UNIT-II

RADAR
EQUATION

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The Radar Range Equation:

We know that,

 All of the parameters are controllable by the radar designer except for the target cross
section σ.
 In practice the simple range equation does not predict range performance accurately. The
actual range may be only half of that predicted.
 This due, in part, to the failure to include various losses
 It is also due to the statistical nature of several parameters such as Smin, σ, and
propagation losses
 Because of the statistical nature of these parameters, the range is described by the
probability that the radar will detect a certain type of target at a certain distance.

Minimum detectable Signal:

 The ability of the radar receiver to detect a weak echo is limited by the noise energy that
occupies the same spectrum as the signal
 Detection is based on establishing a threshold level at the output of the receiver.
 If the receiver output exceeds the threshold, a signal is assumed to be present

A sample detected envelope is show below, a large signal is detected at A. The threshold must be
adjusted so that weak signals are detected, but not so low that noise peaks cross the threshold and
give a false target.

The voltage envelope in the figure is usually from a matched filter receiver. A matched
filter maximizes the output peak signal to average noise power level.

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 Fig: Envelope of receiver output showing false alarms due to noise.

A matched filter has a frequency response which is proportional to the complex conjugate
of the signal spectrum. The output of a matched filter is the cross correlation between the
received waveform and the replica of the transmitted waveform. The shape of the input
waveform to the matched filter is not preserved.

In the figure, two signals are present at point B and C. The noise voltage at point B is
large enough so that the combined signal and noise cross the threshold. The presence of noise
sometimes enhances the detection of weak signals.

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 At point C the noise is not large enough and the signal is lost.

The selection of the proper threshold is a compromise which depends on how important it
is if a mistake is made by (1) failing to recognize a signal (probability of a miss) or by (2) falsely
indicating the presence of a signal (probability of a false alarm)

Note: threshold selection can be made byan operator viewing a CRT display. Here the threshold
is difficult to predict and may not remain fixed in time.

The SNR necessary to provide adequate detection must be determined before the
minimum detectable signal Smin can be computed.

Although detection decision is done at the video output, it is easier to consider

maximizing the SNR at the output of the IF strip (before detection). This is because the receiver
is linear up to this point.

It has been shown that maximizing SNR at the output of the IF is equivalent to
maximizing the video output.

False Alarm Rate

A false alarm is „an erroneous radar target detection decision caused by noise or other interfering
signals exceeding the detection threshold”. In general, it is an indication of the presence of a
radar target when there is no valid target. The False Alarm Rate (FAR) is calculated using the
following formula:

Figure 1: Different threshold levels

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 false targets per PRT

FAR = ……….. (1)

Number of rangecells

False alarms are generated when thermal noise exceeds a pre-set threshold level, by the presence
of spurious signals (either internal to the radar receiver or from sources external to the radar), or
by equipment malfunction. A false alarm may be manifested as a momentary blip on a cathode
ray tube (CRT) display, a digital signal processor output, an audio signal, or by all of these
means. If the detection threshold is set too high, there will be very few false alarms, but the
signal-to-noise ratio required will inhibit detection of valid targets. If the threshold is set too low,
the large number of false alarms will mask detection of valid targets.

a. Threshold is set too high: Probability of Detection = 20%

b. Threshold is set optimal: Probability of Detection = 80%
But one false alarm arises!
-3
False alarm rate = 1 / 666 = 1,5 ·10
c. Threshold is set too low: a large number of false alarms arise!
d. Threshold is set variabel: constant false-alarm rate

Receiver Noise:

Noise is unwanted EM energy which interferes with the abilityof the receiver to detect
wanted signals. Noise may be generated in the receiver or may enter the receiver via the antenna.

One component of noise which is generated in the receiver is thermal (or Johnson) noise.

Noise power (Watts) = kTBn

Where k = Boltzmann’s constant =1.38 x 10-23 J/deg

T = degrees Kelvin and Bn = noise bandwidth

Note: Bn is not the 3 dB bandwidth but is given by:

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 Here f0 is the frequency of maximum response

i.e. Bn is the width of an ideal rectangular filter whose response has the same area as the
filter or amplifier in question.

Note: For many types of radar Bn is approximately equal to the 3 dB bandwidth (which is easier
to determine).

Note: A receiver with a reactive input (e.g. a parametric amplifier) need not have any ohmic loss
and hence all thermal noise is due to the antenna and transmission line preceding the antenna.

The noise power in a practical receiver is often greater than can be accounted for
bythermal noise. This additional noise is created by other mechanisms than thermal agitation.

The total noise can be considered to be equal to thermal noise power from an ideal receiver
multiplied by a factor called the noise figure Fn (sometimes NF)

= Noise out of a practical receiver/Noise out of an ideal receiver at T0

Here Ga is the gain of the receiver

Note: the receiver bandwidth Bn is that of the IF amplifier in most receivers.

Since,

We have,

Rearranging gives:

Now Smin is that value of Si corresponding to the minimum output SNR: (So/No) necessary for
detection. Hence

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Substituting the above equation into the radar range equation, we get,

Probability Density Function (PDF):

Consider the variable x as representing a typical measured value of a random process

such as a noise voltage. Divide the continuous range of values of x into small equal segments of
length Δx, and count the number of times that x falls into each interval. The PDF p(x) is than
defined as:

Where N is the total number of values

The probability that a particular measured value lies within width dx centred at x is p(x)
dx, also the probability that a value lies between x1 and x2 is

Note: PDF is always positive by definition

The average value of a variable function Φ(x) of a random variable x is:

Hence the average value or mean of x is

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Also the mean square value is

Where, m1 and m2 are called the first and second moments of the random variable x.

Note: If x represents current, then m1 is the DC component and m2 multiplied by the resistance
gives the mean power.

Variance is defined as,

Variance is also called the second central moment. If x represents current, μ2 multiplied
bythe resistance gives the mean power of the AC component. Standard deviation, σ is defined as
the square root of the variance. This is the RMS value of the AC component.

In RADAR systems, there are different types of PDF:

 Uniform Probability Density Function

 Gaussian (Normal) Probability Density Function
 Rayleigh Probability Density Function
 Exponential Probability Density Function

Uniform Probability Density Function:

The Uniform Probability Density Function is defined as,

Example of a uniform probability distribution is the phase of a random sine wave relative to a
particular origin of time.

The constant K is found from the following

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Hence for the phase of a random sine wave

The average value for a uniform PDF

The mean squared value is

The variance is

The standard deviation is

Gaussian (Normal) PDF:

The Gaussian (Normal) Probability Density Function is defined as,

An example of normal PDF is thermal noise

We have for the Normal PDF

m1 = x0

m2 = x20 + σ2

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 σ2 = m2 - m12

Central Limit Theorem:

The PDF of the sum of a large number of independent, identically distributed

randomquantities approaches the Normal PDF regardless of what the individual distribution
might be, provided that the contribution of anyone quantityis not comparable with the resultant
of all the others.

For the Normal distribution, no matter how large a value of x we may choose, there is
always a finite probability of finding a greater value.

Hence if noise at the input to a threshold detector is normally distributed there is always a
chance for a false alarm.

Rayleigh PDF:

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 Examples of a Rayleigh PDF are the envelope of noise output from a narrowband band
pass filter (IF filter in superheterodyne receiver), also the cross section fluctuations of certain

Here

Exponential PDF:

If x2 is replaced by w where w represents power. And <x2>avg is replaced by w0 where w0

represents average power

Then

, for w ≥ 0

This is called the exponential PDF or the Rayleigh Power PDF

Here σ = w0

The Probability Distribution Function is defined as, P(x) = probability (X≤x)

In some cases the distribution function is easier to obtain from experiments.

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Signal to Noise Ratio:

Here we will obtain the SNR at the output of the IF amplifier necessary to achieve a
specific probability of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.

The output SNR is then substituted into maximu radar range equation to obtain Smin, the
minimum detectable signal at the receiver input.

Here BV > BIF/2 in order to pass all video modulation.

The envelope detector may be either a square law or linear detector. The noise entering
the IF amplifier is Gaussian.

Here ψ0 is the variance, the mean value is zero.

When this Gaussian noise is passed through the narrow band IF strip, the PDF of the envelope of
the noise is Rayleigh PDF.

Here R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output.

Now the probability that the noise voltage envelope will exceed a voltage threshold VT
(false alarm) is:

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 The average time interval between crossings of the threshold by noise alone is the false
alarm time Tfa.

Here Tk is the time between crossings of the threshold by noise

when the slope of the crossing is Positive.

Now the false alarm probability Pfa is also given by the ratio of the time that the
envelope is above the threshold to the total time.

Where

Since the average duration of a noise pulse is approximatelythe reciprocal of the

bandwidth. From the above two palse alaram probabilities, the resultant equation we get,

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Example: For BIF = 1 MHz and required false alarm rate of 15 minutes.

Note: the false alarm probabilities of practical radars are quite small. This is due to their narrow
bandwidth.

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Note: False alarm time Tfa is very sensitive to variations in the threshold level VT due to the
exponential relationship.

Example: For BIF = 1 MHz we have the following:

Note: If the receiver is gated off for part of the time (e.g. during transmission interval) the P fa
will be increased by the fraction of the time that the receiver is not on. This assumes that T fa
remains constant. The effect is usually negligible.

We now consider a sine wave signal of amplitude A present along with the noise at the input to
the IF strip.

Here the output of the envelope detector has a Rice PDF which is given by:

Where I0(Z) is the modified Bessel function of zero order and argument Z

Now,

Note: when A = 0, the above equation reduces to the PDF from noise alone.

The probability of detection Pd is the probability that the envelope will exceed VT.

For the conditions RA/ψ0 >> 1 and A >> |R-A|

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Note: 1. the area represents the probability of detection.

2. The area represents the probability of false alarm.

If Pfa is decreased by moving VT then Pd is also decreased.

The above Pd may be converted to power by replacing the signal-r.m.s.-noise-voltatge ratio.

The signal-r.m.s.-noise-voltatge ratio is given by

= [Signal amplitude/RMS noise voltage] = √2[RMS signal voltage/ RMS noise voltage]

= [Signal power/noise power]1/2 = (2S/N)1/2

The performance specification is Pfa and Pd and used to determine the S/N at the receiver
output and the Smin at the receiver input.

Note: This S/N is for a single radar pulse.

The above figure shows the probability of detection for a sine wave in noise as a function
of the signal-to-noise (power) ratio and the probability of false alaram.

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Note: S/N required is high even for Pd = 0.5. This is due to the requirement for the Pfa to be
small. A change in S/N of 3.4 dB can change the Pd from 0.999 to 0.5. When a target cross
section fluctuates, the change in S/N is much greater than this S/N required for detection is not a
sensitive function of false alarm time.

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Integration of Radar pulses:

The above figure applies for a single pulse only. However many pulses are usually returned from
any particular target and can be used to improve detection. The number of pulses nB as the
antenna scans is

Where θB = antenna beam width (deg) and fP = PRF (Hz)

= antenna scan rate (deg/sec)

ωm = antenna scan rate (rpm)

Example: For a ground based search radar having

θB = 1.5 ˚, fP = 300 Hz,

Determine the number of hits from a point target in each scan nB = 15

The process of summing radar echoes to improve detection is called integration.

All integration techniques employ a storage device

 The simplest integration method is the CRT displaycombined with the integrating
properties of the eye and brain of the operator.
 For electronic integration, the function can be accomplished in the receiver either before
the second detector (in the IF) or after the second detector (in the video).
 Integration before detection is called predetection or coherent detection.
 Integration after detection is called postdetection or noncoherent integration.
 Predetection integration requires the phase of the echo signal to be preserved.
 Postdetection integration can not preserve RF phase.
 For predetection SNR integrated = n SNRi or (SNR)n=n(SNR)1

Where SNRi is the SNR for a single pulse and n is the number of pulses integrated.

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  For postdetection, the integrated SNR is less than the above since some of the energy is
converted to noise in the nonlinear second detector.
 Postdetection integration, however, is easier to implement

Integration efficiency is defined as

---------- (1)

Where (S/N) 1 = value of SNR of a single pulse required to produce a given probability of
detection and

(S/N) n = value of SNR per pulse required to produce the same probability of detection. When n
pulses are integrated.

For postdetection integration, the integration improvement factor is Ii = n Ei(n)

For ideal postdetection, Ei(n) = 1 and hence the integration improvement factor is n

Examples of Ii are given in Fig from data by Marcum

Note that Ii is not sensitive to either Pd or Pfa.

We can also develop the integration loss as

This is shown in Fig.

The parameter nf in Fig. is called the false alarm number which is defined as the average number
of possible decisions between false alarms

nf = [no. of range intervals/pulse][no. of pulse periods/sec][false alarm rate]

= [TP/τ][fP][Tfa]

Here TP = PRI (pulse repetition interval) and fP = PRF

Thus nf = Tfa /τ = ≈ TfaB ≈ 1/Pfa

Note: for a radar with pulse width τ, there are B = 1/τ possible decisions per second on the
presence of a target

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If n pulses are integrated before a target decision is made, then there is B/n possible
decisions/sea.

Hence the false alarm probability is n times as great.

Note: This does not mean that there will be more false alarms since it is the rate of detection-
decisions is reduced, not the average time between false alarms.

Hence Tfa is more meaningful than Pfa

Note: some authors use a false alarm number nf’ = nf/n

Caution should be used in computations for SNR as a function of Pfa and Pd

Fig. shows that for a few pulses integrated post detection, there is not much difference from a
perfect predetection integrator.

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When there are many pulses integrated (small S/N per pulse) the difference is pronounced.

The radar equation with n pulses integrated is

Here (S/N)n is the SNR of one of n equal pulses that are integrated to produce the required P d for
a specified Pfa.

Using equation 1 into above equation, we get,

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 Here (S/N)1 is found from Fig. and nEi(n) is found from Fig .

Some postdetection integrators use a weighting of the integrated pulses. These integrators
include the recirculating delay line, the LPF, the storage tube and some algorithms in digital
integration.

If an “exponential” weighting of the integrated pulses is used then the voltage out of the
integrator is

Here Vi is the voltage amplitude of the ith pulse and exp(-γ) is the attenuation per pulse.

For this weighting, an efficiencyf actor ρ can be calculated which is the ratio of the average S/N
for the exponential integrator to the average S/N for the uniform integrator:

Note: Maximum efficiency for a dumped integrator corresponds to γ =0

Maximum efficiency for a continuous integrator corresponds to nγ =1.257

Radar Cross Section of Targets:

Cross-section: The fictional area intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered
equally in all directions, produces an echo at the radar that is equal to that actually received.

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Where R = range

Er= reflected field strength at radar

Ei = incident field strength at target

Note: for most targets such as aircraft. Ships and terrain, the σ does not bear a simple
relationship to the physical area.

EM scattered field: is the difference between the total field in the presence of an object
and the field that would exist if the object were absent. EM diffracted field: is the total field in
the presence of the object

Note: for radar backscatter, the two fields are the same (since the transmitted field has
disappeared by the time the received field appears).

The σ can be calculated using Maxwell’s equations onlyfor simple targets such as the sphere
(Fig.2.9).

When (the Rayleigh region), the scattering from a sphere can be used for
modelling raindrops. Since σ varies as λ-4 in the Rayleigh region, rain and clouds are invisible for
long wavelength Radars.

The usual radar targets are much larger than raindrops and hence the long λ operation
does not reduce the target σ.

When the σ approaches the optical cross section πa2

Note: in the Mie (resonance region) σ can actually be 5.6 dB greater than the optical value or 5.6
dB smaller.

Note: For a sphere the σ is not aspect sensitive as it is for all other objects, and hence can be
used fro calibrating a radar system.

Backscatter of a long thin rod (missile) is shown. Where the length is 39λ and the
diameter λ/4, the material is silver.

Here θ = 0˚ is the end on view and σ is small since the projected area is small.

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 However at near end on (θ ≈ 5˚) waves couple onto the rod, travel the length of the rod
and reflect from the discontinuity at the far end ⇒ large σ.

The Cone Sphere

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Here the first derivatives of the cone and sphere contours are the same at the point of joining.

The nose-on σ is shown in Fig. 2.12

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Note: Fig. 2.12. The σ for θ near 0˚ (-45˚ to +45˚) is quite low. This is because scattering occurs
from discontinuities. Here the discontinuities are small: the tip, the join and the base of the
sphere (which allows a creeping wave to travel around the sphere).

 When the cone is viewed at perpendicular incidence (θ = 90 - α, where α is the cone half
angle) a large specular return is contained.
 From the rear, the σ is approximately that of a sphere.
 The nose on σ for f above the Rayleigh region and for a wide range of α, has a max of
0.4λ2 and a min of 0.01λ2. This gives a very low backscatter (e.g. at λ = 3 cm, σ = 10-4
m2).

Example: σ at S band for 3 targets having the same projected area:

Corner reflector: 1000 m2, Sphere 1 m2, Cone sphere 10-3 m2

In practice, to achieve a low σ with a cone sphere, the tip must be sharp, the surface
smooth and no holes or protuberances allowed.

A comparison of nose-on σ for several cone shaped objects is given in figure 2.13

Note: the use of materials such as carbon fibre composites can further reduce σ.

Complex Targets.

The σ of complex targets (ships, aircraft, and terrain) is complicated functions of

frequencyand viewing angle.

The σ can be computed using GTD (Geometric Theory of Diffraction), measured

experimentally or found using scale models.

A complex target can be considered as being composed of a large number of independent

objects which scatter energy in all directions.

The relative phases and amplitudes of the echo signals from the individual scatterers
determine the total σ. If the separation between individual scatterers is large compared to λ the
phases will vary with the viewing angle and cause a scintillating echo.

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 An example of the variation of σ with aspect angle is shown in Fig. 2.16. The σ can
change by 15dB for an angular change of 0.33˚. Broadside gives the max σ since the projected
area is bigger and is relatively flat (The B-26 fuselage had a rectangular cross-section). This data
was obtained bymounting the actual aircraft on a turntable above ground and observing its σ with
a radar.

A more economical method is to construct scale models. An example of a model

measurement is given in Fig. 2.17 bythe dashed lines. The solid lines are the theoretical
(computed using GTD) data. The computed data is obtained bybreaking up the target into simple
geometrical shapes. And then computing the contributions of each (accounting for shadowing).

The most realistic method for obtaining σ data is to measure the actual target in flight.
The US Naval Research Lab has such a facility with L, S, C, and X band radars. The radar track
data establishes the aspect angle. Data is usually averaged over a 10˚ x 10˚ aspect angle interval.

A single value cross section is sometimes given for specific aircraft targets for use in the
range equation. This is sometimes an average value or sometimes a value which is exceeded 99%
of the time.

Note: even though single values are given there can be large variations in actual σ for any target
e.g. the AD 4B, a propeller driven aircraft has a σ of 20 m2 at L band but its σ at VHF is about
100 m2 This is because at VHF the dimensions of the scattering objects are comparable to λ and
produce a resonance effect.

For large ships, an average cross section taken from port, starboard and quarter aspects yields

Here σ is in m2

f is in MHz and D is ship displacement in kilotons

This equation applies only to grazing angles i.e. as seen from the same elevation.

Small boats 20 ft. to 30 ft. give σ(X band) approx 5 m2

40 ft. to 50 ft.

“ “ “ “ “ 10 m2 Automobiles give σ(X band) of approx 10 m2 to 200 m2

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74
75
Examples of radar cross sections for various targets (in m2))

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Human being gives σ as shown:

Cross-Section Fluctuations:

The echo from a target in motion is almost never constant. Variations are caused by
meteorological conditions, lobe structure of the antenna, equipment instability and the variation
in target cross section. Cross section of complex targets is sensitive to aspect.

One method of dealing with this is to select a lower bound of σ that is exceeded some
specified fraction of the time (0.95 or 0.99). This procedure results in conservative prediction of
range.

Alternatively, the PDF and the correlation properties with time may be used for a
particular tar get and type of trajectory. The PDF gives the probability of finding any value of σ
between the values of σ and σ + dσ. The correlation function gives the degree of correlation of σ
with time (i.e. number of pulses).

The power spectral density of σ is also important in tracking radars. It is not usually
practical to obtain experimental data for these functions. It is more economical to assess the
effects of fluctuating σ is to postulate a reasonable model for the fluctuations and to analyze it
mathematically.

Swerling has done this for the detection probabilities of 5 types of target.

Case 1

 Echo pulses received from the target on any one scan are of constant envelope
throughout the entire scan, but are independent (uncorrelated) scan to scan.
 This case ignores the effect of antenna beam shape the assumed PDF is:

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 Case 2

 Echo pulses are independent from pulse to pulse instead of from scan to scan

Case 3

 Same as case 1 except that the PDF is

Case 4

 Same as case 2 except that the PDF is

Case 5

Nonfluctuating cross section

The PDF assumed in cases 1 and 2 applies to complex targets consisting of many
scatterers (in practice 4 or more). The PDF assumed in cases 3 and 4 applies to targets
represented byone large reflector with other small reflectors.

For all cases the value of σ to be substituted in the radar equation is σavg.

When detection probability is large, all 4 cases in which σ is not constant require greater
SNR than the constant σ case (case 5)

Note for Pd =0.95 we have

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 This increase in S/N corresponds to a reduction in range bya factor of 1.84. Hence if the
characteristics of the target are not properly taken into account, the actual performance of the
radar (for the same value of σave) will not measure up to the predicted performance.

Comparison of the five cases for a false alarm number nf = 108 is shown in Fig. 2.22

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 Also when Pd > 0.3, larger S/N is required when fluctuations are uncorrelated scan to
scan (cases 1 & 3) than when fluctuations are uncorrelated pulse to pulse.

This results since the larger the number of independent pulses integrated, the more likely
the fluctuations will average out ⇒ cases 2 & 4 will approach the nonfluctuating case.

Figures 2.23 and 2.24 may be used as corrections for probability of detection (Fig. 2.7)

Procedure:

1) Find S/N from Fig. 2.7 corresponding to desired Pd and Pfa

2) From Fig. 2.23 find correction factor for either cases 1 and 2 or cases 3 and 4 to be
applied to S/N found in Step 1. The resulting (S/N)1 is that which would applyif detection
were based on a single pulse
3) If n pulses are integrated, The integration improvement factor Ii(n) is found from Fig.
2.24. The parameters (S/N)1 and nEi(n)=Ii(n) are substituted into the radar equation 2.33
along with σave.

Note: in Fig. 2.24 the integration improvement factor Ii(n) is sometimes greater than n. Here the
S/N required fro n=1 is larger than for the nonfluctuating target. The S/N per pulse will always
be less than that of the ideal predetection integrator.

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Note: data in Fig. 2.23 and 2.24 are essentially independent of the false alarm number
(106<nf<1010).

Note: the PDF s for cases 1 &2 and # & 4 of the Swerling fluctuations are special cases of the
Chisquare distribution of degree 2m (also called the Gamma distribution)

Note: For target cross section models, 2m is not required to be an integer. It maybe any positive
real number.

For cases 1 and 2, m=1

For cases 3 and 4, m=2

Note: For the Chi-square PDF

Note: as m increases, the fluctuations become more constrained. With m = ∞, we have the
nonfluctuating target.

The Chi-square distribution may not always fit observed data, but it is used for
convenience. It is described by two parameters σave and the number of degrees of freedom 2m.

Aircraft flying straight and level fit Chi-square distribution with m between 0.9 and 2,
and with σave varying 15 dB from min to max.

The parameters of the fitted distribution vary with aspect angle, type of aircraft and
frequency. The value of m is near unity for all aspect angles except broadside which give a
Rayleigh distribution with varying σave. It is found that σave has more effect on the calculation of
probabilityof detection than the value of m.

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82
 The Chi-square distribution also describes the cross section of shapes such as cylinders,
cylinders with fins (e.g. some satellites). Here m varies between 0.2 and 2 depending on the
aspect angle. The Rice distribution is a better description of the cross section fluctuations of a
target dominated by a single scatterer than the Chi-square distribution with m=2.

Here the Rice distribution is

Where s is the ratio of the cross section of the single dominant scatterer to the total cross section
of the smaller scatterers. I0 is a modified Bessel function of zero order

Note: when s=1 the results using the Rice distribution approximate the Chi-square with m=2, for
small probabilities of detection.

The Log Normal distribution has been suggested for describing the cross sections of some
satellites, ships, cylinders, plates, arrays

Where sd = standard deviation of and σm = median of σ.

Also the ratio of the mean to median value of σ is

Comparisons of several distributions models fro false alarm number nf = 106, with all pulses
during a scan correlated and pulses in successive scans independent, are shown in Fig. 2.25.

Note: The two extreme cases treated are for pulses correlated in any particular scan but with
scan-to-scan independence (slow fluctuations), and for complete independence (fast
fluctuations).

There could be partial correlation of pulses within a scan. The results for this case would fall
some where between the two cases.

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Transmitter Power:

Pt in the radar equation is the peak power. This is not the instantaneous peak power of the
carrier sine wave. It is the power averaged over a carrier cycle which occurs at the maximum of a
pulse.

The average radar power, Pav is the average transmitter power over the PRI

Here τ = pulse width, Tp= PRI and fp = PRF

Now which defines the duty cycle

The typical duty cycle for surveillance radar is 0.001.

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Thus the range equation in terms of average power is

Here (Bnτ) are grouped together since the product is usually of the order of unity for pulse radars.

If the transmitted waveform is not a rectangular pulse, we can express the range equation
in terms of energy.

Note: In this form Rmax does not depend explicitly on λ or fp

Pulse Repetition Frequency and Range Ambiguities:

PRF is determined primarily by the maximum range at which targets are expected.

Echoes received after an interval exceeding the PRI are called “multiple-time-around” echoes.

These can result in erroneous range measurements.

Consider three targets A, B and C. here A is within the maximum unambiguous range
Runambig, B is between Runambig and 2Runambig and C is between 2Runambig and 3Runambig.

One wayof distinguishing multiple times around targets is to operate with a carrying PRF.
The echo from an unambiguous target will appear at the same place on each sweep; however
echoes from multiple time around targets will spread out.

The number of separate PRFs will depend on the degree of multiple time targets. Second
time around targets need only 2 separate PRFs to be resolved.

Alternative methods to mark successive pulses to identify multiple times around targets
include changing amplitude, pulse width, frequenc y, phase or polarization from pulse to pulse.
These schemes are not very successful in practice.

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 One limitation is the foldover of nearby targets (e.g. nearby strong ground targets, clutter)
which can mask weak multiple time around targets. A second limitation is increased processing
requirement to resolve ambiguities.

The range ambiguity in multiple PRF radar can be convenientlydecoded byuse of the
Chinese remainder theorem.

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Antenna Parameters:

The gain of an antenna is

G is a function of direction. If it is greater than unityin some directions, it must be less

than unityin others.

From reciprocity, if an antenna has a larger gain in transmission in a specific direction,

then it also has a larger effective area in that direction.

The most common beam shapes fro radar are the pencil beam and the fan beam. Pencil
beams are axially symmetric with a width of a few degrees. They are used where it is necessary
to measure the angular position of a target continuously in azimuth and elevation (e.g.a tracking
radar for weapons control or missile guidance). These are generated with parabolic reflectors.

To search a large sector of sky with a narrow beam is difficult. Operational requirements
place restrictions on the maximum scan time (time for beam to return to the same point) so that
the radar can not dwell too long at any particular cell.

To reduce the number of cells, the pencil beam is replaced with the fan beam which is
narrow in one dimension and wide in the other.

Fan beams can be generated with parabolic reflectors with a shaped projected area.
manylong range ground based radars use fan beams.

Even with fan beams, a trade-off exists between the rate at which the target position is
updated (scan time) and the ability to detect weak signals (by use of pulse integration).

Scan rates are typically from 1 to 60 rpm. For long range surveillance, scan rates are
typically 5 or 6 rpm.

Coverage of a simple fan beam is not adequate for targets at high altitudes close to the
radar. The elevation pattern is usually shaped to radiate more energy at high angles as in the csc 2
pattern.

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 Here φ0 and φm are the angular limits of the csc2φ fit

This pattern is used for airborne search radars observing ground targets as well as ground
based radars observing aircraft. For the airborne case φ is the depression angle. Ideally φm should
be 90˚ but it is always less. Csc2φ patterns can be generated bya distorted section of a parabola or
with special multiple horn feed on a true parabola, or with an array such as a slotted waveguide.

The csc2φ pattern gives constant echo power Pr independent of range for a target of
constant height, h and having a constant σ.

Substituting into the range equation (simple form)

Now for a constant height, h of a target, we have

Therefore Hence the echo signal is independent of range.

In practice Pr varies due to σ varying with viewing angle, the earth not being flat and non perfect
csc2φ patterns.

Note: the gain of csc2φ antennas for ground based radars is about 2 dB less than for a fan beam
having the same aperture.

The maximum gain of any antenna is related to its size by

Where ρ is the antenna efficiency which depends on the aperture illumination

This is controlled by the complexity of the feed design. Note: Aρ = Aeff

A typical reflector gives a beam width of where l is the dimension

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System Losses:

Losses in the radar reduce the S/N at the receiver output. Losses which can be calculated
include the antenna beam shape loss, the collapsing loss and the plumbing loss. Losses which
cannot be calculated readily include those due to field degradation, operator fatigue and lack of
operator motivation.

Note: loss has a value greater than unity - Loss = [Gain]-1

1) Plumbing Loss
 Loss in transmission lines between the transmitter and antenna and between
antenna and receiver.
 Note from the Fig 2.28 that, at low frequencies, the transmission lines
introduce little loss. At high frequencies the attenuation is significant
 Additional loss occurs at connectors (0.5 dB), bends (0.1dB) and at rotary joints
(0.4 dB)

Note: If a line is used for both transmission and reception, its loss is added twice.

 The duplexer typically adds 1.5 dB insertion loss. In general, the greater the isolation
required, the greater the insertion loss.

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 2) Beam Shape Loss

The train of pulses returned from the target to a scanning radar are modulated in amplitude
by the shape of the antenna beam.

A beam shape loss accounts for the fact that the maximum gain is used in the radar equation
rather than a gain which changes from pulse to pulse. (This approach is approximate since it does
not address Pd for each pulse separately).

Let the one way power pattern be approximated by a Gaussian shape

Here θB is the half power beam width

nB is the number of pulses received within θB and if n is the number of pulses integrated, then
the beam shape loss (relative to a radar that integrated n pulses with equal gain) is

Example integrating 11 pulses gives L (beam shape) = 1.66 dB

Note: the beam shape loss above was for a beam shaped in one plane only (i.e. fan beam or
pencil beam where the target passes through the centre of the beam).

If the target passe through any other part of the beam the maximum signal will not
correspond to the signal from the beam centre.

When many pulses are integrated per beamwidth, the scanning loss is taken as 1.6 dB for
a fan beam scanning in one coordinate, and as 3.2 dB when two coordinate scanning is used.

When the antenna scans so rapidly that the gain on transmission is not the same as the
gain on reception, an additional “scanning loss” is added.

Additional loss for phased array search using a step scanning pencil beam since not all
regions of space are illuminated by the same value of antenna gain.

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 3) Limiting Loss

Limiting in radar can lower the Pd. This is not a desirable effect and is due to a limited
dynamic range. Limiting can be due to pulse compression processing and intensity modulation of
CRT (such as PPI).

Limiting results in a loss of onlya fraction of a dB for large numbers of pulses integrated
providing the limiting ratio (ratio of video limit level to RMS noise level) is greater than 2.

For small SNR in bandpass limiters, the reduction of SNR of a sine wave in narrowband
Gaussian noise is π/4 (approx 1 dB).

If the spectrum of the input noise is shaped correctly, this loss can be made ne gligible.

4) Collapsing Loss

If the radar integrates additional noise samples along with the wanted signal +noise pulses,
the added noise causes degradation called the collapsing g loss. This occurs on displays which
collapse range information (C scope which displays El vs Az).

In some 3D radars (range, Az, El) that displayoutputs at all Elevations on one PPI (range,
Az) display, the collapsing of the 3D information into 2 D display results in loss.

Can also occur when the output of a high resolution radar is displayed on a device which is of
coarser resolution than the radar.

Marcum has shown that for a square law detector, the integration of m noise pulses, along
with n signal + noise pulses with SNR per pulse (S/N)n, is equivalent to the integration of m+n
signal-to-noise pulses each with SNR of

The collapsing loss then is the ratio of the integration loss Li for m+n pulses to the
integration loss foe n pulses

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Example: 10 signal pulses are integrated with 30 noise pulses Required Pd = 0.9, nf = 108

From Fig 2.8b. Li (40) = 3.5 dB, Li (10) = 1.7 dB

Therefore Li (m,n) = 1.8 dB

Collapsing loss for a linear detector can be much greater than for a square law detector.

Fig 2.29 shows the comparison of loss for each detector

5) Nonideal Equipment

Transmitter power - the power varies from tube to tube (for same type), and with age for a
specific tube. Power is also not uniform over the operating band. Hence Pt may be other than the
design value. To allow for this, a loss factor of about 2 dB can be used.

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 Receiver noise figure: the NF will vary over the band, hence if the best NF is used in the
radar equation, a loss factor must account for its poorer value elsewhere in the band.

Matched filter: if the receiver is not the exact matched filter fro the transmitted waveform, a
loss of SNR will occur (typically 1 dB).

Threshold level: due to the exponential relationship between Tfa and VT a slight change in
VT can cause significant change to Tfa hence, VT is set slightly higher than calculated to give
good Tfa in the event of circuit drifts. This is equivalent to a loss.

6) Operator Loss

A distracted, tired, overloaded, poorly trained operator will perform less efficiently. The
operator efficiency factor (empirical) is where Pd is the single scan probability of detection.

Note: operator loss is not relevant to systems where automatic detection is done

7) Field Degradation

When a radar is operated under field conditions, the performance deteriorates even more than
can be accounted for in the above losses.

Factors which cause field degradation are:

 poor training
 weak tubes
 water in the transmission lines
 incorrect mixer crystal current
 deterioration in the receiver NF
 poor TR tube recovery
 loose cable connections

Radars should be designed with BIST (built - in system test) and BITE (built - in test
equipment) to aid in performance monitoring. A preventative maintenance plan should be used.

BITE parameters to be monitored are

 Transmitted power Pt

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  NF of receiver
 Transmitter pulse shape
 Recovery time of TR tube

With no other information available, 3 dB is assumed for field degradation loss

8) Other Loss Factors

MTI radars introduce additional loss. The MTI discrimination technique results in complete
loss of sensitivity for certain target values (blind speeds).

In a radar with overlapping range gates, the gates may be wider than optimum for practical
reasons.

The additional noise introduced bynonoptimum gate width leads to degradation performance.

Straddling loss accounts for loss in SNR for targets not at the centre of a range gate, or at the
centre of a filter in a multiple bank processor

9) Propagation Effects

The radar equation assumes free space propagation. The earth’s surface and atmosphere have
a significant effect on radar performance.

The effects fall into three categories:

 attenuation
 refraction by the earth’s atmosphere
 lobe structure caused by interference between the direct wave and the ground reflected
wave

For most microwave radars, attenuation through the normal atmosphere or through
precipitation is not significant. However reflection from rain (clutter) is a limiting factor in radar
performance in adverse weather.

The deceasing density of atmosphere with altitude results in bending (refraction) of the
electromagnetic wave. This normally increases the line of sight. the refraction can also be

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accounted for by assuming the earth to have a larger radius than actual. A “typical” earth radius
is 4/3 actual radius.

At times atmospheric conditions create ducting (or super refraction) and increases the radar
range considerably. It is not necessarily desirable since it can not be counted on. Also it de
grades MTI performance by extending the range at which ground clutter is seen.

The presence of the earth also breaks the antenna elevation pattern into many lobes. this
arises since the direct and reflected waves interfere at the target either destructively or
constructively to produce nulls or lobes. This results in non uniform illumination.

Other Considerations:

The radar equation is now written.

Note: The following substitutions can be made:

Eτ = Pav/fp = Ptτ

N0 = N/B (power spectral density of noise)

Bτ ≈ 1 and T0Fn = Ts

Note: The above radar equation was derived for rectangular pulses but applies to other
waveforms provided that matched filter detection is used. The equation can be modified to
accommodate CW, FM-CW, pulse doppler MTI or tracking radar.

Radar Performance Figure - ratio of pulse power of Transmitter to Smin of receiver not
often used

Blip-Scan ratio - same as single scan Pd.

 method used to check performance of ground-based radars

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  here an aircraft is flown on a radial course and for each scan of the antenna it is recorded
whether or not a target blip is detected. The ration of the number of scans the target was
seen at a particular range to the total number of scans is the blip scan ratio
 head on and tail on aspects are easiest to provide.

Cumulative Probability of Detection:

If single scan probability of detection id Pd, the probability of detecting a target at least
once during N scans is the cumulative probability of detection

Pc = 1-(1-Pd)N

Note: the variation of Pd with range might have to be taken into account in computing Pc.

The variation with range based on the cumulative probability of detection can be the 3 rd
power rather than the 4th power which is based on a single scan probability. In practice Pc is not
easy to apply. Furthermore radar operators do not usually report a detection the first time it is
observed (which is required by the definition of Pc). Instead theyreport a detection based on
threshold crossing on two successive scans, or on two out of three scans.

For track while scan radars, the measure of performance might be the probabilityof
initiating a target track rather than just probability of detection.

Surveillance Radar Equation:

The radar equation which describes the performance of a radar which dwells on the target
for n pulses is sometimes called the searchlight range equation.

In a search or surveillance radar, the additional constraint that the radar must search a
specified volume of space in a specified time modifies the range equation significantly.

If Ω represents the angular region to be searched in scan time ts, then we have

Where t0 is the time on target = n/fp

Ω0 = solid angle beamwidth and Ω0 ≈ θAθE

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 Where θA is the Azimuth beamwidth And θE is the Elevation beamwidth

Also

With these substitutions the range equation becomes

This indicates that the important parameters for a search radar are the average power and
the antenna effective aperture.

Frequency does not appear explicitly, however low frequency is preferred since high
power and large aperture are easier to obtain at low frequencyand it is easier to build MTI
(moving target indicator) and weather has little effect on performance.

Note: the radar equation will be considerably different if clutter or external noise (jamming)
rather than receiver noise determine the background for the signal

Accuracy of the Radar Equation:

The predicted value of range from the range equation cannot be checked experimentally
with any accuracy. The safest means to achieve a specified range performance is to include a
safety factor. This is sometimes difficult to do in competitive bids but results in fine radars.

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 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. A high noise figure in a receiver means---------- [ ]

a. poor minimum detectable signal b. good detectable signal

c. receiver bandwidth is reduced d. high power loss.

2. Which of the following will be the best scanning system for tracking after a target has been
acquired.

a. conical b. spiral c. Helical d. Nodding

3. Which of the following noise figure. [ ]

a. (Si Ni) / (So No) b. (So No) / (Si Ni)

c. (So / No ) / sqrt. ( Si / Ni d. ( Si / Ni) / sqrt .(So / No

4. The average power of a pulsed radar transmitter is given by [ ]

a. The product of peak power of the pulse and the duty cycle

b. Peak power divided by the number of pulses repeated in one second.

c. Peak power divided by the duty cycle

d. Peak power divided by the duty cycle and pulse

5. Which of the following diode is used as detector in radar. [ ]

a. gunn diode b. schotky diode c. Impact diode d. varactor diode

6. In case the target cross section is changing the best system for accurate tracking is [ ]

a. monopulse b. lobe switching c. sequential lobing d. conical scanning.

7. In a radar in case the return echo arrives after the allocated pulse interval, then [ ]

a. it will not be received b. the receiver will get overloaded

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 c. it may interfere with the operation of the transmitter

d. the target will appear closer than it really.

8. PPI in a radar system stands for [ ]

a. plan position indicator b. pulse position indicator

c. plan position image d. prior position identification

9. Which of the following is unlikely to be used as a pulsed device [ ]

a. TWT b. BWO c. CFA d. Multicavity klystron

10. Radar detection is limited to line of sight because [ ]

a. curvature of the earth b. the waves are not reflected by the ionosphere

c. long wavelengths are used d. short wavelengths are used

11. Second time around echoes are caused by [ ]

a. Second time reflection from target

b. echoes returning from targets beyond the cathode ray tube range.

c. echoes that arrive after transmission of the next pulse.

d. extreme ends of bandwidth.

12. The resolution of pulsed radar can be improved by [ ]

a. increasing pulse width b. decreasing pulse width

c. increasing the pulse amplitude d. decreasing the pulse repetition frequency.

13. The most important application of monopulse antenna is in [ ]

a. determining the range of target b. tracking a target

c. identifying a target d. Isolating the track of target.

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14. In case the antenna diameter in a radar system is increased to four times. The maximum
range will increase by [ ]

a. √2 times b. 2 times c. 4 times d. 8 times.

15. In case the ratio of the antenna diameter to the wavelength in a radar system is high, this is
likely not to result in [ ]

a. increased capture area b. good target discrimination

c. difficult target acquisition d. large maximum range

16. The term RADAR stands for [ ]

a. radio direction and reflection b. radio detection and ranging

c. radio waves dispatching and receiving d. random detection and re radiation.

17. The duty cycle in a pulsed radar transmitter cannot be increased beyond a point because it

a. affects the operating frequency

b. increase the average power of the transmitter tube.

c. does not detect weak signals

d. increase minor lobes

18. In case of radar receiver the IF bandwidth is inversely proportional to [ ]

a. pulse interval b. pulse repetition frequency

c. square root of the peak transmitted power d. pulse width.

19. The Doppler effect is used in [ ]

a. MTI b. CW c. FM d. Radar Altimeter

20. The gain of a radar transmitting antenna is [ ]

a. loss than that of radar receiving antenna

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 b. almost equal to that of radar receiving antenna

c. slightly higher than that of radar receiving antenna

d. much higher than that of radar receiving antenna.

Answers:

1.a 2.a 3.a 4.a 5.c 6.a 7.d 8.b 9.b 10.a

11.c 12.b 13.b 14.c 15.a 16.b 17.b 18.d 19.d 20.d

ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Describe how threshold level for detection is decided in the presence of receiver noise for
a specified probability of occurrence of false alarms.
2. Describe the e ect of pulse repetition frequency on the estimated unambiguous range of
radar.
3. Obtain yhe SNR at the output of IF amplifier of radar receiver for a specified probability
of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.
4. Explain system losses will effect on the radar rangr?
5. Discuss about the factors that influence the prediction of radar range.
6. Define noise bandwidth of a radar receiver. How does it differ from 3 db band width?
Obtain the expression for minimum detectable signal in terms of noise bandwidth, noise
figure and other relavent parameters.
7. If the noise figure of a receiver is 2.5 db, what reduction (measured in dB) occurs in the
signal noise ratio at the output compared to the signal noise ratio at the input?
8. Describe the e ect of (in terms of wavelength of operation) size of a simple spherical target
on determination of radar cross section of the sphere.
9. What are multiple-time-around echoes? Explain the relation between unam-biguous range
estimation and multiple-time-around echoes.
10. Establish a relation between the probability of false alarm and detection threshold level of

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 a radar receiver in the presence of noise.
11. Estimate the radar cross-section of a spherical target if the wavelength of transmitting
signal with reference to the target size is in Rayleigh region.
12. Justify the requirement of integration of radar pulses to improve target detection process.
13. List all the possible losses in a radar system and discuss the possible causes of each of
them.
14. Discuss about the factors that in uence the prediction of Radar range.
15. De ne noise bandwidth of a radar receiver. How does it di er from 3-dB bandwidth?
Obtain the expression for minimum detectable signal in terms of noise bandwidth, noise
figure and other relevant parameters.
16. Explain the principle and process of binary moving window detector.
17. Obtain the SNR at the output of IF ampli er of Radar Receiver for a specified probability
of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.
18. Explain how system losses will a effect on the Radar Range?
19. Determine the probability of detection of the Radar for a process of threshold detection
with a graphic illustration.
20. Determine the Radar cross-section of a cone sphere.

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