Flow Stress

2
Material Behavior in Metal Forming

• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest

because material is plastically deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the
flow curve:

Y f  K n

where K = strength coefficient;

and n = strain hardening
exponent
 Flow curve based on true stress
and true strain
 3
Flow Stress

• For most metals at room temperature, strength increases

when deformed due to strain hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material

Y f  K n

where Yf = flow stress, i.e., the yield strength as

a function of strain
 4
Average Flow Stress

• Determined by integrating the flow curve equation between

zero and the final strain value defining the range of interest

_ K n
Yf 
1 n

_
where Y f = average flow stress; and  = maximum strain
during deformation process. n = strain hardening exponent
 5

Temperature in Metal Forming

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on

temperature
• Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are
reduced at higher temperatures
• In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
 6

Temperature in Metal Forming

• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with

lower forces and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
• Cold working
• Warm working
• Hot working
1. Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature or slightly above
• Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required

Advantages of Cold Forming

• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
• No heating of work required
Disadvantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required in the deformation
operation
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming
that can be done
• In some cases, metal must be annealed to allow
further deformation
• In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough
to be cold worked
Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (y) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 8.20,

Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

low carbon steel

9
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility after cold working Cu? 2 2
pDo pDd
-
Copper %CW = 4 4 x 100
Cold p Do2
Work
4
Do2 - Dd2
= x 100
Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm Do2

(15.2 mm) 2 - (12.2 mm) 2

%CW = x 100 =35.6%
(15.2 mm) 2
10
Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

y = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties
and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226;
and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H.
Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) 11
Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are nullified!
annealing temperature (ºC)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 • Three Annealing stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength

ductility (%EL)
50 1. Recovery
500
40 2. Recrystallization
3. Grain Growth
400 30

ductility 20
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch
4e. (Fig. 8.22 is adapted from G. Sachs and
300 K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied
Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of
Re Re Gr Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys,
c ov c ry s ain American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)
e ry tal Gr
liza ow
tio th
n 12
Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery

•During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy

is relieved. In addition, physical properties such as
electrical and thermal conductivities are recovered to their
precold-worked states.

13
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
14
 As Recrystallization Continues…
• All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

15
 Anisotropy in y
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 8.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.11 is from W.G. Moffatt,
G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties
of Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)

rolling direction
235 m
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & orientation and shape.
randomly oriented.

16
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 8.21 (d),(e),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580ºC 580ºC
coefficient dependent
• Empirical Relation:
on material and T.
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
n
at time t. d - d on =Kt
17
 TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Adapted from Fig. 8.22,

Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

º
18
Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature
at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

• %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR decreases with
increasing purity

19
 2. Warm Working
• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below
recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working often expressed
in terms of melting point:
• 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for
metal
Advantages of Warm Working
• Lower forces and power than in cold working
• More intricate work geometries possible
• Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
• Low spring back

Disadvantage:
1.Scaling of part surface
3. Hot Working
• Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization
temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one‑half of melting
point on absolute scale
• In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.6Tm
• Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.6Tm, enhancing advantage of
hot working above this level
Why Hot Working?
Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal ‑ far more than
possible with cold working or warm working
• Why?
• Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room
temperature
• Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
• Ductility is significantly increased
 23
Advantages of Hot Working
• Workpart shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot
formed
• Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
• No work hardening occurs during forming

Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Lower dimensional accuracy in case of bulk forming
• Higher total energy required (due to the thermal energy to
heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface finish
• Shorter tool life
The temperature of the work piece in metal working depends on:

1.Initial temp of tool and work piece

2.Heat generation due to plastic deformation
3.Heat generated due to friction at die/metal interface
4.Heat transfer between deformed tool and the dies and surrounding
environment

Heat transfer between the work piece and tool material

If we neglect the temperature gradient in the workpiece and consider the
work piece as thin plate between dies. The average instantaneous
temperature of the deform material at the interface is given by
T = T1 + (To - T1) e (-ht/ρcδ)

To = initial temperature of work piece, T1 = Initial temperature of die

h = heat transfer coefficient between workpiece and die
ρ = density, c = specific heat, δ = thickness of materials between die
Heat generated due to plastic deformation

During metal working, almost 90-95% of the energy supplied is converted into
heat. The remaining is stored in the workpiece material and caused up for the
metallurgical changes.
For a frictionless deformation process, the maximum increase in temperature
can be determined by the relationship [Courtesy: Altan et al. 1983]

Td = Up/ρcJ = σεβ/ρcJ

Up = Work of plastic deformation /unit volume;

J = Mechanical equivalent of heat, 4185 J/Kcal
β = fraction of deformation work converted into heat typically = 0.95
ρ = density of work piece , c = specific heat, δ = thickness of materials
between die
Temperature increase due to friction

Temperature increase due to friction can be determined by:

Tf = µ P v AΔt / ρcVJ

µ = frictional coefficient at work piece and tool interface;

P = stress normal to interface;
v = relative velocity at the tool-metal interface
V = volume of the workpiece subjected to deformation
A = Surface area of the tool-metal interface
Δt = the time duration
J = Mechanical equivalent of heat, 4185 J/Kcal
ρ = density of work piece , c = specific heat

The final average materials temperature Tm at time t is

Tf = T d + T f + T
Friction in Metal Forming
• In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
• Metal flow is retarded
• Forces and power are increased
• Wears tooling faster
• Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working

Lubrication in Metal Forming

• Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool‑work interface in many
forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction

• Benefits:
• Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
• Better surface finish
• Removes heat from the tooling
Friction and Lubrication
• Friction is undesirable:
• retard metal flow causing residual stress
• increase forces and power
• rapid wear of tooling
• Lubrication is used to reduce friction at the workpiece-tool interface
Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant

• Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.)

• Hot working or cold working
• Work material
• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
• Ease of application
• Cost
 What is Strain Rate?
• Strain rate in forming is directly related to speed of deformation v
• Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or other movement of the
equipment
Strain rate is defined:

.v

h
.
Where, = true strain rate
h = instantaneous height of workpiece being deformed
Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress

• Flow stress is a function of temperature

• At hot working temperatures, flow stress also

depends on strain rate
• As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation
increases
• This effect is known as strain‑rate sensitivity
Figure (a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated
work temperature.
(b) Same relationship plotted on log‑log coordinates
 Strain Rate Sensitivity
• Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a perfectly plastic
material, with strain hardening exponent n = 0

• The metal should continue to flow at the same flow stress, once that stress is
reached

• However, an additional phenomenon occurs during deformation, especially at

elevated temperatures: Strain rate sensitivity

Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

Y f  C m

where C = strength constant (similar but not equal to strength

coefficient in flow curve equation), and m = strain‑rate sensitivity
exponent
Effect of temperature
on flow stress for a
typical metal. The
constant C indicated
by the intersection of
each plot with the
vertical dashed line at
strain rate = 1.0,
decreases, and m
(slope of each plot)
increases with
increasing
temperature
Observations about Strain Rate Sensitivity

• Increasing temperature decreases C, increases m

• At room temperature, effect of strain rate is almost negligible
• Flow curve is a good representation of material behavior
• As temperature increases, strain rate becomes increasingly important in
determining flow stress