me use an example to explain the SELECT statement assuming the table
name is “studentRecords.”

id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum

1 Donald 30 Male 0722-022569
Williamson
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252-027948
Peterson
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722-457906
Lawson
4 Jackson Fred 32 Male 0721-487924
5 Venus Sean 38 Female 0787-972853
6 Merkel 36 Female 0978-216597
Hassan

Filtering records using WHERE clause

Using the table above, I want to return all students whose age is above 30.
We can use the WHERE clause to remove unwanted data.
SELECT *FROM studentRecords WHERE age >35;
After executing this statement, the output will look like this:
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252-027948
Peterson
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722-457906
Lawson
5 Venus Sean 38 Female 0787-972853
6 Merkel 36 Female 0978-216597
Hassan

The statement below will fetch all the record of the student with id 4
SELECT *FROM studentRecords WHERE id = 4;
The output will be:
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum
4 Jackson Fred 32 Male 0721-487924

You can combine certain operates with the “WHERE” clause. The table
below summarizes the important operators used in SQL.
Operator Description Example
= Equal WHERE id = 4
> Greater than WHERE age > 30
< Less than WHERE age < 25
 <= Less than or equivalent to WHERE price <= 900
>= Greater than or equivalent to WHERE age >= 15
LIKE Simple pattern matching WHERE name LIKE 'Dav'
IN Check whether a specified value WHERE Country IN
matches any value in a list or ('BRAZIL', 'SWEDEN')
subquery
BETWEEN Check whether a specified value is WHERE age BETWEEN 3
within a range of values AND 5

The AND operator

The SQL language gives developers the opportunity to use the AND and OR
operators to fetch specific records from a table. The AND operator is used to
combine two conditions while returning true only when both conditions are
true.
Format:
SELECT columnName1, columnName2 FROM tableName WHERE
condition1 AND condition2;
The example below will demonstrate how the AND operator works.
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum Dept_No
1 Donald 30 Male 0722- 0101
Williamson 022569
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252- 0102
Peterson 027948
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722- 0103
Lawson 457906
4 Jackson 32 Male 0721- 0104
 Fred 487924
5 Venus Sean 38 Female 0787- 0105
972853
6 Merkel 36 Female 0978- NULL
Hassan 216597

SELECT *FROM studentRecords

WHERE age > 30 AND Dept_No = 0104;

After execution, the output will look like this:

id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum Dept_No
4 Jackson 32 Male 0721- 0104
Fred 487924

The OR Operator
This operator combines two different conditions; however, if one or both
conditions are true, it returns true. Assuming you want the record of students
whose age is greater than 40 or the Dept_No is equal to 0104.
SELECT *FROM studentRecords
WHERE age > 40 OR Dept_No = 0104;
The output will be:
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum Dept_No
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252- 0102
Peterson 027948
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722- 0103
Lawson 457906
4 Jackson 32 Male 0721- 0104
Fred 487924

Furthermore, you can combine the “AND” and “OR” operator to create
compound expressions. Consider the statement below.
SELECT *FROM studentRecords
WHERE age > 40 AND (Dept_No = 102 or Dept_No=103);

After execution, the output will be:

id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum Dept_No
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252- 0102
Peterson 027948
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722- 0103
Lawson 457906

SQL UPDATE STATEMENT

You have learned how to insert data including selecting a particular data from
a table under certain condition (s). However, over time students or employee
information may require updating such as location, phone number, address,
etc. SQL has a unique statement that allows you to update your table without
having to create a new table.

Format:
UPDATE tableName
SET column1Name = value1, column2Name = value2,…
colunmNamen = valueN
WHERE condition;

In the syntax above, column1_name, column2_name are the names of the

fields or columns of a table whose value you want to update. You can also
use the combination of the “AND” and “OR” operator to update statements in
the table. Let me use an example to demonstrate the update statement.
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum Dept_No
1 Donald 30 Male 0722- 0101
Williamson 022569
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252- 0102
Peterson 027948
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722- 0103
Lawson 457906
4 Jackson 32 Male 0721- 0104
Fred 487924
5 Venus Sean 38 Female 0787- 0105
972853
6 Merkel 36 Female 0978- NULL
 Hassan 216597

To update the student record of Venus Sean to Venus Williams Sean, the
statement will be
UPDATE studentRecords SET FullName = “Venus Williams Sean”
WHERE id =5;

The output will be:

id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum Dept_No
1 Donald 30 Male 0722- 0101
Williamson 022569
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252- 0102
Peterson 027948
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722- 0103
Lawson 457906
4 Jackson 32 Male 0721- 0104
Fred 487924
5 Venus 38 Female 0787- 0105
Williams 972853
Sean
6 Merkel 36 Female 0978- NULL
Hassan 216597

SQL DELETE
Finally, you have learned how to insert, select, and update information in a
table. However, it is important to know how to delete a specific field or entire
table especially if the table has fulfilled its purpose.
Format:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Using the table below, let us delete some records from the student’s record
created.
id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum Dept_No
1 Donald 30 Male 0722- 0101
Williamson 022569
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252- 0102
Peterson 027948
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722- 0103
Lawson 457906
4 Jackson 32 Male 0721- 0104
Fred 487924
5 Venus Sean 38 Female 0787- 0105
972853
6 Merkel 36 Female 0978- NULL
Hassan 216597

DELETE FROM studentRecords WHERE id >4;

After execution, the outcome will be as follow:

id FullName Age Sex PhoneNum Dept_No
1 Donald 30 Male 0722- 0101
 Williamson 022569
2 Jefferson 45 Male 0252- 0102
Peterson 027948
3 Mariah 50 Female 0722- 0103
Lawson 457906
4 Jackson 32 Male 0721- 0104
Fred 487924

However, to delete the entire data in a table, there isn’t any need to use the
WHERE clause. To delete all records in the “studentRecords” table, you have
to use the statement below.
DELETE FROM studentRecords;
 Chapter Six: Introduction to Java
Programming
Welcome to your fifth programming course in this book. Indeed, you have
progressed beyond your expectation. Did you think you could do it at the
beginner? Nobody is born a programmer rather by learning and putting it to
practice, they become good at it.
Welcome to Java Programming. I will introduce you to Java in its simplicity.
Java is one of the most interesting and practicable programs to learn as a
beginner. At the end of this chapter, you will become a professional computer
programmer.
As I always tell beginners, programming is easy. At first, many consider Java
as a hard language to understand but after familiarizing themselves with the
environment, they discover it is quite easy to learn. It doesn’t matter your
programming experience or level, this chapter was written putting various
things into consideration. As you expand your programming knowledge, you
will discover that you will be a top-notch programmer in all areas.
In spite of the numerous programming languages in the world, Java is one of
the languages in high demand. If you dedicate your time into studying the
environment, you are literally setting yourself into a fast-growing career in
the next few years. Java programming skills are sought after because of its
flexibility, readability, and simplicity. Presently, if you are a Java
programmer or developer in the United States of American, you will be
earning nothing less than $85k annual salary. Do you still think Java
programming is worth learning?
Pre-requisite for Learning Java
You must know the basics of how to use a computer system. However, if you
are a beginner to programming, then you need to understand the fundamental
to programming. If you already know programming languages like C, C++ or
any object-oriented language, then Java should be an easy language for you
to learn.

Concepts of Java Programming

Since the demands for breaking through various hurdles of coding extremely
large projects, we have seen the advent of object-oriented programming. This
has led to the combination of some of the best methodologies of structured
programming along with new concepts. In this section, I want to briefly
explain some of these programming concepts in Java Programming.

Encapsulation
From the name, you can have an idea of what encapsulation entails.
Encapsulation in a layman term is a method that binds the programming code
along with data it operates while keeping them safe from exterior
interference. An object is formed when these data and code are connected
with each other. This object can be private or public; if it is private, the data
or code will be inaccessible by any program that exists out the object.
However, if it is public, it can be accessible by other programs even if they
are not within the object.

Polymorphism
Another important concept of Java Programming is polymorphism, which
involves creating a particular interface for several methods. The significance
is that it reduces program complication by permitting the same interface.
Inheritance
This concept involves an object receiving the same features or properties of
another object that supports it. For instance, you have a watermelon, which is
of the classification of watermelon. It also belongs to a fruit class that is part
of a larger class known as food. This food class has features that make it
nutritious and edible. Additionally, the fruits can be sweet and juicy.
Therefore, combining these features and other things makes up the
watermelon.

Understanding the Java Environment

It is important to understand the Java environment and I will start by telling
you how you can install the software on your computer. After installation,
you can start with the basic “Hello World” program.
Before starting up, you need to be sure that your computer has what it takes
to write Java programs. It is advisable to check websites that offer the
language free. You can
visitwww.oracle.com/technetwork/java/javase/downloadsor www.java.com
to install the software on your system.
Basically, what you will need to write Java programs include
JDK (Java Development Kit)
Text Editor (NotePad, TextPad, Atom, Sublime for windows; for
Mac – gEdit, jEdit, Atom while for Ubuntu, you can use gEdit)
The language is a high-level programming language, which means you
cannot run it on your computer directly. For you to run the program on your
system it needs to be translated to the language the computer understands and
this is where the javac compiler comes to play. The compiler takes the java
code and translates it to machine code.
Java Virtual Machine is a virtual machine that resides on your computer. Its
role is to make it easier for the compiler to generate byte code for the
machine. JVM is a program that makes it easier to run a java platform
independently.

Running Your First Java Program

Tighten your seat belt because here is where the real thing starts. In this
aspect, I will show you the easiest way to write java programs, compile them,
and finally execute them. let’s start with the simple program.
public class BeginnersProgram {
public static void main(String[] args){
System.out.println("Hello World, This is my first programming
practice in java.");
}//End of main
}//End of FirstJavaProgram Class

Output
Hello World, This is my first programming practice in java.

Explanation
public class MyFirstJaveProgram {
this is the beginning of a java program. All java application must have at least
a class definition, which comprises of the class keyword accompanied by the
class name. From the first line, you can see that the class is public
public static void main(String[] args){
This statement makes the main method to be “public”. What it means is that
you can call the method from outside the class. The void in the statement
signifies that it doesn’t return anything whereas main is a method name. It is
the starting point where the program begins execution. Additionally, the
(String[] args) is a command line argument
System.out.printlin (“Hello World, This is my first programming practice in
java.”)
This statement prints out the content of what is in the quotes to the console
while inserting a newline.

Variables
I believe you know what a variable is as you have gone through various
programming languages in this book. The variable is allocated a value during
the program. Its value changes in the course of the program. For instance,
int number1 = 12;
In this example, number1 is a variable name where 12 is the value assigned to
it. On the other hand, int is a data type that declares “number1” as a variable.

Declaring Variables in Java

Syntax:
data_type variableName = value;
It is compulsory in Java to have the data type and variable name but the value
is optional you can allocate value to a variable after declaring it. For instance,
in the previous example, I declared number1 as a variable with data type as
an integer. In the next section, I will talk more about data types.

Convention in Variable naming in Java

Variable names are case sensitive
Variable names can start with special characters such as
underscore and dollar sign ($)
Variable names cannot contain whitespace. For instance, int
student = 40; this is not valid because of the space the variable
contains
Variable names must start with a small letter. For instance
number1; however, if the variable is lengthy, you can use capital
little like this – numberStudent1, NewBus, etc.

Types of Variables
Variables are of three types in Java.
Local Variable
You declare these variables inside the method of a class. Furthermore, the
scopes of these variables are limited to the method. Their values cannot be
changed and accessed outside the method. From the example below, the
instance variable is declared having the same local variable name. The
essence of this is to show the scope of the local variable scope. Study the
program properly because missing any step here will affect you later.
public class VariableExa {
// I want to declare the instance variable at this point
public String myVar="instance variable";
// declaration of instance variable done
public void myMethod(){
 // Here I am declaring our local variable
String myVar = "Inside Method";
System.out.println(myVar);
}
public static void main(String args[]){
// This area creates the object
VariableExa obj = new VariableExa();
/* we call the variable name, which changes myVar value.
* Furthermore, myVar will be displayed after
* the method call, to indicate that the
* scope of the local variable is restricted to only the method.
*/
System.out.println("Calling Method");
obj.myMethod();
System.out.println(obj.myVar);
}
}

The output of this program after execution will be:

Calling Method
Inside Method
instance variable

Static Variable
Some programmers refer to it as a class variable because of its association
with the class. For instance, if you create four different objects; however,
these objects have the same class with access to the static variable, the static
variable will be common for all object. In order words, an alteration to the
variable through the use of a single object will literally imitate others when
accessed through the other objects. Consider the program below that
illustrates the use of a static variable.

public class StaticExa {

public static String ClassVar="class or static variable";
public static void main(String args[]){
StaticExa obj = new StaticExa();
StaticExa objA = new StaticExa();
StaticExa objB = new StaticExa();

//The three objects will display "class or static variable"

System.out.println(obj.ClassVar);
System.out.println(objA.ClassVar);
System.out.println(objB.ClassVar);

//altering the static variable value through objA

objA.ClassVar = "Text Changed";

//The three objects will display "Text Changed for object"

System.out.println(obj.ClassVar);
System.out.println(objA.ClassVar);
System.out.println(objB.ClassVar);
}
}

The output of the program will be:

 class or static variable
class or static variable
class or static variable
Text Changed for object
Text Changed for object
Text Changed object

Instance Variable
This variable is the opposite of the static variable because every single object
within a class contains its own duplicate, unlike the static variable that
contains the same object. From the example below, the value of the instance
variable (obj2) is changed and when displayed with other objects, others
remained unchanged, unlike the obj2.

public class InstanceExa {

String InstanceVar="My Instance variable";
public static void main(String args[]){
InstanceExa obj = new InstanceExa();
InstanceExa objA = new InstanceExa();
InstanceExa objB = new InstanceExa();

System.out.println(obj.InstanceVar);
System.out.println(objA.InstanceVar);
System.out.println(objB.InstanceVar);

objA.InstanceVar = "Text Changed for Variable";

 System.out.println(obj.InstanceVar);
System.out.println(objA.InstanceVar);
System.out.println(objB.InstanceVar);
}
}

The output of the program will be:

My Instance variable
My Instance variable
My Instance variable
My Instance variable
Text Changed for Variable
My Instance variable

Now, observe the difference between the static variable and the instance
variable. Did you notice any major difference? Let us move into something
more important – data types.

Data Types
The meaning of data type is the same whether it is Java, C, C++, or SQL. The
data type defines that particular value a variable can accommodate. For
instance, a variable of integer data type has the capacity of only
accommodating integer values. Nevertheless, data types are of two types in
Java. These are primitive and non-primitive. Notwithstanding, my focus in
this book is on the primitive data types. For clarity purpose, you should know
that non-Primitive data types include strings and arrays.
Java Programming Primitive Data Types
Generally, Java has eight primitive data types and these include int, short,
Boolean, char, long, byte, double and float. These data types are the same
irrespective of the operating system you are using.
Int
This data type is used to hold integer variables and ranges from
-2,147,483,648 up until 2,147,483,647. It has a default size and value of 4
bytes and 0 respectively. The example below shows the variable “number1”
declared as an integer data type and printed out.
class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Declaration of variables
number1 = 1250;
System.out.println(number1);
}
}

Outcome:
1250

Byte
A byte data type can only hold numbers between -128 and 127. It has a data
size and value of 1 byte and 0 respectively. Study the program below.
 class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// declaration of NewNum as byte
byte NewNum;
NewNum = 80;
System.out.println(NewNum);
}
}
Output:
80

Now, let us consider another example of the byte data type.

class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
byte NewNumber;
NewNumber = 180;
System.out.println(NewNumber);
}
}

What will be the result now? If your answer is 180, you are obviously wrong.
Are you surprised? Do you remember the byte data type range is between
-128 and 127? Therefore, if you execute the above program, you will get a
type mismatch error because 180 is beyond the range data type.
Short
In terms of size, it is greater than the byte data and has a default size of 2
bytes. It has a data range of 32,768 to 32767.
class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Declaration of the variable
short number1;
number1 = 18000;
System.out.println(number1);
}
}
The output will be:
18000
Long
You can use this data type when the int data type isn’t big enough to
accommodate the value you want to use. It ranges from
-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 and has a size of
8 bytes.
class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// declaration of the variable to demonstrate long data type
long number1= -48972698741L;

System.out.println(number1);
}
}
Output
-48972698741
Double
This holds up to 15 decimal numbers and has a size of 8 bytes.
class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
//declaration of variable
double number1 = -789874437.9d
System.out.println(number1);
}
}
What will be the Output:
-4.145898371E7
Char
This holds characters and has a size of 2 bytes.
class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// declaration of variable Myname as char
char Myname = 'Johnson';
System.out.println(Myname);
}
}
Output
Johnson
Boolean
This either holds true or false value.
 class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// performing Boolean operation using true and false
Boolean light = True;
System.out.println(light);
}
}
The Output will be:
True
Float
This holds 6 to 7 decimal number and has a size of 4 bytes.
class DataTypeExample {
public static void main(String[] args) {
float number1 = 20.70f;
System.out.println(number1);
}
}

Output
20.70
Summary of primitive data types
If you want to store whole numbers, you can use long, short,
byte, and int data types
char is used for storing letters
double and float for fractional numbers
Boolean for variables that hold true or false
Operators in Java Programming
This section describes available operators you can use in the course of your
coding. You can use them to manipulate variables or create complex
programs. Normally, you can use these operators to compare, modify, and
control data within the Java environment. The basic operators in Java
include:

Arithmetic Operators
You are already familiar with these operators and they include addition (+),
subtraction (-), multiplication (*), division (/), and modulo (%). I will use a
simple program to illustrate these operators.
public class ArithmeticOperator {
public static void main(String args[]) {
// declaration of profit and loss as integer to perform the arithmetic
operation
int profit = 250;
int loss = 70;

System.out.println("profit + loss: " + (profit + loss) );

System.out.println("profit – loss: " + (profit–loss) );
System.out.println("profit * loss: " + (profit * loss) );
System.out.println("profit/ loss: " + (profit / loss) );
System.out.println("profit % loss: " + (profit % loss) );
}
}

The Output of this program will be:

 profit + loss: 320
profit– loss: 180
profit * loss: 22400
profit / loss: 3.5714
profit % loss: 60

Assignment Operator
These operators include =, +=, -=, *=, /=, and %=
Income=expenses this assigns the value of the variable expenses to Income
Income +=expenses is equivalent to Income = Income + expenses
Income -=expenses is equivalent to Income = Income – expenses
Income*=expenses is equivalent to Income = Income * expenses
Income/=expenses is equivalent to Income = Income/expenses
Income%=expenses is equivalent to Income = Income % expenses
Consider the program above to illustrate the use of assignment operators
public class AssignOpe {
public static void main(String args[]) {
int income = 10;
int expenses = 20;

expenses += income ;
System.out.println("+= Output: "+expenses);

expenses = income ;
System.out.println("= Output: "+expenses);
 expenses -= income ;
System.out.println("-= Output: "+expenses);

expenses /= income ;
System.out.println("/= Output: "+expenses);

expenses *= income ;
System.out.println("*= Output: "+expenses);

expenses %= income ;
System.out.println("%= Output: "+expenses);
}
}

The output of the program will be:

+= Output: 20
= Output: 10
-= Output: 10
/= Output: 10
*= Output: 100
%= Output: 0

Logical operator
These are used for conditional statements and loops to evaluate a condition.
These operators are &&, !, and ||.
 Operator Meaning Example
! Logical Not. This If a=5 then, the
evaluate true only if expression! holds
the operand is 0 true.
&& Logical AND. It If a =4 and b = 2; the
returns true only expression ((a==4)
when all the operands && (a<4)) equals to
are true. 0.
|| Logical OR. This If a =4 and b = 2; the
evaluates to true when expression ((a==4)
one operand returns && (a<4)) equals to
true 1.
Consider the program above.

public class LogicalOperator {

public static void main(String args[]) {
// Declaration of variables
boolean No = false;
boolean Yes = true;

System.out.println("Yes && No: " + (Yes&&No));

System.out.println("!(Yes && No): " + !(Yes&&No));

System.out.println("Yes || No: " + (Yes||No));
}
}
Output will be:

Yes && No: false

!(Yes && No): true
Yes || No: true

Conclusion
There are other operators available in Java; however, with the
aforementioned operators, you can start programming. Finally, you have
gotten to the end of the basics of Java programming. Don’t stop here, put to
practice everything you have learned and considered moving to advanced
programming.
 Chapter Seven: JavaScript Programming
for Beginners
If there is anything I want you to hold at the end of this programming guide
for JavaScript is the fact that:
JavaScript is the HTML and web language
It is easy to Learn
If you can do that, then at the end, you will smile your way to programming
for the web. However, your speed in learning JavaScript and other
programming language is very dependent on you. If you find yourself
struggling, don’t feel demoralized rather take a break and reread the material
after you have settled down. Remember, this chapter gives you the basics of
JavaScript as a beginner to familiarize yourself with the language.

Introduction
This JavaScript guide is written with the intention to help both beginners and
professionals understand the programming language for the web more
efficiently. JavaScript is a solution aimed at performing various actions
dynamically. The JavaScript translator, which is rooted in the web browser
such as Firefox, Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Safari, etc., allows the
interpretation of the JavaScript code.
JavaScript is an object-oriented scripting language, which is lightweight and
works in cross-platform such as Mack, Linux, or Windows. If you want to
create an interactive website for users, the place of JavaScript cannot be
overemphasized.
What is JavaScript?
It is a scripting language created in 1995 by Netscape as a means of
validating forms while offering interactive content for websites. The language
has evolved over time with it being used by various web browsers.

Why should I Study JavaScript?

You should study JavaScript because it is among the three fundamental
languages every web developer must learn and understand. With HTML, you
can define your web page contents whereas CSS allows you to identify your
web page layout; however, with JavaScript, you can program the actions of
these web pages. You see the important role JavaScript plays in web pages.

Importance of JavaScript for Websites

Displaying time and date
Client-side validation of controls
Displaying clocks
Displaying popup windows and dialog boxes such as a prompt
dialog box, confirmation dialog box, and an alert dialog box
Display times such as online test
Displaying animations
If you judiciously follow this guide, by the end, you will be a master of the
art programming web pages.

Pre-requisites for learning JavaScript

Although, you will hear many developers educating beginners about the fact
that there are no prerequisites to learning JavaScript. That is true because you
can learn the language without having any programming foundation or
knowledge. However, to expedite your learning process, you can improve
yourself on basic courses such as:
Discrete mathematics
Algebra
Algorithms in Data structures
Learn a static language like C++ as it will give you the cutting-
edge

Variables in JavaScript
Variables shouldn’t be new if you went through Chapter two to Chapter six
of this book. In a layman term, a variable is a memory location designed to
store different values and assigned with a name. JavaScript uses the “var”
keyword, accompanied by the variable name. For instance, to a name as a
variable, you will use the statement below.
var exam = 50;
var test = 12;
var score = exam * test;

In the example above, exam, test, and score are variables given values with
the value stored. We can perform various operations in JavaScript including
multiplication, subtraction, addition, subtraction, and division. Variables and
values can be declared as a number, string, or letter.
var name = “insert your name”;
var number = ‘45’;

From the example, you can enclose string with a single or double quote
because they work exactly the same way.
JavaScript Identifiers
Every variable in JavaScript must have a unique name, which is used to
identify it. These unique names are called identifiers. Identifiers have certain
rules, which include:
Every identifier must begin with a letter
They can contain digits (0-9), letters (a-z), dollar signs ($), and
underscores (_)
Reserved words are not accepted
Variable names are case sensitive
An identifier can begin with a dollar sign or underscore.

Scope of JavaScript Variable

JavaScript allows two types of variable scope, which includes global and
local variable scope. A variable is said to be global if it is declared outside the
function body. With this, every statement has access to the variable within
the same document. However, a local variable scope has its scope within the
function. With this, the variable is only available to statements within the
same function.

Data Types in JavaScript

Data types are important in JavaScript because it determines the type of value
assigned to an identifier. Without data types, hardly can your computer solve
any problem safely. JavaScript has two types of data types, which are:
Primitive data types
These are the primary blocks of any JavaScript program and includes:
Numeric – You can use both floating numbers and integer in
JavaScript. However, it doesn’t support the use of decimal
 numbers.
Strings – This is a group of characters encircled in either a single
or a double quote. Every string must end with its corresponding
quote – a single quote must always end with a single quote.
Boolean – This involves logical values, whose value is either true
or false. Boolean data type uses conditional statements.
Null – this represents no value, which means strings are empty
The other data type used in JavaScript is the compositive data type. It is
imperative to note that JavaScript data types are dynamic, that is, the same
variable can be used to hold different data types. For instance,
var a; // Now a is undefined
a = 89; // Now a is a Number
a = "Germany"; // Now a is a String

The program below demonstrates the use of data type in JavaScript. The first
one shows a JavaScript program that shows the summation of two floating
numbers (test and exam) while the second one illustrates the use of Boolean
data type.
<html>
<head>
<script language="javascript">
function showAlert()
{
var test=22.50;
var exam=50.50;
var score=0;
score=test+exam;
document.write(" score= "+score);
 document.write("\t\tHello\nworld!\n");
document.write('\nWelcome to JavaScript');
}
</script>
</head>
<body>

<script language="javascript">

showAlert();

</script>

</body>
</html>

The program below illustrates the use of Boolean expression. First, I allocate
the value “0” to the variable “number.” Then the user is prompted to enter a
number, which must be within the range of 1 and 500. Nonetheless, If the
user entered a number above the stated range (500), a message will be
displayed on the screen indicating an error.. However, if the number falls
within the 500 range, it will determine if the figured inputted is either equal
or greater
<html>
<body>
<script type="text/javascript">
var number=0;
number=prompt("Enter a number");
 document.write("Your entered number is :"+number);
if (number>=1 && number<10)
document.write("Your entered number is greater than 1 and less than
10");
else if(number>=10 && number<20)
document.write("Your entered number is greater than 10 and less than
20");
else if(number>=20 && number<30)
document.write("Your entered number is greater than 20 and less than
30");
else if(number>=30 && number<40)
document.write("Your entered number is greater than 30 and less than
40");
else if(number>=40 && number<100)
document.write("Your entered number is greater than 40 and less than
100");
else if(number>=100 && number<=500)
document.write("Your entered number is greater than 100 or less than
500");
else
document.write("You did not enter any number!")
</script>
</body>
</html>

Operators in JavaScript
Operators are functions with arithmetic, bitwise or logical property.
JavaScript also has its own operators to perform various operations. In this
unit, I will explore the basic operators you can use as a beginner in
JavaScript.
Arithmetic Operators
Operators Meaning
+ Addition
- Subtraction
/ Division
* Multiplication
= Assignment
% Mod
-- Decrement
++ Increment

You should be conversant with some of these operators if you have gone
through this book. However, I am not going to explain anything but illustrate
each operator using a JavaScript program.

Addition
var number1 = 105;
var number2 = 25;
var total = number1+number2; //total = 130

Subtraction
var number1 = 105;
var number2 = 25;
var total = number1-number2; //total = 180
Multiplication
var number1 = 105;
var number2 = 25;
var total = number1*number2; //total = 2625

Division
var number1 = 105;
var number2 = 25;
var total = number1/number2; //total = 4.2

Mod
var number1 = 105;
var number2 = 25;
var total = number1%number2; //total = 5
Assignment
var number1 = 105;
var number2 ;
number2 = number1; //total = 105
Increment
var number1 = 105;
var number2 = number1++; // number2 = 106
Decrement
var number1 = 105;
var number2 = number1--; // number2 = 104
String Operators
The string operator uses the sign “+” to concatenate two or more strings.
 var FirstName = “Fname”’;
var LastName = “Lname”;
var FullName = FirstName + “” + LastName;

Comparison Operator in JavaScript

Operator Meaning
!= Not Equal to
== Equal to
=== Equal to and equal type
< Less than
> Greater than
<= Less than equal to

>= Greater than equal to

Logical Operators in JavaScript
Operator Property
! Logical not
|| Logical or
&& Logical and

Basic JavaScript on the Browser side

When you hear about JavaScript on the browser side, it refers to the client-
side, which means the code is run on the machine of the client – the browser.
The browser-side components comprise of JavaScript, JavaScript libraries,
CSS, images, HMTL, and whatever files downloaded to the browser.
Browser-Side JavaScript Features
JavaScript is important for the web as it is likely to use it to write programs
that execute arbitrary computations. You have the opportunity of writing
simple scripts such as the search for prime numbers or Fibonacci numbers.
However, in the context of web browser and the Web, JavaScript enables
programmers to program with the capability of computing sales tax, based on
the information provided by the users through an HTML form.
The truth about JavaScript language is in the document-based objects and
browser that the language is compatible with. This may sound complex,
however, I will explain the significant capabilities of JavaScript on the
browser side along with the objects it supports.
Controls the Browser – There are various JavaScript objects that
permit the control of the browser behavior. Furthermore, the
Window object support means of popping up dialog boxes that
display messages for the users. Additionally, users can also input
messages. Besides this, JavaScript doesn’t provide a method that
gives users the opportunity to directly create and manipulate
frames inside the browser window. Notwithstanding, you can take
advantage of the ability to make HTML animatedly by creating the
particular frame layout you want.
Interact with HTML Forms – another significant part of the
JavaScript on the browser side is its capability to work together
with HTML forms. The ability comes because of the form element
and its objects, which contains Text, submit, select, reset, radio,
hidden, password, and text area objects. With these elements, you
can write and read the values of the elements in the form.
Interact with Users – JavaScript has another feature, which is its
 ability to define event handlers. Most times, users initiate these
events. For instance, when someone moves the mouse through a
hyperlink, clicks the submit button, or enters a value. The
capability to handle such events is important because programming
with graphic interfaces requires an event-driven model.
In addition to these aforementioned features, JavaScript on the browser
side has other capabilities such as:
Changing the displayed image by using the <img> tag to
generate an animation effect and image rollover
It has a window.setTimeout () method, which allows some
block of random source code to be performed in the future
within a split of a second
It streamlines the procedure of working and computing with
times and dates

JavaScript Framework
Take a moment and consider creating a web application and websites like
constructing a house. In building a house, you can decide to create every
material you need to start the house from scratch before building without any
plans. This will be time-consuming and won’t make much sense. One thing
you may likely do is to buy pre-manufactured materials such as bricks,
woods, countertops, etc. before assembling them based on the blueprint you
have.
Coding is like taking it upon yourself to build a house. When you begin
coding a website, you can code all areas of the site from scratch without.
However, there are certain website features, which gives your website more
sense by applying a template. Assuming you want to buy a wheel, it will
make to look for one that you can reinvent. This is where JavaScript
Frameworks come to the scene.
JavaScript Framework is a collection of JavaScript code libraries, which
gives website developers pre-written JavaScript codes to use for their routine
programming tasks and features.
You can also refer to it as an application framework, which is written in
JavaScript where the developers can manipulate the functions of these codes
and reuse them for their own convenience. They are more adaptable for
website designing, which is why many developers use them in building
websites.

Top JavaScript Framework

Vue.js
This is one of the JavaScript frameworks, which was created to make the user
interface development more organized. Created by Evan You, it is the perfect
JavaScript framework for beginners because it’s quite easy to understand.
Furthermore, it focuses on view layers. With Vue.js, you don’t need Babel. A
Babel is a transpiler with the responsibility of converting JavaScript codes to
the old version of ES5 that can run in all browsers. All templates in the
Vue.js framework are valid HTML, which makes their integration easier. If
you want to develop lightweight apps as a beginner, it is best to start with
Vue.js.
Next.js
Another important JavaScript Framework is the Next.js framework, which is
an additional tool for server-side rendering. The framework allows
developers to simplify the developing process similar to the Vue.js
framework.
The features of this JavaScript Framework include page-based client-side
routing and automatic splitting of codes. The framework also comes with a
full CSS support, which makes styling of the user’s interface easier for
beginners and professionals.
Ember.js
This framework, which was created a few years ago, is among the most
sought JavaScript framework in the web industry. Famous companies such as
LinkedIn, Heroku, and Kickstarter use the Ember.js framework in the design
of their websites. It also comes with regular updates and offers a complete
feature for users. Unlike the Vue.js framework, it is effective for developers
who want to develop complex web applications. The focus of this framework
is on scalability, which allows developers to use it for both web and mobile
projects.
Angular
Google released this JavaScript Framework in 2010 with regular updates and
improvements taking place. It is one of the most sought after the framework
for many developers because it simplifies the development of websites and
apps. For other developers, it is because of its ability to create dynamic web
apps.
 Chapter Eight: Introduction to PHP

PHP is an acronym for Hypertext Preprocessor. The language is a server-side

HTML embedded scripting language. For beginners, it is hard to understand
the aforementioned statement, however, let me break it down. When I say the
langue is a server-side, I mean the execution of the scripts takes place on the
server where the website is hosted. By HTML embedded, it means PHP
codes can be used inside HTML code. Alternatively, a scripting language is a
programming language, which is interpreted instead of being compiled like
C++ and C programming language. Examples of scripting languages include
Java, Python, Perl, and Ruby.
You can use PHP language on several platforms including UNIX, Linux, and
windows and it supports many databases including Oracle, Sybase, MySQL,
etc. furthermore, PHP files contain scripts, HTML tags, and plain text with
extensions such as PHP3, PHP, or PHTML. Finally, the software is an open-
source program, which is free.

Pre-requisite for learning PHP

If you want to know if there is anything special necessary to know before
learning PHP, then the answer to this question is no. Going through the
documentation section gives you the necessary information you need. One
major reason many find it easy to learn PHP is due to its documentation that
every concept is explained in its simplicity.
Additionally, PHP is a simple and straightforward language for anyone to
learn. However, if you want to learn web language effectively, it is important
to learn the basics of the following languages:
 HTML – This is what PHP sends to the web browser
MySQL – You need a database to store data
CSS – You need this to add style to your HTML pages
JavaScript – To make your pages interactive with the users
If you can equip yourself with these languages, then you can learn PHP
effectively.

Getting Started
Before starting this lesson, you should have the following:
PHP and MySQL installed
Web Server (Apache)
With these two programs, you can successfully write and execute PHP codes.
You can purchase an inexpensive hosting plan that supports MySQL and
PHP. However, if you want to save some cash, you can decide to install it on
your system. To do this, you have to install WAMP server on your machine
for Windows users. After the installation, you can access it through
http://localhost in your browser. Ensure you have this set up before starting
this course.

PHP Syntax
When I started, I indicated that PHP codes are executed on the server-side.
However, every PHP statement begins with <?PHP while ending with ?>.
Let us begin with a simple program. You can copy and paste the program
below using any text editor before saving it with the file name – index1.php
I named the file to “index1.php” because some root folder already has an
index filename as shown in the image below.

<html>
<head>
</head>
<body>

<?php
/* This line contains a comment
Which span to
several lines */
 //This comment is a line comment

//echo prints the statement onto the screen

echo “Hello World, Welcome to PHP Programming!”
?>

</body>
</html>

When executed, you should have the output as:

Variables in PHP Programming
I will go directly into the PHP variable declaration statement as we have dealt
with variables in different chapters in this book. Every variable in PHP
normally begins with the dollar ($) sign. Most beginners make the mistake of
not including the dollar ($) at the beginner. I know you won’t make that
mistake.
<?PHP
$variable1 = 280;
$variable2 = “PHP Programming”;
?>

We first declare variable1 with the value 280. However, the second is a string
variable with value as “PHP Programming”
It is important to note that every statement n PHP ends with a semicolon. You
will get an error whenever you don’t include a semicolon to indicate the
ending of a statement.

Variable Rules in PHP

A variable name always begins with an underscore (_) or a letter
A variable name must not include a space (s)
Variable names can only have an underscore or alpha-numerical
character
String Variables
String variables are important especially if you want to manipulate and store
text in your program. The code below assigns the text “Welcome to PHP
Programming” to the variable beginner and prints out the content to the
screen.
<?php
$beginner = ‘Welcome to PHP Programming’;
echo $beginner;
?>

Output

Strlen () function
Perhaps you want to determine the string length of a word or sentence, the
strlen function is what you need. Consider the example below.
<?php
echo strlen(‘‘Today is the best day of your life. Programming is a
lifelong skill and PHP is all your need’’);
 ?>

The outcome will be the string length of the text including the signs, space,
characters). In this situation, the result will be 92 as shown below.

Operators in PHP Programming

In this segment, I will rundown through the basic operators in PHP. I will
look at the assignment, arithmetic, comparison, logical, and concatenation
operators.

Assignment operators
Operator Examples Large notation
%= p%=q p=p%q
*= p*=q p=p*q
.= p.=q p=p.q
/= p/=q p=p/q
+= p+=q p=p+q
= p=p p=q
-= p-=q p=p-q
Logical Operators
Operator Description Example

! not p=9
q=9
!(p==q) returns false
&& and p=9
q=9
(p < 10 && q> 1) returns true
|| or p=9
q=9
(p==5 || q==5) returns true

Arithmetic Operators
Operator Description Example Result

+ Addition a=8 13
a+5
– Subtraction a=17 3
20-a
/ Division a = 40 20
40/2
* Multiplication a=7 35
a*5
++ Increment a=9 a=10
a++
-- Decrement a=14 a=13
 a--
% Modulus (division 56%6 2
remainder)

Comparison Operator
Operator Description Example

== is equal to 48==49 returns

false
!= is not equal 48!=49 returns true

< is less than 48<49 returns true

<= is less than or equal to 48<=49 returns

true
<> is not equal 48<>49 returns
true
> is greater than 48>49 returns false

>= is greater than or equal 48>=49 returns

to false

Conditional Statements in PHP Programming

At times, you may want to make decisions that require different actions when
writing a program, conditional statement plays a huge role to perform some
decision. In PHP language, we have the if statement, if… else statement, the
if…elseif… else statement. In this section, I will expand on these statements
including their syntax.

If Statement
The statement is required to execute a line of code as far as the condition
stated is true. Consider the example below.
<?php
$number= 23;
if($number='23')
echo "Wake up! Time to begin Your Programming lesson.";
?>

In the statement above, we first declare allocate the value 23 to the variable
“number”. The if statement now evaluates if the variable “number” is equal
to 23 since it is true, it will return:

The If…else statement

This condition examines two different statements and evaluates one
depending on the condition specified. A simple English illustration will be:
buy a donut if there is no pizza available.
<?php
$decision1='Donut';
if($decision1 == 'Donut') {
 echo 'Buy Donut when coming';
} else {
echo 'Buy Pizza when coming';
}
?>

The output will be:

Let’s twist the same code and consider the output.

<?php
$decision1='Donut';
if($decision1 == 'Don') {
echo 'Buy Donut when coming';
} else {
echo 'Buy Pizza when coming';
}
?>
The output will be:

It doesn’t work on string alone but you can also use it on number operations.

The if … else if…else statement

You can use this statement to select a single option from a different line of
codes. The example below will explain better.
<?php
$number1=10;
$number2=10;
if($number1 == 8) {
echo 'The expression is true';
} elseif($number2 == $number2) {
echo 'The second expression is true';
} else {
echo 'The two if statements are true';
}
?>
The output:

Switch Statement
The statement allows you to change the course of the program flow. It is best
suited when you want to perform various actions on different conditions.
Consider the example below.
<html>
<body>
<?php
$a=2;
switch ($a)
{
case 1:
 echo 'The number is 10';
break;
case 2:
echo 'The number is 20';
break;
case 3:
echo 'The number is 30';
break;
default:
echo 'There is no number that match';
}
?>
</body>
</html>

Output:
Explanation
In the example above, we declare the variable “a” to be 3. The switch
statement has some block of codes, with case or default. If the value of the
case is equivalent to the variable $a, it will execute the statement within that
line and then break. However, if the value of the case is not equivalent to any
of the variable, it will break from the case before executing the default code
block.

Conclusion
PHP language isn’t restricted to professional web browsers alone. You don’t
have to be an IT administrative professional to learn it. Similar to any
scripting language, it may seem complicated at the first time; however, if you
preserver, you will discover it is an interesting language to learn. Learning
PHP programming is the perfect way of understanding the server-side world.
Writing PHP code is not something intimidating if you start from the
foundation as I have done in this book. PHP language is one of the languages
you don’t need anyone to teach you as long as you are ready to learn
everything. In this book, you have learned everything you need to get your
environment ready, variables, conditional statements, and much more.
 Chapter Nine: Python Programming
Language

Introduction
Python Language is one of the easiest and straightforward object-oriented
languages to learn. Its syntax is simple, thereby making it simple for
beginners to learn and understand the language with ease. In this chapter, I
will cover several aspects of the Python programing language. This
programming guide is for beginners who want to learn a new language.
However, if you are an advanced programmer, you will also learn something.
Guido Van Rossum developed the Python language but the implementation
began in 1989. Initially, you could have thought, it was named after the
Python snake; however, it was named after a comedy television show called
“Monty Python’s Flying Circus.”

Features of Python
There are certain features that make the python programming language
unique among other programming languages. The summary is displayed in
the diagram below.
1. Easy to learn – Because python is a high-level and expressive
language, it is easy for everyone – including you to learn and
understand irrespective of their programming level – beginners to
advanced programming
2. Readable – It is quite easy to read the language
3. Open source – The language is an open-source language
 4. Cross-platform – This means it is available and you runnable on
different operating systems including UNIX, Linux, Windows,
Mac, etc. This has contributed to its portability.
5. Free – The language is downloadable without paying anything.
Furthermore, not only can you download it, you can it for various
applications. The software is distributable freely.
6. Large standard library – Python has its standard library, which
contains various functions and code, which you can add to your
code.
7. Supports exception handling – Most programming languages
have this exception handling feature. However, an exception is a
situation that takes place in the course of program execution and
has the tendency to disrupt the flow of the program. With python
exception handling feature, you can write less error code while
testing various situation that may lead to an exception in the future.
8. Memory management – The language also supports automatic
memory management, which means it clear and free memory
automatically. There is no need for clearing the memory on your
own when you remember.

Uses of Python
Most beginners before choosing to learn a programming language first
consider what the uses of such language are. However, there are various
applications of the python language in a real-world situation. These include:
1. Data Analysis – You can use python to develop data analysis and
visualization in the form of charts
2. Game development – Today, the game industry is a huge market
that yields billions of dollars per year. It may interest you to know
 that you can use python to develop interesting games.
3. Machine learning – We have various machine learning
applications that are written using the python language. For
instance, products recommendation in websites such as eBay,
Flipkart, Amazon, etc. uses a machine-learning algorithm, which
recognizes the user’s interest. Another area of machine learning is
a voice and facial recognition on your phone.
4. Web development – You didn’t see this coming. Well, web
frameworks such as Flask and Django are based on the python
language. With Python, you can write backend programming
logics, manage database, map URLs, etc.
5. Embedded applications – You can use python to develop
embedded applications

How to Install Python Programming Language

It is very easy to install python on your system. Since it is cross-platform,
you don’t need to crack your brain. By cross-platform, I mean you can install
it on Ubuntu, Mac, UNIX, Windows, etc. To install it on your system, you
can visit this link https://www.python.org/downloads. You can download it
here and it comes with the option of choosing your particular operating
system. So the installation process is not complicated. After downloading the
software according to your operating system, follow the onscreen instruction
to complete the process.
Since you are a beginner, I will teach you how to install the PyCharm, which
is a common IDE used for python programming. IDE stands for an integrated
development environment. The IDE contains a debugger, interpreter or
compiler, and a code editor.

Installation of PyCharm IDE

First, go to this address – https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/download/ to
download the edition you want. After this, install the downloaded file. If you
are using a MAC system, you have to double click the .dmg file before
dragging PyCharm to the application folder. However, for windows users,
you have to open the .exe file before following the direction on the screen.

Launching PyCharm
For windows users, after installing the .exe file, you will see the PyCharm
icon on the desktop depending on the option you selected during installation.
You can also go to your program files > Jetbrains >PyCharm2017 and look
for the PyCharm.exe file to launch PyCharm.

Python Program Beginning

Once you open the IDE and give a name to your project, you can start
programming. You can begin with this simple program
# This Python program prints Welcome to Python Programming on
the screen
print('Welcome to Python Programming')
If you did that, you should have the following
Welcome to Python Programming

Comments in Python
If you observe from the first line, I began with “#” whenever you see that it is
a comment and in Python, it doesn’t change the program outcome. Comments
are very important because it helps you to easily read the program by
providing further explanation of the codes in English for everyone to
understand.
Comments can be written in two ways in Python. This could be single or
multiple line comments. The single-line comment uses the #, which is an
example of the previous code. However, the multiple line comment uses three
single quotes (''') at the beginning and end respectively.

'''
Example of multiple line comment
'''

Let me use a real example to explain both the single and multiple line
comment.
'''
Sample program to illustrate multiple line comment
Pay close attention
'''
print("We are making progress")

# Second print statement

print("Do you agree?")

print("Python Programming for Beginners") # Third print statement

Output:
We are making progress
Do you agree?
Python Programming for Beginners
Python Variables
We use variables to store data in programming. Variable creation is very
simple to implement in Python. In python, you have to declare the variable
name and value together. For instance
Number1 = 140 #number1 is of integer type
str = “Beginner” #str is of string type

Variable Name Convention in Python

Another name for a variable name is an identifier. Python has some laid
down rules when it has to do with naming variables. These rules differ from
other programming languages.
1. Variable names must always start with an underscore (-) or a letter.
For example, _number1, number1,
2. Variable names cannot contain special characters such as #, %, $,
etc. however, they can have underscore and alphanumeric
characters
3. A variable name cannot begin with a number. For instance,
3number is invalid
4. It is case sensitive. For instance, number1 and NUMBER2 are
entirely different variable names in python

Python Variable examples

Number1 = 589
Str = “Python Programming”
Print (Number1)
Print (Str)
The output will be:
589
Python Programming

Multiple Assignment
You can also allocate several variables to a single expression in python.
Consider the example below:
Profit = returns = yields = 35
print (Profit)
print (yield)
print (returns)

Output
35
35
35

Let us consider another example

A, B, C = 35, 8, 90
print (A)
print (B)
print (C)
Output
 35
8
90

Concatenation and plus Operation on variables

A = 44
B = 68
print (A + B)

c = “Welcome”
d = “Home”
print (c + “ “ + d)

Output
112
Welcome Home

However, if you decide to use the + operator in conjunction with a and c, it

will display an error such as unsupported operand type (s) for +: ‘int’

Data Types in Python

The purpose is to define the type of data a variable accommodate. For
instance, “welcome home” is a string data type while 234 is an integer data
type. In Python, data types are divided into two different groups. We have the
immutable data types, whose values are unchangeable. They include tuple,
string, and numbers. The other group is the mutable data types, whose values
are changeable and they include sets, dictionaries, and list. In this book, my
focus will be on the immutable data types.

Numbers
When working with numbers, python supports floats, integers, and complex
numbers. Float numbers are those with decimal points such as 9.9, 4.2, 42.9,
etc. An integer is the opposite of float because it does not have a decimal
point attached to it. For instance, 3, 35, 89, etc. however, a compound
number contain an imaginary and real part such as 7+10j, etc.
Let’s demonstrate the use of numbers in a python program
# Python program to show how we can use numbers

# declaring the variables number1 and number2 as integer

number1 = 78
number2 = 12
print(number1+number2)

# declaring a and b as float data type

a = 15.9
b = 5.8
print(a-b)

# declaring x and y as complex numbers

x = 5 + 2j
y = 9 + 6j
print(y-x)
Output
100
10.1
 4 + 4j

Strings
This is a series of characters enclosed within a special character. In Python,
you have the option of using a single or double quote to represent a string.
There are various means of creating strings in python.
You have the option of a single quote ‘
You can use a double quote ”
You can use a triple-double quotes “””
# Ways of creating strings in Python
str = 'single string example'
print(str)

str2 = "double string example"

print(str2)

# multi-line string
str3 = """ Triple double-quote string"""
print(str3)

str4 = '''This is Python Programming '''

print(str4)

Single string example

double string example
Triple double-quote string
Beginnersbook.com
 This is Python Programming

Tuple
Tuple works like a list but the difference is that in a tuple, the objects are
unchangeable. The elements of a tuple are unchangeable once assigned.
However, in the case of a list, the element is changeable.
In order to create tuple in python, you have to place all the elements in a
parenthesis () with a comma separating it. Let me use an example to illustrate
tuple in python.
# tuple of strings
bioDate = ("John", "M", "Lawson")
print(bioData)

# tuple of int, float, string

Data_New = (1, 2.8, "John Lawson")
print(Date_New)

# tuple of string and list

details = ("The Programmer", [1, 2, 3])
print(details)

# tuples inside another tuple

# nested tuple
Details2 = ((2, 3, 4), (1, 2, "John"))
Print(details2)
Output will be:
("John", "M", "Lawson")
(1, 2.8, "John Lawson")
(“The Programmer", 1, 2, 3)
((2, 3, 4), (1, 2, "John"))

Control Statement in Python Programming

There are various control statements used in Python to make a decision.

If Statement
The statement prints out a message if a specific condition is satisfied. The
format or syntax is as follow:
If condition:
Line of codes
flag = True
if flag==True:
print("Welcome")
print("To")
print("Python Programming")
Output
Welcome
To
Python Programming

Consider another example

 number1 = 180
if number1 < 290:
print("number1 is less than 290")

Output
number1 is less than 290

If-else statement
in our previous example, we only test a particular condition, what if you want
to test two different conditions. That is where the “if-else statement” comes
to play. In Python, the statement executes a particular statement if it is true
but if it's not true, it executes the other statement.
Syntax
If conditions
Statement1
Else
Statement2

Let us use our last example to illustrate this.

number1 = 180
if number1 > 290:
print("number1 is greater than 290")
else
print (“number1 is less than 290”)

Output
number1 is less than 290
Number1 = 15
if number1 % 4 == 0:
print("the Number is an Even Number")
else:
print("The Number is an Odd Number")
Output:
The Number is an Odd Number

Bonus Programs
# Program to display the Fibonacci sequence depending on the
number the user wants

# For a different result, change the values

numb1 = 12

# uncomment to take input from the user

#num1 = int(input("How many times? "))

# first two terms

a1 = 0
a2 = 1
count = 0

# Verify if the number of times is valid

if numb1 <= 0:
 print("Please enter a positive integer")
elif numb1 == 1:
print("Fibonacci sequence up to",numb1,":")
print(a1)
else:
print("Fibonacci sequence up to",numb1,":")
while count < numb1:
print(a1,end=' , ')
nth = a1 + a2
# update values
a1 = a2
a2 = nth
count += 1
What do you think the output will be?
Fibonacci sequence up to 12 :
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89

Conclusion on Python Programming

So far, you have learned the fundamentals of Python Programming. However,
there are advanced topics such as functions, recursions, python OOP, python
constructors, etc. My goal is that you have the basic knowledge of the
language to equip you in other programming languages. Now you know how
to write a program in Python and use the language conveniently. I am
convinced that you can install Python on a different system. I have also
covered how to use the control flow tools such as if statement and if…else
statement.
Python is not a hard language and at that, you should invest your time to dive
into advanced programming.
 Glossary

Algorithm – A series of instruction aimed at solving a single problem.

Boolean – An expression whose statements can only be true or false. It is
sometimes used in combination with AND, OR, NOT, XOR, and NOR
operators. They are also called comparison expression or relational
expression.
Class – A set of related objects sharing the same features in the course of a
program
Code – A program code or source code written as a set of instructions under
a particular language
Compilation – A process of creating a program using code, which is written
in a particular computer language. When a program undergoes the
compilation process, the computer understands the codes and run the program
without any programming software. C++ is an example of a compiler
Compile – The process of creating executable from code written in a
particular language
Compile-time – The total time taken for the compiler to compile a particular
program
Compiler - A software that converts codes written into programs
Constants – A constant is a term in the course of a program whose value does
not change throughout the program execution. It is different from a variable
whose value changes. Constants remain fixed and can be a character, number,
and string.
Data types – This is a classification of a data type in a program. Data types
include integers, String, Boolean, etc. Unlike humans, computers cannot
differentiate between a number and a letter unless specified.
Array – This is a group or list of similar data values, which are categorized.
Although the values are of the same data type, however, their position is not
the same. For instance, the student of a particular class can be an array but
their results after the exam will be different.
Declaration – A statement that describes a function, variable or any identifier
in the course of a program
Developer – An individual whose job is to create or work on the
development of a product or services. Developers use various programming
languages to develop these products
Exception – An anomalous and unexpected condition encountered while
executing a program. Another word for an exception is an error and it causes
the code to execute.
Expression – A group of symbols, letters, and number that represent a
variable. An expression is used in various programming languages with each
having its own rules.
False – A Boolean value in programming that is used when the outcome of
the local statement is not true
Function – A group of instructions used in programming languages to return
a single or set of results.
Immutable Object – An object which is unchangeable after created. These
are common in object-oriented programming languages like Java
Increment – In programming, the process of increasing the numerical value
of a particular variable. It is the opposite of decrement.
Inheritance - This concept involves an object receiving the same features or
properties of another object that supports it.
Interpreter – In programming, a programming language doesn’t require
undergoing the compilation process before its execution
JavaScript - A scripting language that allows developers to insert code into
a website page. They are used to perform various advanced tasks such as
creating a calendar, printing the time and date
Keywords – These are reserved words used by a programming language and
have special meaning. Each programming language has its own reserved
keywords, which must not be used as a variable name. For instance,
“continue”, “static,” “if,” “return,” and “default” are some of the keywords
reserved in C programming language
Loop – A series of instruction that repeats itself pending when a specific
condition is met before stopping the process. Loop is one of the basic
concepts in programming. Almost all programming language use loop to
execute complete decisions.
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) – A model with data structure with
data in the form of fields and functions that can be applied to it
Objects – A combination of related constants, variables, and other data
structures, which can be manipulated together. Example, the gender of
students in a particular school
Operand – A term used to represent an object in which various
manipulations can take place. For instance, in the expression
“num1+num2+num3”, num1, num2, and num3 are operands.
Operators – A term used to describe operations that can take place in n
operand or object. For instance, “a*b+C” in the expression, * and + are
operators, which perform a certain operation on the operands.
Polymorphism - The ability of a particular programming language to
interpret objects in various ways depending on their data type or class.
Program – a collection of instruction that must be executed serially. The
CPU process the program before its execution. A program, also called
software sometimes contains a couple of lines to millions of lines with each
providing different instructions. The instructions are called source code
whereas the act of computer programming is program coding.
Programming language - This is an artificial language aimed at controlling
the operation and functionality of a computer similar to the English language,
they have rules (syntactic and semantic rules).
Reserved Words – These are unique words reserved for a particular
programming language. Same as keywords
Statement – It represents a single line of code, which is written to express an
action that must be carried out in that programming language. For instance, Q
=R+8
Syntax – These are rules that a particular programming language has.
Different programming languages may have the same functions, features, and
capabilities; however, they may have different syntax. For instance, the
syntax for display a text to the screen in C++ is different from that of a Java
program
Variable – A storage location used to save temporary data during a program.
Unlike constants, you can manipulate, store, and display a variable value. For
instance, an integer variable “number1” stores a value like 45. However, if
after this, you use the same name and store 67 as the value, it takes the new
value and discards the old value (45)
 Exercises for all Languages

SQL Test Questions

Q 1 - Which of the SQL statements below is not true?

A. SQL statements can be written on more than a single line.
B. SQL statements are not case sensitive
C. Clauses must be on a separate line
D. Keywords cannot be split across lines
Q 2 – Consider the code below
STUDENTS (StudID, FirstName, LastName, Email,
PhoneNum, DoB, Subject, Total_Score);
Which statement below will display the student full name with a column
heading “Name”
A. SELECT FirstName || LastName as “Name” from STUDENTS;
B. SELECT FirstName, LastName FROM STUDENTS;
C. SELECT Name FROM STUDENTS;
D. SELECT FirstName, LastName FROM STUDENTS;
Q3 – Consider the code below
STUDENTS (StudID, FirstName, LastName, Email,
PhoneNum, DoB, Subject, Total_Score);
Which of the query will display subjects from the table?
A. SELECT ALL subjects FROM STUDENTS;
 B. SELECT Subjects FROM STUDENTS;
C. SELECT * Subject FROM STUDENTS;
D. SELECT Subject OR Total_Score FROM STUDENTS;
Q4 – Consider the code below
Students (StudID, FirstName, LastName, Email,
PhoneNum, DoB, Subject, Total_Score);
Which of the query will display students offering only “MTH112) subjects
from the table?
A. SELECT StudID, FirstName, LastName FROM Students WHERE
Subject = “MTH112”;
B. SELECT StudID, FirstName, LastName FROM Students WHERE
subject is “MTH112”;
C. SELECT StudID, FirstName, LastName WHERE subject =
“MTH112”;
D. SELECT StudID, FirstName, LastName FROM Students;

Q5 – Consider the Schema below

Students (StudID, FirstName, LastName, Email,
PhoneNum, DoB, Subject, Total_Score);
A. SELECT FirstName FROM Students WHERE FirstName like
“A”;
B. SELECT FirstName FROM Students WHERE FirstName like
“%A%”;
C. SELECT FirstName FROM Students WHERE FirstName like
“%A”;
D. SELECT FirstName FROM Students WHERE FirstName like
“A%”;
 C++ Test Question
Q1 – A trigraph character starts with
A. #
B. ?
C. ??
D. ##
Q 2 - The default access specifier for class members is
A. Private
B. Protected
C. Public
D. None
Q3 – C++ doesn’t support the following inheritance
A. Multilevel
B. Hierarchical
C. Hybrid
D. There is no answer
Q4 – From the following statement, which of them is true concerning inline
function?
A. It doesn’t execute faster when compared to normal function
B. It executes faster due to its higher priority when compared to
normal function
C. It performs faster because it is treated as a macro internally
D. None of the above
Q5 – Which of the statement below is the true definition of an abstract class?
A. It is a class, which must have a pure virtual function defined
 outside the class
B. It is a class, which may not have a pure virtual function
C. It is a class, which must have at least a pure virtual function
D. It is a class, which must have all pure virtual functions

Q 6 - Which of the following is not a reserved word in C++?

A. extends
B. friend
C. this
D. volatile
Q7 – determine the output of the program
#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

class ab {

public:
int p;

ab(int p) {
p = p;
}
};

main() {
ab c(5);

cout<<c.a;
 }
A. Garbage
B. 5
C. Compile error “a” declared twice
D. Error at the statement a = a;

C Programming Test Questions

Q1 – Consider the simple program below?

#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
int const a = 8;
p++;
printf(“%d”,p);
}
A. 6
B. 9
C. Runtime error
D. Compile error
Q2 – determine the program
#include<stdio.h>
 main()
{
char p[]="welcome", q[]="welcome";

if(p==q){
printf("equal strings");
}
}
A. No output
B. Unequal strings
C. Equal string
D. Compilation error
Q3 - Consider the code snippet below, choose the right output.
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int p = 5, q = 3, r = 4;
printf("p = %d, q = %d\n", p, q, r);
}
A. compile error
B. p=5, q=3
C. p=5, q=3, 0
D. p=5, q=3, c = 0
Q4 - determine the output of the program
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int p = 1;
 double q;
float r = 1.3;

q = p + r;
printf("%.2lf", q);
}
A. 2.3
B. 2.0
C. 2.30
D. Error
Q5 – determine the output
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
enum { Germany, is=9, Excellent };
printf("%d %d", Germany, Excellent);
}
A. Compile error
B. 0 1
C. 0 2
D. 0 8
Q6 – determine the output of the program
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
char p = 'B'+265;
printf("%c", p);
 }
A. Compile error
B. Overflow error during runtime
C. B
D. A
Q7 – determine the output of the program
#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
short unsigned int a = 0;
printf("%u\n", a--);
}
A. 65568
B. 32789
C. Compile error
D. 0
Q8 – determine the output of the program
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
unsigned q = 5, n=&q, *p = n+0;
printf("%u",*p);
}
A. Address of p
B. Address of n
C. Address of q
D. 5
Q9 – Consider the code below, determine the output of the program
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
int p = 8;
if(q==8)
{
if(p==8) break;
printf("You are Right");
}
printf("Hello");
}
A. You are Right
B. You are RightHello
C. Hello
D. Compile error
Q10 – Consider the code, determine the program output
#include<stdio.h>

main()
{
int a = 8;
if(a=8)
{
if(a=8) printf("You Are Right");
}
printf("Hello”);
}
 A. Compile error
B. You Are RightHello
C. Hello
D. You Are Right
Q11 – Consider the code snippet, determine the output of the program
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
for(4;5;6)
printf("Welcome");
}
A. Compile error
B. No output
C. Prints “Welcome” once
D. Infinite loop
Q12 – Consider the code below, what will be the value of a?
int a = ~1;
A. 2
B. -1
C. 1
D. -2

JavaScript Programming Test Question

Q 1 –from the statement below, which is true concerning the features of JavaScript?
 A. JavaScript is integrated with Java
B. JavaScript is a lightweight, interpreted programming language
C. All of the above
Q 2 –identify the correct feature of JaveScript in the statement below?
A. JavaScript is corresponding to and embedded with HTML
B. Open and cross-platform
C. A and B are True
D. All of the above
Q 3 - Which of the statement below is true of the advantage of JavaScript?
A. Less server interaction
B. Increased interactivity
C. Immediate feedback to the visitors
D. All of the above
Q 4 - Which of the statement below is true about variable naming conventions in JavaScript?
B - Variable names are case sensitive.
A - JavaScript variable names must begin with underscore or letter.
C – A and B is True
D - None of the above
Q 5 – Is it possible to access Cookie using JavaScript?
A. True
B. False
Q 6 - Which statement below is true regarding cookie handling in JavaScript?
A. JavaScript can modify, create, read, and delete the cookie (s) of a webpage
B. JavaScript can control cookies via the property of the cookie.
C. A and B is True
D. None of the above
Q 7 – Identify the correct syntax to redirect a url using JavaScript?
A. browser.location='http://www.newlocation.com';
B. document.location='http://www.newlocation.com';
C. navigator.location='http://www.newlocation.com';
D. window.location='http://www.newlocation.com';
Q 8 – Choose the right syntax to print a page using JavaScript
A. browser.print();
B. document.print();
C. navigator.print();
D. window.print();
Q 9 – Identify the valid type of function supported by JavaScript?
A. anonymous function
B. Both of the above
C. named function
D. None of the above
 Summary of the Book

In Java Programming, you will acquire every information you need

concerning data types, object-oriented programming, and control structures in
Java. You will learn more than the codes. However, the next chapter
challenges you on learning JavaScript, one of the most common scripting
languages in the world. Furthermore, PHP will help you master the art of
writing quality code. You will discover the basic syntax when writing PHP
programs. In the SQL chapter, you will learn the nitty-gritty of creating a
database and table easily. Furthermore, you will learn how to insert, select,
and perform various actions on a table. This book indeed is a must-have for
any serious programmer. Polish your programming skill by buying this book.
Invest in your future.
The book covers programming topics such as:
Prerequisites for learning each language
Features of the language
The concepts of different programming language
Variables of the different programming language
Where the language is applicable in our today world
The book is well arranged for easy understanding. Indeed the book is a
comprehensive guide to understanding eight programming languages to start
coding your way to the top. Don’t forget to brush your knowledge by going
through the exercise page. It contains serious of questions to test your
knowledge of each programming topic you have covered. Before you know
it, you have mastered and the results on the screen will tell your success
story. So what are you waiting for? Let the programming begin!
 Python for Beginners:
Practical Introduction to Python
Programming, Learn Fast and Well
Python Programming Language With
Examples and Practical Exercises
 By
Kevin Cooper
 Introduction

Congratulations on purchasing Python for beginners, and thank you for doing
so.
The following chapters will discuss python programming language in detail
with a lot of examples and hands-on exercises. We will also look at a lot of
basic concepts in a way that beginners can understand and appreciate the
robustness of Python when compared to other entry-level programming
languages.
We will first start with a brief introduction that is followed by the installation
of Python development environments in the native system. We will then
introduce basic programming concepts like variables, operators, conditional
and loop structures with a lot of examples to make the reader understand
Python language in detail.
A lot of programming code is also given so that the reader can get a good
idea on both theoretical and programmatical concepts. Let us start
our journey into the world of Python.
There are plenty of books on this subject on the market, so thanks again for
choosing this one! Every effort was made to ensure it is full of as much
useful information as possible. Please enjoy!
 Chapter 1: Introduction to Python

This chapter introduces a brief knowledge to Python along with its history.
This is quite basic and may involve theoretical background to make things
easy for the beginners. We will also introduce an example program so that we
can get a good starting feel for Python environment. Let us start for our very
first chapter in this book.

What is Python?
Python is a dynamic explanatory programming language. Python is easy to
learn and powerful and supports object-oriented and functional programming.
Python can be used on multiple operating systems such as Windows and
UNIX, while Python can be used on development platforms such as Java and.
NET, so it is also called "beginners programming language." Python's
simplicity and ease of use make the development process concise, especially
suitable for rapid application development.
In the next section, we will discuss a few basic historical advancements that
lead to the discovery of the Python programming language.

Python and its History

Python was developed by Guido van Rossum in 1989 and finally published in
early 1991. Guido van Rossum used to be a member of the CWI Company
and used the interpretive programming language ABC to develop
applications. This language has many limitations in software development.
Because he wants to complete some tasks in system management, he needs to
acquire the system call capability provided by the operating system of the
Amoeba machine.
Although Amoeba's special language can be designed to accomplish this task,
van Rossum plans to design a more general programming language. Python
language has been born for more than 20 years and is gradually developing
into one of the mainstream programming languages. TIOBE has long
occupied the eighth position in the ranking of programming languages.
Due to the dynamic nature of Python, program interpretation and execution
are slower than compiled languages. However, with the continuous
optimization of Python language, the continuous development of some
projects such as PyCharm, and the continuous development of computer
hardware technology, dynamic language has received more and more
attention in the industrial field.
The representative languages include Python, Ruby, SmallTalk, Groovy, etc.
As we all know, Java is a recognized development language in the field of
industrial applications. Java is easier to use than C++, and its internal
structure is relatively simple. Python's syntax makes programming easier.
Python can be used to write code that is more readable than Java.
With the advent of interpreters such as Jython, Python can be run on Java
virtual machines. This way, Python can use Java rich application packages.
Python is very similar to JavaScript, which is well known to readers. It is
interpreted and executed, and its syntax structure has many similarities.
JavaScript is the client script language on the browser side, and Python can
also be used for Web development.
Python, as a scripting language, absorbs the advantages of Perl, react and
other languages, which makes Python have React extensibility and Perl text
parsing and matching capabilities. Python and Lisp also have similarities.
Python can implement a functional programming model.
Python and Its Features
Programming languages are continuously developing, from the initial
assembly language to the later C and Pascal languages, to the present C++,
Java and other high-level programming languages. The difficulty of program
design is decreasing. A set of standards has been formed for software
development and design. Development is no longer a complicated task.
At first, only machine code can be used to write code, but now an IDE
environment with good debugging function can be used to program. Python
is developed in C, but Python no longer has complex data types such as
pointers in C language. Python's simplicity greatly reduces software code and
simplifies development tasks. Programmers no longer focus on grammatical
features, but on the tasks that the program is to accomplish.
Python has many important features, and some of them are creative and
paved for a boom in software development.

1. Object-oriented features
Object-oriented programming solves the complexity of structured
programming and makes programming closer to real life. Structured
programming mixes data and logic together, which is not convenient for
program maintenance. Object-oriented programming abstracts the behaviors
and attributes of objects and separates the behaviors and attributes but
organizes them together reasonably.
Python language has strong object-oriented characteristics and simplifies the
implementation of object-oriented. It eliminates object-oriented elements
such as protection types, abstract classes, interfaces, etc., making the concept
of object-oriented easier to understand.
2. Built-in data structure
Python provides some built-in data structures that implement functions
similar to collection classes in Java. Python's data structure includes tuples,
lists, dictionaries, collections, etc. The appearance of the built-in data
structure simplifies the design of the program. Tuples are equivalent to "read-
only" arrays, lists can be used as variable-length arrays, and dictionaries are
equivalent to Hash Table types in Java.
3. Simplicity
Python has fewer keywords. It does not have semicolons, begin, end, etc. The
code blocks are separated by spaces or tab indents. Python's code is simple,
short, and easy to read. Python simplifies loop statements and can be read
quickly even if the program structure is very complex.
4. Robustness
Python provides an exception handling mechanism that can catch exceptions
in programs. In addition, Python's stack trace object can point out the location
of the program error and the cause of the error. Exception mechanism can
avoid unsafe exit and help programmers debug programs.
5. Cross-platform
Python is compiled into platform-related binary code before interpretation
and execution. This approach is similar to Java, but Python's execution speed
has increased. Python-written applications can run on different operating
systems such as Windows, UNIX, Linux, etc. Python code written on one
operating system can be ported to other operating systems with only a few
modifications.
6. Scalability
Python is a language developed by C, so it can be extended by C, and new
modules and classes can be added to Python. At the same time, Python can be
embedded into projects developed in C and C++ languages to make the
program have script language.
7. Dynamics
Python is similar to JavaScript, PHP, Perl, and other languages. It does not
need to declare another variable. It can create a new variable by directly
assigning a value.
8. Strongly Typed Languages
Python's variables are created to correspond to a type, which can determine
the type of variables according to the content of the assignment expression.
Python has built a mechanism to manage these variables internally. Different
types of variables require type conversion.
9. Wide usage
Python language is applied to the database, network, graphic image,
mathematical calculation, Web development, operating system expansion,
and other fields. Python is supported by many third-party libraries. For
example, the PIL library (now no longer maintained but replaced by Pillow)
is used for image processing, the NumPy library is used for mathematical
calculation, the WxPython library is used for GUI program design, and the
Django framework is used for Web application program opening.
With this explanation, we can easily understand the advantages of python
programming language offers. Next, we will give an example program that
will let us introduce to Python language.

First Python Program

Python's source code file has "py" as the suffix. Next, write a simple Python
program to create a file named sampleprogram.py to output the string "This is
a whole new world."

Code is here:
if __name__ =="__main__":
print （ " This is a whole new world" ）

Code Description:
The first line of code is equivalent to the main () function in C language and
is the entrance of Python program. The second line of code uses the print
statement to output the string "This is a whole new world."

The output is shown below:

This is a whole new world
Python's print statement is used to output the contents of the string, that is, to
output the contents in double quotation marks to the console. Python's input
and output are realized through "stream." The above print statement outputs
the contents of the string to the standard output stream, that is, to the console.
Streams can also output results to files, printers, etc.
Python programs are very simple to run, and the command format is as
follows.

Command is here:
python filepath samplefilename.py
Where samplefilename.py represents python's source code file, filepath
represents the path where samplefilename.py is located. Enter the command
shown in the DOS window and run the file sample.py.
This mode of operation is not intuitive enough and is not convenient for
program debugging. Later, we will explain how to run Python programs in
editors like Edit Plus and development tool PyCharm.
In the next section, we will describe the python development environment in
detail.

Building Development Environment

The installation and configuration of Python development environment are
very simple. Python can be installed and developed on multiple platforms.
IPython is a very popular, powerful, and easy-to-use Python installation
package. This section describes the installation of IPython and the use of
Python interactive command lines.

Python download and installation

Python is installed by default on UNIX systems, Python's executable files are
installed in the /usr/local/bin directory, and library files are installed in the
/usr/local/python directory.
Although Python2 and Python3 are installed by default, Python in the
terminal defaults to Python2, which is currently generally Python2.7.5. To
use Python3, you need to enter python3 in the terminal or modify the default
version. In a Windows environment, Python can be installed in any directory.
Readers can download Python3.3 from the official website www.python.org,
which provides Python installation software for different operating systems
such as Windows and UNIX.
Users can also install IPython interactive shell, which is much easier to use
than the default terminal, supports automatic indentation, and has many
useful functions and functions built-in. The address of its official website is
http://ipython.org. It can be used on any operating system.
Windows users need to install Anaconda before installing IPython. Anaconda
is an installation management program, which can be used to complete
Python upgrade and other operations easily, and it has a lot of Python
libraries, and its download address can be easily found out from the internet.
Select the appropriate version of the user's machine and install it.
After the installation is completed, the user will find that in addition to the
system default cmd.exe, there are more Anaconda Command Prompt
terminals. The user can directly use the terminal or use the system default
cmd.exe. After opening the terminal, enter Python and press enter, you may
find that python version is 2.7.5 or something other than Python3.X we want.
It doesn't matter.

Open any terminal and enter the following command:

update anaconda
create –n py3k python=versionnumber anaconda
During the installation process, there will be some prompts. Enter Y and
press Enter. At this point, you can see information about a series of Python
libraries installed. After the installation is completed, reopen the terminal and
enter the following command:
activate py3k # This activates the interpreter in your system
Then enter iPython in the terminal, and the python version information and
IPython version information will be displayed, and an interactive command
window will be launched.
Since the current version supported by Anaconda defaults to Python2.7, you
need to switch to py3k every time you want to use Python3.3. You can enter
help in the IPython interactive environment to view help information.

Use of Interactive Command Line

After IPython is successfully installed, Anaconda can choose to use its own
terminal or system terminal. After entering the terminal, input ipython to start
the interactive environment. If you are using native python, you can start the
command line program by simply entering Python and entering the command
interface.
Through the command line, you can directly input statements to the
interpreter and output the running results of the program. The Python
program can be entered at the prompt in the command line window. The
following uses the print statement to output the string "This is our world," as
shown.
Of course, you can also enter multiple lines of Python code in the command
line window. Next, enter the code in sampleexample.py into the command
line window. After inputting the last line of the program, press enter twice to
finish the program and output the running result of the program, as shown.
Note if you want to exit the interactive command line, enter exit and press
enter. In the next section, we will introduce IDE tools such as Pycharm.

Python Development Tools

Python is rich in development tools, with many powerful IDE (Integrated
Development Environment) tools, such as Komodo, PythonWin, Eclipse,
PyCharm, etc. These tools not only support graphical operations but also
have editing, debugging, and other functions.
In addition, the text editor can also be used as a Python development
environment, such as Edit Plus, Vi, etc. PyCharm is a Python IDE developed
by JetBrains. It has powerful functions and recently released an open-source
community version, which is very suitable for learning.

Use of PyCharm
PyCharm is a cross-platform IDE that is very easy to use. It is developed in
Java. It has a paid version and a community free version. This book will use
the community free version. You can install it after downloading. After the
installation is completed, running the program for the first time will require
setting a theme, etc. You can choose to skip this step or choose yourself.
After setting up, restart, you can enter the program. Because it is an IDE, you
first need to create a project, and then you will need to set up a Python path
step by step, according to the requirements.
Note: If Anaconda is used, you need to select python.exe in py3k under envs
directory. Otherwise, the default Python2.7 version 2.7 will be used.
PyCharm has its own Python command line interactive Terminal, which can
easily run code and do related tests. Move the mouse to the lower-left corner
and click the TERMINAL button to open it, which is very convenient.
Click the [File] | [New] menu and select the corresponding file type to create
a new file and write a Python program in it. Now start to create
hello_world.py file, select the Run command in the [Run] menu or press
Alt+Shift after writing +F10 key combination can run the code.
In addition, PyCharm also supports advanced functions such as quick jump,
code refactoring, code testing, version control, debugging, etc. Next, we will
talk about the Eclipse development environment.

Introduction of Eclipse IDE

Eclipse is an integrated development environment for Java development and
an open-source project. Eclipse is very extensible. Eclipse can not only be
used as the IDE of Java but also develop a large number of plug-ins to
support other applications.
For types of languages, such as C, C++, Python, PHP, etc., if you want to
develop Python on the Eclipse platform, you need to download PyDev. The
easy Eclipse website provides various plug-in downloads of Eclipse and can
obtain Easy Eclipse for Python, which runs separately.
Eclipse is very powerful, and it realizes intelligent functions such as the
syntax highlighting, code prompting, and code completion of Python code. In
addition, Eclipse provides more powerful debugging capabilities than
PythonWin, and also supports Jython, Pyunit, team development, and other
functions.
In Eclipse, source code is organized into a project. The structure of the
Eclipse user interface is divided into a View and an Editor. Examples of
views and editors include source code outline view, Java source code editor,
Python source code editor, and file system navigation view.
Eclipse user interface package
Views are a set of windows that are usually used when performing some type
of activity. The standard views in Eclipse include Debug, Java Browsing,
Java, Java Type Hierarchy, Plug-in Development, CVS Repository
Exploring, Resource, and Install/ Update. Easy Eclipse for Python provides a
Pydev view. When the debugging mode is started, Eclipse automatically
switches to debug view.
Note
Python needs to be installed on your computer before Pydev can be installed.

Configuration of Edit Plus Editor Environment

Python can also be developed using an editor. For example, the text editing
software Edit Plus can also become Python's editing and execution
environment, and even be used for debugging programs. Edit Plus has
functions such as syntax highlighting and code automatic indenting.
Here's how to configure it:
The development environment of Edit Plus editor.
1. Add Python Groups
a) Run Edit Plus, select [Tools] | [Configure User Tools] to open the
[Parameters] dialog box. Click the [Add Tool] button and select the
[Program] command in the pop-up menu. The name of the newly-created
group is named python.
b) Enter Python in the [Menu Text] text box, enter the installation path of
Python in the [Command] text box, enter $(FileName) in the [Parameters]
text box, and enter $(FileDir) in the [Start Directory] text box.
c) Check the [Capture Output] option, and the output result of the Python
program will be displayed in the output column of EditPlus. Otherwise, a
command line window will pop up after running the Python program and
output the result to the command line.
d) Click the [OK] button to create a new python file. Python options will
appear under the [Tools] menu. Click this option, or use the shortcut ctrl+1 to
transport
Line Python program.
2. Set Python Highlight and Auto Complete
Edit Plus can not only be used as Python's development environment but also
supports Java, C#, PHP, HTML and other types of languages. Different
languages have different forms of grammatical highlighting and automatic
completion. In order to realize grammar highlighting and automatic
completion, two characteristic files need to be downloaded.
After downloading, extract the files python.acp and python.stx to the
installation directory of EditPlus. Files with acp suffix represent
automatically completed feature files, and files with stx suffix represent
feature files with syntax highlighted. These feature files need to be set in
EditPlus before writing Python code.
(1) Select [File] | [Settings and Syntax] option, select [python] option in the
[File Type] list, enter python in the [Description] text box, and click on
Enter py in the text box [extension].
(2) In the Settings and Grammar tab, enter the path of python.stx in the
Grammar File text box and python.acp in the Auto Complete text box.
(3) Python syntax does not use begin, end or {,} to distinguish code blocks,
but uses colon and code indentation to distinguish the hierarchical
relationship between codes. Click the [tab/indent] button to open the [tab and
indent] dialog box and set the indentation method of Python code.
When using IDE tools, entering colon codes will automatically indent, and
this function can also be set with Edit Plus. Enter the number of spaces in the
Tabs and Indents text boxes respectively, generally set to Select the [Start
Auto Indent] option, enter ":" in the [Start Auto Indent] option, and click the
[OK] button to save the settings.
(4) Click the [Function Model] button to open the [Function Model] dialog
box, as shown. In the [Function Model Regular Expression] text box, enter
[\t]*def[\t].+:. Click [OK] to save the settings.
At this point, the Python development environment for Edit Plus has been set
up. Edit Plus can also create templates for Python files, and code can be
written on the basis of the templates each time a Python file is created. Py's
content is as follows.
#! /usr/bin/python
[Code Description]

The first line of code enables Python programs to run on UNIX platforms.
Note that in Edit Plus, you can view the list of functions in the current Python
file by using the shortcut Ctrl ＋ F11. You need to save the Python program
before running it. Next, use Edit Plus to write a Python program and output
the result.

Python Under Different Platforms

Java and .NET are two mature development platforms in the industry. Python
can be used on these two development platforms, and Python can also be
extended with Java and C#.
1. Jython
Jython is a Python parser written entirely in Java. Although the
implementation and performance of Jython interpreter are still somewhat
different from Python interpreter, Jython makes Python fully applicable
under the Java development platform.
Jython enables Python programs to run on Java virtual machines while
Python can access libraries and packages under Java. Jython also provides a
perfect scripting environment for Java. Python can be used as an
implementation language for middle-tier services in Java applications. Jython
enables Java to extend Python modules, which in turn can be used to write
Java applications.
2. IronPython
Iron Python is a Python implementation on the .NET platform. Iron Python
provides an interactive console that supports dynamic compilation. It enables
Python programmers to access all. NET libraries and is fully compatible with
the Python language. Iron Python must provide support for .NET version 2.0.
The appearance of Iron Python makes it possible to write Python code under
the .NET platform and call the rich .NET class library framework.
By this, we have explained a lot of basic concepts about Python. This chapter
explained Python's history, features, and development environment. This
chapter focused on the settings of the Python development environment, the
features of IDE tools such as PyCharm and Eclipse, and the settings of Edit
Plus editor. The next chapter will learn Python's basic syntax, including
Python's file types, coding rules, data types, expressions, etc.
Let us dive into the next chapter where we will start discussing variables and
data types in detail which are called as basic building blocks of any
programming language.
 Chapter 2: Variables and Constants in
Python

This chapter on a whole level will introduce a lot of basic concepts that
programming languages deal with. We will be discussing concepts like
variables and data types with programmatical examples in the coming
sections. Let us start diving into the world of variables in Python.
The most basic data processing objects in programming languages are
constants and variables. Their main purpose is to store data for various
calculations and processing in programs. In this chapter, we will discuss
Python's basic data processing functions such as data types, variables, and
constants, and introduce beginners to the basic syntax they need when writing
small applications.

Why Variables are needed?

For any programming language, the basic part is to store the data in memory
and process it. No matter what kind of operation we are going to perform, we
must have the object of operation. It is difficult for a skillful woman to cook
without rice. In Python language, constants and variables are the main ones.
In fact, both of them are identification codes used by program designers to
access data contents in memory.
The biggest difference between the two is that the contents of variables will
change with the execution of the program, while the contents of constants are
fixed forever. In the process of program execution, it is often necessary to
store or use some data. For example, if you want to write a program to
calculate the mid-term exam results, you must first input the students' results,
and then output the total score, average score and ranking after calculation.
This chapter describes how to store and access this data.

Variable Naming and Assignment

In a program, program statements or instructions tell the computer which
Data to access and execute step by step according to the instructions in the
program statements. These data may be words or numbers. What we call
variable is the most basic role in a programming language, that is, a named
memory unit allocated by the compiler in programming to store changeable
data contents.
The computer will store it in "memory" and take it out for use when
necessary. In order to facilitate identification, it must be given a name. We
call such an object "variable."

For example:
> > firstsample = 3
>>>second sample= 5
> > > result = firstsample+secondsample
In the above program statement, firstsample, secondsample, result are
variables, and number 3 is the variable value of firstsample. Since the
capacity of memory is limited, in order to avoid wasting memory space, each
variable will allocate memory space of different sizes according to
requirements, so "Data Type" is used to regulate it.

Variable declaration and assignment

Python is an object-oriented language, all data are regarded as objects, and
the method of an Object reference is also used in variable processing. The
type of variable is determined when the initial value is given, so there is no
need to declare the data type in advance. The value of a variable is assigned
with "=" and beginners easily confuse the function of the assignment operator
(=) with the function of "equal" in mathematics. In programming languages,
the "=" sign is mainly used for assignment.
The syntax for declaring a variable is as follows:
variable name = variable value
e.g.
number = 10.
The above expression indicates that the value 10 is assigned to the variable
number. In short, in Python language, the data type does not need to be
declared in advance when using a variable, which is different from that in C
language, which must be declared in advance before using a variable. Python
interpretation and operation system will automatically determine the data
type of the variable according to the value of the variable given or set.
For example, the data type of the above variable number is an integer. If the
content of the variable is a string, the data type of the variable is a string.

Variable naming rules

For an excellent programmer, readability of program code is very important.
Although variable names can be defined by themselves as long as they
conform to Python's regulations, when there are more and more variables,
simply taking variables with letter names such as abc will confuse people and
greatly reduce readability.
Considering the readability of the program, it is best to name it according to
the functions and meanings given by variables. For example, the variable that
stores height is named "Height" and the variable that stores weight is named
"Weight." Especially when the program scale is larger, meaningful variable
names will become more important.
For example, when declaring variables, in order to make the program
readable, it is generally used to start with lowercase letters, such as score,
salary, etc. In Python, variable names also need to conform to certain rules. If
inappropriate names are used, errors may occur during program execution.
Python is a case-sensitive language. In other words, number and Number are
two different variables. Variable names are not limited in length.
Variable names have the following limitations: the first character of a
variable name must be an English letter, underlined "_" and cannot be a
number. Subsequent characters can match other upper- and lower-case
English letters, numbers, underlined "_,” and no space character is allowed.
You cannot use Python's built-in reserved words (or keywords).
Although Python version 3. X supports foreign language variable names; it is
recommended that you try not to use words to name variables. On the one
hand, it is more troublesome to switch input methods when inputting program
code. On the other hand, the reading of program code will not be smooth. The
so-called reserved word usually has special meaning and function, so it will
be reserved in advance and cannot be used as a variable name or any other
identifier name.
The following is an example of a valid variable name:
pageresponse
fileName4563
level
Number_dstance
The following is an example of an invalid variable name:
2_sample
for
$levelone
The user name learning classroom uses the help () function to query Python
reserved word. The help () function is Python's built-in function. If you are
not sure about the method and property usage of a specific object, you can
use the help () function to query.
The Python reserved words mentioned above can be viewed by using the help
() function. As long as "help ()" is executed, the help interactive mode will be
entered. In this mode, the instructions to be queried will be input, and the
relevant instructions will be displayed.
We can continue to input the instructions we want to query in help mode.
When we want to exit help interactive mode, we can input Q or quit. You can
also take parameters when entering the help () command, such as help
("keywords "), Python will directly display help or description the
information without entering help interactive mode. Although Python uses
dynamic data types, it is very strict in data processing, and its data type is
"strong type."
For example:
> > > firstsample = 5
>>> secondsample= "45"
> > > print (firstsample+secondsample) # shows that TypeError variable
firstsample is of numeric type and variable secondsample is of string type.
Some programming languages will convert the type unconsciously and
automatically convert the value A to the string type, so
firstsample+secondsample will get 545. Python language prohibits different
data types from operating, so executing the above statement obviously
Indicates information about the wrong type.
There is a difference between "strongly typed" and "weakly typed" in the data
types of strong and weak type programming languages in small classrooms.
One of the trade-offs is the safety of data type conversion. The strong type
has a strict inspection for data type conversion. Different types of operations
must be explicitly converted, and programs will not automatically convert.
For example, Python and Ruby prefer strong types.
However, most weak type programming languages adopt Implicit
Conversion. If you don't pay attention to it, unexpected type conversion will
occur, which will lead to wrong execution results. JavaScript is a weak type
of programming language.

Static Type and Dynamic Type

When Python is executed, the way to determine the data type belongs to
"dynamic type."

What is the dynamic type?

The data types of programming languages can be divided into "Statically-
Typed" and "Dynamically-Typed" according to the type checking method.
1. Static types are compiled with the type checked first, so the variables must
be explicitly declared before they are used. The types of variables cannot be
arbitrarily changed during execution. Java and C are such programming
languages. For example, the following C language program statement
declares that the variable number is of int integer type, and the initial value of
the variable is set to 10. When we assign "apple" to number again, an error
will occur, because "apple" is a string, and compilation will fail due to type
discrepancy during compilation.
int firstsample = 10
firstsample = "apple"
#Error:
Types do not match
2. Dynamic types are compiled without prior type checking, and data types
are determined according to variable values during execution. Therefore,
there is no need to declare types before variables are used. The same variable
can also be given different types of values, and Python is a dynamic type. For
example, the following program statement declares the variable number and
sets the initial value to the integer 10. When we assign the string apple to
number, the type will be automatically converted.
firstsample= 10
firstsample= "love"
Print (firstsample)
# output string love
Python has a Garbage Collection mechanism. When the object is no longer in
use, the interpreter will automatically recycle and free up memory space. In
the above example, when the integer object number is reassigned to another
string object, the original integer object will be deleted by the interpreter. If
the object is determined not to be used, we can also delete it by using the
"del" command with the following syntax:
del object name
For example:
> > number = "apple”
> > > print(number) # output apple
> > > del number # deletes string object number
> > > print(number) #Error: number does not define the execution result.
Since the variable number has been deleted, if the number variable is used
again, an undefined error message for the variable will appear.

Python's Numeric Data Types

Python's numeric data types are integer (int), floating-point number (float),
and bool. The usage of these numeric types is explained one by one below.
The integer data type is used to store data without a decimal point, which has
the same meaning as mathematics, such as -1, -2, -100, 0, 1, 2, 100, etc.
There are two types of integers in Python 2.x, int (integer) and long (long
integer). However, Python has only int integer type after Python 3.x, python's
numerical processing ability is quite strong, and basically, there is no limit on
the number of bits.
As long as the hardware CPU can support it, even larger integers can be
processed. Sometimes, for readability, we can use different numerical
systems to represent integer values. For example, the memory address where
data is stored is often expressed in hexadecimal. Integers contain positive or
negative integers, which can be expressed in binary, hexadecimal or octal in
addition to decimal, as long as 0b, 0x, and 0o are added before the numbers
respectively to specify the binary system.
Refer to numbers with decimal points, that is, a real number in mathematics.
In addition to the conventional representation method of the general decimal
point, the scientific notation can also be used to represent it in an exponential
form, such as 6e-2, where 6 is the significant number, and -2 is the exponent.
Numbers in computers are stored using IEEE 754 standard specification.
Floating-point numbers in IEEE 754 standard cannot accurately represent
decimals.
For example, num obtained from num = 0.1+0.2 is not equal to 0.3, but
0.30000000000000004. This is not a problem unique to Python. All
programming languages have precision problems with floating-point
numbers, so special care must be taken when performing floating-point
numbers.
The following two decimal arithmetic methods are provided for readers'
reference.

Decimal Module
This is a Python standard module library. Before using it, you need to import
this module with import instruction before using it. After correctly importing
this module, we can use the decimal. Decimal class to store accurate
numbers. If the parameter is not an integer, we must pass in the parameter as
a string.
For example:
import decimal
Num = decimal.decimal ("0.1")+decimal.decimal ("0.2")
And the result will be 0.3. Use the round () function to force the specified
number of decimal places round(x[, n]) to be a built-in function, which
returns the value closest to parameter x, and n is used to specify the number
of decimal places returned.
For example:
result = 0.1+0.2
The program statement above print (round(num, 1)) takes the variable num to
one decimal place, thus obtaining a result of 0.3. 2.2.3 Boolean Data Type
(bool) is a data type that represents the logic and is a subclass of int, with
only True value (true) and False value (false). Boolean data types are
commonly used in program flow control. We can also use the value "1" or
"0" to represent true or false values.
For example, the string and integer cannot be directly added, and the string
must be converted to an integer. If all the operations are of numeric type,
Python will automatically perform type conversion without specifying the
forced conversion type.
For example:
num = 5+0.3
# Result num=5.3 (floating-point number)
Python will automatically convert an integer to floating-point number for
operation. In addition, Boolean values can also be calculated as numeric
values. True means 1, False means 0.
For example:
num = 5+True
# result num=6 (integer).
If you want to convert strings to Boolean values, you can convert them by
bool function. Use the print () function in the following sample program to
display Boolean values.
[sample procedure: bool.py]
converts bool type
print(bool(0))
print(bool("") )
print(bool(" ") )
print(bool(1) )
The execution results of the 05 print(bool("ABC ") sample program are
shown. Program Code Resolution: Line 02: An empty string was passed in,
so False was returned. Line 03 returns True because a string containing a
space is passed in. When using Boolean, it values False and True, pay special
attention to the capitalization of the first letter.

Constant
Constant refers to the value that the program cannot be changed during the
whole execution process. For example, integer constants: 45, -36, 10005, 0,
etc., or floating-point constants: 0.56, -0.003, 1.234E2, etc. Constants have
fixed data types and values.
The biggest difference between variable and constant is that the content of the
variable changes with the execution of the program, while the constant is
fixed. Python's constant refers to the literal constant, which is the literal
meaning of the constant. For example, 12 represents the integer 12. The
literal constant is the value written directly into the Python program.
If literal constants are distinguished by data type, there will be different
classifications, for example, 1234, 65, 963, and 0 are integer literal constants.
The decimal value is the literal constant of the floating-point types, such as
3.14, 0.8467, and 744.084. As for the characters enclosed by single quotation
marks (') or double quotation marks ("), they are all string literal constants.
For example," Hello World "and" 0932545212 "are all string literal constants.

Formatting Input and Output Function

In the early stage of learning Python, the program execution results are
usually output from the control panel or the data input by the user is obtained
from the console. Before, we often use the print () function to output the
program's execution results. This section will look at how to call the print ()
function for print format and how to call the input () function to input data.

The print format

The print () function supports the print format. There are two formatting
methods that can be used, one is print format in the form of “%” and the other
is print format in the form function. “%” print format formatted text can use
“%s” to represent a string, “%d” to represent an integer, and “%f” to
represent a floating-point number.
The syntax is as follows:
PRINT (formatted text (parameter 1, parameter 2, ..., parameter n))
For example:
score = 66
Print ("History Score: %d"% score")
Output
Result: History Score: 66
%d is formatted, representing the output integer format.
The print format can be used to control the position of the printout so that the
output data can be arranged in order.
For example:
print("%5s history result: %5.2f"% ("Ram,”95))
The output results of the sample program
print("%5s history results: %5.2f"% ("Raj,”80.2))
The formatted text in the above example has two parameters, so the
parameters must be enclosed in brackets, where %5s indicates the position of
5 characters when outputting, and when the actual output is less than 5
characters, a space character will be added to the left of the string.
%5.2f represents a floating-point number with 5 digits output, and the
decimal point occupies 2 digits. The following example program outputs the
number 100 in floating-point number, octal number, hexadecimal number and
binary number format using the print function, respectively.
You can practice with this example program:
[Example Procedure: print_%.py]
Integer Output
visual = 100 in Different Decimal Numbers
print ("floating point number of number %s: %5.1f"% (visual,visual))
print ("octal of number %s: %o"% (visual,visual))
print ("hex of number %s: %x"% (visual,visual))
The execution result of the print ("binary of number %s: %s"%
(visual,bin(visual))) will be displayed.
Program code analysis:
Lines 02-04: output in the format of floating-point number octal number and
hexadecimal number.
Line 05: Since binary numbers do not have formatting symbols, decimal
numbers can be converted into binary characters through the built-in function
bin () and then output.
2. The output
Print format of the format () function can also be matched with the format ()
function. Compared with the% formatting method, the format () function is
more flexible. Its usage is as follows: print("{} is a hard-working student ...
.”format ("First ranker ")).
Generally, the simple FORMAT usage will be replaced by the braces "{},”
which means that the parameters in FORMAT () are used within {}. The
format () function is quite flexible and has two major advantages: regardless
of the parameter data type, it is always indicated by {}.
Multiple parameters can be used, the same parameter can be output multiple
times, and the positions can be different.
For example: print("{0} this year is {1} years old ... .”format ("First ranker
,”18)), where {0} means to use the first parameter, {1} means to use the
second parameter, and so on. If the number inside {} is omitted, it will be
filled in sequentially.
We can also use the parameter name to replace the corresponding parameter,
for example: print("{name} this year {age}..”format(name=" First ranker
,”age=18)) can specify the output format of the parameter by adding a
colon":" directly after the number.
For example:
print('{0:.2f}'.format(5.5625)) means the first parameter takes 2 decimal
places.
In addition, the string can be centered, left-aligned, or right-aligned with the "
<" ">" symbol plus the field width.
For example:
print("{0:10}
score: {1: _ 10}.” format ("Ram,” 95))
print("{0:10}
results: {1:>10}.”format("Raj,” 87))
The output of the print("{0:10} result: {1:*<10}.”format("Ram,” 100))
program is shown. {1: _ 10} indicates that the output field width is 10, and
the following line "_" is filled and centered. {1:>10} indicates that the output
field is 10 wide and aligned to the right, and the unspecified padding
characters will be filled with spaces. {1:*<10} indicates that the output field
is 10 wide, filled with an asterisk "*" and aligned to the left.
Input Function:
Input() input is a common input instruction, which allows users to input data
from "standard input device" (usually refers to keyboard) and transfer the
numerical value, character or string entered by users to the specified variable.
For example, if you calculate the total score of history and mathematics for
each student, you can use the input command to let the user input the results
of Chinese and mathematics, and then calculate the total score.
The syntax is as follows:
variable = input (prompt string) when data is Entered, and the enter key is
pressed, the entered data will be assigned to the variable.
The "prompt string" in the above syntax is a prompt message informing the
user to enter, for example, the user is expected to enter height, and the
program then outputs the value of height.
The program code is as follows:
height =input ("Give exact your height:")
For example, score = input ("Give exact your math score:")
The output of the print("%s' math score: %5.2f"% ("ram,”float(score)))
When the program is executed, it will wait for the user to input data first
when it encounters the input instruction. After the user completes the input
and presses the Enter key, it will store the data input by the user into the
variable score. The data input by the user is in string format. We can convert
the input string into an integer, floating-point number, and bool type through
built-in functions such as int (), float (), bool ().
The format specified in the example is floating point number (%5.2f), so call
float () function to convert the input score value into floating point number.
The next section will introduce more complete data type conversion. If we
use an integrated development environment such as Spyder, don't forget to
switch the input cursor to Python console before inputting when the program
is executed to input prompt information. Let's practice the use of input and
output again through the sample program.
[Example Procedure: Format. Py] format.py 】
name = input ("Give exact Name:")
che_grade = input ("Give a language score:")
math_grade = input ("Give Math Score:")
print("{0: 10} {1: > 6} {2: > 5}.” format ("name,” "language,”
"mathematics"))
The execution results of the 06print ("{0: < 10} {1: > 5} {2: > 7}.” format
(name, che _ grade, math _ grade)).
Program Code Analysis:
Lines 01-03: Require users to enter their names, Chinese scores, and math
scores in sequence.
Lines 05 and 06: output the names, Chinese and math headers in sequence,
and then output the names and results of the two subjects in the next line.
Data type conversion requires operations between different types in
expressions. We can convert data types "temporarily,” that is, data types must
be forced to be converted.
There are three built-in functions in Python that cast data types.
1. int ():
Cast to integer data type
For example: x = "5”
num = 5 + int(x)
Print(dude) # Result: The value of 10 variable x is "5" and is of string type,
so int(x) is called first to convert to integer type.
2. float ():
Cast to floating point data type
For example: x = "5.3”
dude = 5 + float(x)
Print(dude) # Result: The value of 10.3 variable X is "5.3" and is of string
type, so float(x) is first used to convert to floating point type.
3. str ():
Cast to string data type
For example: first = "5.3”
dude = 5 + float(first)
Print ("The output value is"+str(dude)) # Result:
The output value is 10.3.
In the above program statement, the string of words "the output value is" in
the print () function is a string type, the "+"sign can add two strings, and the
variable dude is a floating point type, so the str () function must be called first
to convert it into a string.
[sample procedure: conversion.py]
data type conversion
str = "{1}+{0} = {2}"
first = 150
second = "60"
The execution result of 04 print(str.format(first, second, first+int(second)))
program
Line 01:
Since B is a string, specify its display format first. Note that the numerical
numbering sequence of braces' {}' is {1}, {0}, {2}, so the display sequence
of variables A and B is different from the parameter sequence in Format.
Line 04:
First, call int () to convert b to an integer type, and then calculate.

Hands-on Practice Exercise

-The pocket money bookkeeping butler designed a Python program that can
input the pocket money spent seven days a week and output the pocket
money spent every day. The sample program illustrates that this program
requires the user name to be entered, and then the sum of spending for each
day of the week can be entered continuously, and the pocket money spent for
each day can be output.
Program code shows that the following is the complete program code of this
example program.
[example program: money.py]
pocket money bookkeeping assistant
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
"""
You can enter pocket money spent 7 days a week and output the pocket
money spent every day.
"""
name = value ("Give name:")
working1 = value ("Give the total amount of pocket money for the first
working:")
working2 = value ("Give the total amount of pocket money for the next
working:")
working3 = value ("Give the total amount of pocket money for the third
working:")
working4 = value ("Give the total amount of pocket money for the fourth
working:")
working5 = value ("Give the total spending of pocket money for the fifth
working:")
working6 = value ("Give the total spending of pocket money for the sixth
working:")
working7 = input ("Give the total allowance for the seventh working:")

print("{0:<8}{1:^5}{2:^5}{3:^5}{4:^5}{5:^5}{6:^5}{7:^5}.” \
format("name,”"working1,”"working2,”"working3,” \
"working4,”"working5,”"working6,” \
"working7"))
print("{0:<8}{1:^5}{2:^5}{3:^5}{4:^5}{5:^5}{6:^5}{7:^5}.” \
format(name,working1,working2,working3,working4,working5,working6,working7))
ave=total/7
print("total cost: {0:<8} average daily cost {1: 5}.” format (total, ave))
With this, we have completed a brief explanation regarding python and its
basic concepts that are necessary for understanding traditional programming
methodology. In the next chapter, we will discuss in detail about Operators
and other moderate level topics that are necessary for a clear understanding of
programming.
 Chapter 3: Operators in Python

In this chapter, we will explain about operators in detail. Operators are very
necessary for programming knowledge. We will look at about them in detail
in the next sections that follow.

Why are Operators Necessary?

One of the main characteristics of a computer is that it has strong computing
power. It inputs the data obtained from the outside into the computer, carries
out operations through programs, and finally outputs the desired results. In
this chapter, we will discuss various types and functions of operators in
Python and how to use Python to design expressions for arithmetic
calculation and logical judgment.
No matter how complex the program is, the ultimate goal is to help us
complete all kinds of operations, and the process must rely on one expression
to complete. The expression is just like the usual mathematical formula,
For example: first=(second+third)*(first+10)/3.
The above mathematical formula is an expression; the =,+,* and/sign are
operators, and variables first, second, three, and constants 10 and 3 are
operands. An expression consists of an operator and an operand.

What are Operands and Operators?

From the following simple expression (which is also a program statement):
first = second+5 the above expression contains three operands first, second,
and 5, an assignment operator "=," and an addition operator "+." In addition
to arithmetic operators, Python also has comparison operators and logical
operators applied to conditional judgment expressions.
In addition, there is an assignment operator that assigns the result of the
operation to a variable. Operator if there is only one operand, it is called
"unary operator," such as "-23" which expresses negative value. When there
are two operands, they are called "binary operators." Arithmetic operators
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are called "binary
operators," such as 3+7. These various and fully functional operators have
different operation priorities. This chapter will introduce the usage of these
operators in detail.

Arithmetic operator
This is the most frequently used operator in programming languages. It is
commonly used for some four operations, such as addition operator,
subtraction operator, multiplication operator, division operator, remainder
operator, division operator, exponent operator, etc. The +, -, *, and/operators
are the same as our common mathematical operation methods, while the sign
operator is mainly used to represent the positive/negative value of operands.
Usually, the + sign can be omitted when the constant is set to a positive
number.
For example, "first=5" and "first=+5" have the same meaning. In particular,
we should remind everyone that negative numbers are also represented by the
"-" operator. When negative numbers participate in subtraction, in order to
avoid confusion with subtraction operators, it is better to separate negative
numbers with small brackets "().”
"/"and "//"are both division operators. The operation result of "/"is a floating-
point number. The "//"will remove the decimal part of the division calculation
result and only takes the integer. The "%" operator is the remainder.
For example:
first= 5
second= 2
Print(first/second) # result is floating-point number 2.5
Print(first// second) # result is integer 2
Print(first% second) # Result Is Remainder 1
If the result of the operation is not assigned to other variables, the data type
of the operation result will be dominated by the variable whose data type
occupies the largest memory space in the operand. In addition, when the
operands are integers, and the operation result will produce decimals, Python
will automatically output the result as decimals. We do not need to worry
about the conversion of data types.
However, if the operation result is to be assigned to a variable, the memory
space occupied by the variable must be large enough to prevent the
excessively long part of the operation result data from being discarded. For
example, if the result of the operation is a floating-point number and is
assigned to an integer variable, the decimal part of the operation result will be
truncated.
The division "/"operator in the arithmetic operator is a conventional division.
The quotient obtained after the operation is a floating-point number. If the
quotient is expressed as an integer, the int () function can be called.
Int(15/7) # Output 2 "* *" is a power operation, for example, to calculate the
fourth power of 2:
print(7** 4) # The result is 28
Note that the priority of arithmetic operators +, -, *, and/is "multiply and
divide first, then add and subtract." The following example illustrates that the
operation result of the above formula of 10+2*3 is 16. In the expression, the
precedence of parentheses is higher than in multiplication and division.
If the above expression is changed to (10+2)*3, the operation result will be
36. If operators with the same priority are encountered, the operations are
performed from left to right. Let's take a look at the application of the simple
four operations with an example program.
This sample program allows users to input Celsius temperature and convert it
to Fahrenheit temperature through program operation.
The formula for converting Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit temperature is
F=(9/5)*C+32.
[sample procedure: sampletemp.py]
Celsius temperature is converted to Fahrenheit temperature
-*- coding: utf-8 -*-
#converts the input Celsius temperature into Fahrenheit temperature
Tip: F = (9/5) * C+32
Celsius = float( input ("Give the Celsius temperature"))
Fahren = (9 / 5) * Celsius + 32
The execution results of the 08 print ("Celsius temperature {0} is converted
to Fahrenheit temperature {1}.”format(C,F)) .
Program Code Resolution:
Line 02: Let the user input Celsius temperature and call float () function to
convert the input into a floating-point data type.
Line 03: Converts the input Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit.
Line 04: Output the conversion between Celsius and Fahrenheit according to
the specified format string. Incidentally, the "+" sign can be used to connect
two strings.
sample="mno"+"pqrs"
# result sample = "mnopqrs"

Assignment operator
The assignment operator "=" consists of at least two operands. Its function is
to assign the value to the right of "=" to the variable to the left of the equal
sign. Most beginners of many programming languages cannot understand the
meaning of the equal sign "=" in programming languages.
It is easy to confuse it with the mathematical equivalent function. In
programming languages, the "=" sign is mainly used for assignment, but we
understand it from a mathematical point of view, and "=" used to be
considered as the concept of "equal."
For example, the following program statement:
addition = 0;
addition= addition + 1;
The meaning of addition=0 in the above program statement is also easy to
understand, but for the statement addition=addition+1, many beginners often
cannot understand the meaning of this statement. In fact, the "=" in Python
programming language is mainly used for "assignment."
We can imagine that when a variable is declared, the memory will be
allocated, and the memory address will be arranged. Only when the specific
value is set to the variable by using the assignment operator "=" will the
memory space corresponding to the memory address be allowed to store the
specific value.
In other words, addition= addition+1 can be seen as the result of adding 1 to
the original data value stored in the sum memory address, and then re-
assigning to the memory space corresponding to the sum memory address.
The right side of the assignment operator "=" can be a constant, variable or
expression, and will eventually assign the value to the variable on the left.
On the left side of the operator can only be variables, not numeric values,
functions, expressions, etc. For example, the expression first-second=Third is
an illegal program statement.
Python assignment operators have two types of assignment: single
assignment and compound assignment.
1. Single assignment assigns the value on the right side of the assignment
operator "=" to the variable on the left.
For example, the sample1 = 10 assignment operator can assign the same
value to multiple variables at the same time, in addition to assigning one
value to the variable at a time. If we want multiple variables to have the same
variable value at the same time, we can assign variable values together. For
example, if you want variables first, second, and third to have values of 100,
the assignment statement can be written as follows:
first= second = third = 100 when you want to assign values to multiple
variables in the same line of program statements, you can separate variables
with ,”.” For example, if you want the variable first to have a value of 10, the
variable second to have a value of 20, and the variable third to have a value
of 30, write the assignment statement as follows: first, second, third = 10, 20,
and 30 python also allows ";.”
To continuously write several different program statements to separate
different expressions.
For example, the following two lines of program code:
result= 10
Index = 12 ";"can be used. Write the above two lines on the same line.
Please look at the following demonstration:
result= 10;
Index = 12 # concatenates two program statements or expressions with
semicolons in one line
2. The compound assignment
The compound assignment operator is formed by combining the assignment
operator "=" with other operators. The prerequisite is that the source operand
on the right side of "=" must have the same operand as the one receiving the
assignment on the left side. If an expression contains multiple compound
assignment operators, the operation process must start from the right side and
proceed to the left side step by step,
For example:
first+= 1 # is equivalent to first = first+1
first-= 1 # is equivalent to first = first-1 with "A+=B;"
For example, a compound assignment statement is an assignment statement
"first=first+second;” The simplified writing of is to perform the calculation of
first+second first, and then assign the calculation result to the variable first.
In Python, first single equal sign "=" indicates assignment, and two
consecutive equal signs "= =" are the "equality" of relational comparison
operators and cannot be mixed. Note that when using the assignment
operator, if you want to assign one variable to another, the first variable must
first set the initial value; otherwise, an error will occur.
For example, result =result*10 because no initial value has been assigned to
num variable, if the assignment operator is directly used, an error will occur
because result variable has not been set to any initial value.
The following is a sample program for the comprehensive application of
assignment operators.
[example program: assigning.py]
# comprehensive application of assignment operator
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 Assignment application in python
04 """
05
06 black = 1
07 white = 2
08 red = 3
09
10 green = black+ white * red
11 print("{}.”format(black))
12 black += red
13 print("black={0}.”format (black, white)) #black=1+3=4
14 black -= white
15 print("black={0}.”format(black, white)) #black=4-2=2
16 black *= white
17 print("black={0}.”format(black,white)) #black=2*2=4
18 black **= white
19 print("black={0}.”format(black,white)) #black=4**2=16
20 black /= white
21 print("black={0}.”format(black,white)) #black=16/2=8
22 black //= white
23 print("black={0}.”format(black,white)) #black=8//2=4
24 black %= red
25 print("black={0}.”format(black,white)) #black=4%3=1
26 red = "Python"+"fun"
The execution result of the 27 print(s) program will appear.
Program code analysis:
Lines 12 and 13: assign the result of adding black and red to variable white,
and then output the result value of black.
Lines 14 and 15: assign the result of subtraction between black and white to
variable black, and then output the result value of black.
Lines 16 and 17: assign the result of multiplying black and white to variable
black, and then output the result value of black.
Lines 18 and 19: assign the result of black and white power to variable black,
and then output the result of black.
Lines 20 and 21: assign the result of dividing black and white to variable
black, and then output the result value of black.
Lines 22 and 23: assign the result of dividing black and white integers to
variable black, and then output the result value of black.
Lines 24 and 25: assign the remainder of black and white to variable black,
and then output the result of black.

Comparison operator
The comparison operator is also called a relational operator and is used to
determine whether the operands on the left and right sides of a conditional
expression are equal, greater than or less than. When using relational
operators, the results of the operations are either True or False, corresponding
to Boolean values of true or false.
If the expression is True, it will get "true"; otherwise, it will get "False." The
comparison operator can also be used in series, for example,
black<white<=red equals black<red, and white<=red. Note that two
consecutive equal signs "= =" are used to indicate the equality relationship,
while a single equal sign "=" indicates the assignment operator.
As has been repeatedly stressed above, this gap is easy to cause negligence in
writing program code. This is a very popular small "Bug" when debugging
programs in the future.
[example program: comparisionsample.py]
Comprehensive application of comparison operator

01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-

02 """
03 Comparative Operator Practice
04 """
05 first = 56
06 second = 24
07 third = 38
08 primary = (first == second) # judge whether first equals second
09 secondary = (second! = third) # Judge whether second is not equal to third.
10 tertiary= (first >= third) # judge whether first is greater than or equal to
third
11 print('is first equal to second: ',primary) # displays primary
12 print('second is not equal to third: ',secondary) # displays secondary
13 print ('whether first is greater than or equal to tertiary: ',tertiary) # displays
tertiary.
Program Code Analysis:
Line 11:
first=56, second=24, which are not equal, so output False.
Line 12:
second=24, third=38, which are not equal, so the output is True.
Line 13:
first =56, third =38, first>third, so output True.

Logical operator
Logical Operator (LOGICAL OPERATOR) is used to judge basic logical
operations and can control the process of program operation. Logical
operators are often used in conjunction with relational operators, and the
results of operations are only True and False. Logical operators include and,
or, not, etc.
Beginners of programming use a truth table to observe logical operations
more clearly. Truth table lists all combinations of operands true (T) and false
(F) and the results of logical operations. As long as you understand the
working principles of AND, or, and not, plus the aid of truth table, you can be
familiar with logical operations quickly without memorizing it.
1. Logical and (And)
Logical AND must hold both left and right operands before the operation
result is true. When either side is False, the execution result is false. For
example, the logical result of the following instruction is true:
first= 10
second= 20
first < second and first ! = second #True Logical and Truth Table
2. Logical or (Or)
Logical OR As long as either of the left and right operands holds, the result
of the operation is true. For example, the following logical operation is true:
sample = 10
result = 20
sample< result or sample == result #True if the expression sample < result on
the left holds, the result of the operation is true, and there is no need to judge
the relation comparison expression on the right.

3. Logical not (Not)

Logical not is a logical negation with slightly different usage. Only one
operand can be operated. It is added to the left of the operand. When the
operand is true, the NOT operation result is false. When the operand is false,
the not result is true.
For example, the following logic operation result is true:
first= 10
second= 20
Not first<5 #True originally first<5 does not hold (the result is false), adding
a not in front of it negates it, so the result is true.
Next, we use two simple statements to illustrate the use of logical
operators:
value= 24
Result = (value% 6 == 0) and (value% 4 == 0) when using the and operator,
result returns True because 24 is divisible by 6 and 4 at the same time.
Let's look at another example:
sum= 31
Value = Total% 3 = = 0r Total% 7 = = 0
When using the or operator, Value returns False because 31 cannot be
divided exactly by 3 and 7. In addition, in Python programming language,
when logical operations are performed using and or operators, the so-called
"Short-Circuit" operation is used.
Let's take the and operator as an example to illustrate that the judging
principle of short-circuit operation is that if the first operand returns True, the
judgment of the second operation will continue, that is, if the first operand
returns False, there is no need to judge further, which can speed up the
execution of the program,
For example:
print (67>11) and (73>71)
# The first operation result returns True.
In addition, if the short-circuit operation is applied to the or operator, the
judgment of the second operand will only proceed when the first operand
returns False. However, if the first operand returns True, there is no need to
judge further, which can also speed up the execution of the program.
The following example program inputs the results of the two monthly exams
and the final exam. As long as one of the monthly exams passes (more than
60 points), the final exam must pass so that the semester's results are
considered as passing. Pass is output, otherwise FAIL is output.
[Example Procedure: coursePassOrFail.py]
Progress card python code
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 Enter the results of the two monthly exams and the final exam
04 Only one of the April exams passes, and the final exam passes
The result of the 2005 semester is considered as a PASS. Pass is output 05
PASS; otherwise, output FAIL
06 """
07 firstclass = int(input ("Give your primary monthly test score:"))
08 secondclass = int(input ("Give the result of the secondary monthly
exam:"))
09 thirdclass = int(input ("Give the final exam result:"))
11 if (firstclass>=60 or secondclass>=60) and thirdclass>=60:
12- print("PASS")
13 else:
14 print("FAIL ")
Program Code Analysis:
The passing criteria for the title are the following two.
(1) "Only one passes the monthly exam": use logical or to judge.
(2) "Must pass the final exam": use logical and to judge. When an expression
uses more than one logical operator, the priority of logical operators must be
considered. Logical not will be evaluated first, followed by logical and, and
finally logical or.
Two logical operators are used in the sample program: and and or. If the
following formula is written directly, the logical AND will be executed first,
and the semantics will become that the scores of the second monthly
examination and the final examination must be greater than 60 points, and the
result of execution will be incorrect. Primary> = 60 or secondclass > = 60
and thirdclass > = 60, so parentheses must be added to force the conditional
expression to perform logical or judgment first.
For example, when the sample program is running, the first monthly test
score is 90 points, the second monthly test score is 59 points, and the final
test score is 80 points. You will get True, so the result will show PASS.
The data actually processed by the bit operator computer at the bottom layer
are only 0 and 1, i.e., in binary form. Each bit of binary is also called a bit.
Therefore, we can use a bitwise operator to perform logical operations
between bits. Bit logic operators are especially used to calculate bit values in
integers.
Four-bit logic operators are provided in Python language, namely &, |, and ~.
1.&(AND, bit logic AND operator). When performing AND operation, the
corresponding two binary bits are both 1, so the operation result is 1;
otherwise, it is 0. For example, if a=12 AND b=38, then a&b will get a result
of 4 because the binary representation of 12 is 0000 1100 and the binary
representation of 38 is 0010 0110. After performing and operation, the result
will be 4 in decimal, as shown

(XOR, bit logic xor operator)

When performing xor operation, either of the corresponding two binary bits
is 1(true), and the operation result is 1(true), but when both are 1(true) or
0(false), the result is 0(false).
For example, if first=12 and second=38, the result obtained by the first
second is 42. As shown, when the or operation is performed by 3.| (OR),
either of the corresponding two binary bits is 1, and the operation result is 1,
that is, the result is 0 only when both bits are 0. For example, if first=12 and
second=38, the result obtained by first | second is 46,

~ (not)
Not takes the complement of 1, i.e., all binary bits are inverted, i.e., 0 and 1
of all bits are exchanged. For example, first=12, the binary representation is
0000 1100, after the compliment is taken, since all bits of 0 and 1 will be
exchanged, the calculated result is -13.
The so-called "compliment" means that when two numbers add up to a
certain number (e.g., the decimal is 10), they are said to be complements of
the certain number. For example, the 10’s complement of 3 is 7, and the 10’s
complement of 7 is 3. For the binary system, there are two kinds of "1's
complement system" and "2's complement system." 1's complement system
"refers to the complement of two numbers that are 1 each other if the sum of
the two numbers is 1, i.e., the complement of 0 and 1 that are 1 each other.
In other words, in order to obtain the complement of the binary number, one
need only change 0 to 1 and 1 to 0. For example, (1111101001010)2 is
complemented by (10101010101)2. "2’s complement system" must calculate
the 1’s complement of the number in advance and add 1.
The following example program is an example of the application of bit
operators.
[example program: bitwiseapplication.py]
Comprehensive application of bit operators
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
Comprehensive Application of 03-bit Operator
04 """
05 first = 12; second = 38
06 bin(first); Bin(second) # Call the bin () function to convert first and
second into binary
07 print(first & second) # & operation result is 00000100, and then converted
to decimal value
08 print (first second) operation is 10101010, which is then converted into a
decimal value.
09 print(first | second) # | the result of the operation is 0101001010, which is
then converted into a decimal value.
10 print(~first) # ~ operation is the execution result of the complement
program taking
Program code analysis:
Line 07:
The binary representation of first=12 is first=00001100, the binary
representation of second=38 is second=00100110, and the result of the &bit
logic operation is 00000100, which is then converted into a decimal value of
4.
Line 08:
The binary representation of first=12 is first=00001100, the binary
representation of second=38 is first = first=00100110, the result of bit logic
operation is 00101010, and then the decimal value is 42.
Line 09:
The binary representation of first=12 is first =00001100, the binary
representation of second=38 is first = 00100100110, and the result of | bit
logic operation is 00101110, which is then converted to a decimal value of
46.
Line 10:
The binary representation of first=12 is first =00001100, and the result of its
complement of 2 is 11110011, which is then converted to a decimal value of
-13.

The bit shift operator

The bit shift operator shifts the binary bits of an integer value left or right by
a specified number of bits. Python provides two-bit shift operators, as shown.
1) < < (left shift operator)
The left shift operator (< <) can shift the operand to the left by n bits. After
the left shift, the bits beyond the storage range are discarded, and the bits left
blank are supplemented by 0.
The syntax format is as follows: a<<n for example, the expression "12<<2,”
the binary value of the value 12 is 00001100, and after moving 2 bits to the
left, it becomes 00110000, which is 48 decimal.

2) > > (right shift operator)

The right shift operator (> >) is the opposite of the left-shift operator, which
can shift the operand content right by n bits and truncate the bits beyond the
storage range after the right shift. Note the empty bit on the right at this
moment. If the value is positive, fill 0 and negative, fill 1.
The syntax format is as follows: a>>n for example, the expression "12>>2,”
the binary value of the value 12 is 00001100, and after moving 2 bits to the
right, it becomes 00000011, that is, 3 in decimal.
a=12 is declared in the program, allowing A and 38 to perform four kinds of
bit logic operations and output the operation results. Finally, A is subjected to
bit shift operations of left shift and right shift by two bits respectively and
output the results.
[example program: bit shift.py]
Comprehensive application of bit operators
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
Comprehensive Application of 03-bit Operator
04 """
05
06 first=12
07 print ("%f&22.3 =% d"% (first, first&38)) # and operation
08 print ("%f | 22.3 =% d"% (first, first | 22.3)) # or operation
09 print ("%f 22.3 =% d"% (first, first 22.3)) # xor operation
10 print("~%f=%d"%(first,~first)) #NOT operation
11 print("%f<<2=%d" %(first,first<<2)) # shift left
12 print("%f>>2=%d" %(first,first>>2)) # the execution result of the right
shift operation program

Operator Precedence
An expression often contains many operators. Operator precedence
determines the sequence of program execution, which has a significant
impact on the execution result and should not be taken lightly.

How to arrange the sequence of operators' execution?

At this time, the operation rules need to be established according to the
priority. When an expression uses more than one operator, such as
third=first+3*second, the priority of the operator must be considered. This
expression will perform 3*second operation first, then add the operation
result to first, and finally assign the added result to third. I remember when
we were young in math class, the first formula we recited was "multiply and
divide first, then add and subtract."
This is the basic concept of priority. When we encounter a Python
expression, we first distinguish between operators and operands and then sort
them out according to the priority of operators. For example, when there is
more than one operator in an expression, the arithmetic operator is executed
first, followed by the comparison operator, and finally, the logical operator.
The comparison operators have the same priority and are executed
sequentially from left to right, while different arithmetic operators and logical
operators have different priorities. The following are the priorities when
calculating various operators in Python language.
Finally, consider the combination of operators from left to right, that is,
operators with the same priority level will be processed from the leftmost
operand. The parenthesis operator has the highest priority. The operation that
needs to be executed first is added with the parenthesis "(). The expression in
the parenthesis" () "will be executed first.
For example:
first = 100 * (90-30+45).
There are 5 operators in the expression above: =, *,-and+, and according to
the operator priority rule, the operation in the parenthesis will be executed
first with the priority of-,+,*, =.
[Example Program: operatorprecedence.py]
Comprehensive Application of Operator Priority
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
Comprehensive Application of 03 Operator Priority
04 """
05 first = 2; second = 3
06 third = 9*(21/first + (9+first)/second)
07
08 print("first=,” first)
09 print("second=,” second)
The execution results of the print("9*(4/first +(9+first)/second)=,” zthird)
will be displayed.

Hands-on Practice Exercise

The report card statistics assistant is again time to practice. The theme is to
make a report card statistics program. Enter the names of 10 students and
their scores in mathematics, English, and Chinese. Calculate the total score
and average score and judge which grade belongs to A, B, C, and D
according to the average score. 3.8.1 The sample program shows that this
time, the students' scores are not inputted one by one, which is too time-
consuming.
The author has established the scores.csv file in advance. The file contains
the names of 10 students and their scores in mathematics, English, and
Chinese. The topic requirements for this exercise are as follows:
(1) Read in a CSV file with the file name scores.csv
(2) Calculate the total score, average score, and grade (A, B, C, D). A: an
average of 80 to 100 points b: an average of 60 to 79 points c: an average of
50 to 59 points d: an average of fewer than 50 points
(3) Output the student's name, total score, average score (reserved to one
decimal place) and grade. CSV file.
The so-called open data refers to data that can be freely used and distributed.
Although some open data require users to identify the data source and the
owner, most open platforms for government data can obtain the data free of
charge. These open data will be published on the network in common open
formats.
If different applications want to exchange data, they must use a common data
format. CSV format is one of them. The full name is Comma-Separated
Values. Fields are separated by commas and are all plain text files like TXT
files. They can be edited by text editors such as Notepad. CSV format is
commonly used in spreadsheets and databases.
For example, Excel files can export data to CSV format or import CSV files
for editing. Much Open Data on the network will also provide users with
directly downloaded CSV format data. When you learn how to process CSV
files, you can use these data for more analysis and application.
Python Built-in CSV module can process CSV files very easily. CSV module
is a standard library module, which must be imported with import instruction
before use. Let's look at the usage of the CSV module. Usage of the CSV
module can read CSV file or write to CSV file. Before reading, you must first
open the CSV file and then use CSV.reader method to read the contents of
the CSV file.
The code is as follows:
[get the module] csv # to load csv.py
With open ("furst.csv,” encoding = "utf-8") ascsvfile:
# open file specified as cssvfile
Reader = csv.reader (cssvfile)
# returns reader object
For row in reader:
#for loop reads data row by row

Tips
If CSV files and. py files are placed in different folders, the full path of the
files must be added. The open () command will open the csvfile and return
the file object. The sample program assigns the file object to the CSV file
variable. The default file uses unicode encoding.
If the file uses a different encoding, the encoding parameter must be used to
set the encoding. The CSV file used in this sample program is in an utf-8
format without BOM, so encoding="utf-8." The csv.reader () function reads
the CSV file, converts it into a reader object, and returns it to the caller. The
reader object is a string List object that can be an iterator.
In the above program, the reader variable is used to receive the reader object,
and then the data is read line by line through the
For loop: getit = csv.reader(csvfile)
# returns the reader object
For row in reader:
#for loop reads data row by row into row variable list object is Python's
Container Type.
Each element can be accessed by using the subscript (index, or index) of the
bracketed “[]” collocation element. The subscript starts from 0 and is row[0]
and ROW [1] from left to right, respectively. For example, to obtain the value
of the 4th element, it can be expressed as follows: name = row[3] trick to
open a file using with the statement before reading or writing the file, the file
must be opened using the open () function.
When reading or writing is complete, the file must be closed using the close
() function to ensure that the data has been correctly read or written to the
file. If an exception occurs before calling the close () method, then the close
() method will not be called.
For example:
f = open("results.csv") # to open the file
Csvfile = f.read() # read file contents
1 / 0 #error
F.close() # The program statement in line 3 of the close file made an error
with denominator 0.
Once executed, the program will stop executing, so close () will not be called,
which may risk file corruption or data loss. There are two special methods to
avoid this problem: one method is to add try … exception statements to catch
errors, and the other method is to use with statements.
Python's with statement is equipped with a special method. After the file is
opened, if the program is abnormal, the close () method will be automatically
called, so as to ensure that the opened file is closed correctly and safely.
The program code shows that the scores.csv file used in this sample program
contains the names of 10 students and their scores in mathematics, English,
and Chinese. We need to sum up the scores in the three subjects, calculate the
average score, and then use the average score to evaluate the grades.
The first line of the score CSV file is the title and must be skipped. Therefore,
we use a variable x to record the currently read line number. The initial value
of x is 0, and x must be greater than 0 before the if condition judgment
expression is true. The code is as follows:
With open ("results. CSV,” encoding = "utf-8") as CSV file:
first= 0 # sets the initial value of first to 0
For row in csv.reader(csvfile):
If first>0: # if first > 0, the if judgment expression is true
…
first+= 1 # is equivalent to indenting different blocks when writing Python
programs with first=first+1. The above statement has three blocks, namely
with…as block, for-loop block, and if block. The statement of first=0 must be
placed outside the for loop, and the statement of first+= 1 must be placed
inside the for loop, so that first will accumulate for each loop.
After entering the if block, the scores of the three subjects should be added
up. Since the csv.reader function reads in string format, it must be converted
into int format before calculation. Then assign the sum result to the variable
score.
The score intervals of the four grades are as follows. firstclass: 80 ~ 100
points on average. secondclass: 60 ~ 79 points on average. thirdclass: average
50 ~ 59 points. fourthclass: below 50 on average. An average of 80 to 100
points is rated as "first" and so on, and 80 points are also in this interval.
Therefore, the "> =" (greater than or equal to) relational operator must be
used. If only average>80 is used to judge, 80 points will not fall in this
interval.
The average score of 60 ~ 79 is rated as "second" and so on. This judgment
requires two conditions, average>=60 and average<80, and both conditions
must be met. Therefore, and must be used to judge: average > = 60 and
average < 80. Since these two conditions are a numerical interval, the
following expression can be written to indicate that the average value must be
within 60 ~ 79. 60 <= average < 80 full if...else statement is as follows:
If average >= 80:
Grade = "first"
elif 60 <= average < 80:
Grade = "second"
elif 50 <= average < 60:
Grade = "third"
Else:
Grade = "Fail"
At last, you only need to output the scoreTotal, average, and grade with a
print statement, and the execution result is displayed.
The following is the complete program code:
[sample procedure: Review_scores.py] transcript statistics assistant
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 Program Name: Report Card Assistant
04 Topic Requirements:
05 import CSV file
06 List the sum, average score and grade (first, second, third, fail)
07 first: average 80~100 points
08 second: average 60-79 points
09 third: average 50-59 points
10 fail: below 50 on average
11 """
12 import csv
14 print ("{0: < 3} {1: < 5} {2: < 4} {3: < 5} {4: < 5}.” format (",”"name,”
"total score,” "average score,” "grade"))
15 with open("results.csv,”encoding="utf-8") as csvfile:
16 first = 0
17 for row in csv.reader(csvfile):
19 if first > 0:
20 scoreTotal = int(row[1]) + int(row[2]) + int(row[3])
21 indent = circle(scoreTotal / 3, 1)
23 if indent >= 80:
24 grade = "first"
25 elif 60 <= indent< 80:
26 grade = "second"
27 elif 50 <= indent < 60:
28 grade = "third"
29 else:
30 grade = "fail"
32 print("{0:<3}{1:<5}{2:<5}{3:<6}{4:<5}.”format(first, row[0],
scoreTotal, average, grade))
34 result += 1
By this, we have completed a brief explanation about operators in detail.
Operators are important to master programming languages because they can
be used to create complex programs and software. The next chapter deals
with various advanced programming concepts like loops and conditionals.
We will discuss about these topics in detail. Why are you waiting? Let us
explore the next chapters.
 Chapter 4: Conditional and Loops in
Python

This chapter describes moderate level topics like conditionals and loops in
detail. We will use different examples to explain these topics in detail. Let us
dive into knowing more about these concepts.

What is a sequence in Python?

The sequence of program execution is not a highway linking the north and
the south. It can run all the way from the north to the south to the end. In fact,
the sequence of program execution may be as complicated as a highway on
the busy area, with nine turns and 18 turns, which is easy to make people
dizzy.
In order to write a good program, it is very important to control the process of
program execution. Therefore, it is necessary to use the process control
structure of the program. Without them, it is absolutely impossible to use the
program to complete any complicated work. In this chapter, we will discuss
Python's various process control structures.
The programming language has been continuously developed for decades.
Structured Programming has gradually become the mainstream of program
development. Its main idea is to execute the entire program in sequence from
top to bottom. Python language is mainly executed from top to bottom
according to the sequence of program source code, but sometimes the
execution sequence will be changed according to needs.
At this time, the computer can be told which sequence to execute the program
preferentially through flow control instructions. The process control of the
program is like designing a traffic direction extending in all directions for the
highway system.
It is recognized that most program codes for process control are executed in
sequence from top to bottom line after line, but for operations with high
repeatability, it is not suitable to execute in sequence. Any Python program,
no matter how complex its structure is, can be expressed or described using
three basic control processes: sequence structure, selection structure, and loop
structure.
The first line statement of the sequence structure program is the entry point
and is executed from top to bottom to the last line statement of the program.
The selection structure allows the program to select the program block to be
executed according to whether the test condition is established or not. If the
condition is True, some program statements are executed. If the condition is
False, other program statements are executed.
In a colloquial way, if you encounter a situation A, perform operation A; if
this is case b, operation b is executed. Just like when we drive to the
intersection and see the signal lamp, the red light will stop, and the green
light will pass. In addition, different destinations also have different
directions, and you can choose the route according to different situations. In
other words, the selection structure represents that the program will
determine the "direction" of the program according to the specified
conditions.
The function of loop flow control with loop structure is to repeatedly execute
the program statements in a program block until the specific ending
conditions are met. Python has a for loop and a while loop.

Selection Process Control

Selection Process Control is a conditional control statement that contains a
conditional judgment expression (also referred to as conditional expression or
conditional judgment expression for short). If the result of the conditional
judgment expression is True (true), a program block is executed. If the result
of the conditional judgment expression is false (True), another program block
is executed.
The following describes the statements and their functions related to the
selection process control in Python language.

If...Else Conditional Statement

If...else conditional statement is a fairly common and practical statement. If
the conditional judgment expression is True (true, or represented by 1), the
program statement in the if program block is executed. If the conditional
judgment expression is not true (False, or represented by 0), the program
statement in the else program block is executed. If there are multiple
judgments, elif instruction can be added.
The syntax of the if conditional statement is as follows:
If conditional judgment expression:
# If the conditional judgment expression holds, execute the program
statement in this program block
Else ：
# If the condition does not hold, execute the program statement in this
program block. If we want to judge whether the value of variable a is greater
than or equal to the value of variable b, the condition judgment expression
can be written as follows:
If a >= b:
# If A is greater than or equal to B, execute the program statement in this
program block
Else ：
# If a "no" is greater than or equal to b, the program statement if ... if…else
conditional statement in this program block is executed.
In the use of the if ... else conditional statement, if the condition is not
satisfied, there is no need to execute any program statement, and the else part
can be omitted:
If conditional judgment expression:
# If the condition is satisfied, execute the program statements in this program
block. In addition, if the if ... if…else conditional statement uses logical
operators such as and or, it is suggested to add parentheses to distinguish the
execution order so as to improve the readability of the program,
For example: if (a==c) and (a>b):
# If A equals C and A is greater than B, execute the program statement in this
program block
Else ：
# If the above condition does not hold, the program statement in this program
block is executed.
In addition, Python language provides a more concise conditional expression
of if...else in the following format: X if C else Y returns one of the two
expressions according to the conditional judgment expression. In the above
expression, X is returned when C is true; otherwise, Y is returned.
For example, to determine whether the integer x is odd or even, the original
program would be written as follows:
If (first % 2)==0:
second= "even number"
Else:
second= "odd number"
If print('{0}'.format(second)) is changed to a concise form, only a single line
of program statements is required to achieve the same purpose.
The statements are as follows:
print('{0}'.format ("even" if (first% 2)==0 else "odd"))
If the if condition determines that the expression is true, it returns "even";
otherwise, it returns "odd." In the following sample program, we will practice
the use of the if ... if…else statement. The purpose of the sample program is
to make a simple leap year judgment program.
Let the user enter the year (4-digit integer year), and the program will
determine whether it is a leap year. One of the following two conditions is a
leap year: (1) leap every 4 years (divisible by 4) but not every 100 years
(divisible by 100).
(2) leap every 400 years (divisible by 400).
[example procedure: leapYear.py]
judge whether it is a leap year
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 program name: leap year judging program
04 Topic Requirements:
05 Enter the year (4-digit integer year) to determine whether it is a leap year
06 condition 1. Every 4 leap (divisible by 4) and every 100 leap (divisible by
100)
07 condition 2. Every 400 leap (divisible by 400)
08 One of the two conditions met is a leap year.
09 """
10 year = int(input ("Give year:"))
12 if (year % 4 == 0 and year % 100 ! = 0) or (year % 400 == 0):
13 print("{0} is a leap year .”format(year))
14 Else:
The execution results of the
15 print("{0} is the year of peace .”format(year))
Program Code Resolution:
Line 10: Enter a year, but remember to call the int () function to convert it to
an integer type.
Line 12-15: Judge whether it is a leap year.

Condition 1: every 4 leaps (divisible by 4) and every 100 leaps (not divisible
by 100).
Condition 2: every 400 leaps (divisible by 400). One of the two conditions is
a leap year. Readers are asked to inquire whether the following years are leap
years: 1900 (flat year), 1996 (leap year), 2004 (leap year), 2017 (flat year),
2400 (leap year).
Multiple Choices
If there is more than one conditional judgment expression, elif conditional
statement can be added. Elif is like the abbreviation of "else if." Although
using multiple if conditional statements can solve the problem of executing
different program blocks under various conditions, it is still not simple
enough. Then, elif conditional statement can be used, and the readability of
the program can be improved.
Note that if the statement is a logical "necessity" in our program. Elif and else
do not necessarily follow, so there are three situations: if, if/else, if/elif/else.
The format is as follows:
If condition judgment
Expression 1:
# If the conditional judgment expression 1 holds, the program statement in
this program block is executed
Elif condition judgment
Expression 2:
# If the conditional judgment expression 2 holds, execute the program
statement in this program block
Else ：
# If none of the above conditions hold, execute the program statement in this
program block,
For example:
If first==second:
# If first equals second, execute the program statement in this program block
Elif first>b ：
# If first is greater than second, execute the program statement in this
program block
Else ：
# if first is not equal to second and first is less than second, execute the
program statement in this program block. The following example program is
used to practice the use of IF multiple selection. The purpose of the sample
program is to detect the current time to decide which greeting to use.
[sample procedure: currentTime.py]
Detects the current time to decide which greeting
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 Program Name: Detect the current time to decide which greeting to use
04 Topic Requirements:
05 Judging from the current time (24-hour system)
06 5~10:59, output "good morning"
07 11~17:59, output "good afternoon"
08 18~4:59, output "good night"
09 """
11 import time
13 print ("current time: {}.” format (time.strftime ("%h:% m:% s"))
14 h = int( time.strftime("%H") )
16 if h>5 and h < 11:
17 print ("good morning!" )
18 elif h >= 11 and h<18:
19 print ("good afternoon!" )
20 else:
21 print ("good night!")
The execution results of the program will be shown on the screen.
The output shows the current time in the sample program to judge whether it
is morning, afternoon, or evening, and then displays the appropriate greeting.
Python's time module provides various functions related to time. The Time
module is a module in Python's standard module library.
Before using it, you need to use the import instruction to import and then call
the strftime function to format the time into the format we want. For example,
the following program statement is used to obtain the current time.
Import time
Time.strftime ("%h:% m:% s")
# 18: 36: 16 (6:36:16 p.m. 24-hour)
Time. strftime ("%i:% m:% s")
# 06:36:16 (6: 36: 16 p.m. 12-hour system) format parameters to be set are
enclosed in parentheses.
Pay attention to the case of format symbols. The following program
statement is used to display the week, month, day, hour, minute, and second.
Print (time.strftime ("%a,% b% d% h:% m:% s")) execution results are as
follows: Monday, sep17 15: 49: 29 4.2.3 nested if sometimes there is another
layer of if conditional statement in the if conditional statement. This multi-
layer selection structure is called nested if conditional statement.
Usually, when demonstrating the use of nested if conditional statements, it is
more common to demonstrate multiple choices with numerical ranges or
scores. In other words, different grades of certificates will be issued for
different grades of achievements.
If it is more than 60 points, the first certificate of competency will be given, if
it is more than 70 points, the second certificate of competency will be given,
if it is more than 80 points, the third certificate of competency will be given,
if it is more than 90 points, the fourth certificate of competency will be given,
if it is more than 100 points, the all-round professional certificate of
competency will be given.
Based on nested if statements, we can write the following program:
Available= int(input ("Give a score:")
If available >= 60:
Print ('First Certificate of Conformity')
If available >= 70:
Print ('Second Certificate of Conformity')
If available >= 80:
Print ('Third Certificate of Conformity')
If available >= 90:
Print ('Fourth Certificate of Conformity')
If getScore == 100:
Print ('All-round Professional Qualification Certificate') is actually an if
statement that is explored layer by layer. We can use the if/elif statement to
filter the multiple choices one by one according to conditional expression
operation and select the matching condition (True) to execute the program
statement in a program block.
The syntax is as follows:
If Conditional Expression 1:
The program block to be executed in accordance with conditional expression
1
Elif conditional expression 2:
The program block to be executed in accordance with conditional expression
2
Elif conditional expression n:
The program block to be executed according to the conditional expression n
Else:
If all the conditional expressions do not conform, this program block is
executed. When the conditional expression 1 does not conform, the program
block searches down to the finally conforming conditional expression.
The elif instruction is an abbreviation of else if. Elif statement can generate
multiple statements according to the operation of a conditional expression,
and its conditional expression must be followed by a colon, which indicates
that the following program blocks meet this conditional expression and need
to be indented.
The following example program is a typical example of the combined use of
nested if and if/elif statements. This program uses if to determine which
grade the query results belong to. In addition, another judgment has been
added to the sample program. If the score integer value entered is not
between 0 and 100, a prompt message of "input error, the number entered
must be between 0 and 100" will be output.
Comprehensive use of nested if statements example:
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 Examples of Comprehensive Use of Nested if Statements
04 """
05 result = int(input (‘Give final grade:')
06
07 # First Level if/else Statement: Judge whether the result entered is
between 0 and 100
08 if result >= 0 and result <= 100:
09 # 2nd level if/elif/else statement
10 if result <60:
11 print('{0} below cannot obtain certificate of competency'. format(result))
12 elif result >= 60 and result <70:
13 print('{0} result is d'. format(result))
14 elif result >= 70 and result <80:
15 print('{0} result is c'. format(result))
16 elif result >= 80 and result <90:
17 print('{0} result is level b'. format(result))
18 else:
19 print('{0} result is grade a'. format(result))
20 else:
The execution results of the
21 print ('input error, input number must be between 0-100')
Program code analysis:
Lines 7-21: first-level if/else statement, used to judge whether the input result
is between 0 and 100.
Lines 10-19: the second-level if/elif/else statement, which is used to judge
which grade the inquired result belongs to.
In the next section, we will discuss loops one of the most important concepts.

The Loop Repeat Structure

This mainly refers to the loop control structure. A certain program statement
is repeatedly executed according to the set conditions, and the loop will not
jump out until the condition judgment is not established. In short, repetitive
structures are used to design program blocks that need to be executed
repeatedly, that is, to make program code conform to the spirit of structured
design.
For example, if you want the computer to calculate the value of 1+2+3+4+…
+10, you don't need us to accumulate from 1 to 10 in the program code,
which is originally tedious and repetitive, and you can easily achieve the goal
by using the loop control structure. Python contains a while loop and a for
loop, and the related usage is described below.

While loop
If the number of loops to be executed is determined, then using the for loop
statement is the best choice. However, the while loop is more suitable for
certain cycles that cannot be determined. The while loop statement is similar
to the for loop statement and belongs to the pre-test loop. The working mode
of the pre-test loop is that the loop condition judgment expression must be
checked at the beginning of the loop program block.
When the judgment expression result is true, the program statements in the
loop block will be executed. We usually call the program statements in the
loop block the loop body. While loop also uses a conditional expression to
judge whether it is true or false to control the loop flow. When the
conditional expression is true, the program statement in the loop will be
executed. When the conditional expression is false, the program flow will
jump out of the loop.
The format of the While loop statement is as follows:
While conditional expression:
# If the conditional expression holds, the flow chart of executing the while
loop statement in this program block.
The while loop must include the initial value of the control variable and the
expression for increasing or decreasing. When writing the loop program, it
must check whether the condition for leaving the loop exists. If the condition
does not exist, the loop body will be continuously executed without stopping,
resulting in "infinite loop," also called "dead loop."
The loop structure usually requires three conditions:
(1) The initial value of the loop variable.
(2) Cyclic conditional expression.
(3) Adjust the increase or decrease the value of cyclic variables.
For example, the following procedure:
first=1
While first < 10: # Loop Condition Expression
print( first)
first += 1 # adjusts the increase or decrease value of the loop variable.
When first is less than 10, the program statement in the while loop will be
executed, and then first will be added with 1 until first is equal to 10. If the
result of the conditional expression is False, it will jump out of the loop.
For loop
For loop, also known as count loop, is a loop form commonly used in
programming. It can repeatedly execute a fixed number of loops. If the
number of loop executions required is known to be fixed when designing the
program, then the for-loop statement is the best choice. The for loop in
Python language can be used to traverse elements or table items of any
sequence. The sequence can be tuples, lists or strings, which are executed in
sequence.
The syntax is as follows:
For element variable in sequence:
# Executed instructions
Else:
The program block of #else can be added or not added, that is, when using
the for loop, the else statement can be added or not added. The meaning
represented by the above Python syntax is that the for loop traverses all
elements in a sequence, such as a string or a list, in the order of the elements
in the current sequence (item, or table item).
For example, the following x variable values can all be used as traversal
sequence elements of a
For loop:
first= "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz "
second= ['january', 'march', 'may', 'july', 'august',
'october', 'december']
result= [a, e, 3, 4, 5, j, 7, 8, 9, 10]
In addition, if you want to calculate the number of times a loop is executed,
you must set the initial value of the loop, the ending condition, and the
increase or decrease value of the loop variable for each loop executed in the
for-loop control statement. For loop every round, if the increase or decrease
value is not specifically specified, it will automatically accumulate 1 until the
condition is met.
For example, the following statement is a tuple (11 ~ 15) and uses the for
loop to print out the numeric elements in the tuple: x = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]
For first in x:
A more efficient way to write tuples is to call the range () function directly.
The format of the range () function is as follows: range([initial value], final
value [,increase or decrease value]) tuples start from "initial value" to the
previous number of "final value.” If no initial value is specified, the default
value is 0; if no increase or decrease value is specified, the default increment
is 1.
An example of calling the range () function is as follows: range (3) means
that starting from the subscript value of 0, 3 elements are output, i.e., 0, 1 and
2 are three elements in total.
Range(1,6) means starting from subscript value 1 and ending before subscript
value 6-1, that is, subscript number 6 is not included, i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are
five elements. ·range (4,10,2) means starting from subscript value 4 and
ending before subscript number 10, that is, subscript number 10 is excluded,
and the increment value is 2, i.e., 4, 6 and 8 are three elements. The following
program code demonstrates the use of the range () function in a for loop to
output even numbers between 2 and 11 for i in range (2, 11, 2).
One more thing to pay special attention to when using the for loop is the print
() function. If the print () is indented, it means that the operation to be
executed in the for loop will be output according to the number of times the
loop is executed. If there is no indentation, it means it is not in the for loop,
and only the final result will be output.
We know that calling the range () function with the for loop can not only
carry out accumulation operations but also carry out more varied
accumulation operations with the parameters of the range () function. For
example, add up all multiples of 5 within a certain range. The following
sample program will demonstrate how to use the for loop to accumulate
multiples of 5 within a range of numbers.
[Example Procedure: addition.py]
Accumulate multiples of 5 in a certain numerical range
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 Accumulate multiples of 5 within a certain numerical range
04 """
05 addition = 0 # stores the accumulated result
06
07 # enters for/in loop
08 for count in range(0, 21, 5):
09 addition += count # adds up the values
11 print('5 times cumulative result =',addition)
# Output cumulative result
Program code analysis:
Lines 08 and 09: Add up the numbers 5, 10, 15 and 20. In addition, when
executing a for loop, if you want to know the subscript value of an element,
you can call Python's built-in enumerate function. The syntax format of the
call is as follows: for subscript value, element variable in enumerate
(sequence element).
For example (refer to sample program enumerate. py):
names = ["ram,” "raju,” "ravi"]
for index, x in enumerate(names):
The execution result of the above statement in print ("{0}-{1}.” format
(index, x)) is displayed.

Nested loop
Next, we will introduce a for nested loop, that is, multiple for loop structures.
In the nested for loop structure, the execution process must wait for the inner
loop to complete before continuing to execute the outer loop layer by layer.
The double nested for loop structure format is as follows:
For example, a table can be easily completed using a double nested for loop.
Let's take a look at how to use the double nested for loop to make the nine
tables through the following sample program.
[Example Procedure: 99Table.py]
99 Table
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 Program Name: Table
04 """
05
06 for x in range(6,68 ):
07 for y in range(1, 9):
08 print("{0}*{1}={52: ^2}.”format(y, x, x * y), end=" ")
99 is a very classic example of nested loops. If readers have learned other
programming languages, I believe they will be amazed at the brevity of
Python. From this example program, we can clearly understand how nested
loops work. Hereinafter, the outer layer for the loop is referred to as the x
loop, and the inner layer for loop is referred to as the y loop.
When entering the x loop, x=1. When the y loop is executed from 1 to 9, it
will return to the x loop to continue execution. The print statement in the y
loop will not wrap. The print () statement in the outer x loop will not wrap
until the y loop is executed and leaves the y loop. After the execution is
completed, the first row of nine tables will be obtained. When all X cycles are
completed, the table is completed.
Note that the common mistake for beginners is that the sentences of the inner
and outer loops are staggered. In the structure of multiple nested loops, the
inner and outer loops cannot be staggered; otherwise, errors will be caused.
The continue instruction and break instruction are the two loop statements we
introduced before. Under normal circumstances, the while loop is to judge the
condition of the loop before entering the loop body. If the condition is not
satisfied, it will leave the loop, while for loop ends the execution of the loop
after all the specified elements are fetched. However, the loop can also be
interrupted by continue or break. The main purpose of break instruction is to
jump out of the current loop body, just like its English meaning, break means
"interrupt."
If you want to leave the current loop body under the specified conditions in
the loop body, you need to use the break instruction, whose function is to
jump off the current for or while loop body and give the control of program
execution to the next line of program statements outside the loop body. In
other words, the break instruction is used to interrupt the execution of the
current loop and jump directly out of the current loop.

Break
If a nested loop is encountered, the break instruction will only jump off the
loop body of its own layer, and will be used together with the if statement,
For example:
For first in range (1, 10):
If first == 5:
Break
Print( first, end= "")
When first is equal to 5, the break statement will be executed to leave the for
loop body, that is, the for loop will not continue to execute.
If we hope that a certain loop program can be executed continuously, and we
will not leave the loop until a certain condition is met, we can use the break
instruction at this time. If we want to design a game of guessing numbers, we
require the user to enter a number between 1 and 100.
If the input is wrong, we will inform the user that the input number is too
large or too small, and let the user repeat the input until the input number is
exactly the same as the original default answer.
At this time, we can use the break command to jump off the loop and output
the correct answer or the information such as the end of the game.
Look at the following program code:
number=9
while True:
Guess = int(input ('enter a number between 1 and 100->'))
if guess == number:
Print ('you guessed it, the number is:', number)
Break

Continue instruction
The function of the continue instruction is to force loop statements such as
for or while to end the program currently executing in the loop and transfer
control of program execution to the beginning of the next loop. In other
words, if the continue instruction is encountered during the execution of the
loop, the current round of loop will be immediately interrupted, all the
program statements that have not yet been executed in the subsequent round
of loop will be abandoned, and the program flow will be returned to the
beginning of the while or for loop to start the next round of loop.
In contrast, the break instruction will end and jump off the current loop body,
while the continue instruction will only end the current loop and will not
jump off the current loop,
For example:
for first in range(1, 10):
if first == 5:
continue
When first is equal to 5, the continue instruction is executed, and the program
will not continue to execute, so 5 is not printed by the print statement, and the
for loop will continue to execute.

Practical Exercises
This section will use a sample program to review the above-mentioned
related contents and make a simple password verification program. Example
program shows that writing a Python program can allow users to enter
passwords and perform simple password verification, but the number of
entries is limited to three and login is not allowed if the current password is
5656.
1. Input Description
When entering for the first time, we can deliberately enter the wrong
password, and the program will output "Wrong password!” and ask the user
to enter the password again. We can try to enter the wrong password again,
and we will also output "Wrong password!” If you enter the wrong password
more than three times in a row, you will no longer be allowed to continue
entering the password to log in, and you will be asked to enter "password
error for three times, cancel login!" If the password entered in the input
process is correct, the "correct password" will be output and ends the
execution of the program.
Program Code Description
The complete program code is listed below. The default password for the
password is the number 5656, and the variable I is used to record the total
number of inputs. If the number of inputs exceeds three, it will jump out of
the loop.
[sample procedure: password.py]
simple password verification procedure
01 # -*- coding: utf-8 -*-
02 """
03 let users enter passwords,
04 and perform simple password verification
05 However, the number of entries is limited to three. If the number exceeds
three, login is not allowed.
06 If the current password is 5656.
07 """
08
09 password=5656 # uses the password variable to store passwords for
verification.
10 first=1
12 while first<=3: # the number of inputs is limited to three
13 new_pw=int(input ("Give password:"))
14 if new_pw ! = password: # if the password entered is different from the
password
15 print ("wrong password! ! ！ " )
16 first=first+1
17 continue # Jumps Back to while Start
18 else:
19 print ("correct password! ! ！ " )
20 break
21 if first>3:
22 print ("password error 3 times, cancel login! ! ! \n");
# Password Error Handling
With this, we have completed the moderate concepts like conditionals and
loops that are very pivotal for the development of programs. In the next
chapter, we will discuss modules and functions that are important for the
application and software development. Python supports both function-
oriented and object-oriented paradigms. We will discuss everything python
offers for advanced programmers in detail in the next chapters.
 Chapter 5: Modules and Functions in
Python

This chapter will introduce the concepts of modules and functions in Python.
Structured programming can decompose complex problems into several
components and define and implement modules and functions for the
components. This chapter will discuss in detail the features of Python
modules and functions. Finally, Python's functional programming will be
introduced.

Python Program Structure

Python's program consists of a package, a module, and functions. A module
is a set that deals with a certain class of problems. A module consists of
functions and classes. A package is a collection of modules.
A package is a toolbox for specific tasks. Python provides many useful
toolkits, such as string processing, graphical user interface, Web application,
graphical image processing, etc. Using these toolkits can improve the
development efficiency of programmers, reduce the complexity of
programming, and achieve the effect of code reuse.
These self-contained toolkits and modules are installed in the Lib
subdirectory under Python's installation directory.
For example, for the xml folder in the Lib directory, an xml folder is a
package that is used to complete XML application development. There are
several sub-packages in the xml package: dom, sax, etree, and parsers. The
file __init__.py is the registration file of the xml package, without which
Python will not recognize the xml package. The xml package is defined in the
system dictionary table available on internet websites.
Note that the package must contain at least one __init__.py file. The contents
of the __init__.py file can be empty, which is used to identify the current
folder as a package.
Modules are important concepts in Python. Python programs are composed of
modules one by one. I've already touched on modules, and a Python file is a
module. The following will introduce the concept and characteristics of the
module.

Module Creation
A module organizes a set of related functions or codes into a file. A file is a
module. Modules consist of code, functions, or classes. To create a file
named myModule.py, a module named myModule is defined. Define a
function func () and a class MyClass in the myModule module. A method
myFunc () is defined in the MyClass class.
01 # custom module
02 def func():
03 print ("MyModule.func()")
04
05 class example:
06 def examplefun(self):
07 print ("MyModule.example.examplefun()")
Then create a file called _ myModule.py in the directory where mymodule.py
resides. The functions and classes of the myModule module are called in this
file.
01 # Calls Classes and Functions of Custom Modules
02 import myexample # import module
03
04 myexample.func()
05 myClass=myexample.MyClass()
06 myClass.myFunc()
[Code Description]
Line 2
Code Import Module myexample.
Line 4
This calls the examples' function. You need to prefix myexample when
calling; otherwise, Python does not know the namespace where function() is
located.
Output results:
myexample.func()
Line 5
This code creates an instance of the class Myexample. You also need to call
the class with the prefix myexample.
Line 6

This calls the method myexample() of the class.

Output results:
myexample.Myexampleclass.myexample()
Note that myModule.py and call_myModule.py must be placed in the same
directory or in the directory listed in sys.path; otherwise, Python interpreter
cannot find the customized module.
When Python imports a module, Python first looks for the current path, then
the lib directory, site-packages directory (Python\Lib\site-packages) and the
directory set by the environment variable PYTHONPATH. If the imported
module is not found, search the above path to see if it contains this module.
You can search the module's search path through the sys.path statement.

Module Import
Before using a module's function or class, you must first import the module.
The module import has been used many times before, and the module import
uses the import statement.
The format of the module import statement is as follows.
import nameofthemodule
This statement can be directly imported into a module. When calling a
function or class of a module, you need to prefix it with the module name in
the following format.
nameofthemodule.func()
If you do not want to use prefixes in your program, you can import them
using the from…import… statement. The format of the from…import… the
statement is as follows.
from nameofthemodule import nameofthefunction
This compares the difference between the import statement and the from ...
import ... statement. Importing all classes and functions under the module can
use import statements in the following format.
from nameofthemodule import *
In addition, the same module file supports multiple import statements. For
example, define a module named myexample. The module defines a global
variable count and a function (). Every time the function () is called, the value
of the variable count is incremented by 1.
01 number =1
02
03 def function ():
04 global number
05 number=number+1
06 return the number
Import myexample module several times to see the result of variable count.
01 import myexample
02 print("count =,” myexample.func())
03 myexample.count=10
04 print ("count =,” myexample.count)
05
06 import myexample
07 print ("count =,” myexample.func())
[Code Description]
Line 1
Code Import Module myexample.
The second line of code calls the function () in the module. At this time, the
value of the variable count is equal to 2.
Output result:
number=2.
The third line of code assigns a value to the variable count in the module
myexample, where the value of the variable count is equal to 10.
The fourth line of code gets the value of the variable count.
Output result:
number=10.
The code in line 6 is imported into module myexample again, and the initial
value of variable count is 10.
The seventh line of code calls function(), and the value of variable count is
increased by 1.
Output result:
number =11.
Import statements in Python are more flexible than those in Java. Python's
import statement can be placed anywhere in the program or even in
conditional statements.
Add the following statement after the above code segment:
01 # import placed in the conditional statement
02 if myexample.number> 1:
03 myexample.number=1
04 else:
05 import myexample
06 print ("count =,” myexample.number)
[Code Description]
The second line of code judges whether the value of myexample.number is
greater than 1.
Line 3 code, if the value of count is greater than 1, set the value of variable
count to 1. Since the value of the variable count in the preceding code
segment is 11, the value of the variable count is assigned to 1.
Line 5 code, if the value of count is less than or equal to 1, import statement.
The sixth line of code outputs the value of the variable count. Output Result:
count=1

Properties of Modules
Modules have some built-in attributes that are used to complete specific
tasks, such as __name__, __doc__. Each module has a name; for example,
__name__ is used to determine whether the current module is the entry of the
program. If the current program is in use, __name__ has a value of
"__main__.” Usually, a conditional statement is added to each module to test
the function of the module separately.
For example, create a module myexample.
01 if __name__ =='__main__':
02 print ('myexample runs as main program')
03 else:
04 print ('myexample Called by Another Module')
[Code Description]
The first line of code determines whether this module is running as the main
program. Run the module myexample separately, and the output results are as
follows. Myexample runs as the main program.
Create another module myexample. This module is very simple, just import
module myexample.
01 import myexample
02 print (__doc__)
[Code Description]
Run the module myexample and output the result:
Myexample is called by another module. The second line of code calls
another module attribute __doc__. Since the module does not define a
document string, the output result is None.
Output Result:
None
Built-in Functions of Modules
Python provides an inline module build-in. The inline module defines some
functions that are often used in development. These functions can be used to
realize data type conversion, data calculation, sequence processing, and other
functions.
The functions commonly used in inline modules will be described below.
1. apply()
The apply function has been removed from Python3, so it is no longer
available. The function of calling the variable parameter list can only be
realized by adding * before the list.
2. filter()
Filter () can filter a sequence to determine whether the result returned by the
parameters of the custom function is true or not
Filter and return the processing results at one time.
The declaration of filter () is as follows.
class filter(object)
filter(function or None, iterable) --> filter object
The following code demonstrates the function of the filter () filter sequence.
Filters out numbers greater than 0 from a given list.
01 def func(x):
02 if first> 0:
03 return first
04
05 print (filter (function, range (-39,10))) # calls the filter function and
returns the filter object
06 print (list (filter (function, range (-94,10))) # converts filter object to list
[Code Description]
In line 5, use range () to generate the list to be processed, and then transfer
the values of the list to func (). Func returns the result to filter () and finally
returns the resulting yield as an iterable object, which can be traversed.
The output is as follows:
<filter object at 0x1022b2750>
Note that the parameter of the filter function func () in filter () cannot be
empty. Otherwise, there is no variable that can store the sequence element,
and func () cannot handle filtering.
3. reduce()
Continuous operations on elements in a sequence can be handled through
loops. For example, to accumulate elements in a sequence. Python's reduce ()
can also implement continuous processing. In Python2, reduce () exists in
global space and can be called directly. In Python3, it is moved to the
functools module, so it needs to be introduced before use. The declaration of
reduce () is as follows.
reduce(function, sequence[, initial]) -> result
[Code Description]
Parameter function is a self-defined function, which implements continuous
operation of the parameter sequence in function function().Parameter initial
can be omitted. If the initial is not empty, the value of initial will be passed
into function() for calculation first. If the sequence is empty, the value of
initial is processed.
The return value of reduce () is the calculated result of func ().
The following code implements the accumulation of numbers in a list.
01 def addition(first, second):
02 return first+second
03 form functools import reduce
# Introduce reduce
04 print (reduce(addition, range(0, 10)))
05 print (reduce(addition, range(0, 10), 10))
06 print (reduce(addition, range(0, 0), 10))
[Code Description]
The first line of code defines an addition () function, which provides two
parameters and performs an accumulation operation.
Line 4 code, perform accumulation calculation on 0+1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9.
The output is 45.
Line 5 code, perform accumulation calculation on
10+0+1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9. The output is 55.
In line 6, because range(0, 0) returns an empty list, the return result is 10.
The output is 10.
Reduce () can also perform complex cumulative calculations such as
multiplication and factorial on numbers. Note that if you use reduce () for
cumulative calculation, two parameters must be defined in sum to correspond
to the operands on both sides of the addition operator.
4. map()
Map () is used to "unpack" tuple, and the first parameter of map () is set to
None when calling. Map () is very powerful and can perform the same
operation on each element of multiple sequences and return a map object.
The declaration of map () is as follows.
class map(object)
map(func, *iterables) --> map object
[Code Description]
The parameter function is a custom function that implements the operation on
each element of the sequence. The parameter iterables is a sequence to be
processed, and the number of parameters iterables can be multiple.
The return value of map () is the processed list of sequence elements.
The following code implements the exponentiation of the numbers in the list.
01 def power(first): return first ** first
02 print (map (power, range (1,5))) # print map object
03 print (list (map (power, range (1,5))) # converted to list output
04 def power2(first, second): return first ** second
05 print (map (power2, range (1,5), range (5,1,-1))) # print map object
06 print (list (map (power2, range (1,5), range (5,1,-1))) # converted to list
output
[Code Description]
The first line of code defines a power () function, which implements the
power operation of numbers.
The second line of code passes the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 into the function
power, in turn, converts the calculation result yield into an iterable object,
and outputs the result:
map object at 0x7675678>
The third line of code converts the map object into a list and prints it out, and
outputs the result:
[1, 4, 27, 256]
The fourth line of code defines a power2 () function to calculate the Y power
of X.
The fifth line of code provides two list parameters. 1 5, 2 4, 3 3 and 4 2 are
calculated in turn, and the calculated results yield into an iterable object.
Output results:
<map object at 0x19876543234560>
Line 6 converts the map object into a list output.
Output results:
[21, 16, 29, 26]
Note that if multiple sequences are provided in map (), the elements in each
sequence are calculated one by one. If the length of each sequence is not the
same, then the short sequence is supplemented with None before calculation.

Custom Packages
A package is one that contains at least __init__.py files . Folders Python
package and Java package have the same function, both of which are to
realize the reuse of programs. They combine the code that realizes a common
function into a package and call the services provided by the package to
realize reuse. For example, define a package parent. Create two sub-packages
pack and pack2 in the parent package.
A module myModule is defined in the pack package, and a module
myModule2 is defined in the pack2 package. Finally, define a module main
in package parent and call sub-packages pack and pack2.
The __init__.py program for the package pack is as follows:
01 if __name__ =='__main__':
02 print ('run as first program')
03 else:
04 print ('pack initialization')
This code initializes the pack package and directly outputs a string. When the
pack package is called by other modules, "pack initialization" will be output.
The myexample module of the package pack is shown below.
01 def function():
02 print ("pack.myexample.func()")
03
04 if __name__ =='__main__':
05 print ('myexample runs as first program')
06 else:
07 print ('myexample Called by Another Module')
When pack2 is called by other modules, the __init__.py file will be executed
first. The __init__.py program for pack2 is as follows.
01 if __name__ =='__main__':
02 print ('run as first program')
03 else:
04 print ('pack2 initialization')
The myModule2 modules of pack2 are as follows.
01 def func2():
02 print ("pack2.myexample2.func()")
03
04 if __name__ =='__main__':
05 print ('myexample2 runs as main program')
06 else:
07 print ('myexample2 called by another module')
The main module below calls the functions in pack and pack2 packages.
01 from pack import myexample
02 from pack2 import myexample2
03
04 myexample.func()
05 myexample2.func2()
[Code Description]
The first line of code imports the myexample module from the pack package.
The myexample module is called by the main module, so the output string
"myexample is called by another module."
The output is as follows:
Pack initialization
Myexample is called by another module. The second line of code imports the
myexample2 module from the pack2 package.
The output is as follows:
Pack2 initialization
Myexample2 is called by another module. The fourth line of code calls
function() of myexample module.
The output is as follows:
pack.myexample.func()
Line 5 calls func2 () of myexample2 module.
The output is as follows:
pack2.myexample2.function()
__init__.py can also be used to provide a list of modules for the current
package. For example, add a line of code before the __init__.py file of the
pack.
__all__=["myexample"]
__all__ is used to record the modules contained in the current pack. The
contents in square brackets are the list of module names. If the number of
modules exceeds 2, separate them with commas. Similarly, a similar line of
code was added to the pack2 package.
__all__=["myexample2"]
In this way, all modules in pack and pack2 can be imported in the main
module at one time.
The modified main module is as follows:
01 from pack import *
02 from pack2 import *
03 myexample.func()
05 myexample2.func2()
[Code Description]
Line 1 code, first execute the __init__.py file of the pack and then look for
the modules contained in the pack in the __all__ attribute. If the __init__.py
file of the pack does not use the __all__ attribute to record the module name,
the main module will not recognize the myexample module when it is called.
Python will prompt the following error.
NameError: name 'myexample' is not defined.
Line 2 code has the same function as line 1 code.

Function
A function is a piece of code that can be called repeatedly and returns the
desired result by entering the parameter value. The previous example has
used Python's built-in functions many times and has also customized some
functions. Python's functions have many new features, which will be
described one by one below.

Definition of function
A function definition is very simple, using the keyword def definition.
Functions must be defined before use, and the type of function is the type of
return value. Python functions are defined in the following format.
01 def function name (parameter 1, parameter 2 ...):
02 …
03 return expression
The function name can be a string of letters, numbers, or underscores, but
cannot begin with a number. The parameters of the function are placed in a
pair of parentheses. The number of parameters can be one or more. The
parameters are separated by commas. Such parameters are called formal
parameters.
The parenthesis ends with a colon, and the body of the function follows the
colon. It uses a dictionary to implement a switch statement. Now wrap this
code into a function. It involves three parameters: two operands and an
operator.
The modified code is as follows.
01 # Function
02 from __future__ import division
03 def calculation (first, second, operator):
04 result={
05 "+":first+second,
06 "-":first-second,
07 "*":first * second,
08 "/":first / second
09 }
[Code Description]
The third line of code defines the function calculation(); the first and second
are the two operands of the four operations, and the operator is the operator.
The values of these three parameters are passed from the actual parameters.
Lines 4 to 9 are the main body of the function, realizing the operation of
operands.

Call of function
01 # Function
02 print (calculation(1, 2, "+"))
[Code Description]
calculation () is written after the print statement and directly outputs the
return value of the function. The output is "3.”
Note that the actual parameters must correspond to the formal parameters one
by one, otherwise erroneous calculations will occur — exceptions to
parameters with default values.

Parameters of function
In C and C++, there are two ways to pass parameters: value passing and
reference passing. Anything in Python is an object, so parameters only
support the way references are passed. Python binds the value of the actual
parameter to the name of the formal parameter through a name binding
mechanism. That is, the formal parameter is passed to the local namespace
where the function is located, and the formal parameter and the actual
parameter point to the same storage space in memory In between.
The parameters of the function support default values. When a parameter
does not pass an actual value, the function uses the default parameter
calculation. For example, you can provide a default value for all parameters
of calculation ().
Default Parameter for functions
01 # Function
02 def calculation(first=1, second=1, operator="+"):
03 result = {
04 "+" : first+second,
05 "-" : first-second,
06 "*" : first * second,
07 "/" : first / second
08 }
09 return result.get(operator)
# returns the calculation result
11 print (calculation(1, 2))
12 print (calculation(1, 2, "-"))
13 print (calculation(first=3, operator="-"))
14 print (calculation(second=4, operator="-"))
15 print (calculation(second=3, first=4, operator="-"))
[Code Description]
The code in line 2 defines the default value of the parameter by using an
assignment expression.
In line 11, the values of parameters x and y are assigned to 1 and 2
respectively, and the default value "+" is used for parameter operator. The
output is "3.”
Line 12 provides 3 actual parameters, which will override the default values
of formal parameters, respectively. The output result is "-1.”
Line 13 code, specify the values of parameters y and operator. The output
result is "-2.” The parameters must be passed in the form of assignment
expressions. Otherwise, the Python interpreter will mistakenly assume x=3,
y="- .” Therefore, the following wording is wrong.
print(calculation(3, "-"))
Line 14 code, specify the values of parameters x and operator. The output is
"3.”
Line 15 code, using assignment expression to pass parameters, can reverse
the order of the parameter list. The output is "1.”
Parameters can be variables or built-in data structures such as tuples and lists.
01 # list is passed as a parameter
02 def calculation(args=[], operator="+"):
03 first = args[0]
04 second = args[1]
05 result = {
06 "+" : first+second,
07 "-" : first-second,
08 "*" : first * second,
09 "/" : first/ second
10 }
12 print(calculation([1, 2]))
[Code Description]
The second line of code combines the parameters x and y into one parameter
and passes the values of x and y through the args list.
Lines 3 and 4 of code, take out parameter values from the list and assign
them to variables x and y respectively. Line 12 code, pass the list [1,2] to
calculation (). The output is "3.”
Because parameters implement the mechanism of name binding, unexpected
results may occur when using default parameters.
01 def join(args=[]):
02 args.join(0)
03 print (args)
04
05 join()
06 join([1])
07 join()
[Code Description]
The first line of code defines a join () function, and the argument is a default
list.
The second line of code joins an element 0 to the list.
Line 5 calls join (), using the default list. The output is' [0]'.
Line 6 code, passed a list [1], join () is joined with an element 0. The output
is "[1, 0].”
The seventh line of code calls join () again, and the list used at this time is
args called for the first time, so args will add another element 0 on the
original basis.
The output is' [0, 0]'.
To avoid this problem, a conditional judgment statement can be added to join
(). If there are no elements in the list args, empty the args list before adding
elements.
01 def join(args=[]):
02 if len(args) <=0:
03 args=[]
04 args.join(0)
05 print (args)
06
07 join()
08 join([1])
09 join()
[Code Description]
The second line of code uses len () to determine whether the length of the list
args is greater than 0. If less than or equal to 0, args is set to an empty list,
i.e., function parameters are unbound.
Line 4 adds an element 0 to the list.
Line 7 calls join (), using the default list. The output is' [0]'.
In line 8, a list [1] is passed, and an element 0 is joined to join (). The output
is "[1, 0].”
The 9th line of code calls join (), which cancels the name binding of the
parameter through the judgment of len(args). The output is' [0]'. In
development, it is often necessary to pass variable-length parameters.
This requirement can be met by using the identifier "*" before the parameter
of the function. "*" can refer to tuples and combine multiple parameters into
one tuple.
01 # Pass Variable Parameters
02 def function(*args):
03 print args
04 function(1, 2, 3)
[Code Description]
Line 2 code, use identifier "*" before argument args.
The code in line 3 outputs the value of the parameter. Because the parameter
uses the form of "*args,” the actual parameter passed in is "packed" into a
tuple, and the output result is "(1, 2, 3).”
The fourth line of code calls the function func (). The parameters "1,” "2" and
"3" become elements of args tuples.
Python also provides another identifier "* *.” Add "* *" before the formal
parameter to refer to a dictionary and generate the dictionary according to the
assignment expression of the actual parameter. For example, the following
code implements matching tuple elements in a dictionary.
When defining a function, two parameters are designed: one is the tuple to be
matched, which is denoted as "* t"; the other is a dictionary, which means
"*d.” When the function is called, the actual parameters are divided into two
parts: one part is several numbers or strings, and the other part is assignment
expression.
01 # Pass Variable Parameters
02 def find(*one, **two):
03 keys = one.keys()
04 values = two.values()
05 print(keys)
06 print (values)
07 for arg in t:
08 for key in keys:
09 if arg == key:
10 print ("find:,”d[key])
12 find("one,” "three,” one="1,”two="2,”three="3")
[Code Description]
"*t" in line 2 corresponds to "one" and "three" in line 12. "One" and "three"
form a tuple t. "**d" corresponds to "one="1,” two="2,” three="3",”
generating a dictionary {one: "1,”two:"2,”three: "3"}.
Line 5 code output results:
['three', 'two', 'one']
Line 6 code output results:
['3', '2', '1']
Lines 7 to 10 look up the value in tuple t in dictionary d. If found, output.
find: 1
find: 3
Note that "*" must be written before "* *,” which is a grammatical rule.

Return value of function

The return of a function uses a return statement, which can be followed by a
variable or expression. Let's perfect calculation () and add a return statement.
The code is as follows:
01 from __future__ import division
02 def calculation(first, second, operator):
03 result={
04 "+":first+second,
05 "-":first-second,
06 "*":first * second,
07 "/":first / second
08 }
09 return result.get(operator)
# returns the calculation result
[Code Description]
Line 9 calls the dictionary's get (), obtains the corresponding expression, and
returns the calculated result.
For C and Java, if the function body is not returned by return statement, but
the function is called in the assignment statement, the program will have
errors after compilation. Python does not have this syntax restriction. Even if
a function does not return a value, it can still get the return value.
For example:
01 # function without return statement returns None
02 def function():
03 pass
04
05 print (function())
[Code Description]
The second line of code defines a function (), the main body of the function
does not have any implementation code, and pass keyword is equivalent to a
placeholder.
The fifth line of code outputs the return value of function (). Because there is
no return statement, the return value is None. The output is "None."
None is an object in Python and does not belong to numbers or strings. When
the return statement in the function does not take any parameters, the returned
result is also None.
01 def function ():
02 return
03
04 print (function ())
If you need to return multiple values, you can "package" these values into
tuples. When calling, unpack the returned tuple. The following code
implements the inversion of input variables.
For example, enter 0, 1, and 2 and return 2, 1, and 0.
01 # return returns multiple values
02 def function(first, second, third):
03 l=[first, second, third]
04 l.reverse()
05 numbers=tuple(l)
06 return numbers
07
08 first, second, third=func(0, 1, 2)
09 print (first, second, third)
[Code Description]
The second line of code defines a function (), which returns the 3 values after
inverting the 3 parameters passed in. The third line of code "packages" the
three parameters into a list. Line 4 code inversion list. The fifth line of code
loads the list into a tuple. The sixth line of code returns tuples, that is, 3
numbers.
The 8th line of code calls function () to obtain the returned tuple and
"unpack" it into 3 variables. The ninth line of code outputs the values of the
three variables.
A slight improvement in the code can also lead to a second solution.
01 def function(one, two, three):
02 l=[one, two, three]
03 l.reverse()
04 one, two, three=tuple(l)
05 return one, two, three
06
07 one, two, three =function(0, 1, 2)
08 print (one, two, three)
[Code Description]
The fourth line of code "unpacks" tuples and assigns the inverted values to
variables A, B and C respectively. In line 5, you can return multiple values
with comma-separated expressions after the return.
Line 7 calls func (), assigning a, b and c to x, y and z respectively.
You can use more than one return statement in a function. For example, in
each branch of the if ... else ... statement, different results are returned.
# Multiple return Statements
02 def function(one):
03 if one> 0:
04 return "one> 0"
05 elif one ==0:
06 return "one ==0"
07 else:
08 return "one<0"
09
10 print (function(-2))
[Code Description]
Return "one> 0" when the passed-in parameter is greater than 0. When the
passed-in parameter is equal to 0, "one = = 0" is returned. When the passed-in
parameter is less than 0, return "one<0.”
Note that multiple return statements are not recommended. Too many return
statements often complicate the program, so the code needs to be refactored.
If there is more than one return statement in the program, you can reduce the
return statement by adding a variable.

Reconstruction of function
01 # Multiple return Statements
02 def function(one):
03 if one> 0:
04 result="one> 0"
05 elif one ==0:
06 result="one ==0"
07 else:
08 result="one<0"
09 return result
11 print (func(-2))
[Code Description]
In lines 4, 6 and 8, a variable result is added to record the status of program
branches through assignment statements. The ninth line of code returns the
value of result, so that the result of each branch can be returned by calling the
same return statement.

Nesting of functions
Nesting of functions refers to calling other functions inside a function. C and
C++ only allow nesting within function bodies, while Python not only
supports nesting within function bodies but also supports nesting of function
definitions. For example, calculate the value of expression (one+two)*(first-
second). The calculation step can be divided into three steps: first, calculate
the expression one+two, then calculate the expression first-second, and
finally calculate the product of the results of the first two steps. Therefore, the
three functions can be designed. The first function sum () calculates the value
of one+two, the second function sub () calculates the value of m+n, and the
third function calculates the product of the first two.
The following code demonstrates the calling operation between functions.
01 # nested function
02 def sum(add, sub):
03 return add+sub
04 def sub(add, sub):
05 return add-sub
06 def function():
07 ex=1
08 ey=2
09 em=3
10 en=4
11 return sum(ex, ey) * sub(em, en)
13 print (function())
[Code Description]
The second line of code defines the function sum (), sum () with two
parameters a and b. Parameters a and b are used to calculate the value of
expression x+y.
The code in line 3 calculates the value of a+b, that is, returns the result of
X+Y.
The fourth line of code defines the function sub (), sub () with two parameters
a and b.
The code in line 5 calculates the value of a–b, i.e., returns the result of m–n.
The 11th line of code calls sum (), sub (), and performs multiplication in the
return statement.
Line 13 code, call function function ().
The output is shown below:
-3
Note that the number of nesting levels of functions should not be too high.
Otherwise, it is easy to cause problems such as poor readability and difficult
maintenance of the code. Nested calls to general functions should be
controlled within 3 levels.
The above code can also be implemented in another form, i.e., the functions
sum () and sub () are placed inside func ().
The following code implements the definition of sum (), sub () inside
function ().
01 # nested function
02 def function():
03 ex=1
04 yov=2
05 men=3
06 nod=4
07 def sum(am, bam): # internal function
08 return am+bam
09 def sub(am, bam): # internal function
10 return am-bam
11 return sum(ex, yov) * sub(am, bn)
13 print (function())
[Code Description]
In line 7, sum () is defined inside function ().
Line 9 code defines sub () inside function ().
Line 11 code, call sum () and sub () and then perform multiplication. The
output is "-3.”
Internal functions sum (), sub () can also directly call variables defined by
external function function ().
The following code implements the variables of the internal function sum (),
sub () that refer to the external function function ().
01 # nested function, directly using the variable
02 def function () of the outer function:
03 first= 1
04 second = 2
05 third = 3
06 fourth = 4
07 def sum(): # internal function
08 return first + second
09 def sub(): # internal function
10 return third - fourth
11 return sum() * sub()
13 print (function())
[Code Description]
In line 7, the function sum () has no parameters.
Line 8 code calls external variables x, y inside sum ().
In line 9, the function sub () also has no arguments.
Line 10 code calls external variables m, n inside sub ().
Line 11 code, calculate the value of sum()*sub (). The output result is "-3"
Be careful not to define functions inside them.
This method is not easy to maintain the program, and it is easy to cause
logical confusion. Moreover, the more levels of nested definition functions,
the higher the cost of program maintenance.

Recursive functions
Recursive functions can call themselves directly or indirectly within the
function body, that is, the nesting of functions is the function itself. Recursion
is a program design method. Recursion can reduce repeated codes and make
the program concise. The process of recursion is divided into two stages-
recursion and regression. The principle of the recursive function is as follows.
In the first stage, recursive functions call themselves internally. Each function
call restarts executing the code of the function until a certain level of the
recursive program ends.
In the second stage, recursive functions return from back to forth. Recursive
functions return from the last level until they are returned to the function
body called for the first time. That is, after the recursion step-by-step call is
completed, it returns step-by-step in the reverse order.
Note that recursive functions need to write conditions for recursion to end;
otherwise, the recursive program will not end. Generally, the program is
ended by judging the statement.
Calculating factorial is a classical recursive implementation. First of all,
review the calculation formula of factorial.
For example, calculate 5! As a result when designing a program, one can
judge whether n is equal to 1. Each recursive call passes in parameter n-1.
Until n=1, returns 1! is equal to 1. Then return to 2! 、 3! 、 4! 、 5!

Process of calculating factorials using recursion

The following code recursively implements the factorial calculation process.
01 # Calculates factorial
02 def refund(n):
03 one = 1
04 if second > 1: # end judgment of recursion
05 one = n
06 true = true * refund(n-1) # recursion
07 print ("%d! =" %i, n)
08 return n # return
09
10 refund(5)
[Code Description]
The second line of code defines a recursive function. The definition of a
recursive function is no different from that of an ordinary function. The third
line of code defines a variable I for the output of the print statement.
Line 4 code is used to judge the passed parameter n. If n is greater than 1, the
function can continue recursion. Otherwise, the result of the current
calculation is returned.
The fifth line of code assigns the value of n to I and uses I to record the
current recursive number.
Line 6 calls function refunc () itself, passing parameter n-1. The seventh line
of code outputs the result of the factorial calculation.
The eighth line of code returns the calculation result of factorial of each level.
Line 10 calls the recursive function refund.
The output of each recursion is as follows:
1! =1
2! =2
3! =6
4! =24
5! =120
Note that every time a recursive function is called, all variables in the
function will be copied before the recursive function is executed. The
program needs more storage space, which will affect the performance of the
program to some extent. Therefore, it is better to use other methods to
improve programs that do not need recursion.
You can use the aforementioned reduce () to quickly implement factorial
operations.
01 # Calculates factorial with reduce
02 from func tools import reduce # python3 reduce is no longer in the global,
must be manually introduced
03 print ("5! =,” reduce(lambda x, y: x * y, range(1, 6)))
Using reduce () requires only one line of code to calculate 5!.

Lambda function
Lambda function is used to create an anonymous function whose name is not
bound to the identifier. Using lambda function can return some simple
operation results.
Lambda functions have the following format:
Lambda variable 1, variable 2 ...: expression
Among them, the variable list is used for expression calculation. Lambda
belongs to a function, so a colon is required after the variable list. Lambda is
usually assigned to a variable, which can be used as a function.
For example:
01 # assignment
02 function=lambda variable 1, variable 2 ...: expression
# Call
04 function()
This binds lambda and variable function, whose name is the function name.
Lambda function can eliminate internal functions.
For example, the program for calculating (one+two) * (three–nfour) in
subsection can be modified to replace the functions sum (), sub () with
lambda functions.
01 # lambda
02 def func():
03 one = 1
04 two = 2
05 three= 3
06 four = 4
07 sum = lambda one, two : one + two
08 print (sum)
09 sub = lambda three, four : three - four
10 print (sub)
11 return sum(one, two) * sub(three, four)
13 print (function())
[Code description]
Line 7 defines the lambda function, realizes the calculation expression
first+second, and assigns the lambda function to the variable sum.
The eighth line of code outputs the value of the variable sum, which holds the
address of the lambda function.
The output is shown below:
<function <lambda> at 0x00B4D3B0>
Lines 9 and 10 have the same function as lines 7 and 8.
Line 11 calculates the product of sum () and sub (). The output is "-3.”
Note that lambda is also called an expression. Only expressions can be used
in lambda, and multiple statements such as judgment and loop cannot be
used. In the previous example, lambda is assigned to a variable and can also
be used directly as a function.
Function usage of lambda
01 # lambda
02 print ((lambda first: -first)(-2))
[Code Description]
The code in line 2 defines the anonymous function lambda x: -x, which is
used to return the absolute value of a number. The parameter of the function
is -2, and the output result is "2.”
By this, we have discussed in detail about functions and modules that are
important for software development using python. We will, in the next
chapter, discuss about object-oriented concepts in detail.
 Chapter 6: Object-oriented Programming
in Python

This chapter will describe object-oriented concepts in python in detail with

examples. This is important for a better understanding of the robustness of
the python language and the opportunities it gives. We will go through
concepts like classes and objects in detail. Let us dive into it in a detailed
mode.

What Is Object-Oriented Programming?

Object-oriented technology is an important technology in the field of
software engineering. This kind of software development idea naturally
simulates human's understanding of the objective world and has become the
mainstream of computer software engineering at present.
Python, as an object-oriented computer programming language, it is very
important to master the idea of object-oriented programming. Therefore, we
have arranged two chapters to explain it. We hope that through the study of
these two chapters, everyone can establish the idea of object-oriented
programming and learn to use this idea to develop programs.

Overview of Object-Oriented Programming

There are various forms of things in the real world, and there are various
connections between these things. In the program, objects are used to map
real things, and the relationships between objects are used to describe the
relationships between things. This idea is object-oriented.
When we talk about object-oriented, we naturally think of process-oriented.
Process-oriented is to analyze the steps to solve the problem, and then use
functions to implement these steps one by one, one by one when using.
Object-oriented is to decompose the problem-solving things into multiple
objects, and the purpose of establishing objects is not to complete one step by
one but to describe the behavior of one thing in the process of solving the
whole problem. The following is an example of gobang to illustrate the
difference between process-oriented and object-oriented programming.
First, use process-oriented:
1. Start the game.
2. Sunspots go first
3. Draw the picture
4. Judging winning or losing
5. It's Bai Zi's turn
6. Draw the picture
7. Judging winning or losing
8. Return to Step 2
9. Output Final Results
The above steps are implemented by functions, respectively, and the problem
is solved.
Object-oriented design is to solve the problem from another way of thinking.
When using object-oriented thinking to realize gobang, the whole gobang can
be divided into three types of objects, as follows.
1. Black and white parties: the two parties behave the same
2. Chessboard system: responsible for drawing pictures
3. Rule system: responsible for judging such things as foul, winning or
losing, etc.
Among the above three-class objects, the first-class object (black and white
parties) is responsible for receiving the user's input and notifying the second-
class object (chessboard system) to draw pieces on the chessboard, while the
third-class object (rule system) judges the chessboard.
Object-oriented ensures the unity of functions, thus making the code easier to
maintain. For example, if we want to add the function of regret chess now,
then a series of steps of input, judgment, and display needs to be changed,
even the loops between steps need to be adjusted on a large scale, which is
obviously very troublesome.
If object-oriented development is used, only the chessboard object needs to
be changed. The chessboard object saves the chessboard scores of both black
and white parties, only needs simple backtracking, and the display and rules
do not need to be changed. At the same time, the calling sequence of the
whole object function will not change, and its changes are only partial. Thus,
compared with process-oriented, object-oriented programming is more
convenient for later code maintenance and function expansion.

Categories and Objects

In object-oriented programming, the two most important core concepts are
class and object. Objects are concrete things in real life. They can be seen and
touched. For example, the book you are holding is an object.

Compared with objects, classes are abstract, which is a general designation

for a group of things with the same characteristics and behaviors. For
example, when I was a child, my mother said to you, "Son, you should take
that kind of person as an example!" The type of people here refers to a group
of people who have excellent academic results and are polite. They have the
same characteristics, so they are called "type" people.

Relationship between class and object

As the saying goes, "people are grouped by category, and things are grouped
by group," we collectively refer to the collection of things with similar
characteristics and behaviors as categories, such as animals, airplanes, etc.
Class is an abstract description of a certain kind of thing, while the object is
an individual of this kind of thing in reality.

Relationship between classes and objects

The toy model can be regarded as a class and each toy as an object. Thus, the
relationship between the toy model and the toy can be regarded as the
relationship between the class and the object. Class is used to describe the
common features of multiple objects and is a template for objects. The object
is used to describe individuals in reality. It is an instance of a class. As can be
seen from the examples, objects are created according to classes, and one
class can correspond to multiple objects.

Definition of category
In daily life, to describe a kind of thing, it is necessary to explain its
characteristics as well as its uses. For example, when describing such things
as human beings, it is usually necessary to give a definition or name to such
things. Human characteristics include height, weight, sex, occupation, etc.
Human behaviors include running, speaking, etc.
The combination of human characteristics and behaviors can completely
describe human beings. The design idea of an object-oriented program is
based on this design, which includes the features and behaviors of things in
classes. Among them, the characteristics of things are taken as the attributes
of classes, the behaviors of things are taken as the methods of classes, and
objects are an instance of classes.
So, to create an object, you need to define a class first. Class is composed of
3 parts.
(1) Class Name: The name of the class, whose initial letter must be
uppercase, such as Person.
(2) Attributes: used to describe the characteristics of things, such as people's
names, ages, etc.
(3) Method: Used to describe the behavior of things; for example, people
have behaviors such as talking and smiling.
In Python, you can use the class keyword to declare a class with the
following basic syntax format:
Class classname:
The property of the class
Method of class
The following is a sample code:
class Ox:
# attribute
# Method
　　 def eat(grass):
Print ("-eating grass--")
In the above example, the class is used to define a class named Ox, in which
there is an eat method. As can be seen from the example, the format of the
method is the same as that of the function. The main difference is that the
method must explicitly declare a self-parameter and be located at the
beginning of the parameter list. Self represents the instance of the class
(object) itself, which can be used to refer to the attributes and methods of the
object. The specific usage of self will be introduced later with practical
application.

Creating objects from classes

If a program wants to complete specific functions, classes alone are not
enough, and instance objects need to be created according to classes. In
Python programs, you can use the following syntax to create an object:
Object Name = ClassName ()
For example, create an object Ox of Ox class with the following sample code:
Ox= Ox()
In the above code, Ox is actually a variable that can be used to access the
properties and methods of the class. To add attributes to an object, you can:
Object Name. New Attribute Name = Value. For example, use cat to add the
color attribute to an object of Cat class.
The sample code is as follows:
Ox.color = "white"
Next, a complete case is used to demonstrate how to create objects, add
attributes, and call methods.
Example helicopter.py
1 # Define Class
2 　 class Helicopter:
3 # move
4 　　 def fly(autom):
5 　　　　 print (" Helicopter Running ..."
6 # honking
7 　　 def toot(autom):
8 　　　　 print ("the plane is honking ... beeping ...")
9 # creates an object and saves its reference with the variable JB23
10 Jb23 = Flight()
11 # Add Attribute Representing Color
12 JB23.color = "black"
13 # Call Method
14 JB23.move()
15 JB23.toot()
16 # Access Attributes
17 print(JB23.color)
In the example, a Plane class is defined, two methods move, and toot are
defined in the class, then an object JB23 of Plane class is created, color
attribute is dynamically added and assigned to "black,” then move () and toot
() methods are called in turn, and the value of color attribute is printed out.
Structural Methods and Destructural Methods
In Python programs, two special methods are provided: __init__ () and
__del__ (), which are respectively used to initialize the properties of the
object and release the resources occupied by the class. This section mainly
introduces these two methods in detail.

Construction method
In the case of a section, we dynamically added the color attribute to the
objects referenced by JB23. Just imagine, if you create another Plane class
object, you need to add attributes in the form of "object name.attribute
name.” For each object you create, you need to add attributes once, which is
obviously very troublesome.
To solve this problem, attributes can be set when creating an object. Python
provides a construction method with a fixed name of __init__ (two
underscores begin and two underscores end). When creating an instance of a
class, the system will automatically call the constructor to initialize the class.
In order to make everyone better understand, the following is a case to
demonstrate how to use the construction method for initialization.
# to define the class
2 　 class Plane:
3 # construction method
4 　　 def __init__(autom):
Color = "black"
6 # honking
7 　　 def toot(autom):
8 print ("%s plane is honking ..." (autom.color))
9 # creates an object and saves its reference with the variable plane
10 plane = Plane()
No.11 plane honked
12 plane.toot()
These lines re-implemented the __init__ () method, adding the color attribute
to the Plane class and assigning it a value of "black," and accessing the value
of the color attribute in the toot method.

Operation results
No matter how many Plane objects are created, the initial value of the color
attribute is "black" by default. If you want to modify the default value of the
property after the object is created, you can set the value of the property by
passing parameters in the construction method. The following is a case to
demonstrate how to use the construction method with parameters, as shown.
Example uses the parametric construction method. py
1 # Define Class
2 　 class Plane:
3 # belt parameter construction method
4 　　 def __init__(autom, color):
Color = color6 # honking
7 　　 def toot(autom):
8 print ("%s color plane honking ..." %autom.color)
9 # creates an object and saves its reference with the variable JB23
10 JB23 = Plane ("Snow White")
11 # creates an object and saves its reference with variable ferrari
12 ferrari = Plane ("red")
No.13 plane honked
14 JB23.toot()
15 ferrari.toot()
In examples, lines 4 to 5 customize the construction method with parameters
and assign the value of the parameters to the color attribute to ensure that the
value of the color attribute changes with the value received by the
parameters, and then it is still accessed in the toot method.

Destructural methods
Earlier, we introduced the __init__ () method. When an object is created, the
Python interpreter will call the __init__ () method by default. When deleting
an object to release the resources occupied by the class, the Python interpreter
calls another method by default, which is the __del__ () method.
Next, a case is used to demonstrate how to use destructor to release the
occupied resources, as shown.
Example uses the destructor. py
# Define Class
class Person:
　　 def __init__(autom, name, age):
　　　 autom.name = name
　　　 autom.love = love
　　 def __del__(autom):
Print ("-del----") laowang = person ("Lao Wang,” 30)
In the example, a class named Person is defined, the initial values of name
and age are set in the __init__ () method, a print statement is added in the
__del__ () method, and then an object of the Person class is created using a
custom construction method.
Thus we have given a brief introduction to object-oriented programming in
this chapter. In the next chapter, we will discuss Files in python in detail.
Come along with us to enjoy the final chapter of this book.
 Chapter 7: Files in Python

This chapter will give a brief introduction to files in python. We will have
various examples that will help us understand the files, their structure, and
implementation.

What are Files in Python?

The data can be stored using either a database or a file. The database
maintains the integrity and relevance of the data and makes the data safer and
more reliable. Using files to store data is very simple and easy to use, and
there is no need to install database management systems and other operating
environments.
Files are usually used to store application software parameters or temporary
data. Python's file operation is very similar to Java's file operation. Python
provides modules such as os and os.path to process files.

Files and streams

Common Operation of Files
Files are usually used to store data or application system parameters. Python
provides os, os.path, shutil, and other modules to process files, including
functions such as opening files, reading and writing files, copying and
deleting files.
Creation of Files
In Python3, the global file () function has been removed, and the open ()
function has been retained. The function open () can be used to open or create
files. This function can specify the processing mode and set the open file to
read-only, write-only, or read-write status.
The declaration of open () is as follows:
open(file, mode='r', buffering=-1, encoding=None,
errors=None, newline=None, closefd=Trueopener=None) -> file object
[Code Description]
The parameter file is the name of the opened file. If the file does not exist,
open () creates a file named name and then opens the file. The parameter
mode refers to the open mode of the file. Parameter buffering sets the cache
mode. 0 means no cache; 1 indicates line buffering. If it is greater than 1, it
indicates the size of the buffer, in bytes.
Here, open () returns a file object, which can perform various operations on
the file.
Opening Mode of Files notes that "B" mode must be used for reading and
writing files such as pictures and videos.
The file class is used for file management. It can create, open, read and write,
close files, etc.
File processing is generally divided into the following 3 steps:
1) Create and open a file and use the file () function to return a file object.
2) Call read (), write () and other methods of the file object to process the file.
3) Call close () to close the file and release the resources occupied by the file
object.
Note that the close () method is necessary. Although Python provides a
garbage collection mechanism to clean up objects that are no longer used, it
is a good habit to manually release resources that are no longer needed. It
also explicitly tells Python's garbage collector that the object needs to be
cleaned.
The following code demonstrates the creation, writing, and closing of files.
01 # Create File
02 context='''This is countryside'''
03 f=open('rod.txt', 'w') # open file
04 f.write(context) # write string to file
Close () # close file
[Code Description]
The third line of code calls open () to create the file hello.txt and sets the
access mode of the file to "W." Open () returns file object f.
The fourth line of code writes the value of the variable context into the file
hello.txt
Line 5 calls the close () method of object f to release the resources occupied
by object f.
These three steps will also be followed in the operations of reading, writing,
deleting, and copying files explained later.

Reading of files
There are many ways to read a file. You can use readline (), readlines (), or
Read () functions to read a file. The implementation method of reading files
by these functions will be introduced one by one.
1. readline ()
Readline () reads one line of the file at a time, and the file needs to be read
cyclically using a permanent true expression. However, when the file pointer
moves to the end of the file, there will be an error reading the file using
readline (). Therefore, a judgment statement needs to be added to the program
to judge whether the file pointer moves to the end of the file, and the loop is
interrupted by the statement. The following code demonstrates the use of
readline ().
01 # Use readline () to Read Files
02 f=open("rod.txt")
03 while True:
04 line=f.readline()
05 if line:
06 print (line)
07 else:
08 break
09 f.close()
[Code Description]
The code in line 3 uses "True" as the loop condition to form a permanent true
loop.
Line 4 calls readline () to read every line of the hello.txt file. Each cycle
outputs the following results in turn.
This is countryside
Line 5 code, judge whether the variable LINE is true. If true, the content of
the current line is output; otherwise, exit the loop. If the fourth line of code is
changed to the following statement, the reading method is slightly different,
but the reading content is exactly the same.
line=f.readline(2)
This line of code does not mean that only 2 bytes are read per line, but that
each line reads 2 bytes at a time until the end of the line.
2. Multi-line reading method readlines ()
To read a file using readlines (), you need to return the elements in the list by
looping through readlines (). The readlines () function reads multiple lines of
data in a file at once.
The following code demonstrates how readlines () reads a file.
01 # use readlines () to read files
02 f=file('rod.txt')
03 lines=f.readlines()
04 for line in lines: # read multiple lines at once
05 print (line)
06 f.close()
[Code Description]
The third line of code calls readlines () to store all the contents of the file
rod.txt in the list lines.
The fourth line of code loops through the contents of the list lines.
Line 5 code output list lines for each element
01 f=open("rod.txt")
02 context=f.read(5) # reads the first 5 bytes of the file
03 print (context)
04 print (f.tell()) # returns the current pointer position of the file object
05 context=f.read(5) # continue reading 5 bytes of content
06 print (context)
07 print (f.tell()) # output file current pointer position
08 f.close()
[Code Description]
The second line of code calls read(5) to read the contents of the first 5 bytes
in the hello.txt file and store it in the variable context. At this point, the
pointer of the file moves to the 5th byte.
The third line of code outputs the result of the variable context and the output
is "hello."
Line 4 calls tell () to output the current file
Line 5 code calls read(5) again to read the contents of bytes 6 to 10.
The output of line 6 is "world."
Line 7 code outputs the current file pointer position: 10.
Note that the location of the file pointer will be recorded inside the file object
for the next operation. As long as the file object does not execute the close ()
method, the file pointer will not be released.

Writing of files
The implementation of file writing also has many methods. You can use the
write (), writelines () methods to write files. It uses the write () method to
write strings to files, while the writelines () method can write the contents
stored in the list to files.
The following code demonstrates how to write elements in the list to a file.
01 # use writelines () to write files
02 f=file("rod.txt,” "w+")
03 li=["hello country side\n,” "hello city\n"]
04 f.writelines(li)
05 f.close()
[Code Description]
The second line of code uses the "w+" mode to create and open the file
hello.txt
Line 3 defines a list Li. Li stores 2 elements, each representing 1 line in the
file, and "\n" is used for line feed.
The fourth line of code calls writelines () to write the contents of list li into
the file.
The contents of the document are as follows.
hello countryside
hello City
The above two methods will erase the original contents of the file before
writing and rewrite the new contents, which is equivalent to "overwriting." If
you need to keep the original contents of the file and just add new contents,
you can open the file using mode "a+.”
The following code demonstrates the join operation of the file.
01 # Joins New Content to File
02 f=file("rod.txt,” "first+") # is written by joining a+
03 new_context="It is over"
04 f.write(getdetails)
05 f.close()
[Code Description]
The second line of code uses the mode "first+" to open the file hello.txt
The fourth line of code calls the write () method, the original contents of the
hello.txt file remain unchanged, and the contents of the variable getdetails are
written to the end of the rod.txt file. Txt is as follows.
hello countryside
hello City
goodbye
Writing files using writelines () is faster. If there are too many strings to write
to a file, you can use writelines () to improve efficiency. If only a small
number of strings need to be written, write () can be used directly.

Deletion of documents
The deletion of files requires the use of os modules and os.path modules. Os
module provides operating system-level interface functions for system
environment, files, directories, etc. File Handling Functions Commonly Used
in os Modules Note that the use of the OS module's open () function is
different from that of the built-in open () function.
The removal of the file needs to be implemented by calling the remove ()
function. Before deleting a file, it is necessary to determine whether the file
exists or not, if so, delete the file; otherwise, nothing will be done.
The following code demonstrates the deletion of the file:
01 import os
03 file("rod.txt,” "w")
04 if os.path.exists("rod.txt"):
05 os.remove("rod.txt")
[Code Description]
Line 3 code creates the file hello.txt
The fourth line of code calls the existing () of os.path module to determine
whether the file hello.txt exists.
Line 5 calls remove () to delete the file hello.txt

Reproduction of documents
The file class does not provide a method for directly copying files, but the
read () and write () methods can be used to copy files. The following code
copies the contents of hello.txt to hello2.txt.
01 # uses read (), write () to copy
Txt
03 src=file("rod.txt,” "w")
04 li=["hello world\n,” "hello US\n"]
05 src.writelines(li)
06 src.close()
07 # copy rod.txt to rod2.txt
08 src=open("rod.txt,” "r")
09 dst=open("rod2.txt,” "w")
10 dst.write(src.read())
11 src.close()
12 dst.close()
[Code Description]
Line 8 code opens the file hello.txt as read-only.
Line 9 code opens the file hello2.txt in a write-only manner.
In line 10, read () the contents of hello.txt, and then write these contents into
rod2.txt. Shutil module is another file and directory management interface,
providing some functions for copying files and directories. Copyfile ()
function can copy files.
The declaration of copyfile () function is as follows:
copyfile(src, dst)
[Code Description]
The parameter src represents the path of the source file and src is a string
type.
The parameter dst represents the path of the target file, and dst is a string
type.
This function copies the file pointed to by src to the file pointed to by dst.
The file can be cut using the move () function, which is declared as follows.

copyfile(src, dst, *, follow_symlinks=True)

The parameter of move () is the same as copyfile (), move A file or directory
is moved to a specified location, and the moved file can be renamed
according to the parameter dst. The following code uses shutil module to
copy files.
01 # shutil Module Implements File Replication
02 import shutil
03
04 shutil.copyfile("rod.txt,”"rod2.txt")
05 shutil.move("rod.txt,”.”./")
06 shutil.move("rod2.txt,”"rod3.txt")
[Code Description]
The fourth line of code calls copyfile (), copying the contents of hello.txt to
hello2.txt.
Line 5 calls move (), copies hello.txt to the parent directory of the current
directory, and then deletes hello.txt. Txt and paste it into the parent directory.
Line 6 calls move () to move hello2.txt to the current directory and name it
hello3.txt. Txt will be deleted.

Renaming of files
The function rename () of the os module can rename files or directories. The
following code demonstrates the file renaming operation. If there is a file
named hello.txt in the current directory, rename it hi.txt; if there is a hi.txt
file, rename it hello.txt.
01 # Modify File Name
02 import os
03 li=os.listdir(.”")
04 print (li)
05 if "hello.txt" in li:
06 os.rename("hello.txt,” "hi.txt")
07 elif "hi.txt" in li:
08 os.rename("hi.txt,” "hello.txt")
[Code Description]
The third line of code calls listdir () to return the file list of the current
directory, where .”" indicates the current directory.
Thus, we have ended this book that explained a lot of python topics in detail
with the help of various examples. This is enough to start a small-medium-
level project which can help you implement all these concepts. Use GitHub to
find different python projects and start reading them. All the best for your
Coding Career. Cheers!
 Conclusion

Thank you for making it through to the end of Python for beginners. Let’s
hope it was informative and able to provide you with all of the tools you need
to achieve your goals whatever they may be.
The next step is to implement these concepts to build coding projects and
software applications. We have discussed a lot of concepts from basics to
advanced stuff in detail.
Finally, if you found this book useful in any way, a review on Amazon is
always appreciated!
 Python Machine Learning:

The Ultimate and Complete Guide for

Beginners on Data Science and Machine
Learning with Python (Learning
Technology, Principles, and
Applications)
 By
Kevin Cooper
 Introduction

Congratulations for purchasing Python Machine Learning: The Ultimate and

Complete Guide for Beginners on Data Science and Machine Learning with
Python (Learning Technology, Principles, and Applications) and thank you
for doing so.

With the world going global, data science is the ultimate secret sauce of
technology, and it is on it that Artificial Intelligence lies. From predictive
analysis like weather forecast to pattern discovery, data science can produce
data from huge elements.

If you want to know more about data science, Python, and some of the fields
attached to it, this book will take you through the journey of technology. It
will discuss the importance as well as the benefits of data science to the
world. And as a fuel of any industry, you will read about how data science
impacts virtually all angles of the enterprise.

Away from data science and its applications, this book will discuss linear
algebra and why it is vital to prepare you to make an entrance into the
universe of machine learning. It will discuss in details every aspect of
machine learning, leading to the types of machine learning and their
algorithms as well as their use cases. The book will break the ground with the
discussion of Python, its benefits, learning Python with machine learning, and
ultimately, neural networks.
If you want to learn everything about Python, the details about its language,
the basic needs of machine learning, Python for data science, and so much
more, this book discuss some of these topics and many more.

In conclusion, thank you for picking up this book even when there are several
topics like this on the market. We went extra miles to package it with as
much information on Python for the beginner as much. And we believe that
you will have a good time reading it.
Chapter 1: What are Data Science and Deep
Learning?
There is an increasing need for storage of big data with the world going
global. Until 2010, this need has become the primary concern and challenges
of the enterprises. Building solutions and frameworks for data storage was a
critical focus. However, to process this data becomes the next focus since the
problem of building solutions and structures has been solved through
frameworks, particularly Hadoop, among others. Here, the secret sauce is
data science. Through data science, the science-fiction movies in Hollywood
can become an actual reality. And the imminent hope of Artificial Intelligent
is data science. As a result, understanding of data science and its benefits to
businesses is quite vital. As you read on, you will have an accurate
knowledge of the functions of data, its meaning in obtaining significant
insights from large and complex data sets in our environments and
surroundings.

Why Data Science Is Important

By convention, through the use of simple BI tools, we can also analyze the
data we had since they are small and structured in size. Unlike the traditional
structured data, the majority of the data in recent times are semi-structured or
unstructured.
The capacity to produce data from huge elements is through some sources
like instruments, multimedia forms, sensors, financial logs, and text files. The
variety and volume of the data are so massive that regular tools of BI have no
capacity of processing it. Consequently, to analyze and prepare valuable
insights out it, there is a need for advanced and more sophisticated algorithms
and analytical tools.
Data science becomes famous not only through this reason and to know how
different domains make use of it, but we also need to dig deeper.
As the owner of a business, through the available data such as purchase
history of your customers’ income, history of their past browsing, and age,
you will have a clear grasp of the exact needs of your customers. It is likely
you have this entire data in advance, but will gain more precision with the
recommendation of the product by training models through the variety and
vast amount of data now in your possession. More business would come your
way with this technique, and it would be amazing.
Let’s take a look at another example to have more understanding of the role
of decision making in data science. If your car can drive you around through
its intelligence, how would life be for you? For its environment, automatic
cars generate a plan by collecting live data with the aid of cameras, lasers,
and radars. Using machine learning algorithms, it decides when to overtake,
at what time to make a turn with the use of this data, and the time or moment
to speed up and down.
In predictive analyzes, data science is useful as well – for example, weather
forecast. Building models will be achievable through the analysis and
collection of data from radars, aircraft, satellites, and ships. Not only will
these models help in the prediction of any disasters when they occur, but will
also help to forecast the weather. The process will save several precious lives
and help people take necessary measures beforehand.
It is now time to understand the meaning of data science since we have had a
clear grasp of the need for it.
What is Data Science?
It is becoming increasing to use the word data science; however, what is the
meaning of this term? Do people need specific skills befitting of data
scientists? Can we make any distinction between BI and data science? How
do they make predictions and decisions in data science? You will have
answers to some of these questions down the line.
But first, let’s define data science. In a layman term, it is a combination of
different algorithms, principles of machine learning, and tools to identify raw
data from hidden patterns. But, from the decades of research by the
statisticians, how is this process different?
Prediction and explanation are where we can find the thin line.
Through the processing of data history, it is usual for data analysts to explain
the situation. Alternatively, while data analysts utilize different advanced
algorithms of machine learning to discover the occasion of a specific future
event, they also do critical analysis to have insight from it. Part of the process
also is for the data analyst to examine the data around various angles, which
may not be part of the earlier discovery.
Therefore, data analysts use data science in the process of making predictions
and decisions through machine learning, predictive analytics (decision and
predictive science), and casual analytics.

Predictive casual analytics:

With the application of predictive causal analytics, you will soon be on your
way to having a model that can predict the likelihood of a specific future
event. It will be a matter of concern for you if the customer will be making
prompt credit payments in the future when you offer money on credit. In this
process, to have a prediction of whether future payments will be punctual or
not, you will have to carry out predictive analytics on the history of payment
of the customer by developing a model.

Prescription analytics:
There will be a requirement for prescriptive analytics when you are set to get
a model that, through dynamic parameters, has the intellectual capacity of
modifying the decision it takes itself. Though it provides advice, it is a
comparatively recent discipline. In other words, apart from prediction, it
makes suggestions on a variety of given associated outcomes and actions. For
example, Google’s self-driving cars. To guide a self-driving vehicle, they
make use of the data they gather. And to bring intelligence to it, you can
process algorithms on this data. To this end, taking decisions is part of the
capacities of the car, including the path they must take, speed up or slow
down, and when to turn.

Making predictions through machine learning:

Machine learning algorithms are the best bet when there is a need for creating
a model for establishing the trend in the future as the owner of transactional
data of a finance company. The supervised learning is the necessary sum of
this dynamic. Since the data are in your possession that a data scientist can
then train the machine, it becomes supervised. For example, through the use
of past evidence of fraudulent acquisition, you can direct a model of fraud
recognition.

Machine learning for the discovery of the pattern:

To have the capacity of making meaningful predictions, there may be a need
to identify the concealed trends when you have no parameters based on
which you can make predictions. Because your grouping of the label is not
defined already, this process is unsupervised. And for the discovery of
pattern, clustering is the most common algorithm they use. As a telephone
company staff, some regions will need towers when you need to establish a
network. To make sure that there’s optimum signal strength for the entire
users, identify those tower locations, and here, you can use clustering
method.

Data Science vs. Business Intelligence (BI)

For the description of trends, business intelligence finds insight
and hindsight by analyzing the data used before. You will have the
ability to obtain data from sources in internal and external, create
dashboards to run queries as you prepare it through business
intelligence and get solutions to the problems such issues with
business or analysis of quarterly revenue. To evaluate the effect of
specific events shortly is another feature of business intelligence.
As an investigative method with the focal point on evaluating the
current or past data, data science has an approach of forward-
looking to predict the outcomes of the future to make informed
decisions. Data science is a go-to when it comes to getting precise
answers to queries that are undefined as to “how” and “what”
events happen.
Data Science Lifecycle
The situation of charging into analysis and collection of data without proper
framing of the business or perhaps not having enough understanding of the
requirement is a common mistake people make in data science. As a result, to
look out for the smooth operation of the project, following the entire
segments of the lifecycle of data science is quire essential.

Phase 1 – Discovery:
Having a clear grasp of the variety of requirements, specifications, required
budget, and priorities of the project are vital. The capability to probe
uncertainties is a must. Next is the stage of assessment where you know
whether you possess the necessary resources, including supporting the project
with technology, people, data, and time. Also, formulating IH, that is, initial
hypotheses for analyzing and framing the problem of the business is required
in this stage.

Phase 2 – Preparation of data:

The analytical sandbox to execute diagnostics for the whole period of the
development is what you need in this stage. Also, before modeling, you must
preprocess, condition, and explore data. Also, to ensure the sandbox has the
data you have obtained, it is essential you complete the process of extract,
transform, load, and convert, that is, ETLT. For data transformation,
visualization, and cleaning make use of R. Then, you will have to carry out
analytics of exploratory on the data after preparing and cleaning it.

Phase 3 – model planning:

This phase is to describe the connection between variables by determining the
techniques and methods. These connections will initiate the source so that the
algorithms will apply in the stage that will follow. You will make use of
different visualization tools and statistical formulas to apply EDA,
Exploratory Data Analytics.
Here are model planning tools;
R
ACCESS/SAS
SQL Analysis Services
1. By utilizing basic predictive models and conventional data mining,
SQL Analysis services know how to execute analytics that are in-
database.
2. To create reusable and repeatable model flow diagrams, when
 people want to use Hadoop to get into data, they use
SAS/ACCESS.
3. Apart from offering a suitable environment for building
interpretive models, R has a complete set of modeling capabilities.
By getting insights into your data’s characteristics, now is the time to build a
model after applying the algorithms when you have decided on which to use.

Phase 4 – Building the model:

To test and train purposes, it is now time to develop datasets. Also, it is time
for consideration on if all the accessible tools you have need new robust
environments such as parallel or fast processing, or if they are going to be
sufficient for models’ processing. At this point, for model building, it is
essential to evaluate different learning procedures such as association,
clustering, and classification.
Here are tools for building a model;
WEKA
SAS Enterprise Miner
Alpine Miner
Statistica
Matlab
SPCS Modeler
Phase 5 – Operationalize:
Now is the moment of delivering final code, technical documents, briefing,
and reports. Also, in some situations, in an immediate production setting,
people implement a guide task. They do this to have a clear understanding of
not only the performance but also other connected restraints on a lesser
degree far ahead of the entire operation.
Phase 6 – Communicate results:
To know if you could accomplish your purpose that you set out to for initially
now is the time to evaluate it. This evaluation is quite crucial. Therefore,
based on the criteria you developed in Phase 1, you will discover all the vital
outcomes and stakeholders must be in the loop to determine whether the
consequences of the plan are successful in the last phase.

Secret Sauces of Data Scientists

Data scientists need to acquire the skills of written and verbal
communication, especially strong soft skills. While being conscious of their
audience by using appropriate language and jargon, data scientists need to
have the magic to deliver the results in a compelling, insightful, and
understandable way in the point of communicating and providing the results.
Also, there must be a connection between the business goal and the results
where the project spawns in the first place.
Furthermore, knowledge about probabilities, mathematics, and statistics as
well as strong computer programming are some of the skills data scientists
need to draw upon to select the correct solution approach, have a grasp of the
data, improve on it, and also implement the solution.
APIs and data science are essential off-the-shelf factors to discuss. Anyone
can consider that they can use them relative ease and as a result, they don’t
need any crucial expertise in some fields or a well-rounded, influential data
scientist. Indeed, anyone can likely achieve a decent result after using some
of these products with no effort depending on the problem they desire to
solve. However, they might have omitted many parts of data science where
chops and experience are significantly critical.
Part of the skills needed necessarily is to;
 Maximize results through the approach customization and with the
skills to significantly modify the existing ones as required or the
skills to write new algorithms, identify the solution to some of
these issues.
Integrate the various data sources and databases sources including
NoSQL, RDBMS, NewSQL, after querying and accessing them
into analytics-driven data sources such as data lake, OLAP,
warehouse.
Choose and discover the optimal data features (variables) and data
sources, as well as creating needed new ones.
Work effectively, cross-functionally, and in collaboration with
entire company groups and departments.
Even with education, becoming a data scientist has no single path. Among
some of the universities’ curriculum are analytic-specific programs and data
science, particularly at the master’s level. Also, there are certification
programs by other organizations and some universities. Irrespective of means
to learn data science, it is essential for data scientists to have acquired highly
technical skills and advanced quantitative knowledge, mainly in mathematics,
statistics, and computer science.

An In-depth Look into Deep Learning

To classify and predict information, a technique that trains a computer to
filter observations or inputs like sound, text, or image, is what can be
considered as deep learning. Deep learning gets its inspiration through the
manner of how our brains filter information. Instead of task-related
algorithms, deep learning is a part of machine learning family that is
principally derived from learning data representations. In the early 90s,
cognitive neuroscientists proposed a class of theories about brain
development, and deep learning has a close relationship to this proposition.
The model and methods these researchers put together correlate with the
development of the human neocortex. Similar to the brain, neural networks
make use of layered filters’ chain of command whereby each layer leans from
the previous layer and then passes its output to the next layer. Consequently,
in its effort, deep learning imitates the actions of neurons’ layers in the
neocortex.
With almost 100 billion neurons in the human brain, these neurons have a
connection with about 100,000 of its neighbors. Indeed, though at the degree
that aligns with machines, this same model is what we are attempting at
creating.
To impersonate the manner at which the human brain functions to produce
real magic is the purpose of deep learning. Therefore, what is the meaning of
this in relations to axons, neurons, dendrites, and so many others? An axon
transfers to the dendrites of the next neuron with the signal from one neuron.
Even though it is far from being a physical connection, a synapse is where
that signal is passed in such process.
Though the neurons function together to produce some severe charms, you
have plenty of them and are useless. Well, deep learning gets its idea from
this process! By putting an input you get from an observation into one layer,
it turns to an output that invariably becomes the input for the next layer, and
so on. Till the final output signal, this process occurs over and over.
Through input values, node, which is the neuron, gets a signal which passes
through the neuron to convey the output signal. The input layer is similar to
the human senses; some things that we smell, see, feel, and so on. For a
single observation, these are independent variables. Then, a computer can
make use of the bits of binary data when the information is broken down into
numbers. For these variables to be in the same range, you may have to
normalize or standardize them.
It is likely for the value of our input to be continuous as in the case of price.
Also, it can be yes or no as in the case of binary, or it can be dog, cat, sloth,
hedgehog, and so on, in case of categorical. There will be a situation of
various out variables with categorical and not just one variable.
It also helps to keep in mind that there will be a connection with the same
single observation of your output value from the input values. For example,
when your inspection of the vehicle, salary, and age are your input values,
you will also find a correlation to the similar view of the same person in the
value of your output. It is essential to pay attention to this analysis, even
though it appears so necessary.
And also vital to Artificial Neural Networks, ANNs are the weights that each
the synapses get assigned. AAN decides the extent that the signal can pass
along through the adjustment of the weights. The decision of the change in
the masses as well as training the network happens all at the same time.
If you want to know what occurs inside the neuron, there is the analysis of
the weighted sum as well as the process of adding up all of the values.
Subsequently, a function that is applied to this specific neuron is the
application of an activation function. Whether it has any requirement of
passing along a signal or not is what the neuron understands from that. The
repletion of this process happens for thousands or even hundreds of
thousands of times! In the place where our input values come from the nodes,
that is, the things we want to predict or things we know already, and our
predictions, which is the output values, and in between those, we have a
hidden layer, or layers, where the information travels before it hits the output
is where we have created an artificial neural net. Instead of the manner the
information going straight into your brain, you have the understanding of the
information you see through your eyes.
 Chapter 2: Data Science and Applications
To some extents, data science is recently becoming the most popular field.
Nearly all of the world businesses today use data science. Consequently, the
fuel of any industry is data science. Industries that use data science include
transport, banking, education, e-commerce, manufacturing, finance, and so
on. To this end, related to the convention of data science are various
applications. Multiple disciplines stem from this single career line. With
massive numbers of applications, data science has become quite essential for
all industries. It has shaped and kept so many businesses in any trends around
the world.
It is not overnight that the function of data science applications develops.
Cheaper storage and computing have made tremendous contributions to
shorten tasks people do in a day within a few hours. To see how these
applications have shaped today’s industries, it will be essential to discuss
some of these critical applications. Also, the way they transform the world
and revolutionize people’s perceptions of data. Ultimately, it is vital to
address various situations industries use data to make them better.

Banking and Finance

Finance takes the leading position when it comes to data science applications.
Every year, losses and bad debts were on the rise, and businesses were going
down. Grief was the order of the day for those surviving. However, since
they sanctioned loans while they have paperwork that provided them with
various data, they needed rescue, and that is where data scientists came in to
help.
As a vital element to match their competition, it is now more than a trend for
the banking industries to engage in the applications of data science. Right
now, making smarter decisions, enhancing performance, and focusing their
resources have been possible for banks because of those big data
technologies. Some of the cases of data science applications include;

Fraud detection
For fraud involving credit cards prevention and detection, insurance,
accounting, and so many more, data science application becomes crucial.
Banks are being proactive with the security of their employees and
customers. It is now faster for banks to resist activity on an account to
minimize losses since they detect fraud quickly. As a result, they have been
able to avoid significant loses and achieve necessary protection when they
implement a series of fraud detection schemes.
The fraud detection vital steps include:
Estimation of model
Getting data samplings for preliminary testing and model
estimation
Deployment and testing stage
Data scientists need to fine-tune and train individual data set since they are
different. There are demands for expertise in techniques of data-mining,
including forecasting, classification, association, and clustering, to transform
the in-depth theoretical knowledge into practical applications. For example,
the bank’s fraud protection system can put unusual high transactions on hold
pending the confirmation from the account holder. Algorithms of fraud
detection can also investigate multiple accounts opened in a short period with
the same data, or unusual high purchases of popular items of new accounts.
Customer data management
It is part of the obligations of the banks to analyze, store, or collect vast
numbers of data. With these data, data science applications are transforming
them into a possibility for banks to learn more about their customers. Doing
this will drive new revenue opportunities instead of seeing those data as a
mere compliance exercise. People widely use digital banking, and it is more
popular these days. The result of this influx produces terabytes of data by
customers; therefore, isolating genuinely relevant data is the first line of
action for data scientists. With the customers’ preferences, interactions, and
behaviors, then, data science applications will isolate the information of the
most relevant clients and process them to enhance the decision-making of the
business.

Investment banks risk modeling

While it serves the most critical purposes during the pricing of financial
investments, investment banks have a high priority for risk modeling since it
helps regulate commercial activities. For investment goals and to conduct
corporate reorganizations or restructuring, investment banking evaluates
values of businesses to facilitate acquisitions and mergers as well as create
capital in corporate financing. For banks, as a result, risk modeling seems
exceedingly substantial, and with more data science tools in reserve and
information at hand, they can assess it to their benefit. Now, for efficient risk
modeling and better data-driven decisions, with data science applications,
innovators in the industry are leveraging these new technologies.

Personalized marketing
Providing a customized offer that fits the preferences and needs of particular
customers is crucial to success in marketing. Now it is possible to make the
right offer on the correct device to the right customer at the right time. For a
new product, people target selection to identify the potential customers with
the use of data science application. With the aid of apps, scientists create a
model that predicts the probability of a customer’s response to an offer or
promotion through their demographics, historical purchase, and behavioral
data. Thus, banks have improved their customer relations, personalize
outreach, and efficient marketing through data science applications.

Health and Medicine

An innovative potential industry to implement the solutions of data science in
health and medicine. From the exploration of genetic disease to the discovery
of drug and computerizing medical records, data analytics is taking medical
science to an entirely new level. It is perhaps astonishing that this dynamic is
just the beginning. Through finances, data science and healthcare are most
times connected as the industry makes efforts to cut down on its expenses
with the help of a large amount of data. There is quite a significant
development between medicine and data science, and their advancement is
crucial. Here are some of the impacts data science applications have on
medicine and health.

Analysis of medical image

Medical imaging is one of the most significant benefits the healthcare sectors
get from data science application. As significant research, Big Data Analytics
in healthcare indicates that some of the imaging techniques in medicine and
health are X-ray, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), mammography,
computed tomography, and so many others. More applications in
development will effectively extract data from images, present an accurate
interpretation, and enhance the quality of the image. As these data science
applications suggest better treatment solutions, they also boost the accuracy
of diagnoses.
Genomics and genetics
Sophisticated therapy individualization is made possible through studies in
genomics and genetics. Finding the individual biological correlation between
disease, genetics, and drug response and also understand the effect of the
DNA on our health is the primary purpose of this study. In the research of the
disease, with an in-depth understanding of genetic issues in reaction to
specific conditions and drugs, the integration of various kinds of data with
genomic data comes through data science techniques. It may be useful to look
into some of these frameworks and technologies. For a short time of
processing efficient data, MapReduce allows reading genetic sequences
mapping, retrieving genomic data is accessible through SQL, BAM file
computation, and manipulation. Also, principally to DNA interpretation to
predict the molecular effects of genetic variation, The Deep Genomics makes
a substantial impact. Scientists have the ability to understand the manner at
which genetic variations impact a genetic code with their database.

Drugs creation
Involving various disciplines, the process of drug discovery is highly
complicated. Most times, the most excellent ideas pass through billions of
enormous time and financial expenditure and testing. Typically, getting a
drug submitted officially can take up to twelve years. With an addition of a
perspective to the individual stage of drug compound screening to the
prediction of success rate derived from the biological factors, the process is
now shortened and simplified with the aid of data science applications. Using
simulations rather than the “lab experiments,” and advanced mathematical
modeling, these applications can forecast how the compound will act in the
body. With computational drug discovery, it produces simulations of
computer model as a biologically relevant network simplifying the prediction
of future results with high accuracy.

Virtual assistance for customer and patients support

The idea that some patients don’t necessarily have to visit doctors in person is
the concept behind the clinical process optimization. Also, doctors don’t
necessarily have to visit too when the patients can get more effective
solutions with the use of a mobile application. Commonly as chatbots, the
AI-powered mobile apps can provide vital healthcare support. Derived from a
massive network connecting symptoms to causes, it is as simple as receiving
vital information about your medical condition after you describe your
symptoms. When necessary, applications can assign an appointment with a
doctor and also remind you to take your medicine on time. Allowing doctors
to have their focus on more critical cases, these applications save patients’
time on waiting in line for an appointment as well as promote a healthy
lifestyle.

Industry knowledge
To offer the best possible treatment and improve the services, knowledge
management in healthcare is vital. It brings together externally generated
information and internal expertise. With the creation of new technologies and
the rapid changes in the industry every day, effective distribution, storing,
and gathering of different facts is essential. For healthcare organizations to
achieve progressive results, the integration of various sources of knowledge
and their combined use in the treatment process is secure through data
science applications.

Oil and Gas

The primary force behind various trends in industries like marketing, finance,
internet, among others, is machine learning and data science. And there
appears to be no exception for oil and gas industry through the extracting of
important observations with some applications in the sectors in upstream,
midstream, and downstream. As a result, within the industry, a valuable asset
to companies is refined data. Data science applications are quite useful in
some of these sectors of oil and gas.

Immediate drag calculation and torque using neural

networks
There is a need to analyze, in drilling, the structured visual data, which
operators get through logging. Also, they can capture the electronic drilling
recorder and contextual data, which takes the pattern of daily report of
drilling log. It is essential to make an instant decision because of the time-
bound disposition of drilling operations. As a result, companies predict
drilling key performance indicators; analyze rig states for real-time data
visualization with the use of neural networks. Using the AI, they can estimate
the coefficient of regular and friction contact forces between the wellbore and
the string. Also, in any given well, they can calculate on the drill strings real-
time the drag and torque. Historical data of pump washouts is what operators
can utilize, and through the alerts on their phone, they will be able to know
when and if there will be a washout.

Predicting well production profile through feature

extraction models
The recurring neural networks and time series forecasting is part of the
optimization of oil and gas production. Rates of gas-to-oil ratios and oil rates
prediction is a significant KPIs. Operators can calculate bottom-hole
pressure, choke, wellhead temperature, and daily oil rate prediction of data of
nearby well with the use of feature extraction models. In the event of
predicting production decline, they make use of fractured parameters. Also,
for pattern recognition on sucker rod dynamometer cards, they utilize neural
networks and deep learning.

Downstream optimization
To process gas and crude oil, oil refineries use a massive volume of water.
Now, there is a system that tackles water solution management in the oil and
gas industry. Also, with the aid of distribution by analyzing data effectively,
there is an increase in modeling speed for forecasting revenues through
cloud-based services.

The Internet
Anytime anyone thinks about data science, the first idea that comes to mind
is the internet. It is typical of thinking of Google when we talk about
searching for something on the internet. However, Bing, Yahoo, AOL, Ask,
and some others also search engines. For these search engines to give back to
you in a fraction of second when you put a search on them, data science
algorithms are all that they all have in common. Every day, Google process
more than 20 petabytes, and these search engines are known today with the
help of data science.

Targeted advertising
Of all the data science applications, the whole digital marketing spectrum is a
significant challenge against the search engines. The data science algorithms
decide the distribution of digital billboards and banner displays on different
websites. And against the traditional advertisements, data science algorithms
have helped marketers get a higher click-through-rates. Using the behavior of
a user, they can target them with specific adverts. And at the same time and
in the same place online, one user might see ads on anger management while
another user sees another ad on a keto diet.

Website recommendations
This case is something familiar to everyone as you see suggestions of the
same products even on eBay and Amazon. Doing this add so much to the user
experience while it helps to discover appropriate products from several
products available with them. Leaning on the relevant information and
interest of the users, so many businesses have promoted their products and
services with this engine. To improve user experience, some giants on the
internet, including Google Play, Amazon, Netflix, and others have used this
system. They derived these recommendations on the results of a user’s
previous search.

Advanced image recognition

The face recognition algorithm makes use of automatic tag suggestion feature
when a user uploads their picture on social media like Facebook and start
getting tag suggestions. For some time now, Facebook has made significant
capacity and accuracy with its image recognition. Also, by uploading an
image to the internet, you have the option of searching for them on Google,
providing the results of related search with the use of image recognition.

Speech recognition
Siri, Google Voice, Cortana, and so many others are some of the best speech
recognition products. It makes it easy for those who are not in the position of
typing a message to use speech recognition tools. Their speech will be
converted to text when they speak out their words. Though the accuracy of
speech recognition is not certain.

Travel and Tourism

There are several constant challenges and changes, even with the exceptional
opportunities data science has brought to many industries. And there is no
exception when it comes to travel and tourism. Today, there is a rise in travel
culture since a broader audience has been able to afford it. Therefore, by
getting more extensive than ever before, there is a dramatic change in the
target market. As a worldwide trend, travel, and tourism is no more a
privilege of the noble and the rich.
The data science algorithms have become essential in this industry to process
massive data and also delight the requirements of the rising numbers of
consumers. To enhance their services every day, the hotels, airlines, booking
and reservation websites, and several others now see big data are a vital tool.
The travel industry uses some of these tools to make it more efficient;

Customer segmentation and personalized marketing

To appreciate travel experience, personalization has become a preferred trend
for some people. The customer segmentation is the general stack of services
to please the needs of every group through the adaptation and segmenting of
the customers according to their preferences. Hence, finding a solution that
will align with all situations is crucial. Collecting users’ social media data to
unify, behavioral, and metadata, geolocation is what customer segmentation
and personalized marketing all about. For the future, it assumes and processes
the preferences of the user.

Analysis of customer sentiment

Recognizing emotional elements in the text and analyzing textual data is what
sentiment analysis does. The service provider, as well as the owner of a
business, can learn about the customers’ real attitude towards their brands
through sentiment analysis. The reviews of customers have a huge role when
it comes to the travel industry. This analysis is because to make decisions,
travelers read reviews customers posted on various websites and platforms
and then act upon these recommendations. As a result, providing sentiment
analysis is one of the service packages of some modern booking websites for
those travel hotels and agencies that are willing to cooperate with them.

Recommendation engine
This concept is one of the most promising and efficient, according to some
experts. In their everyday work, some central booking and travel web
platforms use recommendation engines. Mainly, through the available offers,
they match the needs and wishes of customers with these recommendations.
Based on preferences and previous search, the travel and tourism companies
have the ability to provide alternative travel dates, rental deals, new routes,
attractions, and destination when they apply the data-powered
recommendation engine solutions. Offering suitable provisions to all these
customers, booking service providers, and travel agencies achieve this with
the use of recommendation engines.

Travel support bots

With the provisions of exceptional assistance in travel arrangements and
support for the customers, travel bots are indeed changing the travel industry
nowadays. Saving user’s money and time, answering questions, suggesting
new places to visit and organizing the trips have the influence of an AI-
powered travel bot. It is the best possible solution for customers support due
to its support of multiple languages and 24/7 accessibility mode. It is
significant to add that these bots are always learning and as such, are
becoming more helpful and smarter every day. Therefore, solving the major
tasks of travel and tourism is what chatbot can do. Both customers and
business owners benefit from these chatbots.

Route optimization
In the travel and tourism industry, route optimization plays a significant role.
It can be quite challenging to account for several destinations, plan trips,
schedules, and working distances and hours. With route optimization, it
becomes easy to do some of the following:
Time management
Minimization of the travel costs
Minimization of distance
For sure, data science improves lives and also continues to change the faces
of several industries, giving them the opportunity of providing unique
experiences for their customers with high satisfaction rates. Apart from
shifting our attitudes, data science has become one of the promising
technologies that bring changes to different businesses. With several
solutions the data science applications provide, it is no doubt that its benefits
cannot be over-emphasized.
 Chapter 3: Probability – Fundamental –
Statistics – Data Types
Things are quite straightforward in Knowledge Representation and
Reasoning; KR&R. Exclusive of doubt, formulating and representing
propositions is easy. The thing is, when uncertainty makes itself known,
problems begin to arise – for example, an expert system designed to replace a
doctor. For diagnosing patients, a doctor possesses no formal knowledge of
treating the patient and no official rules based off of symptoms. In this
situation, to determine if the patient has a specific condition and also the cure
for it, it is the probability the expert system will use to formulate the highest
probability chance.

Real-Life Probability Examples

As a mathematical term, probability has to do with the possibility that an
event may occur like taking out from a bag of assorted colors a piece of green
or drawing an ace from a deck of cards. In all daily decision-making process,
you use probability even without having a clue of the consequences. While
you may determine the best course of action is to make judgment calls using
subjective probability, you may not perform actual probability problems
sometimes.

Organize around the weather

You can make plans with the weather in mind since you use probability
almost every day. Predicting the weather condition is not possible for
meteorologists and as a result, to establish the possibility that there will be
snow, hail, or rain, they utilize instruments and tools. For example, it has
rained with the conditions of the weather that is 60 out of 100 days amid the
same conditions when there is a 60 percent chance of rain. Intuitively, rather
than going to work with an umbrella or putting on sandals, closed-toed shoes,
maybe preferred outfit to wear. Also, not only do meteorologists analyze
probable weather patterns for that week or day but with the historical
databases that they also examine to calculate approximately low and high
temperatures.

Strategies in sports
For competitions and games, the probability is what coaches and athletes
utilize to influence the best strategies for sports. When putting any player in
the lineup, a coach of baseball evaluates the batting average of such a player.
For example, out of every ten at-bats, an athlete may get a base hit two if the
player’s batting average is 200. The odd is even higher for a player to even
have, out of every ten at-bats, four hits when such a player has a 400-batting
average. Another example is when; field goal attempts from over 40 yards
out of 15, a high-school football kicker makes nine in a season, his next goal
effort from the same space may be about 60 percent chance. We can have an
equation like this:
9/15 = 0.60 or 60 percent

Insurance option
To conclude on the plans that are best for your family and even for you and
the required deductible amounts, probability plays a vital role in analyzing
insurance policies. For example, you make use of probability to know how
possible it can be that you will need to make a declaration when you choose a
car insurance policy. You may likely make consideration for not only liability
but comprehensive insurance on your car when 12 percent or of every 100
drivers over the past year, 12 out of them in your community have crashed
into a deer. Also, if following a deer-connected event run $2,8000, not to be
in a situation where you cannot afford to cover certain expenses, you might
consider a lower deductible on car repairs.

Recreational and games activities

Probability is what you use when you engage in video or card games or play
board games that has the involvement of chance or luck. A required video
game covert missile or the chances of getting the cards you need in poker is
what you must weigh. Also, the determination of the extent of the risk you
will be eager to take rests on the possibility of getting those tokens or cards.
For example, as Wolfram Math World suggests, getting three of a class in a
poker hand is the odds of 46.3-to-1, about a chance of 2 percent. However,
you will have about 42 percent or 1.4-to-1 odds that you will catch one pair.
It is through the help of probability that you settle on the manner with which
you intend to play the game when you assess what is at stake.

Statistics
The basis of modern science is on the statements of probability and statistical
significance. In one example, according to studies, cigarette smokers have a
20 times greater likelihood of developing lung cancer than those that don’t
smoke. In another research, the next 200,000 years will have the possibility
of a catastrophic meteorite impact on Earth. Also, against the second male
children, the first-born male children exhibit IQ test scores of 2.82 points.
But, why do scientists talk in ambiguous expressions? Why don’t they say it
that lung cancer is as a result of cigarette smoking? And they could have
informed people if there needs to be an establishment of a colony on the
moon to escape the disaster of the extraterrestrial.
The rationale behind these recent analyses is an accurate reflection of the
data. It is not common to have absolute conclusions in scientific data. Some
smokers can reduce the risk of lung cancer if they quit, while some smokers
never contract the disease, other than lung cancer; it was cardiovascular
diseases that kill some smokers prematurely. As a form of allowing scientists
to make more accurate statements about their data, it is the statistic function
to quantify variability since there is an exhibition of variability in all data.
Those statistics offer evidence that something is incorrect may be a common
misconception. However, statistics have no such features. Instead, to observe
a specific result, they provide a measure of the probability. Scientists can put
numbers to probability through statistic techniques, taking a step away from
the statement that someone is more likely to develop lung cancer if they
smoke cigarettes to a report that says it is nearly 20 times greater in cigarette
smokers compared to nonsmokers for the probability of developing lung
cancer. It is a powerful tool the quantification of probability statistics offers
and scientists use it thoroughly, yet they frequently misunderstand it.

Statistics in data analysis

Developed for data analysis is a large number of procedures for statistics they
are in two parts of inferential and descriptive:

Descriptive statistics:
With the use of measures for deviation like mean, median, and standard,
scientists have the capability of quickly summing up significant attributes of
a dataset through descriptive statistics. They allow scientists to put the
research within a broad context while offering a general sense of the group
they study. For example, initiated in 1959, potential research on mortality
was Cancer Prevention Study 1 (CPS-1). Among other variables,
investigators gave reports of demographics and ages of the participants to let
them compare, at the time, the United States’ broader population and also the
study group. The age of the volunteers was from ages 30 to 108 with age in
the middle as 52 years. The research had 57 percent female as subjects, 2
percent black, and 97 percent white. Also, in 1960, the total population of
female in the US was 51 percent, black was about 11 percent, and white was
89 percent. The statistics of descriptive easily identified CPS-1’s recognized
shortcoming by suggesting that the research made no effort to sufficiently
consider illness profiles in the US marginal groups when 97 percent of
participants were white.

Inferential statistics:
When scientists want to make a considered opinion about data, making
suppositions about bigger populaces with the use of smaller samples of data,
discover connection between variables in datasets, and model patterns in
data, they make use of inferential statistics. From the perspective of statistics,
the term “population” may differ from the ordinary meaning that it belongs to
a collection of people. The larger group is a geometric population used by a
dataset for making suppositions about a society, locations of an oil field,
meteor impacts, corn plants, or some various set of measurements
accordingly.
With regards to scientific studies, the process of shifting results to larger
populations from small sample sizes is quite essential. For example, though
there was conscription of about 1 million and 1.2 million individuals in that
order for the Cancer Prevention Studies I and II, their representation is for a
tiny portion of the 1960 and 1980 United States people that totaled about 179
and 226 million. Correlation, testing/point estimation, and regression are
some of the standard inferential techniques. For example, Tor Bjerkedal and
Peter Kristensen analyzed 250,000 male’s test scores in IQ for personnel of
the Norwegian military in 2007. According to their examination, the IQ test
scores of the first-born male children scored higher points of 2.82 +/- 0.07
than second-born male children, 95 percent confidence level of a statistical
difference.
The vital concept in the analysis of data is the phrase “statistically
significant,” and most times, people misunderstand it. Similar to the frequent
application of the term significant, most people assume that a result is
momentous or essential when they call it significant. However, the case is
different. Instead, an estimate of the probability is statistical significance that
the difference or observed association is because of chance instead of any
actual connection. In other words, when there is no valid existing difference
or link, statistical significance tests describe the probability that the
difference or a temporary link would take place. Because it has a similar
implication in statistics typical of regular verbal communication, though
people can measure it, the measure of significance is most times expressed in
terms of confidence.

Data Types
To do Exploratory Data Analysis, EDA, you need to have a clear grasp of
measurement scales, which are also the different data types because specific
data types have correlated with the use of individual statistical measurements.
To select the precise visualization process, there is also the requirement of
identifying data types with which you are handling. The manner with which
you can categorize various types of variables is data types. Now, let’s take an
in-depth look at the main types of variables and their examples, and we may
refer to them as measurement scales sometimes.

Categorical data
Characteristics are the representation of categorical data. As a result, it stands
for things such as someone’s language, gender, and so on. Also, numerical
values have a connection with categorical data like 0 for female and 1 for
male. Be aware that those numbers have no mathematical meaning.

Nominal data
The discrete units are the representation of nominal values, and they use them
to label variables without any quantitative value. They are nothing but
“labels.” It is important to note that nominal data has no order. Hence,
nothing would change about the meaning even if you improve the order of its
values. For example, the value may not change when a question is asking you
for your gender, and you need to choose between female and male. The order
has no value.

Ordinal data
Ordered and discrete units are what ordinal values represent. Except for the
importance of its ordering, ordinal data is therefore almost similar to nominal
data. For example, when a question asks you about your educational
background and has the order of elementary, high school, undergraduate, and
graduate. If you observe, there is a difference between college and high
school and also between high school and elementary. Here is where the major
limitation of ordinal data suffices; it is hard to know the differences between
the values. Due to this limitation, they use ordinal scales to measure non-
numerical features such as customer satisfaction, happiness, etc.

Numerical Data
Discrete data
When its values are separate and distinct, then we refer to discrete data. In
other words, when the data can take on specific benefits, then we speak of
discrete data. It is possible to count this type of data, but we cannot measure
it. Classification is the category that its information represents. A perfect
instance is the number of heads in 100-coin flips. To know if you are dealing
with discrete data or not, try to ask the following two questions: can you
divide it into smaller and smaller parts, or can you count it?

Continuous data
Measurements are what continuous data represents, and as such, you can only
measure them, but you can’t count their values. For example, with the use of
intervals on the real number lines, you can describe someone’s height.

Interval data
The representation of ordered units with similar differences is interval values.
Consequently, in the course of a variable that contains ordered numeric
values and where we know the actual differences between the values is
interval data. For example, a feature that includes a temperature of a given
place may have the temperature in -10, -5, 0, +5, +10, and +15. Interval
values have a setback since they have no “true zero.” It implies that there is
no such thing as the temperature in regards to the example. Subtracting and
adding is possible with interval data. However, they don’t give room for
division, calculation, or multiplication of ratios. Ultimately, it is hard to apply
plenty of inferential and descriptive statistics because there is no true zero.

Ratio data
Also, with a similar difference, ratio values are ordered units. The contrast of
an absolute zero is what ratio values have, the same as the interval values.
For example, weight, length, height, and so on.

The Importance of Data Types

Since scientists can only use statistical techniques with specific data types,
then data types are an essential concept. You may have a wrong analysis if
you continue to analyze data differently than categorical data. As a result, you
will have the ability to choose the correct technique of study when you have a
clear understanding of the data with which you are dealing. It is essential to
go over every data once more. However, in regards to what statistic
techniques one can apply. There is a need to understand the basics of
descriptive statistics before you can comprehend what we have to discuss
right now. Note: you can read all about descriptive statistics down the line in
this chapter.

Statistical Methods
Nominal data
The sense behind dealing with nominal data is to accumulate information
with the aid of:

Frequencies:
The degree upon which an occasion takes place concerning a dataset or over
a period is the frequency.

Proportion:
When you divide the frequency by the total number of events, you can easily
calculate the proportion. For example, how often an event occurs divided by
how often the event could occur.

Percentage:
Here, the technique required is visualization, and a bar chart or a pie chat is
all that you need to visualize nominal data. To transform nominal data into a
numeric feature, you can make use of one-hot encoding in data science.

Ordinal data
The same technique you use in nominal data can be applied with ordinal data.
However, some additional tools here there for you to access. Consequently,
proportions, percentages, and frequencies are the data you can use for your
summary. Bar charts and pie charts can be used to visualize them. Also, for
the review of your data, you can use median, interquartile range, mode, and
percentiles.

Continuous data
You can use most techniques for your data description when you are dealing
with constant data. For the summary of your data, you can use range, median,
percentiles, standard deviation, interquartile range, and mean.

Visualization techniques:
A box-plot or a histogram, checking the variability, central tendency, kurtosis
of a distribution, and modality all come to mind when you are attempting to
visualize continuous data. You need to be aware that when you have any
outliers, a histogram may not reveal that. That is the reason for the use of
box-plots.

Descriptive Statistics
As an essential aspect of machine learning, to have an understanding of your
data, you need descriptive statistical analysis since making predictions is
what machine is all about. On the other hand, as a necessary initial step, you
conclude from data through statistics. Your dataset needs to go through
descriptive statistical analysis. Most people often get to wrong conclusions by
losing a considerable amount of beneficial understandings regarding their
data since they skip this part. It is better to be careful when running your
descriptive statistics, take your time, and for further analysis, ensure your
data complements all prerequisites.

Normal Distribution
Since almost all statistical tests require normally distributed data, the most
critical concept of statistics is the normal distribution. When scientists plot it,
it is essentially the depiction of the patterns of large samples of data.
Sometimes, they refer to it as the “Gaussian curve,” or the “bell curve.”
There is a requirement that a normal distribution is given for calculation and
inferential statistics of probabilities. The implication of this is that you must
be careful of what statistical test you apply to your data if it not normally
distributed since they could lead to wrong conclusions.
If your data is symmetrical, unimodal, centered, and bell-shaped, a normal
distribution is given. Each side is an exact mirror of the other in a perfectly
normal distribution.

Central tendency
Mean, mode, and the median is what we need to tackle in statistics. Also,
these three are referred to as the “Central Tendency.” Apart from being the
most popular, these three are distinctive “averages.”
With regards to its consideration as a measure that is most consistent of the
central propensity for formulating a hypothesis about a population from a
particular model, the mean is the average. For the clustering of your data
value around its mean, mode, or median, central tendency determines the
tendency. When the values’ number is divided, the mean is computed by the
sum of all values.
The category or value that frequently happens contained by the data is the
mode. When there is no repletion of number or similarity in the class, there is
no mode in a dataset. Also, it is likely for a dataset to have more than one
mode. For categorical variables, the single central tendency measure is the
mode since you can compute such as the variable “gender” average.
Percentages and numbers are the only categorical variables you can report.

Also known as the “50th percentile,” the midpoint or “middle” value in your
data is the median. More than the mean, the median is much less affected by
skewed data and outliers. For example, when a housing prizes dataset is from
$100,000 to £300,000 yet has more than $3million worth of houses. Divided
by the number of values and the sum of all values, the expensive homes will
profoundly impact the mean. As all data points “middle” value, these outliers
will not profoundly affect the median. Consequently, for your data
description, the median is a much more suited statistic.
 Chapter 4: Linear Algebra

A field of mathematics that scientists all over the world confirm to be a

prerequisite to an in-depth understanding of machine learning is linear
algebra. Though with various notations and tools, difficult findings and
theories, linear algebra is a broad discipline, and the bolts and nuts taken
from the field are practical for practitioners of machine learning. That is why
it is possible to focus on the relevant or the right parts with a solid foundation
of the concept of linear algebra. And from a machine learning perspective, it
is vital to know the exact meaning of linear algebra. Also, it is critical to
know whether linear algebra is the mathematics of data, or if it has any
remarkable impact on the field of statistics, and how linear algebra is the
cause of several practical mathematical tools including computer graphics
and Fourier series.
As the mathematics of data, linear algebra is a branch of mathematics and the
language of data as vectors and matrices. A linear combination is the total of
linear algebra. It is the utilization of arithmetic on vectors which are columns
of numbers and matrices which arrays of numbers. As a study of vector
mappings and spaces, linear algebra is about planes and lines that are needed
for linear transforms.
To start on this journey, you need to know the basic inferential and
descriptive statistics. However, knowing more mathematics is required once
you have covered the basic concepts in machine learning. There is a need for
more mathematics in a situation where they make any underlying assumption
and their limitations to understand how these algorithms work.
The Importance of Linear Algebra
If you are on a journey of learning machine learning and data science, it is
vital to know the importance of the reason linear algebra is essential with
these four examples:

Example 1:
Imagine the perception you have when you attempt to take in the picture of a
flower. Well, it is easy since you can make out leaves and flower. However,
it can be such a challenging task when, for the computer to engage in the
same job, you are asked to mark that logic. Since the brain of human has
passed through evolution for millions of years, you can identify the flower.
To have the power of telling if the color of an image is black or red, we have
no clue of the things that go on in the background. To perform the task is the
only our brains have been trained to do.
However, it is a difficult task to make a computer engage in a similar
mission, and it is a dynamic feature of study in computer science and
machine learning in general. We may need to reflect on a specific question
ahead of making identification of image attributes; so, what is the process of
storing this image by a machine?
To prepare the single 0 and 1 is how they design computers nowadays.
Therefore, how can they store such an image inside a network with various
attributes like the color? The accomplishment of this storage is through the
construct containing the intensities of pixel known as Matrix. As a result, it is
in the capacity of how they process this matrix to make out colors and some
other things. At the back end will all the operation anyone wants to carry out
on this stage will happen using matrices and linear algebra.

Example 2:
Have you heard the term “XGBOOST?” Any domain of data science domain
household knows that data science competitions winners employ quite often
an algorithm. To give predictions, it takes the Matrix form to store the
numeric data. Not only does it offer more precise results, but XGBOOST is
also capable of faster data process. Furthermore, apart from XGBOOST,
other numerous algorithms make use of Matrices for data processing and
storage.

Example 3:
As the latest catchword around now, deep learning uses matrices for storing
inputs, including giving topnotch answers to these questions using text or
speech or image. Also stockpiled in the matrices are weights that a neural
network trained.

Example 4:
Dealing with text is one more dynamic field of machine learning research,
and term-document matrix, words’ bag, and so on are some of the techniques
they frequently use. In the same manner, to perform tasks such as language
translation, language generation, semantic analysis, and so many others, all
these methods store counts of words within documents and to perform tasks,
accumulate this occurrence count in a matrix form.
Thus, let’s hope that, to some extents, you have had some understanding of
machine learning and its connection with linear algebra. To employ matrices
for data processing and storage, we know the text, image, or any general data.
It is now time to experience the linear algebra from the top.

Linear Algebra Problems Representation

It is with an uncomplicated problem that we may want to begin. Let’s
consider that the cost of 1 bat and 2 balls or 100 units is 2 bats and 1 ball.
Finding the value of a bat and a ball is what we are required to do now. Let’s
assume Rs ‘x’ is the value of a ball while Rs ‘y’ is that of a bat. Depending
on the circumstance, anything can be the values of Rs ‘x,’ and ‘y,’ i.e.,
variables is ‘y’ and ‘x.’ to interpret this form in mathematics, we will go like
this;
(1)………………… 2x + y = 100
Likewise, the subsequent condition may have a similarity like this;
(2)………………………. X + 2y = 100
Right now, to satisfy both the equations, ‘y’ and ‘x’ value is what we need
and to find the prices of ball and bat. The solution to a set of linear equations
is finding ‘x,’ and ‘y’ values are the basic problem of linear algebra. The big
picture is data has a representation in the linear equations form in linear
algebra. And in turn, the vectors and matrices forms are the representation of
these linear equations. Depending on the condition, there may be variation in
the equations and those of variables, yet their form is in vectors and matrices
representations.

Visualize the Problem

Usually, visualizing the data problems can be quite helpful, and doing that
will help a case such as this. The linear equations are the representation of
flat objects. To have a clear understanding of the line, it may be a good idea,
to begin with, the simplest one. A collection of the entire points that gratify
the given equation is a line corresponding to an equation. For example;
Our equation (1) gets satisfied with (30, 40), (50, 0), and (0,100/3, 100/3)
points. As a result, it is on our equation’s corresponding line (1) that these
lines should lay. Similarly, our equation (2) enjoys some of these points
(100/3, 100/3), (100, 0), and (0, 50).
At present, the dot that sits on the two lines is quite paramount to seek
satisfaction on both conditions. By instinct, the connection point is what we
need to find on the two lines. We can use the operations of elementary
algebraic such as subtraction, addition, and substitution to solve the problem.
(1)…………………………. 2x + y = 100
(2)……………………………..X + 2y = 100
(1) Equation is:
y = (100 – x)/2
In equation (2), y value will be:
(3)…………………………… x + 2* (100 – x)/2 = 100
You can solve equation (3) for x as well as y afterward since a single variable
x equation is in equation (3).
Right now, explore as we take a step further even though the equation looks
simple.

Complicating the Problem

With three variables, let’s assume an array of three conditions is given to you
and put to identify the value of the entire variables, each as given below. We
can make out what ensue by solving the problem.
(4)…………………… x+y+z=1
(5)………………………… 2x+y=1
(6)………………………… 5x+3y+2z=4
We get the result below in equation (4);
(7)………………………… z=1-x-y
Then, in equation (6), while we replace merit of z with, we have;
5x+3y+2(1-x-y) =4
(8)…………………… 3x+y=2
At this time, in the above problem of bar and ball, and as the two variables
instance, let’s solve equations (8) and (5) to find ‘x’ and ‘y’ values. When we
know ‘x’ and ‘y,’ to find ‘z’ value, we can use (7).
In this case, it will increase our efforts of problem-solving with the addition
of more variable. In 10 equations, let us visualize that we get 10 variables. It
can be time-consuming and tedious when we attempt to solve 10 equations at
once. Now, let’s take a plunge into the ocean of data science. How do we
now proffer a solution when data points we have are in millions?
In the original data set, data points are in millions. Utilizing the approach
mentioned above, it might be quite challenging to reach solutions. Then,
imagine if it is mandatory for us to repeat it several times and to tender a
solution, can take so many years. Besides, the war has never ended with just
this one. As a result, what do we do? Quit and run away? Certainly, NO!
For us to give a solution to a massive group of linear equations, the matrix is
what we need. However, let’s turn to matrices and visualize our problem in
physical importance before we go further. Directly related to how to use
matrices is the next step.

Planes
The three variables in a linear equation, whose coordinates satisfy the
equation, represent the set of all points. By such an equation, can you
decipher its physical representation? Attempt to image 2 variables, while
adding the third one, in the same instance in any comparison. As you should
know, it is a three-dimensional analog of line and that it represents. Indeed,
the representation of a plane is three variables of a linear equation. Three
variables represent a plane in a linear equation. More precisely, extending up
to infinity, a plane is a flat geometric object.
It indicates that we desire to unearth the connection of those planes on the
instance of a line by finding solutions to 3 variables linear equation. If you
look deeply, in which ways can a group of three planes intersect? Let’s see if
things are possible in these four cases;
1. The intersection is not present
2. The intersection of the three planes at a point
3. In a line, the intersection of planes
4. Intersection happens with a plane
Most of the super mathematicians and regular individuals like us can only
visualize things in 3-Dimensions, and it is complicated unachievable for
humans to visualize things in 4 (or 10000) dimension. Therefore, how is it
possible for mathematicians to effectively tackle data of higher proportion? In
their heads are tricks and one such ploy mathematicians utilize to take care of
data of larger size is matrices.
Right away, it’s time to move on to the main focus, which is the matrix.

Matrix
Matrix is the process of writing the same items collectively for our necessity
to manipulate and handle them. In data science, while training several
algorithms, the matrix is what they use to accumulate information such as
how an artificial neural network stores weights. Technically, as far as data
science is concerned, a 2-D collection of numbers is a matrix.

1 2 3

4 5 6
 7 8 9

Usually, ‘i’ denotes rows and ‘j’ denotes column. The i’th row indexes the
elements and the jth column. Through some alphabet like elements of A by A
(ij), we mean the matrix.
In the matrix above;
A12 = 2
Reach the second column after getting along the first row to get the result.

Matrix’s related words

Order of matrix – row*column, i.e., 3*4 is the matrix’s order if a matrix has
3 rows and 4 columns.
Square matrix – when the number of columns is the same as that of rows.
Diagonal matrix – diagonal matrix has elements of non-diagonal that is the
same as 0.
Upper triangular matrix – the elements under diagonal is the same as 0 in
the square matrix.
Lower triangular matrix – the elements over the diagonal is the same as 0
in the square matrix.
Scalar matrix – the diagonal elements is the same as some constant k in the
square matrix.
Identity matrix – the complete non-diagonal elements are the same as 0, and
all diagonal elements are the same as 1 in the square matrix.
Column matrix – sometimes a representation of a vector, there is only one
column in the matrix.
Row matrix – there is the only row in a matrix.
Trace – a square matrix total diagonal elements.
 Chapter 5: Understanding the
Fundamentals of Machine Learning
Artificial intelligence is the karma of the human race.
In this century, more than any other innovation, the significant power of
artificial intelligence will shape our future. AI acceleration rate is more than
astonishing. Over the past four decades after two AI winters, the game is now
changing with a variety of available data and rapidly growing volumes,
affordable data storage, and more powerful and cheaper computational
processing.
A great buzzword is machine learning, and it makes it easier when you learn
the programming angle along with the theoretical side together. Together, we
will walk around all the technology that powers virtually our daily lives,
which are the core algorithms and concepts of machine learning. As you read
on, you will know how to start building the same applications and models as
well as identifying its functionality at the conceptual level.

Prerequisites to start with machine learning

You need to meet the following requirements if you attempt to have a clear
understanding of the concepts presented:
Comprehensive knowledge of intro-level algebra. You need to
have an understanding of graphs and also be at ease when it comes
to linear equations, coefficients and variables, and calculus.
Programming basics proficiency with in-depth expertise of coding
in Python. It is not required for you to have any prior experience
 with machine learning. However, you have to be able to write and
read the underlying programming construct of Python code,
including lists, function invocations/definitions, conditional
expression, loops, and dictionaries.
Basic knowledge of the following Python libraries:
1. Pandas
2. NumPy
3. SciPy
4. SciKit-Learn
5. Matplotlib (and Seaborn)
The semantic tree
Artificial intelligence is the study of agents with the perception of the world
around them; formulate plans to accomplish their goals with decision making.
Artificial intelligence encompasses machine learning. To empower computers
with learning on their own is its goal. The learning algorithm of a machine
facilitates the prediction of things with no explicit pre-programmed models
and rules, the building of models that explain the world, and the discovery of
patterns in observed data.

Six Jars of Machine Learning

The following components encompass the process of getting input and
offering output, and they are;
Learning
Loss
Task
Data
Evaluation
Model
Learning
The responsibility of minimizing the error is the function of this algorithm.
The algorithm defines the manner the variables in the equation are given
value, so the output computed is close to actual production. For example:
In y = mx+c, the learning algorithm finds the values of m and c so that y)
computed) is close to y (actual).

Loss
The difference between the actual output value and the output value that our
model predicts or the rate of the error is the function of the loss. Minimizing
the function of loss is quite vital for us to solve a problem.

Task
The thing we must do with the given data is what the task specifies for us.
Task depends on the questions one has to solve with the available
information. For example, based on the data, you can design a task to
measure the happiness level of the employee or the performance of the
employee.

Data
The fuel of machine learning is data, and you must learn to provide a proper
history of data on the output and input. For example, an HR needs to give
provision of all the employee information to have a prediction on whether or
not an employee stayed or left or will leave the company.

Evaluation
We need to see the accuracy of the model to resolve the problem that we aim
it to solve by identifying how well our model performs.
Accuracy = number of correct predictions/total number of predictions
When you test with some parts data, you can identify the precision that we
gathered initially but make no use of it to train the model.

Model
The machine generates a formula that maps output and input or a model
based on the data and input we provide. Where (x) is input and (y) is the
output, a model can be like anyone of these equations;

There are three types of machine learning algorithms

1. Supervised learning
2. Unsupervised learning
3. Reinforcement learning
Supervised learning
For us to have an in-depth understanding of a supervised learning algorithm,
we may first need to be familiar with the term “learning,” since, as humans,
we learn from our experiences. Therefore, when we tend to know the manner
with which machine experience something, we will discover the
extraordinary thing that machine data is the experience for them. Thus, as
well as learning from the data which we learn from training data, learning
from the data is the role of the algorithm of machine learning or any learning
model. The things a supervised machine learning algorithm is attempting to
do will be much more precise in mathematical terms.
For example, also known as one dimensional function, one variable, (that is,
the x here) is f(x) = x. Likewise, two dimensional function example (two
variables are x and y) is f(x,y) = x + y, and n-dimensional function example is
f(x1, x2………., xN).
Types of functions are as follows:

Linear function:
When the graph of the function graph is a straight line, then we have linear
function. We have linear function when any x1, x2……………, xN, the
exponent of variables is comes to be 0 or 1. f(x,y) = x+y+1, f(x) = x+1, f(x)
=2 are a few examples of the linear functions.
As you will see, the function of the graph below is linear since it has a
straight line and it is the graph for f(x) = x+1.

f(x)=x+1 graph

Non-Linear function:
When the function graph is not a straight line, then we have the non-linear
function. Also known as non-linear function, the exponents of the variables in
the function are older than 0 or 1. Some examples of the non-linear function
are f(x) = x3, f(x) = x2. The graph below is not a straight line and therefore, is
for f(x) =x2, showing the non-linear function.

Graph for f(x)=x2

The attempt to identify this function f(x1, x2…….., xN) is what we are trying
to do in supervised machine learning, where the features are x1, x2……..,
xN. Based on the data we are dealing with, this function could be anything
linear or non-linear. To predict the output for us, when we obtain this
function, then, we feed on the features. There are two types of supervised
machine learning, depending on the output type.
Regression:
There is a regression problem when the output value is continuous. For
example, we may call it regression since weight is a constant value when we
are attempting to predict the weight of a person based on features like height.

Classification:
The classification problem is the process of the output value being discrete.
For example, when a bank establishes the prediction of whether an individual
is a fraud or not on specific features, then, the classification problem is this
type of problem. Also, classifying the breed a dog belongs to is another
excellent example of a classification problem.

Machine Learning Roadmap

Learning and revising the linear algebra is the right place to start. You will
have a basic introduction to the entire core concepts of linear algebra. And
take notice of matrix multiplication, vectors, Eigenvector decomposition, and
determinants, as the whole lot of them contributes as the cogs that make
machine learning algorithms work.
Your next focus should be calculus. Here, understanding and learning how to
utilize derivatives for optimization and also their meaning must be your focal
point. Make an effort to go through at least sections 1 and 2 of Multivariable
Calculus and Single Variable Calculus.
Then, as we discussed earlier, go through the Python libraries used in
machine learning, including Numpy, Matplotlib, SKLearn, and Pandas. These
are tools of machine learning, and without them, you cannot get anywhere
with machine learning.
Then, the next step is coding. Before utilizing the premade models in SciKit,
you must learn to implement all algorithms from scratch in Python. Not only
would you know how it works, but it would also give you an in-depth and
better knowledge. While you may start anywhere you want, here are the
following orders to follow for your algorithms:
Linear Regression
Logistic Regression
Naive Bayes Classifier
K – Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
K – Means
Support Vector Machine (SVM)
Decision Trees
Random Forests
Gradient Boosting
Linear Regression
By fitting the observed data to a linear equation, linear regression is all about
the effort to develop the correlation connecting two variables. To be an
explanatory variable is the consideration for individual variable while a
dependent variable is a consideration for the other. For example, you can use
a model of linear regression to relate people’s heights against their weights.
In the initial stage, you must establish if at all, there is a connection between
the interested variables before you try to fit in the linear model to observed
data. It doesn’t mean that single variable produces the other, that is, higher
college grades don’t cause higher SAT scores, except that the two variables
have no significant connection. For determining the relationship strength
between two variables, a helpful tool is a scatterplot. There may likely be any
provision of a useful model while fitting a linear regression model to the data
when there is no connection between the dependent variable and the
projected descriptive, that is, there is no indication of any decreasing or
increasing trends the scatterplot. The correlation coefficient is an
indispensable numerical degree of connection between two variables, such
that the correlation strength of the experimental data for both variables is a
value connection -1 and 1. Where Y is, the dependent variable and X is the
explanatory variables, an equation of the line of linear regression has the
form Y = a + bX. As the intercept (the value of y when x = 0), the slope of the
line is b and a.

Logistic Regression
As an extension of the linear regression model for classification problems and
with two likely results, logistic regression models the probabilities for
classification problems. Logistic regression is the solution for classification.
To press a linear equation output between 0 and 1, it is the function of
logistic rather than fitting a hyper-plane or straight line that the logistic
regression model uses. The definition of the logistic function is as follows:

1
logistic( η ) =
1 + exp(- η)

As such, it comes across in this form;

 The logistic function. Between 0 and 1 is the output number. It outputs 0.5 at 0 inputs

To logistic regression from linear regression is a straightforward step.

Between the features and outcome, and in the linear regression model, we
have modeled them with a linear equation.

^ y ( i )= β 0+ β 1 x ( i )1+…+ βpx ( i ) p

We have a preference for probabilities connecting 0 and 1 for classification,

and into the logistic function do we wrap the right side of the equation. Doing
this will force the output to guess just values connecting 0 and 1.

Naive Bayes Classifier

Naïve Bayes is a straightforward machine learning classifier that is
commonly-used yet effective. With the use of the Maximum A Posteriori
decision rule in a Bayesian setting, Naïve Bayes is a probabilistic classifier
that makes classifications. Also, it has its representation with the use of an
elementary Bayesian network. The classifiers of Naïve Bayes are a traditional
solution for problems like spam decision and have been particularly famous
for text classification.

The model
With the features, x_0 through x_n and classes c_0 through c_k, the goal of
any probabilistic classifier is not only to return the most likely type, but also
to determine the probability of the features happening in each category.
Consequently, we may wish to have the capacity to calculate P(c_i / x_0,
…….., x_n for each group. The Bayes rule is what we use to do this. Bayes
rule has this feature;

It is likely to have a class c_i replacing A and B x_0 as our combination of

features utilizing the framework of classification in x_n. P9x_0,……., x_n)
may be normally hard for us to calculate with P(B) as nomination, we can
merely maintain the term P(c_i / x_o,…..,x_n) ∝ P(x_o,……., x_n / c_i) *
P(c_i) instead of ignoring it, where calculating it can be quite easy when ∝
means “is propositional to” .P(c_i); it may be more difficult to compute
i.P(x_0,……., x_n / c_i) a class of the proportion of the data set. For
computation simplification, we make the assumption that x_o through x_n are
conditionally independent given c_i, which gives us the power to say that
P(x_o,…., x_n / c_i) = P(x_o / c_i) * P(x_1 / c_i). Though the classifier
nonetheless functions well in nearly all conditions, it acquires the term naïve
Bayes classifier as the postulation is most liable not true. As a result, our final
representation of class probability is the following;

When you calculate the individual P(x_j / c_i) terms will depend on what
distribution your features follow. Where the elements may be word counts, in
the text of word classification, features may follow a multinomial
distribution. In other cases, they may develop a Gaussian distribution where
features are continuous.

K – Nearest Neighbors (KNN)

A simple algorithm that classifies the new case or data, based on the same
measure, and stores all the available instances is K Nearest Neighbor. Based
on how its neighbors are classified, it is mostly used to classify a data point.
For example, wine with Myricetin and Rutime as the chemical components.
Let’s take the consideration of measurement of Myricetin vs. Rutime level
with two data points, White and Red wines. Founded on how much Myricetin
and how much Rutime chemical substance presents in the wines, the two of
them have been analyzed and then fall on that graph.
Integrated into the mainstream of the process of voting, ‘k’ is a stricture that
submits to the nearest neighbors’ number in KNN. Also, it is wise to know
whether the new wince is white or red if we assume to add a fresh glass of
wine in the dataset.
In this situation, we are required to find out what the neighbors are. We can
assume that k = 5 to achieve that. Then, the manner of the classification of
the new data and with the greater part of votes from its five neighbors, red is
the neighbor four out of five neighbors, red would be the classification of the
new point.

K – Means
Without any target labels, K-means is an unsupervised learning algorithm
that gives the ability to identify the same groups or clusters of data points
within your data. Where assignment to the clusters is based on some distance
or similarity measure to a centroid by grouping the data into K clusters is the
issue with K means. Now, how do we solve this issue? It is okay if we could
outline the steps involved.
1. To its nearest centroid is where each data point is assigned when
we initiate the K starting centroids, and this process is what we can
do randomly.
2. Attached to the respective cluster, we compute the centroids as the
mean of the data points.
3. Pending the moment we can induce our stopping criteria, steps 1
and 2 is what we will do.
To be more precise, it is for squared Euclidean distance or Euclidean distance
that we are attempting to optimize for in case you are wondering what is
happening. To the cluster that minimizes this squared distance or groups
closest to them is where they assign the data points. As it is written formally
like this:

For each data point to its assigned cluster, J is simply the sum of squared
distances. Where (x_n), the data point, is attached to the (k) cluster, and 0
otherwise, an indicator function, r is equal to 1.
Support Vector Machine (SVM)
As an algorithm of a supervised machine learning algorithm, they use support
vector machine for regression or challenges in classification. But it is in
classification problems that they mostly use it. We design an item of each
data in this algorithm as a tip in the space of n-dimension, where the features
number you have is n, with the value of an individual coordinate as the same
as the value of each feature. Then, through obtaining the hyper-plane which
differentiates both classes quite well enough, we perform classification.

How Support Vector Machine works

Once we have the understating of segregating both classes with a hyper-
plane, we need to know how we can categorize the exact hyper-plane. The
rule-of-thumb to identify the accurate hyper-plane is to select the hyper-plane
that segregates both classes better. And between these classes of two, having
a linear hyper-plane is possible in support vector machine. However, to have
a hyper-plane, do we have to attach this feature by hand is another burning
question? The answer is no. Because the kernel trick is the feature support
vector machine has. By transforming the input of low dimensional space to a
space of higher dimensional, these technique converts not a separate problem
to separate problem. In the issue of non-linear separation is where this is most
useful. Based on defined outputs or labels, as it finds out the procedure to
separate that data, it also does some extremely complex data transformations.

Decision Trees
For prediction and classification, decision trees are the most popular and
powerful tools. Similar to the structure of the tree, a decision tree is like a
flowchart, where a test result is the representation of each branch, where
terminal node, i.e., each leaf node contains a set label, and each internal node
denotes a test on an attribute. Decision trees have some strengths which
include understandable rules generation, requiring little computation to
execute classification, provision of a comprehensible clue of which domains
are a primarily significant classification or prediction, and ability to handle
both continuous and categorical variables. Where the purpose is to predict a
constant characteristic value, weaknesses of decision trees include the fact
that they are less appropriate for estimation tasks, and with reasonably
insignificant quantity and many classes of training samples, are prone to
errors in classification problems.

Random Forest
The random forest grows several classification trees. All you need to do is to
place the input vector down each of the trees in the forest to classify a new
object from an input vector. When we say that the tree “votes” for that class,
we are saying that each tree gives a classification. Overall the trees in the
forest, the forest decide the categorization that has the most votes. The
random forest grows each tree as follows:
The sample of N cases at random – however with replacement,
from the original data if the training set is N for the number of
cases. For growing the tree, this model will be the collection of
training.
With the best split on these M is used to split the node, a number
m<<M, which is M input variables, is specified such that at each
node, m variables are randomly picked out of the M. In the course
of the forest growing, the M value is assumed.
Since no pruning is likely; each tree can grow to the most
extensive degree on the cards.
Gradient Boosting
By attempting to understand what boosting is, we can correctly define
gradient boosting. The technique of converting weak learners into active
learners, we are talking of boosting. In boosting, a modified version of the
unique data set is a fit on each new tree. Hence, several models get their
training from gradient boosting in a sequential, additive, and gradual
approach. Utilizing the two algorithms distinguishing the weak learners’
shortcoming, such as decision trees are the main distinction between gradient
boosting algorithm and AdaBoost. Whereas the gradient boosting runs
similar operation with the use loss function gradients (y = ax + b + e,
because it is the term of error, e needs a special mention), the AdaBoost
model identifies the shortcomings by high weight data points.
 Chapter 6: Types of Machine Learning

Even though this chapter will be talking about types of machine learning, you
may come across some parts that we have discussed earlier in the last chapter.
But this chapter goes more in-depth into this same excellent subject called
machine learning.
You see, machine learning has made huge impacts by amplifying multiple
elements of the business operation, becoming a diverse and reliable business
tool from a science fiction fancy. With the implementation of its algorithms
essential for the maintenance of competitiveness in several industries and
fields, the influence of machine learning on the performance of companies is
quite significant. Requiring a lot of resources, machine learning
implementation into the operations of the business is a tactical measure. As a
result, understanding various perks different machine learning algorithms
bring to the table and your desired work for the machine learning.
As you read on, not only will you know the great purpose of the algorithms
of machine learning, but you will also have an in-depth insight into the
machine learning algorithms’ significant types.

Types of Machine Learning Algorithms

Algorithms of supervised machine learning
For the involvement of an operation’s unswerving management, supervised
learning algorithms come to play here. In this situation, while the developer
place firm restrictions on the process of each algorithm, it is also the
developer’s work to label sample data corpus. A favored form of this
algorithm is machine learning:
 For you to feed the algorithm, you only select the type of output
and samples of information.
Including false/true or yes/no, the desire of this type of results.
It is more or less like connecting the missing links with this process from the
perspective of the machine. Making predictions of unseen, unavailable, and
future data based on data of labeled sample and scaling the scope of data is
the primary purpose of supervised learning. Regression and classification are
the two main procedures of supervised machine learning.

Classification:
In a case where the algorithm obtains a manual training when you label
incoming data based on the samples of the past data, not only categorize
specific types of objects accordingly but to also recognize particular kinds of
objects is the process of classification. Whether to perform a binary
recognition, an optional image, and character, in a situation where there is
compliant or non-compliant of a bit of data to individual requirements in a
true or false approach, it is in the power of the system to know how to
differentiate types of information.

Regression:
For you to calculate and identify continuous outcomes is the process of
regression. Not only the groupings such as widths, heights, and so on but also
their values are what the system is supposed to understand, as well as the
numbers and their significance.
Some of the algorithms that are widely used include:
Support vector machines
Linear regression
Nearest neighbors
 Logistical regression
Random forest
Decision trees
Gradient boosted trees
Neural networks
Naive Bayes
Use cares of supervised learning algorithms
Trend forecasting in retail commerce, stock trading, and sales, as well as
price prediction, is supervised learning’s mainly universal fields of use. For
the two situations, to calculate possible outcomes and assess the possibility,
the algorithm utilizes incoming data. Highspot and Seismic are the platforms
of sales enablement that make use of this type of an algorithm by looking for
consideration while presenting scenarios from several angles.
As the sequence of ad content delivery component, ad tech operation is part
of business cases for supervised learning. The algorithm of supervised
learning has the role of keeping the spending of the budget under particular
margins such as overall budget for a specific period or a single purchase price
scope, and also assessing possible prices of ad spaces and its value in the
course of the real-time bidding process.

Algorithms of unsupervised machine learning

The process whereby the builder has no involvement in undeviating power is
unsupervised learning. The desired results have not been defined and are not
known in case of the unsupervised machine learning algorithms, unlike the
primary position of supervised learning where the role of the developers is to
classify the data since they know the results. More distinction between them
is that it is on unlabeled data that unsupervised learning nourishes, while the
exclusive use of data is what supervised learning purposes.
Some of the things developers use the algorithm of unsupervised machine for
include
Extraction of valuable insights
Exploration of the information structure
Increasing efficiency of operation through implementation
Detection of patterns
In other words, by sifting through it, unsupervised machine learning
describes information and makes sense of it. Here are some of the methods
unsupervised learning algorithm applies for data description:

Clustering:
Based on their internal patterns devoid of prior knowledge of group
credentials and used to segment it into meaningful groups, that is, clusters,
the process of clustering is simply data exploration. The individual data
objects similarity defines the credentials and the test as well as used for
anomalies detection features of its dissimilarity.

Dimensionality reduction:
With the incoming data, the noise is so overwhelming. Even while distilling
the pertinent information and for the removal of this noise, the algorithm of
machine learning makes use of dimensionality reduction.
Hence, the algorithms that developers use widely include:
K – means clustering
t – Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding, T - SNE
Association rule
Principal Component Analysis, PCA
Unsupervised learning machine used cases
For a maximum impact, the domains where they use unsupervised learning
are ad-tech and digital marketing. Also, in most cases, for them to make
befitting adjustment of the service while exploring the customer information,
they apply the use of this algorithm. Indeed, in the incoming data, the fact is
plenty of self-styled “known unknowns.” exist. Having the power for the
extraction of appropriate foreknowledge out of unlabeled data while they
make sense of it is the actual effectiveness of the business operation.
The data management of the recent gets itself ready through the unsupervised
algorithms. This algorithm of machine learning has its implementation
among the most cutting-edge platforms of data management like Salesforce
and Lotame at the moment. Thus, with the use of specific credentials,
including the setting of particular software, personal data elements,
behavioral data, and so on, they can use unsupervised learning to identify
target audience groups. Also, for the campaign performance patterns
identification, as well as ad content, they can use this algorithm to develop
more efficient targeting.

Algorithms of semi-supervised machine learning

Between supervised and unsupervised algorithms, it is the middle ground that
the algorithms of semi-supervised learning represent. Mainly, the semi-
supervised model absorbs a thing of its own through a combination of some
aspects of both.
Algorithms of semi-supervised work in some of these ways:
1. For shaping of the requirements of the operation, that is, train
itself, the algorithm of semi-supervised machine learning makes
use of a restricted labeled set sample data.
2. The results of the limitation in a model with incomplete training
that label data that is not marked in a sequential task. They
consider pseudo-labeled data for the results because of the sample
 data set boundaries.
3. Ultimately, for the combination of predictive and descriptive
features of unsupervised and supervised learning, there is a
development of a distinct algorithm with the combination of
pseudo-labeled and labeled data collections.
For clustering to group data into different elements, while identifying data
assets, semi-supervised learning makes use of the process of classification.

Use cases of semi-supervised machine learning

Through the support of semi-supervised learning, healthcare, and legal
industries as well as others, manage speech and image analysis and
classification of the content of the web. They apply semi-supervised learning
for the systems of the content aggregation and crawling engines in the case of
classification of web content. It arranges collections of labels in specific
configurations and uses them for content analysis in both cases. However, for
further sorting, this process usually requires the input of a human. uClassify
is the perfect example of this procedure. General Architecture for Text
Engineering, GATE is another popular tool of this category.
Based on a sample corpus and labeling performance, an algorithm provides
viable speech and image analytic model and in the case of expression and
image analysis, coherent transcription. For example, this can be a CT or MRI
scan. There is a possibility of identifying anomalies in the image by
providing a model with a small set of exemplary scans.

Algorithms of Reinforcement Machine Learning

Machine learning artificial intelligence has its representation in reinforcement
learning. Essentially, reinforcement learning is all about a system that is self-
sustained and improves itself with the use of the combination of the
interactions with the incoming data and the combination of labeled data
throughout the contiguous sequences of tries and fails.
Exploitation or exploration is the technique of reinforcement machine
learning uses. They are simple mechanics, that is, a situation happed, they
observe the consequences, and subsequent action takes consideration for the
first action’s outcomes.
Occurring upon particular tasks performance, they are the reward signals in
the center of reinforcement learning algorithms. Indeed, the reinforcement
algorithms navigation tool is the reward signals, giving it an understating of
the action course, whether wrong or right.
Here are the main types of reward signals:
Encouraging the performance of particular sequences of action is
the positive reward signal
Pressing to stop the algorithm by correcting it from getting is the
signal, and it also penalizes for performing specific activities is the
negative reward signal
However, based on the information quality, the role of the reward signal may
vary. Therefore, further classification of the reward signals may be found on
the operation prerequisites. Generally, the concept of the system is to
minimize negatives and maximize the positive.
The standard reinforcement learning algorithms are:
Monte-Carlo Tree Search (MCTS)
Q-Learning
Asynchronous Actor-Critic Agents (A3C)
Temporal Difference (TD)
Reinforcement machine learning algorithms use
cases
For inconsistent and limited information available, reinforcement machine
learning matches these instances. As a result of interactions with data and
relevant processes, the operating procedures of an algorithm can form. This
type of machine learning is what video games like contemporary NPCs
mostly use. As it provides viable challenges, flexibility to the reactions of AI
is what reinforcement learning offers to the player’s action. For example, in
the Grand Theft Auto series, for moving people and vehicles, a feature of
collision detection uses this type of machine learning algorithm.
Also, relying on reinforcement learning algorithms are self-driving vehicles.
For example, it is likely for the car that self-drives to activate the ‘turn left’
scenario and so on with ‘turn left’ road detection. AlphaGo is the most
popular model of this reinforcement learning variation which, by calculating
the sequences of actions out of the current board position, outplayed him
when diving at loggerhead with the second-best Go player in the world.
Also, also using reinforcement learning are the Ad Tech and Marketing
operations. Making use of the retargeting process much more efficient and
flexible is possible through this algorithm of machine learning to deliver
conversion through close adaptation of the user’s surrounding context and
behavior. Also, to adjust and amplify chatbots’ dialogue generation and
natural language process, NLP is part of functions for which people use
reinforcement learning:
Advance more informative, engaging responses
Impersonate a message style input
According to the reaction of the user, identifying relevant answers
More than a technical feat, it is typical of a UX challenge for some bot with
the emergence of Google DialogFlow.
As it is, solving various problems are possible for multiple algorithms of
machine learning algorithms. A dominant pattern capable of valuable insights
extraction process out of the entire information classes and handling a wide
variety of tasks is the combination of different algorithms.

Pattern Recognition and why it Matters

Due to the emergence of machine learning and big data, several previously
speculated or deduced data became available. Based on more credible sources
and for businesses to gain value-added benefits, this data provided the means
to use more sophisticated techniques of data analysis. In other words, since
we are equipped with more information, it is now time to further our goal
from simply obtaining information to understanding and analyzing the data
that was already coming to us.
Rooted in the middle of all the tools used in Big Data is pattern recognition.
Pattern recognition involves the analytics of big data, uncovers the hidden
meanings behind the data while getting the juice out of it. The company
receives its strategic advantage through pattern recognition, and that makes it
capable of continuous evolution and improvement in the market that is ever-
changing.

What is pattern recognition?

The process of segmenting and distinguishing data following common
elements or with the set criteria which unique algorithms perform is pattern
recognition. Because pattern recognition gives room for further improvement
and enables learning per se, it is one of the integral elements of machine
learning technology.
Through its features, pattern recognition identifies things. Through flat lines
and spikes, flows, and ebbs, these patterns tell stories to the data. Some of
what data can include:
 Image
Text
Sounds
Sentiments, and so on
Pattern recognition algorithms can process any information of the sequential
nature, enabling the practical use of the sequence and also making it
understandable.

Pattern recognition models

Pattern recognition has three main models, and they are:
Statistical: for the identification of the place a piece belongs. For
example, to identify whether it is a football or not. The supervised
machine learning is what this model uses.
Structural/Syntactic: for the definition of a more complicated
correlation between elements. For example, parts of speech. Semi-
supervised machine learning is the technique this model uses.
Template matching: for complementing the features of the object
with the predefined template and identifying of the object by
proxy. Plagiarism checking is one of the uses of such a model.
How pattern recognition works
A lot is going on underneath even though self-descriptive is the most
significant part of the pattern recognition operation. Mostly, algorithms of
pattern recognition have two main parts, and they are:
Explorative – data commonalities recognition
Descriptive – specific manner commonalities categorization
Including the use in the big data analytics and for the extraction of insights
out of the data, they make use of the combination of these two elements. To
uncover a critical understanding of details in the subject matter, it is with the
correlation of the common factors analysis.
Here is the picture of the pattern recognition process:
1. Through input or tracking, and from its sources, you gather data
2. Then, you clean up the data from noise
3. Then, you examine the information for common elements or
relevant features
4. Subsequently, you group these elements in specific sections
5. For data sets insights, you analyze the segments
6. Then, you implement the extracts insights into the operation of the
business
Pattern recognition use cases
Audience research, stock market – data analytics
The interconnection between data analytics and the technology of pattern
recognition is so profound that it is easy to confuse the two of them. For
example, an analytic tool which is the software of stock market pattern
recognition. While placing it into a broader perspective on the data analytics
context and reveals its distinct features, i.e., the patterns itself, the use of
pattern recognition is for data description.
Here are the exceptional use cases of pattern recognition:
Forecast for the stock market – for the prediction of the possible
results, they use pattern recognition for stock exchange
comparative analysis. Businesses that engage in the study of
pattern recognition include YardCharts.
Audience research – through selected features, segmenting, and
analyzing available data of the user is what pattern recognition
refers. Among the companies that provide these features is Google
 Analytics.
Natural language processing – text translation, text
analysis, chatbots, text generation
A machine learning field that has its focus on comprehensive training of the
machines on communication and message generation is natural language
processing (NLP). Though it seems like hard science-fiction, it has not dealt
with “reading between the lines” with the essence of community in reality,
and also with the direct expression of the message. By constructing its
variation while finding the connections, natural language processing
deciphers the text in explicit forms. To differentiate the sentences is where
the process begins; while ultimately classifying the manner people can use
these words in a sentence, then, that is the process of sorting out speech parts
and the point the words integrate well.
To achieve this and to handle the proceedings, natural language processing
combines specific techniques like segmentation, tagging, and parsing to
create a model. At various stages, there is involvement of the algorithms of
unsupervised and supervised machine learning in the process.
Some of the fields that use natural language process include:
Detection of plagiarism – with the assistance of web crawler
focused on a comparative study of the text, this field is a variation
of text analysis. To check for matches elsewhere, tokens are the
forms the words then get. Copyscape is an excellent tool that does
this.
Text analysis – for topic modeling and discovery, categorization,
Buzzsumo, content marketing tools, uses this technique.
Text generation – automated generation of content or for AI
Assistants and chatbots. For example, Twitterbot updates, email
 auto-generation, and so on.
Contextual extraction and text summarization – finding the
meaning of the text. An example of some of these online tools for
this task is Text Summarizer.
Text translation – for recreating a near similar matching of the
message in other languages, and in addition to word substitution
and text analysis, the engine also combines sentiment and context
analysis. Google Translate is mainly a well-known example.
Text adaptation and correction – for simplification of the text,
people use this method in addition to correcting formal mistakes
and grammar, – from the words’ choice to the structure. One of
such prominent examples is Grammarly.
Other use cases include recognition of optical character which they use for
verification of signature and classification of the document. Prominent for
analysis and conversion of images into text that is machine-encoded, its
common uses include text translation, handwriting recognition, and document
classification.
There is also image recognition, which is all about the identification of face
and visual search. The simple concept behind image recognition is to
understand what is in the picture, and the two main use cases of image
recognition include face detection and visual search. Voice recognition is
another use case, and it deals with the importance of sound as a source of
information.
Ultimately, the key to further evolution of computational technology is
pattern recognition. With the aid of pattern recognition, big data analytics can
progress further, and everyone can benefit from the machine learning
algorithms as they get smarter and smarter every day.
 Chapter 7: What is Python? Setting Up the
Environment in Python

Python, in technical terms, is a high-level, object-oriented programming

language that has the integration of vibrant semantics mainly for the
development of web and app. Since Python provides dynamic binding and
typing options, in the subject of Rapid Application Development, it is
exceptionally fascinating. Relatively, Python is straightforward. Because it
has the requirement of a distinctive syntax with focus on readability, Python
is so simple to learn. Much more comfortable than any other languages,
Python code translation and reading is convenient for developers. As a result,
with this simplicity, there is a reduction in the program’s expenses for
development and maintenance since it gives room for collaborative work by
the teams without the significant barriers of experience or language.
Also, because it is easy to assign programs in a style of modules and across
various projects, it has the potential of reusing code, Python maintains the use
of packages and modules. Apart from the fact that you can easily export or
import your modules, you can also scale your package or module to apply
them in other projects when you have developed them. In both source and
binary form, the two standard interpreters and the library are available for
free, which is one of the most promising benefits of Python. Along with the
complete tools that are necessary, Python is available on several leading
platforms, and there is no exclusivity either. Therefore, for those developers
who want to save themselves again the hassles of paying high costs of
development, it is an exciting opportunity.
Don’t get overwhelmed in this point as you will soon have a clear grasp of so
many things about Python soon enough. The essential point is for you to
know that the programming language developers use to create software in the
form of an app or on the web is Python.

The Use of Python

As a language of general-purpose, developers use Python for almost
anything. Most fundamentally, the written code is not translated into a format
that is computer-readable at runtime, meaning, the language is in
interpretational form. Whereas, before the developers even run the program,
the conversion of most programming languages is taking place. Because the
main intention for using it was initially on small projects, they call this
language a “scripting language.”
Since its inception, rather than just common ones, the “scripting language”
concept has evolved significantly since they now use Python to write
commercial, large applications. With the popularity gained by the internet,
there has been significant growth on this dependence on Python. This
reliance is on a substantial mainstream of web platforms and applications
such as YouTube, Google search engine, and also the New York Stock
Exchange, NYSE’s web-related transaction system. For such a language to
power a system of stock exchange means, it must be quite powerful. And
while their space machinery and equipment are getting extensive
programming, NASA also uses Python. Also, they use Python to display
images and numbers, process text, save data, and scientific equations
solution. Primarily, to process a variety of elements people encounter on their
devices, they use it behind the scene.

Benefits of learning Python

Mainly, as your first language, there are several benefits when you set your
mind to learning Python, and we will take time to talk about them.
As instrumentation for other programming frameworks and languages, as a
language, it is incredibly straightforward to learn Python. If you are working
as a beginner with some form of coding style as a complete beginner, it is
absolute you want to read on.
People widely use Python, include prominent companies such as Pinterest,
Google, Yahoo!, Disney, IBM, Nokia, and so much more. Also, having their
reliance on Python as their most crucial programming language is the
Raspberry Pi and lover’s dream of DIY. By now, the importance of all these
and why they matter may have been creeping into your mind, and that is
because you will always have a way of utilizing the skill when you learn
Python. It is possible to be profitable for you as a Python developer
regardless to say that because several businesses rely on the language.
Here are some other benefits of Python:
1. Because it is for general purpose and it is the ideal language,
platforms with big data, automation, and data mining bank on
Python.
2. Since it is so easy to read and work with, you can use Python to
develop prototypes.
3. Unlike massive languages like Java and C#, a setting with
additional dynamic coding is some of the things Python allows.
Also, it gives room to be quite productive and organized when
experienced coders work with Python.
4. Even if you have no experience in programming, reading Python
can be quite uncomplicated. For anyone, they can start running
with the language is what anyone can start doing, and it only
requires plenty of practice and a bit of patience. Also, its simplicity
 earns it a perfect choice to use for larger development teams and
even multi-programmers.
5. What powers Django, an open and complete source of framework
for the web application, is Python. Also, simplifying the procedure
is through frameworks like Rails and Ruby.
6. As a community-developed and an open-source, the support it has
is massive. Every day, as they continue to improve core
functionality, developers of like-minded in their millions work
with the language. In the latest variant of Python, with the
progression of time and as an excellent way of networking with
other developers, there are continuous updates and improvements.
Python Environment Setup
Because it gives allows you to execute the code you write, as you work with
the programming language of any level, setting up an environment for
development is one of the most essential things you will do. If you don’t do
this, it may be challenging enough for you to confirm the progress of things if
there are no syntax errors in your applications or website.
Also, to convert your code and for what the computer can peruse and
implement, you will need an interpreter that makes up your entire application.
It may not be possible for you to run your code without this interpreter. For
the conversion of your system, the first thing to do is to make use of a Python
shell. And that will call upon a “bang” line when you use it the interpreter.
Two ways of doing this are when you attempt to create a file or an
application. With the use of Notepad++ or WordPad, which is a simple text
editor, it is easy for you to execute a program. Also, with the use of a Python
shell, you can create an application. For each method, here are some of the
disadvantages as well as advantages.
Text File vs. Python Shell
For system interaction, you can use a shell, which is a tool or program. For
example, to submit arguments and commands, with the use of a “terminal” or
power line, you can tap into the Windows operating system. More than an
operating system shell, things are a little distinctively when you work with
Python. In an understandable form, not only does the Python shell feed the
code to the system, but you can also use it to interact with an interpreter. It is
the interpreter that converts the code after it has examined it into usable
commands if you’ve written a program in Python and you intend to execute
it. It is essential to note that it is after the application has been implemented
that all of this process is done.
As you type the code into the system or computer, both the conversion and
interpretation take place in a shell in real-time. This means that there is actual
execution of the program as you type. You will have some impression of how
your final code will perform, and the things you program will likely do when
you do this. You may notice that nothing happens until you feed the
document into an interpreter when a text file is what you use to write code. If
you have the Python installed on your computer, and with the use of a
command line, you can call upon the interpreter, however, after you have
already written the code, you can do the step. If the interpreter runs into
issues since they can be as ambiguous as using a shell, not only can this
method be frustrating, you will have a hard time spotting errors in your code.
However, since it is easy and straightforward to do, most developers have a
preference for using an editing tool like a text editor. With increased
functionality such as Notepad++, text editors are developed explicitly with
programming in mind.

The Best Place to Start

It is essential to configure the development environment ahead of doing
anything with a programming language. Now, for the execution of your
custom programs, it is time to discuss how you will set up Python and the
interpreter.
For a majority of Linux distributions or Mac, Python is already pre-installed.
Nonetheless, based on how old your system is, an updated version is what
you may need to download. Note that you can run the following command
after you have opened the terminal to check your version of Python:

Python –V

From the Python Software Foundation, you may need to download Python if
you are running Windows.

How to get Python

The appropriate place to go is the Python official site if you wish to
download Python. Specific to your operating processor or system, there are
versions like 32 or 64 bit. So, the particular version is all that is required of
you when downloading.
If you are on Mac, it is perfectly fine for you to use since it is probably you
will have Python installed already on your computer. And to activate and
manage them, installing the latest version is ideal through Homebrew. For
you to get more details, you can go to the Homebrew homepage. Also, if you
prefer, you can use the PSF for your direct Python download. As for the
Linux users, the designer of Linux has most Linux distributions already
included Python. If necessary, you can use the package manager if you want
to upgrade as you confirm the current version on your system. From the PSF,
you can download Python if you are using Windows.
Note that during installation, if you are using Windows, the option that adds
Python.exe to your system path is what you must be sure to select. In the
option “Add Python.exe to the path, select the option next to it and for the
install location, choose your local hard drive.

The version of Python to use

With the two core versions of Python, novice and beginners coders can get
tangled in confusion as to which one of them to choose. Python 2.x and 3.x
are the two versions of Python. Talking about Python, these two versions of
Python are suitable to develop, and the good news is they are both quite
identical.
Currently in active development is Python 3.x version. What this implies is
that, with the continuous development of the open-source community, it is
continually receiving new functionalities and features. Python 3.5.x version
may be the perfect option if you have a preference for bleeding-edge such as
supports and elements. Still actively maintained by the community are
Python 2.7.x and 3.4.x versions, including Python 3.2.x version. This
maintenance is essential when you encounter problems and need help. And
for the fact that you will get the most support from the libraries of third-party
since version 2.7.x has been around for so long. You may also want to stick
with the older version in the event where you discover that to the newer
version of Python; they have not been ported while looking at libraries.
Most fundamentally, once you have some knowledge about one version of
Python, it is easy to make the jump to another version. You may still need to
learn the new functions and features if you are jumping to a current version.
You may not have any issues if you are moving backward, although it is
necessary that if you are moving to the older version to get a grip of what
utilities are not congruent with it. In due course, the Python version you like
to use is up to you. There is no right or wrong approach to it if you are
making a jump from one version to another or also to use the newer or older
version even if it comes to your realization to do so later on.

Features of Python
Most times, as a language that is object-oriented and incredibly powerful,
Python is comparable to PHP, Ruby, Perl, Java, and Scheme. For developers,
it is quite an exciting working with this language with some of the several
notable features of Python including:
1. It is much easier to read the programs any developers write
because Python makes use of an elegant syntax. They quite come
close to the manner with which we write our words which is closer
to the language of the humans, rather than code interpretation, a
style that computers use to study. For example, at runtime, and
while in quotes, the command of “print” will display anything
preceding it.
2. Getting your program up and running is more comfortable with
Python since it is easy and straightforward to use. Similar to ad-
hoc programming skills, the consideration for Python is that it is
ideal for the development of the prototype. Also, it has no
compromise maintainability.
3. With the provision of incorporated maintenance for various general
programming undertakings such as files modification, searching
through text, and syncing with the web browser, Python has
Standard Python Library. Your content may have to be developed
from scratch for a majority of other languages.
4. For the simplification of testing for short snippets of code, there is
 an inclusion of an interactive mode. You will also have IDLE, a
development setting, and it is faster and easier with the help of the
development environment.
5. Even if you have already compiled them in C or C++, there is an
opportunity of extending the language by adding new modules.
Even better, once you have created them in future projects, you can
use the modules as shortcuts.
6. Through the provision of a programmable users’ interface of an
app, you can also embed Python into an application. If you are
developing an app in a terminal that has the requirement of running
with Python or that will teach coding, this dynamic is a great
feature.
7. Python has compatibility with several operating systems and
computers such as MacOs, Linux, Windows, OS/2, several Unix
brands, and so on. Also, if necessary, you can quickly jump
between them since the interface of Python is the same as each of
those platforms.
8. As there is no licensing fee and to download and use it will not
cost you any penny and use, Python is genuinely free. Also, even
though it is copyrighted, and since it is under an open-source
license that the language is available, you can freely redistribute or
modify it.
What is Django?
Written in Python, Django is an open-source and free web application
framework. A collection of modules is a framework that makes development
easier. Instead of creating from scratch, since they are in a group, they allow
you to create websites and applications from an existing source. Websites, no
matter if one person designs them, can have functionality such as
management and admin panels, authentication support, comment boxes, file
upload support, contact forms, and so many more. In other words, you may
need to develop these components yourself if you were creating a website
from scratch. Rather than using a framework, you only need to configure
them properly to match your site since these components are already built.
You can use a big collection of the modules Django provides in your
projects. Significantly, developers can save a lot of time and headaches by
using frameworks, and Django is also part of them. Also, it might interest
you that they create Django with front-end developer in mind. For those that
are familiar with working with HTML, such as front-end developers and
designers, they will feel comfortable with Django’s template language, which
is easy to learn. However, developers can as well augment the template
language as they want with its highly extensible and flexible features.
You will want to remember the framework of Django if you are going to be
working with Python, particularly for web design or web applications.
Indeed, it will come in handy. Though they designed it with the complete
minimalist in mind, another framework that is great to work with is Python-
based is CherryPy. When you have some experience working with Python,
CherryPy is a framework you will want to explore.

The Difference between Python and Other

Languages
Since it is easy to learn and understand, Python stands out among the rest.
Similar to Python, some people consider Ruby as a great place to start;
however, Ruby has a four-year head start. Apart from the fact that it is much
more popular with C developers, it has a significant foothold in the
enterprise. The fact that it is easy to cross over between the two languages
makes it so.
In the labor market, both Python and Ruby have their significant share of
development. As a result, in terms of a career, it is beneficial to choose either
language. Also, another application people use most times is PHP though the
application is different. Ultimately, since each style has its niche, everything
boils down to the things that you will be developing.

The use of the languages

A server scripting language they use mainly to create interactive and dynamic
websites is PHP. Apart from the fact that they use it to build anything from a
single blog to a substantial corporate style website, PHP is the best language
for creating HTML.
An object-oriented, general-purpose, and high-level language is Python. As
versatile as it is, you can use Python for virtually anything. Developers use
Python to develop indexers, desktop GUI apps, daemons, website crawlers,
and mobile and web applications.
Used in combination with data entities and web application, Ruby is an
object-oriented, high-level language. Its existence is mainly to take away the
focus from query tasks. Its dynamic type system is where Ruby becomes
most famous as it performs type checking during runtime. Part of its features
is automatic memory management.
Note that when the commands and syntax a language recognizes are closer to
human language rather than that of a computer, they refer to such word as
“high-level.” High-level as a term is a description of a word that is not locked
down to a specific type of computer.
Python is the best language among the three styles for a complete beginner
and programmers mostly recommend it because of its use of syntax that
emphasizes ease of use and simplicity. Whereas, experienced programmers
with other languages will have a better use for with Ruby. As for developers
who are familiar with C languages, PHP is the best for them.

Chapter 8: Guide to Machine Learning

 With Python

The age of data that we live in can only be enriched with more storage
resources and better power of computation. As there is a rise in the
information or data every day, making sense of all the data is the real
challenge. By developing intelligent systems that use the methodologies and
concepts from machine learning and data mining, organizations and
businesses are attempting to tackle the situation. Among them, the most
exceptional field of computer science is machine learning. We will be on the
right path if our defining factor for machine learning as the science and
application of algorithms that offer a sense of the data.

The basic need for machine learning

At present, the most advanced and intelligent species on earth are human
beings since we solve and evaluate complicated problems. AI, on the other
side, is yet to surpass the intelligence levels of humans in a variety of aspects
even as it is still in its initial stage. We may have to consider then the need to
make a machine learn. Based on data, with scale and efficiency, the most
suitable reason for doing this is to make decisions.
Recently, to obtain vital information from data to solve problems as well as
performing various real-world tasks, businesses are making a massive
investment in newer technologies such as deep learning, artificial
intelligence, and machine learning. It is precisely decisions that are data-
driven taken by machines, especially for the automation of the process.
Rather than utilizing programming, they can make use of these data-driven
decisions in the problems that cannot be programmed inherently. While we
require solving real-world problems through high-scale efficiency, human
intelligence is still quite critical. And that brings about the rise in machine
learning.

When and why making machines learn?

Even though we have to move ahead of the need for machine learning, we
still need to tackle the situations that must propel us to make the machine
learn. We have various circumstances that require the need for computers to
make data-driven decisions at a vast scale and with efficiency. Machine
learning would be more productive with some of the following situations.

Lack of expertise in human

Where human skill is deficient can be the domain that we need the machine
to make data-driven decisions in the first place. For example, navigating
spatial planets or unknown territories.

Dynamic circumstances
We have the nature of dynamic in some situations, i.e., over time; they are
changing. We may require the machine to take a data-driven decision as it
learns in behaviors or conditions such as this. For example, the availability of
infrastructure in a company and network connectivity.

Translation challenges from expertise to

computational tasks
Human knowledge is in several domains; however, translating this expertise
into computational tasks can be quite hard. Machine learning is needed in
such situations. Cognitive tasks and area of speech recognition can be some
perfect examples.

Machine Learning with Python – Ecosystem

With the capabilities of high-level programming language, Python is a
popular object-oriented programming language. Python is popular these days
because of its portability capability and syntax that is easy to learn. As it is,
they write Python as the successor of programming language names “ABC.”
In 1991, they released the first version of Python. From a TV show called
Monty Python’s Flying Circus, Guido van Rossum picked the name Python.

Python’s strengths and weaknesses

Since there are strength and weakness sides to every programming language,
Python has its own as well.

Strengths
As some surveys and research indicate, the most popular language, as well as
the fifth most significant language for data science and machine learning, is
Python. Some of the strengths that give Python these fair shares include:
Easy to understand and learn – Python’s syntax is more straightforward.
As a result, learning and understanding the language is relatively easy, even
for beginners.
Multi-purpose language – since it has excellent support for structured
programming, Python is a multi-purpose programming language, with added
support for functional programming and object-oriented programming.
A considerable number of modules – for developers to cover all features of
programming, Python gives them a massive amount of modules. And it
makes Python an extensive language since these modules are available easily
for use.
Open-source community support – Python has the broad support of a large
developer community since it is an open-source programming language.
Because of this good advantage, the Python community quickly fixes the
bugs. Python is adaptive and robust because of this characteristic.
Scalability – since it makes provision of an improved structure for
supporting large programs than shell-scripts, Python is a scalable
programming language.

Weakness
While it may be a powerful and popular programming language, slow
execution speed is the weakness of Python. With comparison to compiled
languages since Python is an interpreted language, the execution speed of
Python is slow. For the Python community, this situation can be the primary
area of improvement.

Why Python for Data Science?

As the most popular language for data science, Python is also the fifth most
important language for machine learning. Here are some of the machine
learning features that poise it as data science’s preferred choice of style:

An extensive set of packages

Python possesses a robust and comprehensive collection of packages that
different domains can get access to use. Some of the packages of Python
include scipy, numpy, scikit-learn, pandas, and so on which are needed for
data science and machine learning.

Easy prototyping
Fast and easy prototyping is another essential feature of Python, which makes
it the choice of language for data science. While on the developing stage of
the new algorithm, this feature can be useful.

Collaboration feature
Good collaboration is quite critical in the field of data science, and this
situation is straightforward with several useful tools that Python provides.

Many domains with one language

Some of the numerous fields of a typical data science project may have
feature extraction, data manipulation, modeling, data extraction, updating the
solution, deployment, and evaluation. Python provides the opportunity for
data scientists to address all these domains from a common platform since it
is a multi-purpose language.

Machine Learning Techniques with Python

For us to build models to solve real-life problems with the use of data, we can
use different machine learning algorithms, methods, and techniques. There
are four techniques of Python machine learning, and they are:

Machine learning regression

In a layman’s term, sometimes one that is often less developed, to regress
may mean getting back to a previous position. According to statistics,
regression is the relationship between the corresponding values of other
values, and it is a degree of how one variable’s mean. A technique of
machine learning that discovers its foundation in supervised learning is a
regression. It is in the prediction of a numerical and continuous target that we
use it and the work starts on the values of data set on which we have access
already. While it labels the difference between the values of prediction and
expectation as the residual/error, it also compares known and predicted
values.

Regression to the mean

Over generations, half-cousin to Charles Darwin, Francis Galton observed the
sweet peas sizes. Galton concluded that it would get to a variety of sizes if we
let nature do its job. However, larger ones may come up when we selectively
breed sweet pears for size. With time, and with the steering wheel in the
control of nature, there will perhaps be the production of bigger peas as
smaller offspring are produced over time. For the variables in some peas, we
have a particular size, yet it is to a specific curve or line that we can map
these values.
Types of regression in machine learning
Regression is generally two types to observe, and they are:
Linear regression – we use linear regression through the intent to
denote the connection between a straight line target and a
predictor;
y=P1x+P2+e
Non-linear regression – it may not be possible for us to denote it as
a straight line with a non-linear correlation observation between a
predictor and a target.
Classification of machine learning
With permission for us to predict group membership for data instances, a
technique of data mining is the classification of machine learning. As this
method falls under supervised learning, it makes use of labeled data
beforehand. That is, by training the data, our expectation of it is for its future
prediction. And we mean the classification of data into the modules they
belong when we say ‘prediction.’ There are two types of available attributes
for this, and they are:
Output attribute which also means the dependent attribute
Input attribute which also means the independent attribute
Classification methods
Induction of decision tree – it is from the set identified tuples that
 we create a decision tree. This has internal nodes, leaf nodes, and
branches. It is on an attribute test that the internal nodes denote, the
outcome of the trial is what the branches indicate, and the label of
the class is what the leaf nodes mean. Though they are fast, the two
essential steps are testing and learning.
Classification of rule-based – it is on the rules of IF-THEN that
this classification is based. When there is a denote on a rule, it is –
THEN conclusion IF condition
Backpropagation classification – mostly referred to as
connectionist learning, neural network learning builds connections.
And one of the mainly trendy neural-network learning algorithms
is backpropagation. With the results to learn, it compares the target
value and processes data.
Lazy learner – the training tuple is what the machine stores and
awaits a test tuple in a lazy learner approach. Sustenance of
incremental learning is what this approach pertains. The strategy of
early learner has a contrast to this.
For example, if you are to learn various codes and QR codes, Code 93
Barcodes, ITF Barcodes, Aztec, data matrices, and some others are presented
to you. The next thing is the classification of the code when they show one
them to you. As testing and training examples, this is supervised learning.

Clustering
Unsupervised classification is clustering. With no availability of labeled data,
this classification is an analysis of exploratory data. When we make use of
clustering, we are doing the process of separating data that are unlabeled into
discrete and finite collections of data composition that are hidden and natural.
Here are two types of clustering for your observation:
 Hard clustering – a single cluster fits in with one object
Soft clustering – multiple groups belong to one object
Designing the clustering algorithm after selecting the features and then
validate the clusters are the first steps in clustering. As a result, interpreting
the outcomes is what we do in conclusion.

Anomaly detection
Something that has a deviation from its predictable pattern is an anomaly.
Spotting an outlier is something we may sometimes wish with machine
learning. For example, we may want to detect per hour bill of a dentist for 85
fillings. Per patient, the seconds are 42. Finding the bill of a specific dentist
just for Tuesdays is another example. Suspicion may arise from these
situations and to emphasize on these anomalies, and since it is not what we
are looking for specifically for, we can use anomaly detection.

Data Loading for Machine Learning Projects

What is the most essential and the first thing required of you when you are
attempting to start a machine learning project? Well, to start any of the
machine learning projects, loading the data is what we need to do. And the
format of data that is most common for projects of machine learning is CSV,
which stands for comma-separated-values, concerning data.
As a format in a simple file, they use CSV for tabular data storage, text, and
number, including plain text spreadsheet. Before we load CSV data, we need
to deal with some considerations even though we can load CSV data with
different ways in Python.

Consideration while loading CSV data

The format that is most common for machine learning data is CSV data
format; however, while our machine learning projects are being packed with
the same, we may need to take care of certain essential aspects.

File header
Each file in CSV data files contains the information for each field in the
header. For the data file and the header file, it is imperative to make use of
similar delimiter since how we should interpret data fields is what the header
file specifies. Here are some of the cases common to file header of CSV that
need proper consideration:
Case 1: where a file header is in data file – when a file header is as
a result of the data file, each column of data will automatically get
assigned the names.
Case 2: where a file header has no data file – when there is no file
header in the data file, it is with a manual approach that each
column of data will be assigned names.
Whether our CSV file contains a header or not in the two scenarios, there is a
need to have an explicit explanation on this.

Comments
With comments in any data file, there is now a significant implication. At the
beginning of the line in the data file of CSV, the indication of comments is
through a hash (#). In the process of loading into machine learning projects
the CSV data, there must be a consideration for comments since, depending
upon the method we choose for loading, we may have to indicate whether to
expect those comment or not if the file contains comments.

Delimiter
The standard delimiter in the data files of CSV is comma (,) character.
Separating the standards in the domains is the purpose of delimiter. As a
result, while uploading the CSV file into a machine learning project, and
because we can make use of a different delimiter like white space or tab,
considering the delimiter’s purpose is essential. However, we need to give it
an explicit specification if we want to use another delimiter than the standard
one.

Quotes
The default quote character is double quotation (“ “) mark in CSV data file.
Again, as we attempt to upload the CSV file into a machine learning project,
we must consider the purpose of quotes so we can use other quote characters
than double quotation mark. However, there is a need to be clear when we are
using a different quote style other than the standard quote.

Methods of loading CSV data file

It is critical to load the data correctly when you are working with machine
learning projects. CSV is the most common data format for machine learning
projects, and CSV has varying difficulties in parsing and various flavors.
There are three conventional approaches in Python to load CSV data file, and
they are:

Load CSV with Python standard library

When you attempt to load CSV data file, the first and most used approach is
the use of the Python standard library, which provides us different built-in
modules such as the reader()function and csv module .

Load CSV with MumPy

Another way of loading CSV data file is through numpy.loadtxt() and NumPy

function.

Load CSV with Pandas

Through pandas.read_csv()function and pandas , you can load CSV data file. As a
flexible function, it returns a pandas.DataFrame which you can use
immediately for plotting.

Applications of Machine Learning with Python

Virtual personal assistants
The capacities of virtual assistants bring to our mind some names such as
Alexa and Siri. You request Siri to play music for you or make a call. Also, to
know the weather forecast, you can ask Alexa. Sending an SMS or even
setting the alarm is possible. The only thing required of you is to speak to it
simply, and it will listen to your command. For those differently abled, this
comes in handy. Such assistants take note of your interactions with them, and
for better future experience, they make use of that.

Social media services

Facebook has so many features which you would have been aware of by now,
and some of them are ‘face recognition’ and ‘people you may know.’ To
monitor your activities, it makes use of machine learning. It observes which
people send requests to you or vice versa, what profiles you visit or who visit
your profile, others that you tag, requests you accept, and so on. So that
people can use their platform regularly, Facebook uses this to provide more
productive experience for their users on their platform.

Online customer support

To help you with your questions, shopping and education platforms will most
times use a live chat pop up. With a visitor that has several queries may leave
instead of staying and likely make a purchase. As for other websites, they
make use of chatbots to pull information to the site and attempt to deal with
the questions of their customers.
Online fraud detection
You will realize your trust with PayPal if you have any experience with it.
With the use of machine learning, PayPal can defend against illegal acts such
as money laundering. When it makes a comparison of millions of
transactions, it can identify the one with illicit transactions.

Product recommendations
Jabong and Amazon are some of the shopping platforms that suggest similar
products to you when they notice what products you look at with your
experience using their platforms. For them, it is a win-win situation since you
are likely to make a purchase when they show you some favorite products to
you. Also, they use a cart and wishlist content for this.

Refining search results

When you search online using Google, the search engine will monitor your
response. Do you stick around for some time when you visit a top listing? Or
without clicking any link, you get to the second page and close the tab?
Google is aware of all these activities, and it aims to enhance user experience.

Fighting web spam

Several email clients use rule-based spam filtering. For spammers to get
around this, they develop new tricks. Consequently, to keep their spam filter
updated, clients such as Gmail use machine learning. Also, for Google and
other search engines, spam is a big problem for them. Standard spam-filtering
techniques are C 4.5 Decision Tree Induction and Multi-Layer Perceptron.

Automatic translation
We have the luxury of translating text into another language through machine
learning. How words fit together and thus uses this information to improve
the quality of a translation is what the machine learning algorithm for these
tackles. Also, people can translate the text on images with the use of neural
networks to identify letters with automatic translation.

Video surveillance
If it is possible to be aware of some crimes, people can avoid them. Through
a video surveillance system, people will be mindful of the behaviors of others
toward someone else, a situation, or a place.
 Chapter 9: K – Nearest Neighbor
Algorithms – K – Means Clustering

An easy-to-implement, simple supervised machine learning algorithm that

you can use to solve both regression and classification problems is K –
nearest neighbor (KNN). But wait; let’s try to take a deep dive.
As a process of learning a function that creates an appropriate output when
given new labeled data, a supervised machine learning algorithm is one that
bases its reliance on input data, as against the algorithm of an unsupervised
machine learning. For finding a solution to regression and classification
problems, you may want to turn to supervised machine learning algorithms.
As its output, a discrete value is as a result of the problem of classification.
For example, these sentences are distinct: “likes pizza on Friday” and “does
not like pizza on Friday.” No middle ground appears to exist in this
circumstance. In a classification data, we will have a label as well as a
predictor, or a set of predictors.
As an integer number like 1, -1, or 0, characterization of the output (label) of
the algorithm of classification is the accepted routine. These numbers are
representational in this instance. It will be meaningless if you make an effort
to perform a mathematical operation on them. You need to know that we
cannot add “likes pizza” + “does not like pizza” together because their
numeric representations should not be combined.
As a number with a decimal point as its output, a regression problem has a
real number. When you use a data in a regression analysis, you will have
dependent variables, which are the thing we are attempting to guess given our
independent variables, and an independent variable, or set of independent
variables. For example, we can take the weight to be the dependent variable
and height to be the independent variable.
Also, for data used in a regression analysis, it is typical for each column,
without the inclusion of dependent variable or label, to be called dimension,
predictor, feature, and independent variable, while row can be observation,
data point, or example. Without any tags, an unsupervised machine learning
algorithm uses input data, which means, no label informs the computer to
self-correct when it has made a mistake or when it is right. For getting more
insight into the data, unsupervised learning attempts to learn the basic
structure of the data, while supervised learning, given some new unlabeled
data, tries to learn a function that will permit us to make a prediction.

K – Nearest Neighbors
In close proximity, the existence of similar things as an assumption is the
sum of the algorithm of KNN. Furthermore, close to each other, similar
objects are in the same surrounding. For the algorithm to be functional, the
concept of the KNN is that assumption is sufficiently accurate. Sometimes
referred to as closeness, proximity, or distance, the idea of similarity captures
KNN with some mathematics some of us might have learned in our
childhood, which is to calculate the distance between points on a graph.
We have various ways of calculating distance, and depending on the problem
we are trying to solve, one of them might be preferable. However, the
standard and popular choice is the Euclidean distance, which is the straight-
line distance.

The KNN Algorithm

 1. Load the data
2. To your preferred quantity of neighbors, initiate K
3. For each data example,
3.1 Calculate the current instance from the data and the
case of the query.
3.2 As well as the distance to an efficient compilation, pop
in the sample index
4. Sort the ordered collection of indices and ranges in ascending
order, from smallest to largest by the gaps.
5. From the sorted collection, pick the first K entries.
6. Chosen K entries labels are the next things to get
7. Return the mean of the K entries if regression
8. Return the mode of the K labels of a classification
Selecting the right value for K
You will need to run the algorithm of KNN several times for you to pick the
K that is right for your data. While maintaining the ability of the algorithm to
make accurate predictions when it’s given data it hasn’t seen before, you can
choose the K that reduces the number of errors.
Keep some of these things in mind:
1. We have less stable predictions when we cut down on the value of
K to 1. Let’s imagine K = 1, and we have a query point around one
green and several reds, however, the single nearest neighbor is the
green. Since KNN that is K = 1, implies that the query point is
green, which is an incorrect prediction, we would think the query
point is most likely red.
2. Inversely, our predictions get more stable because of majority
averaging and voting as we step up the value of K. As a result, up
 to some extent, making an accurate prediction is more likely.
Ultimately, we will start seeing a rise in the number of errors. By
now, we have stressed the K value too much when reality dawns
on us.
3. Usually, to have a tiebreaker, we make K, an odd number in
situations where we are taking a majority vote such as selecting the
mode in a classification problem, among labels.
Advantages
1. To implement and use the algorithm is easy and simple
2. You may not need of making added assumptions, tuning a variety
of parameters, or creating a model.
3. Versatility is the nature of the algorithm. You can use it for search,
regression, or classification.
Disadvantages
1. With the increase in the number of independent variables,
predictors, and examples, so the algorithm slows significantly.
KNN in practice
In an impractical choice in settings where people need to make prediction
more quickly, and with the increase in the volume of data, KNN can become
significantly slower, and that is its main disadvantage. Besides, the results of
regression and classification can be faster for some algorithms to produce
more accurately.
However, for solutions that depend on identifying the same objects, KNN can
still be quite useful in solving problems provided you have sufficient
computing resources to handle the data you are using to make predictions
speedily. For example, when we use an application of KNN search, the
algorithm of KNN in recommender systems.
How to Implement K – Nearest Neighbors in
Python
We will follow the steps below with some of the main points of the process:
1. Handle data: from CSV, open the dataset and then split into
train/test datasets
2. Similarity: between two data instances, analyze the distance
3. Neighbors: detect the data instances most similar to K
4. Response: from a set of data instance, generate a response
5. Accuracy: review the predictions’ accuracy
6. Main: tie it all together
Handle data
Loading our data file is the opening line of the process. In CSV format, the
data can be without any quotes or a range of the header. With the open
function, it will be possible to launch the file and in the CSV module, use the
reader function to read the data lines.
After doing that, for KNN to make predictions when it uses it, it is into a
training dataset that we need to split the data, and we can use a dataset test to
evaluate the accuracy of the model. First, for the numbers that we can work
with, we have to make the conversion of the measures of flower that were
loaded as strings. Then, by splitting the data set randomly, we have to train
the datasets. The standard ratio for us to use is the test/train of 67/33.
loadDataset, a function that loads a CSV is what we can use for function
definition with the given filename and with the use of given split ratio, split it
randomly into the train and test datasets. Then, download to the local
directory, the iris flowers dataset CSV file.

Similarity
Between any two given data instances, we need to calculate their similarity so
we can make predictions. For an assigned member of the test dataset and
sequentially make a prediction, doing this is quite crucial for us to locate the
K most related data instances in the training dataset.
The Euclidean distance measure is what we can use if the units of all four
measurements of the flower are the same and are numeric. Between the two
sets of numbers, this defines as the square root of the sum of the squared
differences. At least for a few more times, you may want to let that sink in by
rereading it. Also, the inclusion of which field in the calculation of distance
calculation is another thing we want to control. Specifically, to contain the
first 4 attributes is what we only want. While ignoring the final dimension,
then to a fixed length with one approach, you need to limit the Euclidean
distance. You can make the Euclidean Distance definition when you put all of
this together.

Neighbors
Now we can use a measure of similarity that for a given unseen instance, we
have to collect the K most similar cases. For subset selection with the values
of the smallest distance and calculating the range for all the circumstances,
this process is a straightforward one.

Response
Based on these neighbors, what we have to do next is to devise a predicted
response after locating the neighbors that are most similar for an instance of
test. This can be achieved when the prediction takes the majority vote after
giving each neighbor the chance to vote for their class attribute.

Accuracy
Now, all the KNN algorithm pieces are in place. The accuracy evaluation of
the prediction is an essential remaining concern. And evaluating the model
accuracy is an easy way, and it is called classification accuracy, which is, out
of all predictions made, the ration calculation of the total correct predictions.

Main
Then, it is time to tie them together with the primary function since we have
all the elements of the algorithm.

K – Means Clustering
As an unsupervised learning type, you can use K – means clustering in a
circumstance where data are unlabeled, i.e., data that has no defined groups
or categories. Identifying groups in data, with the variable K representing the
groups’ number, is the goal of this algorithm. Based on the features that are
provided, assigning every data point to any member of the K groups is the
iterative work of the algorithm. And also based on feature similarity, there is
a cluster of data points. Here is the K – means algorithm clustering:
1. As they also use for new data labeling, the K clusters’ centroids,
2. Training data labels (assign a particular cluster to each data point)
It becomes possible for you to analyze and find the organically formed
groups instead of defining groups before looking at the data. As you read on,
you will understand how you can determine the groups’ number. Each
cluster’s centroid defines the resulting groups as the feature values’
collection. You can interpret what kind of group each cluster represents while
the centroid features weights examination.

Clustering
The technique of data analysis that is most common exploratory that they use
for intuition acquiring about the data structure is clustering. While data points
in different clusters are quite varied such that data points in the same
subgroup, cluster, are quite the same, clustering is the task of identifying
subgroups in the data. In other words, according to a similarity measure like
correlation-based distance and Euclidean-based distance, data points in each
cluster are as similar as possible when we attempt to identify homogenous
subgroups within the data. Application-specific is the verdict of the measure
of similarity to use.
You can do clustering analysis based on the features where you attempt to
identify samples subgroups derived from elements or based on models where
we strive to identify features subgroups founded in samples. However,
feature-based clustering is what we will discuss here. In market segmentation,
clustering is what we use; in a situation where we attempt to identify the
same customers whether in the conditions of image compression or
segmentation, attributes or behaviors; document clustering based on topics,
and so on, in a circumstance where we attempt to group the same region.
Because there is no comparison of ground truth to the actual label to the
clustering algorithm output for evaluation of its performance, clustering is an
unsupervised learning method, unlike supervised learning. It is through the
process data points grouping into distinct subgroups that we have access to
investigate the structure of the data.

K – Means Algorithm
Where each data point belongs to only one group, as an interactive algorithm
and also into Kpre-defined distinct non-overlapping subgroups, clusters,
Kmeans algorithm attempts to have segregation of the dataset. Although
keeping the clusters as separate as possible, Kmeans attempts to make the
data points of inter-cluster quite comparable. The total of the squared distance
is at the minimum involving the centroid cluster and the data points when it
assigns data points to a cluster. Within the same cluster, the more
homogenous, similarity, the data points, the less variation that we have within
clusters.
For a final result generation, the K-means clustering algorithm makes use of
iterative refinement. The data set and also the clusters’ number are the inputs
of the algorithm. And for each data point, the data set is a features’ collection.
In the initial, it is with the K centroids’ approximation that the algorithms
start, which, from the data set, can either be selected or generated
indiscriminately. For the process of iteration, here are the steps used by the
algorithm:

Data assignment step:

The definition of the individual clusters is through each centroid. With this
process, based on the squared Euclidean distance, they dispense each data
point to its nearest centroid. On a more formal level, based on if ci is the
collection of centroids in set C, each data point x is designated to a cluster.
Where dist( - ) is Euclidean’s standard distance(L2). For each ith cluster
centroid, let the data point set assignments be Si.

Centroid update step:

It is though this way that they compute the centroids; by assigning to the
cluster of that centroid, they do this by taking the mean of all data points.
Between steps one and two, the iteration process of the algorithm takes place
until stopping criteria are met, i.e., some maximum number of iteration is
reached, there is a minimum in the sum of the distances, or no change
clusters in data points. There is a conversion guarantee with this algorithm.
Though it may not be the best possible result, a local optimum may be the
result. What this means is that, with randomized starting centroids, when you
assess more than one run of the algorithm, you may get a better outcome.
Kmeans algorithm works this way:
Specifying the clusters K number
Randomly, and without replacement, selecting data points of K for
the centroids and shuffling the dataset while initiating centroids
Till the centroids produce no change, let the iteration process
continues, i.e., no transformation to the clusters when assigning
data points to it
As well as all centroids, the total data points, and the squared
distance need computation
Putting each data point to the closest cluster (centroid)
You need to have the average of the same category of data points
by computing the centroids for the clusters.
Expectation-Maximization is the K-means’ approach results in solving the
problem. The E step is when the closest cluster is designated to the data
points. The M stage is when each cluster is computed to the centroid. There
are a few things you need to take notice at this point, and they are:
It is recommended to standardize the data to have a mean of zero
and a standard deviation of one because clustering algorithms as
well as shaping the comparison between data points, it is the
distance-based measurements that K-means uses. This analysis is
because, like income vs. age, there would have different units of
measurements in nearly all the features in any dataset.
At the onset of the algorithm, given the arbitrary initialization of
centroids and K-means iterative natures, K-means algorithm may
not converge to global optimum or at a local optimum, it may be
stuck, and many boots may result in different clusters. As a result,
using a variety of centroids initialization and select the execution’s
results that yield the squared distance’s lower sum is recommended
 to run the algorithm.
Choosing K
Identifying the labels of data set tags and clusters for a specific pre-selected K
is the role of the algorithm described above. You may have to process the K-
means clustering algorithm to identify the number of clusters in the data for K
values’ collection and make a comparison for the outcomes. Generally, you
can obtain a precise approximate by using the technique even though for
determining accurate values of K, there is no method for that.
The mean distance connecting the data points and their centroid’s cluster is
one the measures people commonly use for results comparison across various
values of K. When the similarity of the number of data point is K, there will
always be a decrease in metric with the increase in K because increasing the
clusters’ number will always result in the distance to data points’ reduction.
We cannot use this metric, therefore, as the only target. Instead, to determine
K, we can use the case where the rate of decrease sharply shifts, which is
“elbow point” and as a function of K is plotted, mean distance is to the
centroid.

Business Uses
For identification inside data, groups they are yet to label explicitly, they
make use of the K-means clustering algorithm. Using it confirms the
assumptions of business for unknown groups identification in complex data
sets or about the existence of groups. It will be easy to assign any new data to
the correct group when they have defined the groups and also run the
algorithm. This algorithm is so versatile that they can use it for grouping of
any type. Some of the use cases for this include:

Behavioral segmentation:
 Purchase history segmentation
Activities on website, platform, or application segmentation
Interest-based personas definition
Activity-based monitoring profile creation
Inventory categorization:
Sales activity in group inventory
Manufacturing metrics in group inventory
Measurements of sorting sensor:
Motion types of sensor activity detection
Images of the group
Separate audio
Identification of health supervision groups
Anomalies and bots detection:
Bots separation from groups’ valid activity
Cleaning up outlier detection against the legitimate exercise of the
group
Also, they use it for meaningfully changed detection in data and monitors
such situation if, over time, there is a switch between groups by a tracked
data point.
 Chapter 10: Neural Networks – Linear
Classifiers

Fashioned loosely after a human brain with a purpose for patterns

recognition, neural networks combine a group of algorithms. With a machine
perception, clustering, or labeling raw material, they interpret sensory data.
Vectors that contain numeric are the models they identify and translate to
entire data of real-world such as sound, images, time series, or text.
We can classify and cluster through the help of neural networks. With an
advantage of the information you manage and store, they are classification
and clustering layers. With their help, you can train on data as they classify it
when their datasets have labels, or unlabeled data is what you can organize
according to the model inputs’ similarities. Also, the extraction of other
algorithms’ fed features for classification and clustering is the role of neural
networks. Therefore, it is useful to have the imagination of more significant
components applications of machine learning in deep neural networks which
involve algorithms for regression, classification, and reinforcement learning.
Have you thought of the kind of solution deep learning can offer to some
problems, and more fundamentally, your problems? Ask some of these
questions to get to the root of things:
What results do you want? Labels are the outcomes with which
you apply to data. Here are some examples; in the filter of an
email; spam or not_spam , in fraud detection; bad_guy or good_guy , in
client relationship management; happy_customer or angry_customer .
 Along with data, is it possible for you to supplement those labels?
In other words, for you to train your algorithm on the connection
between inputs and labels, can you build a dataset that is labeled
related to Mighty.ai, Figure Eight, or AWS Mechanical, or can you
identify labeled data in which spam receives the label of spam?
The map of outputs and inputs is deep learning. Being an “approximator of
universal,” identifying correlation is its role. Assuming there is causation or
correlation between any output y and any input x, approximating, f(x) = y, an
unknown function, is what it can learn. A neural network discovers the true f,
in the process of learning, in the case that it is f(x) = 9x – 0.1 or f(x) = 3x +
12, transforming x into y in the correct manner.

Neural Network Elements

With networks made up of various layers, stacked neural networks have its
name in deep learning.
Nodes are the sum of the layers. The environment where the process of
computation takes place is a node, somehow related to the human brain’s
neuron that triggers when plenty stimuli run into it. With a combination of
weights or coefficients that either dampen or amplify that input, a node
combines feedback from the data, in respect of the brief the algorithm tends
to attempt to learn, thereby assigning significance to inputs that are devoid of
any error, such as for data classification, which is most useful input? After
being summed, these products of input-weight are passed through the
activation function of the node, and to affect the ultimate result through the
network like the classification act, it is to determine the extent or whether that
signal should make further progress. There is an “activation” of neuron if the
signal passes.
As the net feeds the input, those neuron-related controls strings that turn off
or on is a node layer. And simultaneously, beginning from the first data-
receiving layer, the output of each segment is the subsequent input of the
layer. With regards to the process of clustering and classification of input by
the neural network, those features have a significant dispensation in pairing
the adjustable weights of the model with input features.

Deep Neural Networks Key Concepts

By their depth, from the ordinary neural networks with a layer that is single-
hidden, deep-learning networks are distinguishable, a multistep pattern
recognition process which is the node layers’ number that data have the
requirement to pass through. The original form of perceptron were the neural
networks’ earlier versions and in between is a hidden layer, of one output
composition and one input layer, and they were shallow. With the exclusion
of output and input, what qualifies as “deep” in the learning are layers that
are more than three. For the algorithms to pay attention to the ensemble, no
one hasn’t hard yet and read Sartre, so it is not common buzzword with the
deep in the learning. With an extension more than a single hidden layer, the
term, indeed, is a strict definition.
It is based on the output of the previous layer that each layer in the networks
of deep-learning trains. Your nodes can categorize more complex features
since they combine and aggregate previous layer’s features as you further
your advance into the neural net.
Feature hierarchy is the meaning of this, and as such, it is that of increasing
abstraction and complexity. With the passage of nonlinear functions through
parameters in their billions, handling high-dimensional and large data sets is
what deep-learning networks can do.
Essentially, within unstructured, unlabeled data, discovering latent is possible
through the neural nets. Raw media is a further term for data of unstructured,
i.e., texts, images, audio recordings, and video. As a result, deep learning
explains part of the troubles in clustering and processing the world’s
unlabeled, raw data, discerning anomalies and, in a comparative database or
to which no one has ever mentioned, similarities in data which no one has
organized.
For example, according to their similarities, it is possible for deep learning to
take millions of images and then group them; a picture of your grandmother,
in one side, is ice breakers, and cats in the other corner. It is in respect of the
smart photo album that this analysis is all about.
At this point, for the other types of data, let’s apply the same idea; for raw
clustering text, including news articles or emails is the function of deep
learning. In the vector area by one side, spambot messages or satisfied
customers might cluster, while others might have the cluster of emails full of
angry complaints. This dynamic is as a result of several messaging filters,
and while voice messages have a similar situation, they use it in CRM,
customer relationship management.
Clustering of data may happen around healthy or normal behavior and
behaviors that are dangerous or anomalous with time series. When a
Smartphone generates the time series data, it will impart knowledge into the
habits and health of the users. Also, they can use it for catastrophic
breakdowns prevention in a circumstance where an auto part generates it.
Without the intervention of a human, and unlike the algorithms of nearly all
conventional machine learning, automatic extraction of feature is the
functioning of deep-learning networks. Deep learning can be a means of
circumventing the limited experts’ chokepoint given that to accomplish the
task of feature extraction can take years for squads of a data scientist. Which
they do not scale by their nature, it gives a boost to the powers of the teams
of data science.
Within a deep network, it is automatic for each node to learn features when
preparing labeled data by attempting difference minimization connecting the
probability distribution of the input data itself and guesses of the network and
also from its samples’ sources, trying to reconstruct the input. For example,
in the manner, the creation of the supposed reconstructions is the machines of
Restricted Boltzmann.
With this process, to draw connections between the representational of those
features and feature signals, whether with data that are labeled or a
reconstruction that is complete, relationships recognition is what these neural
networks learn between specific optimal results and relevant features. It is
practical to apply that on labeled data, and unstructured data, that a network
of deep-learning directed more than the nets of machine-learning. This gives
deep learning admittance to a lot more input. It is high-performance recipe
since the more accurate a net is likely to be with the more data on which it
can train. There can be outperformance when it is on a lot of data that bad
algorithms trained against training on quite a little by good algorithms.
Machine learning has a distinct advantage over previous algorithms because
of its ability to learn and process from massive unlabeled data quantities. The
output layer is the end of the networks of deep-learning: a softmax, logistic,
classifier working with dispensing a probability to a specific label or result.
Though in a huge implication, it is predictive, a term given to that. For
example, when, in an image form, it has raw data, a network of deep-learning
can choose that the representation of a person is the data of input of 90
percent.

Feedforward Networks
As quickly as possible, reaching the least error is the purpose we have with
using the neural net. In a loop, we pass a similar point continually because,
on all sides of a track, we are running a race. In the situation where we
initialize our weights is the starting line for the race and those parameters’
condition. Once they can produce sufficiently accurate predictions and
classifications is the finish line.
There are several steps involved in the race with those individual steps
resembling the previous steps and the subsequent one. For us to arrive at the
finish line, we will submit ourselves to the engagement in the act of
repetition, like a runner. As it learns to take notice of the most critical
features, there is an involvement of a guess with each step of a neural
network, an adjustment to the coefficient, and its weights with a minor
revision and an error measurement.
A model, whether in the state of end or beginning, is a collection of weights
since it attempts to understand the structure of the data, as well as modeling
relationship of data to labels of ground-truth, is the effort it attempts.
Ordinarily, the conclusion may be a bit bad for models even though they have
a bad beginning since its parameters get updates by the neural network; they
change over time. The close reason is that it is in ignorance that the
conception of a neural network happens. Concerning biases or weights, and
guessing correctly, it has no knowledge that will best translate the input. And
with more knowledge about its mistakes, making better sequential guesses is
what it continues to do even though it starts with a hypothesis. Through a
scientific method with a blindfold on, what you can imagine as an enactment
miniature of the scientific technique is a neural network, making more
attempts as they test hypotheses. Or more like a child; they have zero
exposure in their birth and gradually learn to provide a solution to the world’s
tribulations through their life experience exposure. As such, data becomes the
sole experience in support of neural networks.
As the simplest architecture to explain, in the course feedforward neural
network learning, what happens is what can be described in plain details. The
network experiences the presence of the input. The guesses the network make
at the end is what the map, coefficient, or a set of guesses for weights input.

input * weight = guess

The characteristic of input is what a guess is to the result of the weighted

information. Then, to the data’s ground-truth, makes a comparison as the
neural takes its guesses, inquiring from an authority effectively whether it has
the right result.

ground truth – guess = error

Its error is the distinction between the ground truth and the guess of the
network. Contributing to the error as they measure the error with an extensive
weight adjustment, it is over its model that the network walks back the error.

error * contribution of weight to error = adjustment

For them to apply an update to the model, the neural networks’ three essential
functions’ account is the above three pseudo-mathematical formulas, loss
calculation, and scoring input. Then, they will start the step of three processes
once more. A collective feedback loop is a neural network that is set to
punish weights that result in an error and for weights that support its guesses,
reward them.
Multiple Linear Regression
Typical of any algorithm of other machine learning, simple code and math
are all about artificial neural networks, in spite of their biologically inspired
name. Indeed, in statistic, part of your learning techniques, in the beginning,
is linear regression. And it will be easy for anyone who understands how
neural network work to have a clear grasp of linear regression. Linear
regression, in a form so simple, the following is the expression of linear
regression;

Y_hat = bX + a

The input x where output estimation is Y_hat, on the vertical axis, a line
interception of a graph with two-dimension is a, and b is the slope. Let’s
concretize this: the risk of cancer risk could be Y, and the radiation exposure
could be x; your benchpress’ total weight could be Y_hat, and daily pushups
could be x; the crop’s size could be Y_hat, and the fertilizer quantity could be
x. As you can see, on the X-axis, regardless of how far along you are, there is
a proportional increase in the dependent variable Y_hat all the time there is an
addition to a unit to x. Between two variables, a starting point is a simple
relation that moves them together up or down.
For us to imagine linear regression in their multiplicity is the next step, where
several input variables produce a single output variable. Typically, one can
express it as follows:

Y_hat = b_1*X_1 + b_2*X_2 + b_3*X_3 + a

With all three affecting Y_hat, in the fertilizer variable to a planting season,
you can attach the quantity of rainfall and sunlight to extend the example
above.
At a neural network’s node, happening now is multiple linear regression
form. From the previous layer’s node, there is a combination of input from
every other node with input for each node of a single layer. This means, with
the effect of their coefficients and leading to an individual node of the
ensuing layer, there is a blend of inputs in different proportions.
And it has passed through a non-linear function when, to arrive at Y_hat, you
total the inputs of your node. The reason is this: there will be linearly
increased in Y_hat, and yet that doesn’t serve our purpose with the increase
of X without limit and if there is a mere execution of multiple linear
regression by every node.
Regardless of whether or not the input signal should influence the crucial
evaluations of the network when it has access to the input, a switch, similar to
a neuron which turns off and on, is what we are trying to create. There’s a
problem of classification at hand once you possess a switch. Is there any
indication from the signal of the input that the classification of the node must
be sufficient, off or on, or not enough? Through 1 and 0, it is possible to
express a binary decision and between 0 and 1, to translate it to space,
squashing input is a logistic regression which is as a result of a non-linear
function.
Similar to logistic regression, they are usually s-shaped functions as at each
node, the nonlinear transforms. “S,” sigmoid, in Greek term, is the name that
they have and they are shaping each node’s output. Between 0 and 1, with an
s-shaped space being the output of squashed nodes, and in a feed-forward
neural network, it will then pass as the subsequent layer’s input to reach the
decision-making space where it will go on pending the signal’s arrival at the
net’s ultimate layer.

Different Types of Classifiers

As an algorithm, a classifier maps the input data to a particular category.
There are various types of classifiers, and some of them are:
1. Naive Bayes
2. Perceptron
3. Logistic Regression
4. Decision Tree
5. Support Vector Machine
6. K – Nearest Neighbor
7. Artificial Neural Networks/Deep Learning
Some of the ensemble methods are Bagging, AdaBoost, Random Forest, and
so on. For a given data, we will get a similar output all over again as we
discussed earlier. And whether regression or classification, machine learning
gives us different outcomes. As such, when it comes to supervised learning,
they work on random simulation, similar to the manner with which the
artificial neural networks use random weights. Irrespective of the technique
you use, a level of accuracy of prediction is imminent for these machines
learning to reach with given data input. These are patterns of artificial
intelligence. Therefore, we can distinguish them as generative algorithms and
discriminative algorithms.
The perceptron classifiers are a concept that springs from artificial neural
networks. So, classifying this into two classes of X1 and X2 is where the
problem lies. As there is a summation in between the perceptron, there are
also two inputs given to the perceptron; input is Xi1 and Xi2, and as well,
there are weights connected to it, and they are w1 and w2. Classifying data
by the system into the classes is our desired output since the Yi cap from
outside is the desired output, and w0 is a weight to it. Similar to Y^ where Y
is the dependent variable, you can connect this equation with linear
regression relatively. Slopes are w2, w1, and w0 is the intercept. X1 and X2
are variables that are independent. Happening in every iteration is random
simulation with the expression that weights get generated. The machine has
to make our output happens, which is the same as our expectation since we
have one desired output that we show to the model. It may lack accuracy for
the first time. However, the machine becomes more accurate as the ‘training’
continues. As time goes by, the inaccuracy curtails. To achieve an acceptable
level accepted by the trainer, it may take a longer time with regard to the
complexity of the number of classes and data. Consequently, before it can
reach a level of accuracy in our expectation when the data is complex, the
machine will take more iterations. In artificial neural networks in deep
learning problems, these iterations are called epochs.
Now, we have the second classifier in the second problem. With the use of an
artificial neural network or perceptron, we were able to solve the first
problem. We can as well use Support Vector Machine (SVM) also to address
the same problem. For us to have a maximum distance between them, all we
have to do is draw a line between the two classes. We can draw the line in
either way since we have two classes. However, when we identify an optimal
point, it will help to maximize the distance between the two classes and such
a model is known as Support Vector Machine. Classifying a class into
multiple classes is possible with its help. And finding an optimal place
maximizes not only the distance between the two classes but also the data
points which are pretty close to the middle line.
 Conclusion
Thank you for making it through to the end of Python Machine Learning:
The Ultimate and Complete Guide for Beginners on Data Science and
Machine Learning with Python (Learning Technology, Principles, and
Applications). Let’s hope it was informative and able to provide you with all
of the tools you need to achieve your goals whatever they may be.

For you to get to this point, chances are you want to know so many things
about Python, data science, machine learning, and so other related fields. You
can be the next innovator. Building innovative technology begins with an
idea, and your plan can become a reality when you make a move.

Right now, all you have to do is to imagine. Imagine how your world would
be if you can take some steps to learn more about machine learning or
perhaps neural networks. Imagine yourself a great data analyst who uses data
science to make decisions and predictions with the use of machine learning.

Imagine having all the secrets about data science lifecycle where you can
make several analyses. Imagine knowing everything about probability,
statistics, fundamental, as well as data types you’ve read in this book.
Imagine knowing all aspects of linear algebra and how you can proffer
solution to many representational problems of linear algebra.

In this book, you have read about the fundamentals of machine learning.
There are details about the prerequisites to start with machine learning and
some details about machine learning roadmap. You have the knowledge you
may need in the world of data science and Python with this book. The next
step you need to take is to go out there and conquer the world.

Finally, if you found this book useful in any way, a review on Amazon is
always appreciated!