SEMICONDUCTOR OF PN

JUNCTION DIODE
INTRODUCTION
• A PN-junction diode is formed when a p-type semiconductor is
fused to an n-type semiconductor creating a potential barrier
voltage across the diode junction.The PN junction diode consists
of a p-region and n-region separated by a depletion region.
• In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the
method of doping. The p-side or the positive side of the
semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or
the negative side has an excess of electrons.
• A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices
around, and which has the electrical characteristic of passing current
through itself in one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode
does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage. Instead it has
an exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can
not described its operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm.’s
law.
• VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve
between the voltage and current through the circuit.
Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is
taken along the y-axis. The above graph is the V-I
characteristics curve of the P-N junction diode. With
the help of the curve, we can understand that there are
three regions in which the diode works.
There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:
P-type
N-type

There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the
voltage applied:

Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type while
the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type and
the positive is connected to the n-type.
Applications of P-N Junction Diode
P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is
sensitive to the light when the configuration of the diode is
reverse-biased.
It can be used as a solar cell.
When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting
applications.
• It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-
controlled oscillator in varactors.
3.1 CONSTRUCTION AND
OPERATION, CHARACTERISTIC
CURVE
  Semiconductor Diode Construction

A diode is formed by joining two equivalently doped P-Type and N-Type semiconductor. When they are
joined an interesting phenomenon takes place. The P-Type semiconductor has excess holes and is of positive
charge. The N-Type semiconductor has excess electrons. At the point of contact of the P-Type and N-Type
regions, the holes in the P-Type attract electrons in the N-Type material. Hence the electron diffuses and
occupies the holes in the P-Type material. Causing a small region of the N-type near the junction to lose
electrons and behaves like intrinsic semiconductor material, in the P-type a small region gets filled up by
holes and behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor.
This thin intrinsic region is called depletion layer, since it’s
depleted of charge (see diagram above) and hence offers high
resistance. It’s this depletion region that prevents the further
diffusion of majority carriers. In physical terms the size of the
depletion layer is very thin.
• Semiconductor Diode Operation
The way that a diode operates can be difficult to understand as it involves fairly advanced quantum
mechanics. However, at the simplest level the operation of a diode can be understood by looking at the
flow of positive charges (or "holes") and the negative charges (the electrons). Technically, a
semiconductor diode is referred to as a p-n junction. These p-n junctions are important in the operation of
a photovoltaic cell as well. Having the diode work properly requires a process known as doping.
Semiconductors can be doped with materials so that they have an excess of easily displaced electrons -
generally referred to as a negative or n-type region. As well, they can be doped with elements that create
an excess of holes that easily absorb these electrons - generally referred to as a positive or p-type region.
The negative and positive regions of the diode are also the component's cathode and anode respectively.
 Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type of semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper wire. That is, with
voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal just as current would flow in a copper
wire. This is shown in the figure above. The positive potential of the battery will attract the free electrons in the
crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron
leaves the crystal, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing the
current path. Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are repelled by the negative
side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the battery.
 Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated in the figure above. Conduction in the P material is by positive
holes, instead of negative electrons. The hole moves from the positive terminal of the P material to the negative
terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of
this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This
process continues as the steady stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal.

Notice in both N-type and P-type materials, current flow in the external circuit consists of electrons moving out of the
negative terminal of the battery and into the positive terminal of the battery. Hole flow, on the other hand, only exists
within the material itself.
Forward Bias
An external voltage applied to a PN junction is called BIAS. If, for example, a battery is used to supply
bias to a PN junction and is connected so that its voltage opposes the junction field, it will reduce the
junction barrier and, therefore, aid current flow through the junction. This type of bias is known as
forward bias, and it causes the junction to offer only minimum resistance to the flow of current.
Reverse Bias
If the battery mentioned earlier is connected across the junction so that its voltage aids
the junction, it will increase the junction barrier and thereby offer a high resistance to the
current flow through the junction. This type of bias is known as reverse bias.
• Semiconductor Pn junction diode characteristic Curve
The main characteristics of diodes we should pay attention to the most are the forward voltage VF,
forward current IF, reverse voltage VR, and reverse current IR. The regions consisting of these four
represent the forward and reverse operation regions.
The figure below is the IV characteristics of the diode. The curve shows the characteristic of a diode in
voltage and current relationship. The Y-axis represents the current where its left is the reverse
operation region and its right is the forward operation region. The X-axis represents the voltage where
its top is forward current and its bottom is reverse current.
3.2 DIODE EQUIVALENT
MODELS
DIODE EQUIVALENT MODELS
Shockley’s equation gives the exponential relationship between current and voltage, but every time while
using diodes in a circuit, we do not need to apply the exponential formula to find the values of voltage or
current. We can approximate the characteristic of diode by replacing the diode in the circuit with its
equivalent circuit.
An equivalent circuit is nothing but a combination of elements that best represents the actual terminal
characteristics of the device. In simple language, it simply means the diode in the circuit can be replaced
by other elements without severely affecting the behavior of circuit.
 Ideal Diode Model Simplified Model Peace-Wise Linear
Model

THE DIODE CAN BE MODELED IN THREE DIFFERENT WAYS DEPENDING ON THE

ACCURACY REQUIRED. THREE MODELS WITH INCREASING ACCURACY ARE LISTED
ABOVE
1. IDEAL DIODE MODEL

WHAT IS AN IDEAL DIODE?

An ideal diode means a perfect diode which has all properties in their
perfect sense without any flaws. Usually, a diode operates either in forward
or reverse biased condition. The characteristics which are expected to be
exhibited by the ideal diode can be analyzed separately for these two modes
of operation.
 Figure indicates that the voltage drop across the diode is zero for any value of diode current. The
ideal diode does not allow any current to flow in reverse biased condition. The current flowing
through the diode is zero for any value of reverse biased voltage. Taking this into consideration,
the ideal diode can be modeled as open or closed switch depending on the bias voltage.

1. Ideal diode allows the flow of forward current for any value of forward bias voltage.
Hence, Ideal diode can be modeled as closed switch under forward bias condition. This is
shown in the figure.

2. Ideal diode allows zero current to flow under reverse biased condition. Hence it can be
modeled as open switch. This is indicated in the figure.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL DIODE WHEN FORWARD BIASED
ZERO RESISTANCE

An ideal diode does not offer any resistance to the flow of current through it when it is
in forward biased mode. This means that the ideal diode will be a perfect conductor
when forward biased. From this property of the ideal diode, one can infer that the ideal
diode does not have any barrier potential. This in turn leaves one to wonder on whether
an ideal diode possesses depletion region or not. The reason behind this thought is
attributed to the fact that the resistance offered is due to the presence of immobile
charges which dwell in the depletion region of the diode.
INFINITE AMOUNT OF CURRENT

This property of the ideal diode can be directly implied from its previous property
which states that the ideal diodes offer zero resistance when forward biased. The reason
can be explained as follows. In electronic devices, the relationship between the current
(I), voltage (V) and resistance (R) is expressed by Ohm’s law which is stated as I = V/R.
Now, if R = 0, then I = ∞. This indicates that there is no higher limit for the current
which can flow through the forward-biased ideal diode.
ZERO THRESHOLD VOLTAGE

Even this characteristic of the ideal diode under the forward biased state can be
referred from its first property of possessing zero resistance. This is because threshold
voltage is the minimum voltage which is required to be provided to the diode to
overcome its barrier potential and to start conducting. Now, if the ideal diode is void of
depletion region itself, then the question of threshold voltage does not arise at all. This
property of the ideal diode makes them conduct right at the instant of being biased,
leading to the green-curve of Figure 1 which shows the diode characteristics
FIGURE 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL DIODE WHEN REVERSE BIASED
INFINITE RESISTANCE

An ideal diode is expected to fully inhibit the flow of current through it under
reverse biased condition. In other words it is expected to mimic the behavior of a perfect
insulator when reverse biased.
ZERO REVERSE LEAKAGE CURRENT

This property of the ideal diode can be directly implied from its previous property
which states that the ideal diodes possess infinite resistance when operating in reverse
biased mode. The reason can be understood by considering the Ohm’s law again which
now takes the form(shown by red-curve in Figure 1). Thus it means that there will be no
current flowing through the ideal diode when it is reverse biased, no matter how high
the reverse voltage applied be
NO REVERSE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

Reverse breakdown voltage is the voltage at which the reverse biased diode fails and starts to conduct
heavy current. Now, from the last two properties of the ideal diode, one can conclude that it will offer
infinite resistance which completely inhibits the current flow through it. This statement holds good
irrespective of the magnitude of the reverse voltage applied to it. When the condition is so, the
phenomenon of reverse breakdown can never occur due to which there will be no question of its
corresponding voltage, the reverse breakdown voltage. Due to all these properties, an ideal diode is seen
to behave as a perfect semiconductor switch which will be open when the reverse biased and closed when
forward biased.
2. SIMPLIFIED DIODE MODEL

The simplified diode model ignores the effect of diode resistance in comparison with values of other elements of the
circuit. Lets take the process of simplification one step further and establish that the voltage drop across the diode
(0.7 V for Si) is negligible as compared to other voltage drops in the circuit. The equivalent model in this case
consists of a battery and an ideal diode. The battery indicates the the current flowing through the diode in forward
bias condition is zero voltage reaches 0.7 V (for Si).
3. PIECE-WISE LINEAR MODEL

The piece-wise linear model, as the name suggests, is a model in

which the characteristics of diode is approximated by “piece-wise
linear” line segments. Now consider the straight line in the piece-
wise linear characteristics. This straight line indicates constant
slope. Slope in the V-I graph indicates resistance. So we add a
resistor in the diode model. The value of resistance can be found
from the graph. We can see from the graph that the diode current
changes from 0 to 15 mA for a voltage change from 0.7 to 0.8 V.
Thus the average value of resistance is (0.8 V-0.7 V)/(15 mA - 0
mA) = 6.67 Ω. Thus the value of resistance in the equivalent
model is approximately 6.67 Ω. The figure given below shows
piece-wise linear characteristics of diod along with the its model.
3.3 Diode circuit analysis
What is diode circuit?
• diode, an electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one
direction. In circuit diagrams, a diode is represented by a triangle with a
line across one vertex.
3.4 Light Emitting Diode

Light-emitting diode (LED) is a widely used standard source of light in electrical equipment. It has a
wide range of applications ranging from your mobile phone to large advertising billboards. They
mostly find applications in devices that show the time and display different types of data.

The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small arrows denoting the
emission of light.
 SIMPLE LED CIRCUIT

The circuit consists of an LED, a voltage supply and a resistor to regulate the current and voltage.
How does an LED work?

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n while the minority holes are
sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the concentration of minority carriers increases. The excess
minority carriers at the junction recombine with the majority charges carriers.
The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard diodes, the energy is
released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released in the form of photons.
We call this phenomenon electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and
electrical phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric current passed through it.
As the forward voltage increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a maximum.
 WHAT DETERMINES THE COLOUR OF AN LED?

The colour of an LED is determined by the material used in the semiconducting element. The two
primary materials used in LEDs are aluminium gallium indium phosphide alloys and indium gallium
nitride alloys. Aluminium alloys are used to obtain red, orange and yellow light, and indium alloys are
used to get green, blue and white light. Slight changes in the composition of these alloys change the
colour of the emitted light.
THANK YOU AND GODBLESS!