CHAPTER-2

Semiconductor Diodes and Their Applications

2.1. Introduction
Diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon, in which half is
doped as a P region and half is doped as an N region with a PN junction and depletion
region in between. The P region is called the anode and is connected to a conductive terminal.
The N region is called the cathode and is connected to a second conductive terminal. The
basic diode structure and schematic symbol are shown in Figure1.

Basic structure and symbol of diode

Forward Bias
To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it. Forward bias is the condition that allows
current through the PN junction. The above figure shows a dc voltage source connected by
conductive material (contacts and wire) across a diode in the direction to produce forward
bias. This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS. The resistor limits the forward current
to a value that will not damage the diode.
Notice that:
➢ The negative side of VBIAS is connected to the N region of the diode and the positive
side is connected to the P region. This is one requirement for forward bias.
➢ A second requirement is that the bias voltage, VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier
potential (0.7V for silicon).

A diode connected for forward bias.

A fundamental picture of what happens when a diode is forward-biased is shown in the figure
above. Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias-voltage source “pushes” the
free electrons, which are the majority carriers in the N region, toward the PN junction. This
flow of free electrons is called electron current. The negative side of the source also provides

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a continuous flow of electrons through the external connection (conductor) and into the N
region as shown. The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free electrons for
them to overcome the barrier potential of the depletion region and move on through into
the P region. Once in the P region, these conduction electrons have lost enough energy to
immediately combine with holes in the valence band.

A forward-biased diode showing the flow of majority carriers

Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the P region, simply because they have lost too
much energy overcoming the barrier potential to remain in the conduction band. Since unlike
charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence electrons
toward the left end of the P region. The holes in the P region provide the medium or
“pathway” for these valence electrons to move through the P region. The valence electrons
move from one hole to the next toward the left. The holes, which are the majority carriers
in the P region, effectively (not actually) move to the right toward the junction, as you can see
in the figure above. This effective flow of holes is the hole current. You can also view the hole
current as being created by the flow of valence electrons through the P region, with the holes
providing the only means for these electrons to flow. As the electrons flow out of the P region
through the external connection (conductor) and to the positive side of the bias-voltage
source, they leave holes behind in the P region; at the same time, these electrons become
conduction electrons in the metal conductor.
The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region
As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is reduced. As
more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side of the PN junction,
the number of negative ions is reduced. This reduction in positive and negative ions during
forward bias causes the depletion region to narrow, as indicated in figure below.

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(a) At equilibrium (no bias) (b) Forward bias narrows the depletion region and produces a
voltage drop across the PN junction equal to the barrier potential.
Reverse Bias
Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode. The figure
below shows a dc voltage source connected across a diode in the direction to produce
reverse bias. This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS just as it was for forward bias.
Notice that the positive side of VBIAS is connected to the N region of the diode and the negative
side is connected to the P region. Also note that the depletion region is shown much wider
than in forward bias or equilibrium.

A diode connected for reverse bias.

An illustration of what happens when a diode is reverse-biased is shown in the figure below.
Because unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source “pulls” the free
electrons, which are the majority carriers in the N region, away from the PN junction. As the
electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source, additional positive ions are
created. This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority carriers.

A reverse-biased diode showing the flow of majority carriers

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In the P region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter as valence
electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create
additional negative ions. This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of
majority carriers. The flow of valence electrons can be viewed as holes being “pulled” toward
the positive side.
The initial flow of charge carriers is transitional and lasts for only a very short time after the
reverse-bias voltage is applied. As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority
carrier’s decreases. As more of the N and P regions become depleted of majority carriers,
the electric field between the positive and negative ions increases in strength until the
potential across the depletion region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS. At this point, the transition
current essentially ceases except for a very small reverse current that can usually be neglected.
Reverse Current The extremely small current that exists in reverse bias after the transition
current dies out is caused by the minority carriers in the N and P regions that are produced
by thermally generated electron-hole pairs.
Reverse Breakdown Normally, the reverse current is so small that it can be neglected.
However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value called the breakdown
voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase. This is what happens. The high reverse-
bias voltage imparts energy to the free minority electrons so that as they speed through the
p region, they collide with atoms with enough energy to knock valence electrons out of orbit
and into the conduction band. The newly created conduction electrons are also high in energy
and repeat the process. If one electron knocks only two others out of their valence orbit
during its travel through the p region, the numbers quickly multiply. As these high-energy
electrons go through the depletion region, they have enough energy to go through the n
region as conduction electrons, rather than combining with holes. The multiplication of
conduction electrons just discussed is known as the avalanche effect, and reverse current
can increase dramatically if steps are not taken to limit the current.
When the reverse current is not limited, the resulting heating will permanently damage the
diode. Most diodes are not operated in reverse breakdown, but if the current is limited (by
adding a series-limiting resistor for example), there is no permanent damage to the diode
2.2. Characteristics of diodes
Voltage-current characteristic of a diode
As you have learned, forward bias produces current through a diode and reverse bias
essentially prevents current, except for a negligible reverse current. Reverse bias prevents

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current as long as the reverse-bias voltage does not equal or exceed the breakdown voltage
of the junction. In this section, we will examine the relationship between the voltage and the
current in a diode on a graphical basis.

The Complete V-I Characteristic Curve

Diode models
In this section, you will learn the electrical symbol for a diode and how a diode can be modeled
for circuit analysis using any one of three levels of complexity.
Bias Connections
Forward-bias and reverse-bias connection

Forward-bias and reverse-bias connections

Diode Approximations
1.The Ideal Diode Model: The ideal model of a diode is the least accurate approximation
and can be represented by a simple switch.

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When the diode is forward-biased, it ideally acts like a closed (on) switch, When the diode is
reverse-biased, it ideally acts like an open (off) switch as shown in the figure below.

The ideal model of a diode

2. The Practical Diode Model: The practical model includes the barrier potential. When
the diode is forward-biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch in series with a small equivalent
voltage source (VF) equal to the barrier potential (0.7V) with the positive side toward the
anode, as indicated in below.

The Practical Diode Model

3. The Complete Diode Model: The complete model of a diode is the most accurate
approximation and includes the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance
and the large internal reverse resistance. The reverse resistance is taken into account
because it provides a path for the reverse current, which is included in this diode model.
When the diode is forward-biased, it acts as a closed switch in series with the equivalent
barrier potential voltage (VB) and the small forward dynamic resistance as indicated in the

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figure below. When the diode is reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in parallel with the
large internal reverse resistance

The complete model of a diode.

2.3. Analysis of diode circuits and their applications
1. Rectifier
The rectifier converts the ac input voltage to a pulsating dc voltage.
1.1. Half-wave rectifier
Because of their ability to conduct current in one direction and block current in the other
direction, diodes are used in circuits called rectifiers that convert ac voltage into dc voltage.
Let’s examine what happens during one cycle of the input voltage using the ideal model for
the diode. When the sinusoidal input voltage (Vin) goes positive, the diode is forward-biased
and conducts current through the load resistor, as shown in the figure below. The current
produces an output voltage across the load RL, which has the same shape as the positive half-
cycle of the input voltage.

Half wave rectifier during positive half cycle

When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the diode is reverse-
biased. There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is 0V. The net result is

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that only the positive half-cycles of the ac input voltage appear across the load. Since the
output does not change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage with a frequency of 50Hz.

Half wave rectifier during negative half cycle

Half wave rectifier during both cycles

Average Value of the Half-Wave Output Voltage
The average value of the half-wave rectified output voltage is the value you would measure
on a dc voltmeter.

Half wave rectifier for one cycle

π 2π
1
Vdc = [∫ Vm sint dt + ∫ 0 dt]
2π 0 π
−Vm
Vdc = [cosπ − cos0]
2π
−Vm
Vdc = [−1 − 1]
2π
2Vm Vm
Vdc = =
2π 𝛑
This equation shows that Vdc is approximately 31.8% of Vm for a half-wave rectified voltage.
Effect of the Barrier Potential on the Half-Wave Rectifier Output
In the previous discussion, the diode was considered ideal. When the practical diode model
is used with the barrier potential of 0.7V taken into account. During the positive half-cycle,
the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential before the diode becomes forward-

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biased. This results in a half-wave output with a peak value that is 0.7V less than the peak
value of the input.

Half wave rectifier output considering barrier potential.

Transformer Coupling
Transformer coupling provides two advantages.
➢ Allows the source voltage to be stepped down as needed.
➢ The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier, thus preventing a shock hazard
in the secondary circuit (Load).

Half-wave rectifier with transformer coupled input voltage.

The amount that the voltage is stepped down is determined by the turn’s ratio of the
transformer. Unfortunately, the definition of turns ratio for transformers is not consistent
between various sources and disciplines. In this text, we use the definition given by the IEEE
for electronic power transformers, which is “the number of turns in the secondary (Nsec)
divided by the number of turns in the primary (Npri)”.
Vsec Nsec
n= =
Vpri Npri

1.2. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS

Although half-wave rectifiers have some applications, the full-wave rectifier is the most
commonly used type in dc power supplies.
1.2.1. Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation
A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two diodes connected to
the secondary of a center-tapped transformer. The input voltage is coupled through the

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transformer to the center-tapped secondary. Half of the total secondary voltage appears
between the center tap and each end of the secondary winding.

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage

Output voltage for the positive half cycle

For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage

Figure 20. Output voltage for the negative half cycle

Effect of the Turns Ratio on the Output Voltage
In any case, the output voltage of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier is always one-half of the
total secondary voltage less the diode drops, no matter what the turns ratio is.
VSec
Vo = − 0.7
2
1.2.2. Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation
The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as show below.
For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage

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During the positive half-cycle of the input, D1 and D2 are forward-biased and conduct current.
D3 and D4 are reverse-biased.

Output voltage for the positive half cycle

For a negative half-cycle of the input voltage
During the negative half-cycle of the input, D3 and D4 are forward-biased and conduct
current. D1 and D2 are reverse-biased.

Output voltage for the negative half cycle

Bridge Output Voltage
Vm(out) = Vm(sec) ……………………………….. Neglecting the diode drops
Vm(out) = Vm(sec) − 1.4V------------------------------Considering the diode drops
Summary: A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one-way) current through the load
during the entire 3600 of the input cycle, whereas a half-wave rectifier allows current through
the load only during one-half of the cycle. The result of full-wave rectification is an output
voltage with a frequency twice the input frequency and that pulsates every half-cycle of the
input.
π 2π
1
Vdc = [∫ V sint dt + ∫ −Vm sint dt]
2π 0 m π
−Vm
Vdc = [cosπ − cos0 + cosπ − cos2π]
2π
−Vm
Vdc = [−1 − 1 − 1 − 1]
2π

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 4Vm 𝟐Vm
Vdc = =
2π 𝛑
This equation shows that VAVG is approximately 63.63 % of Vm for a full-wave rectified voltage
Output frequency:
To(HW) =Tin and Tin =2To(FW)
To(HW) = 2To(FW)
1 1 1 fo(FW)
f=T, = 2T = fo(HW) = = 𝐟𝐨(𝐅𝐖) = 𝟐𝐟𝐨(𝐇𝐖)
To(HW) o(FW) 2

Power supply filters and regulators

A power supply filter ideally eliminates the fluctuations in the output voltage of a half-wave or
full-wave rectifier and produces a constant-level dc voltage. Filtering is necessary because
electronic circuits require a constant source of dc voltage and current to provide power and
biasing for proper operation. Filters are implemented with capacitors.
Voltage regulation in power supplies is usually done with integrated circuit voltage regulators.
A voltage regulator prevents changes in the filtered dc voltage due to variations in input
voltage or load.
In most power supply applications, the standard 50Hz ac power line voltage must be
converted to an approximately constant dc voltage. The pulsating dc output of a half-wave
rectifier or the pulsating output of a full-wave rectifier must be filtered to reduce the large
voltage variations.

Figure 23. Rectifier without a filter

Rectifier with a filter

Capacitor-Input Filter

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A half-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter is shown below. The filter is simply a
capacitor connected from the rectifier output to ground. RL represents the equivalent
resistance of a load. We will use the half-wave rectifier to illustrate the basic principle and
then expand the concept to full-wave rectification.

Initial charging of the capacitor (diode is forward-biased) happen only once when power is
turned on

The capacitor discharges through RL after peak of positive alternation when the diode is
reverse-biased. This discharging occurs during the portion of the input voltage indicated by
the solid dark blue curve.

The capacitor charges back to peak of input when the diode becomes forward-biased. This
charging occurs during the portion of the input voltage indicated by the solid dark blue curve.
Explanation: During the positive first quarter-cycle of the input, the diode is forward-biased,
allowing the capacitor to charge to within 0.7V of the input peak. When the input begins to
decrease below its peak, the capacitor retains its charge and the diode becomes reverse-
biased because the cathode is more positive than the anode. During the remaining part of the

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cycle, the capacitor can discharge only through the load resistance at a rate determined by
the RLC time constant, which is normally long compared to the period of the input. The larger
the time constant, the less the capacitor will discharge. During the first quarter of the next
cycle, the diode will again become forward-biased when the input voltage exceeds the
capacitor voltage by approximately 0.7V.
Ripple Voltage: As you have seen, the capacitor quickly charges at the beginning of a cycle
and slowly discharges through RL after the positive peak of the input voltage (when the diode
is reverse-biased). The variation in the capacitor voltage due to the charging and discharging
is called the ripple voltage. Generally, ripple is undesirable; thus, the smaller the ripple, the
better the filtering action.

Ripple voltage for small and large capacitor value

For a given input frequency, the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is twice that of a half-
wave rectifier. This makes a full-wave rectifier easier to filter because of the shorter time
between peaks. When filtered, the full-wave rectified voltage has a smaller ripple than does a
half-wave voltage for the same load resistance and capacitor values. The capacitor discharges
less during the shorter interval between full wave pulses.

Comparing ripple voltage for both half-wave and full-wave rectifiers

Ripple Factor: The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and is
Vr(P−p)
defined as: r = Vdc

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where Vr(P−p) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and VDC is the dc (average) value of the
filter’s output voltage. The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter. The ripple factor can
be lowered by increasing the value of the filter capacitor or increasing the load resistance.

Ripple factor waveform

Voltage Regulators
While filters can reduce the ripple from power supplies to a low value, the most effective
approach is a combination of a capacitor-input filter used with a voltage regulator. A voltage
regulator is connected to the output of a filtered rectifier and maintains a constant output
voltage (or current) despite changes in the input, the load current, or the temperature.
The capacitor-input filter reduces the input ripple to the regulator to an acceptable level. The
combination of a large capacitor and a voltage regulator helps produce an excellent power
supply.
Most regulators are integrated circuits and have three terminals, an input terminal, an output
terminal, and a reference (or adjust) terminal.
Notice: Read about the circuits of voltage regulators and their working principle.
Summary:

Complete power supply with transformer, rectifier, filter, and regulator

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2. DIODE LIMITERS AND CLAMPERS
Parameters Clipper Clamper
Definition Clipper limits the amplitude of the Clamper shifts the DC level of
output voltage. the output voltage
Output Voltage Less than the input voltage. Multiples of input voltage
Energy storage Not required Requires (Capacitor is used as
component energy storage element)
Shape of Output Shape changes (Rectangular, Shape remains same as input
Waveform sinusoidal, triangular etc.) waveform.
DC Level Remains same DC level get shifted
Applications Clippers are commonly used: Clampers are commonly used:
• In power supplies. • In voltage multiplying circuits
• Used in TV transmitters and • Sonar
Receivers • Radar system etc.
• They are employed for different
wave generation such as square,
rectangular, or trapezoidal waves.
• Series clippers are used as noise
limiters in FM transmitters.

Diode Clipper/Limiters
Electronic devices are very sensitive to voltage. If a large amplitude voltage is applied, it may
permanently destroy the device. So, it is essential to protect the electronics devices. The
protection of the electronic devices can be achieved by using the clipper circuits. A clipper is
a device that removes either the positive half (top half) or negative half (bottom half), or both
positive and negative halves of the input AC signal. In other words, a clipper is a device that
limits the positive amplitude or negative amplitude or both positive and negative amplitudes
of the input AC signal. In some cases, a clipper removes a small portion of the positive half
cycle or negative half cycle or both positive and negative half cycles.

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Series clipper
1) Series Positive Clipper
In series positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input AC signal are removed. If the
diode is arranged in such a way that the arrowhead of the diode points towards the input and
the diode is in series with the output load resistance, then the clipper is said to be a series
positive clipper.

During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. That means
the positive terminal A is connected to n-side and the negative terminal B is connected to p-
side of the diode. As we already know that if the positive terminal is connected to n-side and
the negative terminal is connected to p-side then the diode is said to be reverse biased.
Therefore, the diode D is reverse biased during the positive half cycle. During reverse biased
condition, no current flows through the diode. So, the positive half cycle is blocked or
removed at the output. During negative half cycle: During the negative half cycle, terminal A
is negative and terminal B is positive. That means the negative terminal A is connected to n-
side and the positive terminal B is connected to p-side of the diode. As we already know that
if the negative terminal is connected to n-side and the positive terminal is connected to p-side
then the diode is said to be forward biased. Therefore, the diode D is forward biased during
the negative half cycle.
During forward biased condition, electric current flows through the diode. So the negative
half cycle is allowed at the output.
1.1. Series positive clipper with bias
Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of positive or negative half cycles. In such
cases, the biased clippers are used. The construction of the series positive clipper with bias is
almost similar to the series positive clipper. The only difference is an extra element called
battery is used in series positive clipper with bias.
a) Series positive clipper with positive bias
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. That means
the positive terminal is connected to n-side and the negative terminal is connected to p-side.

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As we already know that if the positive terminal is connected to n-side and the negative
terminal is connected to p-side then the diode is said to be reverse biased. Therefore, the
diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage Vi .

However, we are supplying the voltage from another source called battery. As shown in the
figure, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and the negative terminal of
the battery is connected to n-side of the diode. Therefore, the diode is forward biased by the
battery voltage VB.
That means the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage (Vi) and forward biased by
the battery voltage (VB).
Initially, the input supply voltage Vi is less than the battery voltage VB (Vi < VB). So, the battery
voltage dominates the input supply voltage. Hence, the diode is forward biased by the battery
voltage and allows electric current through it. As a result, the signal appears at the output.
When the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage VB, the diode D
is reverse biased. So, no current flows through the diode. As a result, input signal does not
appear at the output.
Thus, the clipping (removal of a signal) takes place during the positive half cycle only when the
input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage.
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, terminal A is negative and terminal B is positive. That means
the diode D is forward biased due to the input supply voltage. Furthermore, the battery is
also connected in such a way that the positive terminal is connected to p-side and the negative
terminal is connected to n-side. So, the diode is forward biased by both battery voltage VB and
input supply voltage Vi.
That means, during the negative half cycle, it doesn’t matter whether the input supply voltage
is greater or less than the battery voltage, the diode always remains forward biased. So, the
complete negative half cycle appears at the output.
Thus, the series positive clipper with positive bias removes a small portion of positive
half cycles.

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b) Series positive clipper with negative bias
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, the diode D is reverse biased by both input supply voltage
Vi and battery voltage VB. So, no signal appears at the output during the positive half cycle.
Therefore, the complete positive half cycle is removed.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and
reverse biased by the battery voltage VB. However, initially, the battery voltage VB dominates
the input supply voltage Vi. So, the diode remains to be reverse biased until the Vi becomes
greater than VB. When the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage
VB, the diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi. So, the signal appears at the
output.
2) Series negative clipper
In series negative clipper, the negative half cycles of the input AC signal are removed at the
output. The circuit construction of the series negative clipper is shown in the figure.
If the diode is arranged in such a way that the arrowhead of the diode points towards the
output and the diode is in series with the output load resistance, then the clipper is said to
be a series negative clipper. In simple words, in a series negative clipper, the diode is
connected in a direction opposite to that of the series positive clipper.
The vertical line in the diode symbol represents the cathode (n-side) and the opposite end
represents the anode (p-side).
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. That means
the positive terminal A is connected to p-side and the negative terminal B is connected to n-
side of the diode. As we already know that if the positive terminal is connected to p-side and
the negative terminal is connected to n-side then the diode is said to be forward biased.
Therefore, the diode D is forward biased during the positive half cycle.

19
During forward biased condition, electric current flows through the diode. So, the positive
half cycle is allowed at the output. Therefore, a series of positive half cycles appears at the
output.
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the terminal A is negative and the terminal B is positive. That
means the negative terminal A is connected to p-side and the positive terminal B is connected
to n-side of the diode. As we already know that if the negative terminal is connected to p-
side and the positive terminal is connected to n-side then the diode is said to be reverse
biased. Therefore, the diode D is reverse biased during the negative half cycle.
During reverse biased condition, no current flows through the diode. So, the negative half
cycle is completely blocked or removed at the output. In other words, a series of negative
half cycles are removed at the output.
Thus, the series negative clipper removes the series of negative half cycles.
2.1. Series negative clipper with bias

Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of positive or negative half cycles of the
input AC signal. In such cases, the biased clippers are used.
The construction of the series negative clipper with bias is almost similar to the series negative
clipper. The only difference is an extra element called battery is used in series negative clipper
with bias.
a) Series negative clipper with positive bias

During positive half cycle:

During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is negative. That means
the positive terminal A is connected to p-side and the negative terminal B is connected to n-

20
side. As we already know that if the positive terminal is connected to p-side and the negative
terminal is connected to n-side then the diode is said to be forward biased. However, we are
also supplying the voltage from another source called battery. As shown in the figure, the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-side and the negative terminal of the battery
is connected to p-side of the diode.
That means the diode is forward biased by input supply voltage Vi and reverse biased by
battery voltage VB. Initially, the battery voltage is greater than the input supply voltage. Hence,
the diode is reverse biased and does not allow electric current. Therefore, no signal appears
at the output.
When the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage VB, the diode is
forward biased and allows electric current. As a result, the signal appears at the output.
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by both input supply voltage Vi and
battery voltage VB. So, it doesn’t matter whether the input supply voltage is greater or less
than the battery voltage VB, the diode always remains reverse biased. Therefore, during the
negative half cycle, no signal appears at the output.
b) Series negative clipper with negative bias
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, the diode D is forward biased by both input supply voltage
Vi and the battery voltage VB. So, it doesn’t matter whether the input supply voltage is greater
or less than battery voltage VB, the diode always remains forward biased. Therefore, during
the positive half cycle, the signal appears at the output.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, the diode D is reverse biased by the input supply voltage Vi and
forward biased by the battery voltage VB. Initially, the input supply voltage Vi is less than the
battery voltage VB. So, the diode is forward biased by the battery voltage VB. As a result, the
signal appears at the output.
When the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage VB, the diode will
become reverse biased. As a result, no signal appears at the output.

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Shunt clipper
1) Shunt positive clipper
shunt clipper, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load resistance. The operating
principles of the shunt clipper are nearly opposite to the series clipper.
The series clipper passes the input signal to the output load when the diode is forward biased
and blocks the input signal when the diode is reverse biased.
The shunt clipper on the other hand passes the input signal to the output load when the diode
is reverse biased and blocks the input signal when the diode is forward biased.

In shunt positive clipper, during the positive half cycle the diode is forward biased and hence
no output is generated. On the other hand, during the negative half cycle the diode is reverse
biased and hence the entire negative half cycle appears at the output.
1.1. Shunt positive clipper with bias
a) Shunt positive clipper with positive bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage
Vi and reverse biased by the battery voltage VB. However, initially, the input supply voltage
Vi is less than the battery voltage VB. Hence, the battery voltage VB makes the diode to
be reverse biased. Therefore, the signal appears at the output. However, when the input
supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage VB, the diode D is forward
biased by the input supply voltage Vi. As a result, no signal appears at the output.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by both input supply voltage and
battery voltage. So, it doesn’t matter whether the input supply voltage is greater or lesser
than the battery voltage, the diode always remains reverse biased. As a result, a complete
negative half cycle appears at the output.

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b) Shunt positive clipper with negative bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased by both input supply voltage Vi and
battery voltage VB. Therefore, no signal appears at the output during the positive half cycle.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage and
forward biased by the battery voltage. However, initially, the input supply voltage Vi is less
than the battery voltage VB. So, the battery voltage makes the diode to be forward biased. As
a result, no signal appears at the output. However, when the input supply voltage Vi becomes
greater than the battery voltage VB, the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage Vi.
As a result, the signal appears at the output.
2) Shunt negative clipper
In shunt negative clipper, during the positive half cycle the diode is reverse biased and hence
the entire positive half cycle appears at the output. On the other hand, during the negative
half cycle the diode is forward biased and hence no output signal is generated.

2.1. Shunt negative clipper with bias

a) Shunt negative clipper with positive bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage V i and
forward biased by the battery voltage VB. However, initially, the input supply voltage is less
than the battery voltage. So, the diode is forward biased by the battery voltage. As a result,
no signal appears at the output. However, when the input supply voltage becomes greater
than the battery voltage then the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage. As a
result, the signal appears at the output.

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During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased by both input supply voltage Vi and
battery voltage VB. So, the complete negative half cycle is removed at the output.
b) Shunt negative clipper with negative bias
During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by both input supply voltage Vi and
battery voltage VB. As a result, the complete positive half cycle appears at the output.

During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage V i and
reverse biased by the battery voltage VB. However, initially, the input supply voltage is less
than the battery voltage. So, the diode is reverse biased by the battery voltage. As a result,
the signal appears at the output. However, when the input supply voltage becomes greater
than the battery voltage, the diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage. As a result,
the signal does not appear at the output.
Dual (combination) clipper
Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of both positive and negative half cycles. In
such cases, the dual clippers are used.
The dual clippers are made by combining the biased shunt positive clipper and biased shunt
negative clipper.
Let us consider a dual clipper circuit in which a sinusoidal ac voltage is applied to the input
terminals of the circuit.
During positive half cycle:

During the positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and
reverse biased by the battery voltage VB1. On the other hand, the diode D2 is reverse biased
by both input supply voltage Vi and battery voltage VB2.

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Initially, the input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. So, the diode D1 is reverse
biased by the battery voltage VB1. Similarly, the diode D2 is reverse biased by the battery
voltage VB2. As a result, the signal appears at the output. However, when the input supply
voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage VB1, the diode D1 is forward biased by the
input supply voltage. As a result, no signal appears at the output.
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased by both input supply voltage
Vi and battery voltage VB1. On the other hand, the diode D2 is forward biased by the input
supply voltage Vi and reverse biased by the battery voltage VB2.
Initially, the battery voltage is greater than the input supply voltage. Therefore, the diode
D1 and diode D2 are reverse biased by the battery voltage. As a result, the signal appears at
the output.
When the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage VB2, the diode D2 is
forward biased. As a result, no signal appears at the output.
Diode Clampers
A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the desired level
without changing the shape of the applied signal. In other words, the clamper circuit moves
the whole signal up or down to set either the positive peak or negative peak of the signal at
the desired level.
The dc component is simply added to the input signal or subtracted from the input signal. A
clamper circuit adds the positive dc component to the input signal to push it to the positive
side. Similarly, a clamper circuit adds the negative dc component to the input signal to push it
to the negative side.
The construction of the clamper circuit is almost similar to the clipper circuit. The only
difference is the clamper circuit contains an extra element called capacitor. A capacitor is
used to provide a dc offset (dc level) from the stored charge.
A typical clamper is made up of a capacitor, diode, and resistor. Some clampers contain an
extra element called DC battery. The resistors and capacitors are used in the clamper circuit
to maintain an altered DC level at the clamper output. The clamper is also referred to as a
DC restorer, clamped capacitors, or AC signal level shifter.
Types of clampers
• Positive clampers
• Negative clampers

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 • Biased clampers
1) Positive clamper
The positive clamper is made up of a voltage source Vi, capacitor C, diode D, and load resistor
RL. In the below circuit diagram, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load. So
the positive clamper passes the input signal to the output load when the diode is reverse
biased and blocks the input signal when the diode is forward biased.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and hence
no signal appears at the output. In forward biased condition, the diode allows electric current
through it. This current will flows to the capacitor and charges it to the peak value of
input voltage Vm. The capacitor charged in inverse polarity (positive) with the input voltage.
As input current or voltage decreases after attaining its maximum value -Vm, the capacitor
holds the charge until the diode remains forward biased.
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is reverse biased and hence
the signal appears at the output. In reverse biased condition, the diode does not allow electric
current through it. So, the input current directly flows towards the output.
When the positive half cycle begins, the diode is in the non-conducting state and the charge
stored in the capacitor is discharged (released). Therefore, the voltage appeared at the output
is equal to the sum of the voltage stored in the capacitor (Vm) and the input voltage (Vm)
{i.e., Vo = Vm+ Vm = 2Vm} which have the same polarity with each other. As a result, the signal
shifted upwards.
The peak-to-peak amplitude of the input signal is 2Vm, similarly the peak-to-peak amplitude of
the output signal is also 2Vm. Therefore, the total swing of the output is same as the total
swing of the input.
2) Negative clamper
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and hence
no signal appears at the output. In forward biased condition, the diode allows electric current

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through it. This current will flow to the capacitor and charges it to the peak value of input
voltage in inverse polarity -Vm. As input current or voltage decreases after attaining its
maximum value Vm, the capacitor holds the charge until the diode remains forward biased.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is reverse biased and hence
the signal appears at the output. In reverse biased condition, the diode does not allow
electric current through it. So, the input current directly flows towards the output.
When the negative half cycle begins, the diode is in the non-conducting state and the charge
stored in the capacitor is discharged (released). Therefore, the voltage appeared at the output
is equal to the sum of the voltage stored in the capacitor (-Vm) and the input voltage (-Vm)
{i.e., Vo = -Vm- Vm = -2Vm} which have the same polarity with each other. As a result, the signal
shifted downwards.
3) Biased clampers
Sometimes an additional shift of DC level is needed. In such cases, biased clampers are used.
The working principle of the biased clampers is almost similar to the unbiased clampers. The
only difference is an extra element called DC battery is introduced in biased clampers.
a) Positive clamper with positive bias
If positive biasing is applied to the clamper, then it is said to be a positive clamper with positive
bias. The positive clamper with positive bias is made up of an AC voltage source, capacitor,
diode, resistor, and dc battery.
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, the battery voltage forward biases the diode when the input
supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. This current or voltage will flow to the capacitor
and charges it. When the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage then
the diode stops allowing electric current through it because the diode becomes reverse
biased.

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During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased by both input supply voltage and
battery voltage. So, the diode allows electric current. This current will flow to the capacitor
and charges it.
b) Positive clamper with negative bias
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the battery voltage reverse biases the diode when the input
supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. As a result, the signal appears at the output.
When the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage, the diode is forward
biased by the input supply voltage and hence allows electric current through it. This current
will flow to the capacitor and charges it.

During positive half cycle:

During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by both input supply voltage and the
battery voltage. As a result, the signal appears at the output. The signal appeared at the output
is equal to the sum of the input voltage and capacitor voltage.
a) Negative clamper with positive bias
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, the battery voltage reverse biases the diode when the input
supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. When the input supply voltage becomes greater
than the battery voltage, the diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage and hence
allows electric current through it. This current will flow to the capacitor and charges it.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by both input supply voltage and
battery voltage. As a result, the signal appears at the output.

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b) Negative clamper with negative bias
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased by both input supply voltage and
battery voltage. As a result, current flows through the capacitor and charges it.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, the battery voltage forward biases the diode when the input
supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. When the input supply voltage becomes greater
than the battery voltage, the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage and hence
signal appears at the output.
3) Voltage Multiplier
Voltage multiplier is a modified capacitor filter circuit that delivers a dc voltage twice or more
times of the peak value (amplitude) of the input ac voltage.
Types of voltage multipliers
• Half-Wave Voltage Doubler
• Full-Wave Voltage Doubler
• Voltage Tripler
• Voltage Quadrupler
1) Half-Wave Voltage Doubler
As its name suggests, a half-wave voltage doubler is a voltage multiplier circuit whose output
voltage amplitude is twice that of the input voltage amplitude. A half-wave voltage doubler
drives the voltage to the output during either positive or negative half cycle. The half-wave
voltage doubler circuit consists of two diodes, two capacitors, and AC input voltage source.
During positive half cycle:
The circuit diagram of the half-wave voltage doubler is shown in the below figure. During the
positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased. So it allows electric current through it. This
current will flows to the capacitor C1 and charges it to the peak value of input voltage I.e.
Vm. However, current does not flow to the capacitor C2 because the diode D2 is reverse
biased. So, the diode D2 blocks the electric current flowing towards the capacitor C2.

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Therefore, during the positive half cycle, capacitor C1 is charged whereas capacitor C2 is
uncharged.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, diode D1 is reverse biased. So, the diode D1 will not allow
electric current through it. Therefore, during the negative half cycle, the capacitor C1 will not
be charged. However, the charge (Vm) stored in the capacitor C1 is discharged (released).
On the other hand, the diode D2 is forward biased during the negative half cycle. So, the diode
D2 allows electric current through it. This current will flow to the capacitor C2 and charges
it. The capacitor C2 charges to a value 2Vm because the input voltage Vm and capacitor
C1 voltage Vm is added to the capacitor C2. Hence, during the negative half cycle, the capacitor
C2 is charged by both input supply voltage Vm and capacitor C1 voltage Vm. Therefore, the
capacitor C2 is charged to 2Vm.
If a load is connected to the circuit at the output side, the charge (2Vm) stored in the capacitor
C2 is discharged and flows to the output.
During the next positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased.
So the capacitor C1 charges to Vm whereas capacitor C2 will not be charged. However, the
charge (2Vm) stored in the capacitor C2 will be discharged and flows to the output load. Thus,
the half-wave voltage doubler drives a voltage of 2Vm to the output load.
The capacitor C2 gets charged again in the next half cycle.
The voltage (2Vm) obtained at the output side is twice that of the input voltage (Vm).
The capacitors C1 and C2 in half wave-voltage doubler charges in alternate half cycles.
The output waveform of the half-wave voltage doubler is almost similar to the half wave
rectifier with filter. The only difference is the output voltage amplitude of the half-wave voltage

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doubler is twice that of the input voltage amplitude but in half wave rectifier with filter, the
output voltage amplitude is same as the input voltage amplitude.
The half-wave voltage doubler supplies the voltage to the output load in one cycle (either
positive or negative half cycle). In our case, the half-wave voltage doubler supplies the voltage
to the output load during positive half cycles. Therefore, the output signal regulation of the
half-wave voltage doubler is poor.
Advantages of half-wave voltage doubler: High voltages are produced from the low input
voltage source without using the expensive high voltage transformers.
Disadvantages of half-wave voltage doubler: Large ripples (unwanted fluctuations) are present
in the output signal.
2) Full-wave voltage doubler

The full-wave voltage doubler consists of two diodes, two capacitors, and input AC voltage
source.
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, diode D1 is forward biased. So, the diode
D1 allows electric current through it. This current will flow to the capacitor C1 and charges it
to the peak value of input voltage i.e Vm.
On the other hand, diode D2 is reverse biased during the positive half cycle. So, the diode
D2 does not allow electric current through it. Therefore, the capacitor C2 is uncharged.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode D2 is forward biased. So the
diode D2 allows electric current through it. This current will flow to the capacitor C 2 and
charges it to the peak value of the input voltage I.e., Vm.

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On the other hand, diode D1 is reverse biased during the negative half cycle. So the diode
D1 does not allow electric current through it. Thus, the capacitor C1 and capacitor C2 are
charged during alternate half cycles.
The output voltage is taken across the two series connected capacitors C1 and C2.
If no load is connected, the output voltage is equal to the sum of capacitor C 1 voltage and
capacitor C2 voltage I.e., C1 + C2 = Vm + Vm = 2Vm. When a load is connected to the output
terminals, the output voltage Vo will be somewhat less than 2Vm.
The circuit is called full-wave voltage doubler because one of the output capacitors is being
charged during each half cycle of the input voltage.
3) Voltage tripler
The voltage tripler can be obtained by adding one more diode-capacitor stage to the half-
wave voltage doubler circuit.
During first positive half cycle:
During the first positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode D1 is forward biased
whereas diodes D2 and D3 are reverse biased. Hence, the diode D1 allows electric current
through it. This current will flow to the capacitor C1 and charges it to the peak value of the
input voltage I.e., Vm.

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, diode D2 is forward biased whereas diodes D1 and D3 are
reverse biased. Hence, the diode D2 allows electric current through it. This current will flow
to the capacitor C2 and charges it. The capacitor C2 is charged to twice the peak voltage of
the input signal (2Vm). This is because the charge (Vm) stored in the capacitor C1 is discharged
during the negative half cycle.
Therefore, the capacitor C1 voltage (Vm) and the input voltage (Vm) is added to the capacitor
C2. I.e Capacitor voltage + input voltage = Vm + Vm = 2Vm. As a result, the capacitor C2 charges
to 2Vm.
During second positive half cycle:

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During the second positive half cycle, the diode D3 is forward biased whereas diodes D1 and
D2 are reverse biased. Diode D1 is reverse biased because the voltage at X is negative due to
charged voltage Vm, across C1 and diode D2 is reverse biased because of its orientation. As a
result, the voltage (2Vm) across capacitor C2 is discharged. This charge will flow to the
capacitor C3 and charges it to the same voltage 2Vm.
The capacitors C1 and C3 are in series and the output voltage is taken across the two series
connected capacitors C1 and C3. The voltage across capacitor C1 is Vm and capacitor C3 is
2Vm. So, the total output voltage is equal to the sum of capacitor C1 voltage and capacitor
C3 voltage I.e., C1 + C3 = Vm + 2Vm = 3Vm.
Therefore, the total output voltage obtained in voltage tripler is 3Vm which is three times
more than the applied input voltage.
Voltage quadrupler
The voltage quadrupler can be obtained by adding one more diode-capacitor stage to the
voltage tripler circuit.
During first positive half cycle:
During the first positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode D1 is forward biased
whereas diodes D2, D3 and D4 are reverse biased. Hence, the diode D1 allows electric
current through it. This current will flow to the capacitor C1 and charges it to the peak value
of the input voltage I.e., Vm.

During first negative half cycle:

During the first negative half cycle, diode D2 is forward biased and diodes D1, D3 and D4 are
reverse biased. Hence, the diode D2 allows electric current through it. This current will flow
to the capacitor C2 and charges it. The capacitor C2 is charged to twice the peak voltage of
the input signal (2Vm). This is because the charge (Vm) stored in the capacitor C1 is discharged
during the negative half cycle.
Therefore, the capacitor C1 voltage (Vm) and the input voltage (Vm) is added to the capacitor
C2 I.e Capacitor voltage + input voltage = Vm + Vm = 2Vm. As a result, the capacitor C2 charges
to 2Vm.

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During second positive half cycle:
During the second positive half cycle, the diode D3 is forward biased and diodes D1, D2 and
D4 are reverse biased. Diode D1 is reverse biased because the voltage at X is negative due to
charged voltage Vm, across C1 and, diode D2 and D4 are reverse biased because of their
orientation. As a result, the voltage (2Vm) across capacitor C2 is discharged. This charge will
flow to the capacitor C3 and charges it to the same voltage 2Vm.
During second negative half cycle:
During the second negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased whereas diodes
D1 and D3 are reverse biased. As a result, the charge (2Vm) stored in the capacitor C3 is
discharged. This charge will flow to the capacitor C4 and charges it to the same voltage (2Vm).
The capacitors C2 and C4 are in series and the output voltage is taken across the two series
connected capacitors C2 and C4. The voltage across capacitor C2 is 2Vm and capacitor C4 is
2Vm. So, the total output voltage is equal to the sum of capacitor C2 voltage and capacitor
C4 voltage I.e., C2 + C4 = 2Vm + 2Vm = 4Vm.
Therefore, the total output voltage obtained in voltage quadrupler is 4Vm which is four times
more than the applied input voltage.
Applications of voltage multipliers
• Voltage multipliers are used in:
• Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs)
• Traveling wave tubes
• Laser systems
• X-ray systems
• LCD backlighting
• hv power supplies
• Power supplies
• Oscilloscopes
• Particle accelerators
• Ion pumps
• Copy machines

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Types of diodes

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