Ajeto, Joshua Allen D.

BSME EE 330-B
ASSIGNMENT 7

ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATORS

1. ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATORS

INTRODUCTION

Most of the electrical power used aboard Navy ships and aircraft
as well as in civilian applications is ac. As a result, the ac
generator is the most important means of producing electrical
power. Ac generators, generally called alternators, vary greatly
in size depending upon the load to which they supply power. For
example, the alternators in use at hydroelectric plants, such as
Hoover Dam, are tremendous in size, generating thousands of
kilowatts at very high voltage levels. Another example is the
alternator in a typical automobile, which is very small by
comparison. It weighs only a few pounds and produces between 100
and 200 watts of power, usually at a potential of 12 volts.

Many of the terms and principles covered in this chapter will be

familiar to you. They are the same as those covered in the chapter
on dc generators. You are encouraged to refer back, as needed, and
to refer to any other source that will help you master the subject
of this chapter. No one source meets the complete needs of
everyone.

BASIC AC GENERATORS

Regardless of size, all electrical generators, whether dc or ac,

depend upon the principle of magnetic induction. An emf is induced
in a coil as a result of (1) a coil cutting through a magnetic
field, or (2) a magnetic field cutting through a coil. As long as
there is relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field,
a voltage will be induced in the conductor. That part of a
generator that produces the magnetic field is called the field.
That part in which the voltage is induced is called the armature.
For relative motion to take place between the conductor and the
magnetic field, all generators must have two mechanical parts - a
rotor and a stator. The ROTor is the part that ROTates; the STATor
is the part that remains STATionary. In a dc generator, the
armature is always the rotor. In alternators, the armature may be
either the rotor or stator.

2. Alternator Construction
The construction of an alternator consists of field poles placed
on the rotating fixture of the machine. An alternator is made up
of two main parts: a rotor and a stator. The rotor rotates in the
stator, and the field poles get projected onto the rotor body of
the alternator. The armature conductors are housed on the stator.
An alternating three-phase voltage represented by AA’, bb’, cc’ is
induced in the armature conductors thus resulting in the generation
of three-phase electrical power. All modern electrical power
generating stations use this technology for generation of three-
phase power, and as a result, an alternator (also known as a
synchronous generator) has made itself a subject of great
importance and interest for power engineers.

3. Types of Alternators
Alternators or synchronous generators can be classified in many
ways depending upon their applications and designs.

The five different types of alternators include:

Automotive alternators – used in modern automobiles.

Diesel-electric locomotive alternators – used in diesel-electric
multiple units.
Marine alternators – used in marine applications.
Brushless alternators – used in electrical power generation plants
as the main source of power.
Radio alternators – used for low band radio frequency transmission.

Alternators are classified in several ways in order to distinguish

properly the various types. One means of classification is by the
type of excitation system used. In alternators used on aircraft,
excitation can be affected by one of the following methods:

1. A direct connected, direct current generator. This system

consists of a dc generator fixed on the same shaft with the ac
generator. A variation of this system is a type of alternator which
uses dc from the battery for excitation, after which the alternator
is self excited.

2. By transformation and rectification from the ac system. This

method depends on residual magnetism for initial ac voltage
buildup, after which the field is supplied with rectified voltage
from the ac generator.

3. Integrated brushless type. This arrangement has a direct current

generator on the same shaft with an alternating current generator.
The excitation circuit is completed through silicon rectifiers
rather than a commutator and brushes. The rectifiers are mounted
on the generator shaft and their output is fed directly to the
alternating current generator's main rotating field.
Another method of classification is by the number of phases of
output voltage. Alternating current generators may be single
phase, two phase, three phase, or even six phase and more. In the
electrical systems of aircraft, the three phase alternator is by
far the most common.

Still another means of classification is by the type of stator and

rotor used. From this standpoint, there are two types of
alternators: the revolving armature type and the revolving field
type. The revolving armature alternator is similar in construction
to the dc generator, in that the armature rotates through a
stationary magnetic field. The revolving armature alternator is
found only in alternators of low power rating and generally is not
used. In the dc generator, the e.m.f. generated in the armature
windings is converted into a unidirectional voltage (dc) by means
of the commutator. In the revolving armature type of alternator,
the generated ac voltage is applied unchanged to the load by means
of slip rings and brushes.

The revolving field type of alternator (figure 9-34) has a

stationary armature winding (stator) and a rotating field winding
(rotor). The advantage of having a stationary armature winding is
that the armature can be connected directly to the load without
having sliding contacts in the load circuit. A rotating armature
would require slip rings and brushes to conduct the load current
from the armature to the external circuit. Slip rings have a
relatively short service life and arc over is a continual hazard;
therefore, high voltage alternators are usually of the stationary
armature, rotating field type. The voltage and current supplied to
the rotating field are relatively small, and slip rings and brushes
for this circuit are adequate. The direct connection to the
armature circuit makes possible the use of large cross-section
conductors, adequately insulated for high voltage.

Since the rotating field alternator is used almost universally in

aircraft systems, this type will be explained in detail, as a
single phase, two phase, and three phase alternator.
4. Frequency of Alternator Output

Basic alternator with single phase B (I). Frequency: The output

frequency of an alternator voltage is a function of speed of
rotation of the rotor and the number of poles. The frequency is
expressed by the equation (3)[9] F=NP/120……………….. (12) Where P is
the number of poles, N is the speed of rotation in revolutions per
minute (rpm). B(II) Equation of Induced EMF: Max emf ind =NABω
[10] N=turn number A=cross section area B= magnetic flux density
ω= angular speed B=emf ind /(N*A*ω)…………………. (13) Φ=
B*A…………………………….. (14) Φ= Flux pole in webers Average emf induced
per conductor = 2f Φ…….(15)[11] Where, Z= conductors No. or sides
of coil in series/phase=2T T= No. of coils or turns/phase (one
turn or coil has two sides) P= No. of poles f= Frequency of induced
emf in Hz Φ= Flux pole in Webers N= rotor rpm Now average emf/phase=
2fΦZ volt=4 fΦT volt………… (16) RMS value of emf/phase = 1.11×4 fΦT
volt= 4.44fΦT …..(17) [11]

5. AC Generator Characteristics
An AC generator is an electric generator that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy in form of alternative emf or
alternating current. AC generator works on the principle of
”Electromagnetic Induction”.
Parts of an AC Generator
An Ac generator consists of two poles i.e is the North Pole and
south pole of a magnet so that we can have a uniform magnetic
field. There is also a coil which is rectangular in shape that is
the armature. These coils are connected to the slip rings and
attached to them are carbon brushes.

The slip rings are made of metal and are insulated from each other.
The brushes are carbon brushes and one end of each brush connects
to the ring and other connects to the circuit. The rectangular
coils rotate about an axis which is perpendicular to the magnetic
field. There is also a shaft which rotates rapidly.
6. Single-Phase Alternator

Since the e.m.f. induced in the armature of a generator is

alternating, the same sort of winding can be used on an alternator
as on a dc generator. This type of alternator is known as a single
phase alternator, but since the power delivered by a single phase
circuit is pulsating, this type of circuit is objectionable in
many applications.
A single phase alternator has a stator made up of a number of
windings in series, forming a single circuit in which an output
voltage is generated. Figure 9-35 illustrates a schematic diagram
of a single phase alternator having four poles. The stator has
four polar groups evenly spaced around the stator frame. The rotor
has four poles, with adjacent poles of opposite polarity. As the
rotor revolves, ac voltages are induced in the stator windings.
Since one rotor pole is in the same position relative to a stator
winding as any other rotor pole, all stator polar groups are cut
by equal numbers of magnetic lines of force at any time.

As a result, the voltages induced in all the windings have the

same amplitude, or value, at any given instant. The four stator
windings are connected to each other so that the ac voltages are
in phase, or "series adding." Assume that rotor pole 1, a south
pole, induces a voltage in the direction indicated by the arrow in
stator winding 1. Since rotor pole 2 is a north pole, it will
induce a voltage in the opposite direction in stator coil 2 with
respect to that in coil 1.

For the two induced voltages to be in series addition, the two

coils are connected as shown in the diagram. Applying the same
reasoning, the voltage induced in stator coil 3 (clockwise rotation
of the field) is the same direction (counterclockwise) as the
voltage induced in coil 1. Similarly, the direction of the voltage
induced in winding 4 is opposite to the direction of the voltage
induced in coil 1. All four stator coil groups are connected in
series so that the voltages induced in each winding add to give a
total voltage that is four times the voltage in any one winding.
7. Two-Phase Alternators
Two phase alternators have two or more single phase windings spaced
symmetrically around the stator. In a two phase alternator there
are two single phase windings spaced physically so that the ac
voltage induced in one is 90° out of phase with the voltage induced
in the other. The windings are electrically separate from each
other. When one winding is being cut by maximum flux, the other is
being cut by no flux. This condition establishes a 90° relation
between the two phases.
8. Three-Phase Alternators
A three phase, or polyphase circuit, is used in most aircraft
alternators, instead of a single or two phase alternator. The three
phase alternator has three single phase windings spaced so that
the voltage induced in each winding is 120° out of phase with
the voltages in the other two windings. A schematic diagram of a
three phase stator showing all the coils becomes complex and
difficult to see what is actually happening.

A simplified schematic diagram, showing each of three phases, is

illustrated in figure 9-36. The rotor is omitted for simplicity.
The waveforms of voltage are shown to the right of the schematic.
The three voltages are 120° apart and are similar to the voltages
which would be generated by three single phase alternators whose
voltages are out of phase by angles of 120°. The three phases are
independent of each other.

Rather than have six leads from the three phase alternator, one of
the leads from each phase may be connected to form a common
junction. The stator is then called wye or star connected. The
common lead may or may not be brought out of the alternator. If it
is brought out, it is called the neutral lead. The simplified
schematic (A of figure 9-37) shows a wye connected stator with the
common lead not brought out. Each load is connected across two
phases in series. Thus, RAB is connected across phases A and B in
series; RAC is connected across phases A and C in series; and RBC
is connected across phases B and C in series. Therefore, the
voltage across each load is larger than the voltage across a single
phase. The total voltage, or line voltage, across any two phases
is the vector sum of the individual phase voltages. For balanced
conditions, the line voltage is 1.73 times the phase voltage. Since
there is only one path for current in a line wire and the phase to
which it is connected, the line current is equal to the phase
current.

A three phase stator can also be connected so that the phases are
connected end to end as shown in B of figure 9-37. This arrangement
is called a delta connection. In a delta connection, the voltages
are equal to the phase voltages; the line currents are equal to
the vector sum of the phase currents; and the line current is equal
to 1.73 times the phase current, when the loads are balanced.

For equal loads (equal kw. output), the delta connection supplies
increased line current at a value of line voltage equal to phase
voltage, and the wye connection supplies increased line voltage at
a value of line current equal to phase current.

9. Wye Connection
A Wye (Y) configuration is when all the loads in an AC system are
connected at a single point. Normally, the loads are unbalanced in
a Y configuration. A neutral cable is connected at that centre
point where the three phases meet. A Wye (Y) configuration is when
all the loads in an AC system are connected at a single point.
Normally, the loads are unbalanced in a Y configuration. A neutral
cable is connected at that centre point where the three phases
meet. Most of the low voltage distribution lines that you see are
Y configuration (Red, Yellow, Blue and Neutral).

10. Delta Connection

The Delta configuration has the 3 phases connected like in a
triangle. They don't normally have a neutral cable.
In Delta configuration, the phase voltage is equal to the line
voltage whereas in Y configuration, the phase voltage is the line
voltage divided by root 3 (sqrt(3) = 1.732).
Consequently, in Wye configuration, the phase current and line
current are equal while in Delta configuration phase current is
line current divided by 1.732.

11. Power in Three-Phase Circuits

Three-phase alternating current (AC) power is commonly used to
deliver electricity to data centers as well as commercial and
industrial buildings that house power-hungry machinery. There’s
good reason for that, because 3-phase power can deliver more power
with greater efficiency, as opposed to single-phase AC power.
Single-phase AC is the type commonly used for most household and
light commercial applications, such as lighting and small
appliances. On this page, we’ll explain why that’s the case and
the key differences between single- and 3-phase power systems.

Why we need 3-phase power

The ability to deliver ever-increasing amounts of power is
especially important as data centers and server rooms continue to
see higher densities. More powerful computing systems are being
packed into the same spaces that once housed servers that drew
only a fraction of the electrical power that today’s computers and
networks demand.

It wasn’t long ago that a single IT rack of 10 servers would draw

a total of five kilowatts (kW) of power. Today, that same rack may
hold dozens of servers that collectively draw 20 or 30 kW. At those
kinds of levels, you naturally want to put a premium on efficiency,
as even a small percentage improvement in power consumption will
mean significant dollar savings over time.

Wiring is another issue. Consider a 15 kW rack. Using single-phase

at 120 volts AC (VAC) power, it takes 125 amps to power the rack,
which would require a wire that’s almost one-quarter inch in
diameter (AWG 4) — too thick to work with easily, not to mention
expensive. Because 3-phase is more efficient, it can deliver the
same power (and more) using smaller wiring. To support the same 15
kW rack using 3-phase power requires three wires capable of
supplying 42 amps (AWG 10), which are a fraction of the size —
each less than one-tenth of an inch in diameter.
3-phase power systems provide three separate currents, each
separated by one-third of the time it takes to complete a full
cycle. But, as opposed to single-phase, where the two hot legs are
always 180 degrees apart, with 3-phase, the currents are separated
by 120 degrees.
In Figure 2 below, you’ll see that when any one line is at its
peak current, the other two are not. For example, when phase 1 is
at its positive peak, phases 2 and 3 are both at -0.5. This means,
unlike single-phase current, there’s no point at which no power is
being delivered to the load. In fact, at six different positions
in each phase, one of the lines is at peak positive or negative
position.
For practical purposes, this means the collective amount of power
supplied by all three currents remains constant; you don’t have
cyclical peaks and valleys as with single-phase.
Computers and many motors used in heavy machinery are designed
with this in mind. They can draw a steady stream of constant power,
rather than having to account for the variation inherent in single-
phase AC power. As a result, they use less energy.
As an analogy, think of a single-cylinder versus a three-cylinder
engine. Both operate on a four-stroke model (intake, compression,
power, exhaust). With a single-cylinder engine, you get only one
“power” cycle for every four strokes of the cylinder, which
provides for rather uneven power delivery. A three-stroke engine,
by contrast, will provide power in three alternating phases (again
separated by 120 degrees), for smoother, more constant and
efficient power.
 Figure 2

Benefits of 3-phase power

Among the benefits that 3-phase power brings is the ability to

deliver nearly twice the power of single-phase systems without
requiring twice the number of wires. It’s not three times as much
power, as one might expect, because in practice, you typically
take one hot line and connect it to another hot line.
To understand how 3-phase delivers more power, one must do the
math. The formula for single-phase power is Power = Voltage (V) x
Current (I) x Power Factor (PF). If we assume the load on the
circuit is resistive only, power factor is unity (or one) which
reduces the formula to P = V x I. If we consider a 120-volt circuit
supporting 20 amps, the power is equal to 2,400 watts.
The formula for power of a 3-phase circuit is Power = Voltage (V)
x Current (I) x Power Factor (PF) x square root of three. If we
assume the load on the circuit is resistive only, power factor is
unity (or one) which reduces the formula to P = V x I x square
root of three. If we consider a 120-volt, 3-phase circuit and each
phase supports 20 amps, the formula works out to 120 Volts x 20
Amps x 1.732 = 4,157 watts. This is how 3-phase can deliver nearly
twice the power of single-phase systems. This is a simplified
example, but it can be used to investigate the additional power
available from circuits supporting higher voltages (e.g. 208 or
480 volts) or currents (e.g. 30 amps or greater).
This kind of capacity comes in handy when it comes to powering
racks of IT gear. Whereas once it was the norm to use single-phase
power to a rack, as densities in IT racks increase, it becomes
less feasible and practical. All the cabling, conductors, and
sockets become larger, more expensive, and increasingly difficult
to work with.
Delivering 3-phase power directly to the server rack enables you
to use less expensive cabling and other components, all while
delivering more power. It does, however, require paying attention
to the load on each circuit, to ensure they’re balanced and do not
exceed circuit capacity.

12. Synchronizing Generators

Generator synchronization is the process of matching parameters
such as voltage, frequency, phase angle, phase sequence, and
waveform of alternator (generator) or other source with a healthy
or running power system. This is done before the generator is
reconnected to the power system. Once a generator is synchronized
with the parameters of another generator, alternator, or bus bar,
the system can run smoothly again.
Generator synchronization to a power system must be conducted
carefully to prevent damage to the unit, as well as the power
system itself. When synchronizing a generator to a power system,
the frequency and voltage of the generator must match closely. The
rotor angle and the instantaneous power system phase angle must be
close prior to closing the generator breaker and connecting the
isolated generator to a power system.
In the majority of cases for generator synchronization, the
synchronization process is automated via an automatic synchronizer
with manual control capabilities that can be used in backup
situations. Synchronizing panels generally indicate any
adjustments that the operator should make in regards to the
governor and excited and when it’s deemed acceptable to close the
breaker.
A generator cannot deliver power to an electrical power system
unless all the aforementioned parameters exactly match those of
the network. The need for synchronization arises when two or more
alternators work together to supply the power to the load. Since
electrical loads do not remain constant, the two or more generators
supplying the power need to be interconnected and operate in
parallel to handle larger loads.
Using a series of small units instead of a single generator is
known as parallel operation. Synchronization is critical for
parallelization, and many commercial plants prefer this setup for
its:

Reliability: With multiple alternators, parallel operation is much

more reliable than single-unit generators. In a single-unit
system, the whole setup will shut down if the alternator fails. In
parallel systems, one alternator can fail and the other units will
keep the system active.
Continuity: If a unit needs maintenance, the other systems can
stay up and running to prevent your entire operation from stopping.
Load: Your load requirements may vary throughout the day. Adjust
your parallel system to accommodate higher and lower loads with
more or fewer active systems.
Efficiency: Generators run at the highest efficiency when they
operate at their load rating. By adapting to load changes, your
system can remain efficient at all times.
Capacity: Bigger operations require more power. With more
generators, systems have more alternators for increased capacity.