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3 - PN Junction Diode
3 - PN Junction Diode
The PN junction diode consists of a p-region and n-region separated by a depletion region where
charge is stored. The effect described in the previous tutorial is achieved without any external voltage
being applied to the actual PN junction resulting in the junction being in a state of equilibrium.
However, if we were to make electrical connections at the ends of both the N-type and the P-type
materials and then connect them to a battery source, an additional energy source now exists to
overcome the potential barrier.
The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the free electrons being able to cross the
depletion region from one side to the other. The behaviour of the PN junction with regards to the
potential barrier’s width produces an asymmetrical conducting two terminal device, better known as the
PN Junction Diode.
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which has the electrical
characteristic of passing current through itself in one direction only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode
does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage. Instead it has an exponential current-
voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not described its operation by simply using an
equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN junction, it can
supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width of
the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges being pulled away from the
junction resulting in the depletion layer width being increased. This has the effect of increasing or
decreasing the effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking the flow of current
through the diodes pn-junction.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a reverse voltage and narrows
with an increase in the application of a forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the electrical
properties on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking place. One of the
results produces rectification as seen in the PN junction diodes static I-V (current-voltage)
characteristics. Rectification is shown by an asymmetrical current flow when the polarity of bias
voltage is altered as shown below.
But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a rectifying device we need to firstly
bias the junction, that is connect a voltage potential across it. On the voltage axis above, “Reverse
Bias” refers to an external voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An external voltage
which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the “Forward Bias” direction.
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard Junction
Diode and these are:
Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find this situation favourable and
move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the “Reverse Current” and is
referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is known as
diffusion, as shown below.
The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers across the
junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in the P-region and
few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction.
Then an “Equilibrium” or balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and both
moving in opposite directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this
occurs the junction is said to be in a state of “Dynamic Equilibrium“.
The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy so this state of equilibrium can be
broken by raising the temperature of the PN junction causing an increase in the generation of minority
carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current but an electric current cannot flow since no
circuit has been connected to the PN junction.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a
high impedance path, almost an insulator and a high potential barrier is created across the junction thus
preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor material.
This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small reverse leakage
current does flow through the junction which can normally be measured in micro-amperes, ( μA ).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high
enough value, it will cause the diode’s PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect
around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of
maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics
curve below.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the
energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the
junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this
voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and then a high current flow through the diode with
little increase in the external voltage as shown below.
The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby
allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is
represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.
Reduction in the Depletion Layer due to Forward Bias
This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large currents
to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual potential difference
across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at approximately 0.3v
for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct “infinite” current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a short
circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its
maximum forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more power in the form of heat
than it was designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.
Summary
The PN junction region of a Junction Diode has the following important characteristics:
Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, “Holes” and “Electrons”.
The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type doping), so
that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type doping), so that
it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion region.
The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied voltage.
When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to 0.7v for silicon
diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region reduces and the
diode acts like a short circuit allowing full circuit current to flow.
When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region increases and
the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very small leakage current
will flow).
We have also seen above that the diode is two terminal non-linear device whose I-V characteristic are
polarity dependent as depending upon the polarity of the applied voltage, VD the diode is either
Forward Biased, VD > 0 or Reverse Biased, VD < 0. Either way we can model these current-voltage
characteristics for both an ideal diode and for a real silicon diode as shown: