UNIT-I

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND APPLICATIONS

The p-n junction diode, Equivalent circuit of a diode, Zener diode, Zener diode as a voltage
regulator, Rectification - Half wave rectifier, Full wave rectifier, Bridge rectifier, capacitor
and choke filter circuit (only qualitative approach), 78XX based Fixed IC voltage regulator.

Formation of PN junction

A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type material
creating a semiconductor diode. When the N-type semiconductor and P-type semiconductor
materials are first joined together a very large density gradient exists between both sides of
the PN junction. The result is that some of the free electrons from the N-side begin to move
across this newly formed junction to recombine with holes in the P-side. Similarly holes from
the P-side begin to move across the junction to recombine with electrons in the N-side as
shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 Formation of PN junction

PN Junction Diode Biasing

PN Junction Diode can be biased by an external voltage to either block or allow the flow of
current through it.

Forward Bias

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When positive terminal is connected to the P-type material and negative to the N-type
material of the diode as shown in Fig.2, it is known as forward bias.

Fig.2 : Forward biased pn-junction diode

The effect of adding this additional energy source results in the electrons and holes being able
to cross the depletion region from one side to the other. If this external voltage becomes
greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for
germanium diodes, the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side get pushed towards the
junction and current starts flowing. This voltage is called the “knee voltage”. After this,
current increases with little increase in the external voltage as shown in the static V-I
characteristics.

Reverse Bias

When negative terminal is connected to the P-type material and positive to the N-type
material of the diode as shown in Fig.3, it is known as reverse bias.

Fig.3: Reverse biased pn-junction diode

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The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive
electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted
away from the junction towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the depletion
layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path,
almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing
current from flowing through the semiconductor material. This condition represents a high
resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows through the junction
diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small leakage current does flow
through the junction due to the minority electrons in P-side and electrons in N-side, which is
measured in μA for germanium and nA for silicon.

If the reverse bias voltage VR applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high value,
PN junction will overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the junction. This may
cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current
which is shown as a step downward slope in the static V-I characteristics.

Diode Symbol and Static V-I Characteristics

Fig.4: Diode static V-I characteristics

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There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard
Junction Diode and these are: Forward Bias and Reverse Bias.

When the diode is forward biased “Forward Current” IF flows. Before the knee voltage the
forward current is due to the diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction. After the
knee voltage the current is mainly due to the drift of charge carriers. The potential difference
or voltage across the diode is constant when the it conducts forward current IF and is
approximately 0.3 V for germanium and approximately 0.7 V for silicon diode. The (slope)-1
of the forward characteristics after the knee of the characteristics is the forward resistance of
the diode when it is conducting as shown in Fig.4.

“Reverse Current” which is referred as IR is the reverse saturation current which flows due to
the minority carriers. The minority carriers are constantly generated due to thermal energy
raising the temperature of the PN junction which in turn causing an increase in the generation
of minority carriers, thereby resulting in an increase in leakage current. When the reverse
voltage applied equals the reverse breakdown voltage VBR a large reverse current flows
destroying the PN junction. The resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current
flow. Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to dissipate
more power in the form of heat.

Diodes are manufactured in a range of voltage and current ratings and care must be taken
when choosing a diode for a certain application.

Some of the parameters of pn-diode are explained as follows

1. Maximum Forward Current (IFmax )

The Maximum Forward Current IFmax is as its name implies the maximum forward current
allowed to flow through the device. When the diode is conducting in the forward bias
condition, it has a very small “ON” resistance across the PN junction and therefore, power is
dissipated across this junction in the form of heat.

2. Forward Voltage drop/ Knee Voltage (VF)

It is a forward voltage drop across a diode when it conducts. The forward bias voltage must
exceed this voltage for the diode to conduct. Forward voltage drop for silicon diodes is
0.7Vand for germanium diodes is 0.3 V.

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3. Reverse saturation current (IR)

It is the nominal current which flows through the diode when it is reverse biased. It is in the
order of nA for Si diodes and 𝜇𝐴 for Ge diodes.

4. Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR)

It is the reverse bias voltage at which the pn-junction breaks down and permanently damages
the diode. VBR is around 50V for Si diode and65 V for Ge.

5. Dynamic resistance (rd)

The dynamic resistance or ac resistance of a diode is the reciprocal of the slope of the forward
characteristics beyond knee.

Δ𝑉𝐹
𝑟𝑑 =
Δ𝐼𝐹

Diode Models / Diode Equivalent Circuits

The three models of diode are as shown in Fig.5. The diode is two terminal non-linear device
whose V-I characteristics are dependent on the polarity of the applied voltage. The diode is
Forward Biased for VD > 0, Reverse Biased for VD < 0.

Fig.5 : Diode models

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DC load line analysisi

A DC load line is a straight line drawn on the diode forward characteristics that describes all
the dc conditions that exist in the operation of the circuit. Consider a diode series circuit as
shown in Fig.6.

Fig.6: Diode series circuit

Here IF is the current through the diode and VF is the voltage across the diode. Applying KVL
to the circuit we get,

(1)

Eq.1 is the equation of load line.

For IF = 0, VF = V. Hence when IF = 0, VF = V is one of the points on load line at point A.

𝑽
From eq. 1, when VF= 0, 𝑰𝑭 = .
𝑹

is the second point on the DC load line at point B.

𝟒
𝑽𝑭 = 𝟎, 𝑰𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎 𝒎𝑨. Join the points A and B to get the DC load line. We can see that

the DC load line intersects the diode characteristics at a point Q which corresponds to
𝑰𝑭 = 𝟑𝟑 𝒎𝑨 and 𝑽𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽. This can be shown by applying KVL to the circuit as
𝑽 − 𝑽𝑭 − 𝑰 𝑭 𝑹 = 𝟎 or

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The DC load line is drawn on the diode forward characteristics is as shown in Fig.7.

Fig.7: Plot of DC load line.

Rectifiers using Diodes

Half wave rectifier, Full wave rectifier, Bridge rectifier, capacitor and choke filter circuit
(only qualitative approach)

A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC) input power into a Direct
Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either a single-phase or a multi-
phase supply.

Half Wave Rectifier.

The simplest of all the rectifier circuits is Half Wave Rectifier. In a half wave rectifier circuit
one half of each complete sine wave of the AC supply is converted to DC. That’s why this
type of circuit is called a “half-wave” rectifier because it passes only half of the incoming AC
power supply as shown in Fig.8.

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 Fig.8: Half Wave Rectifier

During each “positive” half cycle of the AC sine wave, the diode is forward biased as the
anode is positive with respect to the cathode resulting in current flowing through the diode.
The voltage across the load resistor will therefore be the same as the supply voltage, Vs (Vs-
VF for Si or Ge diode), that is the “DC” voltage across the load is sinusoidal for the first half
cycle only so Vout = Vs.

During each “negative” half cycle of the AC sinusoidal input waveform, the diode is reverse
biased as the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. Therefore, NO current flows
through the diode or circuit. Then in the negative half cycle of the supply, no current flows in
the load resistor as no voltage appears across it so therefore, Vout = 0.

The current on the DC side of the circuit flows in one direction only making the circuit
Unidirectional. As the load resistor receives from the diode a positive half of the waveform,
zero volts, a positive half of the waveform, zero volts, etc.

Expressions for VDC, Vrms and Rectification Efficiency, Ripple factor for
Half Wave Rectifier

Consider output voltage,

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝜋

𝑉𝑜 = 0 for 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

𝑉𝑖 is a sinusoidal waveform it can be represented as,

𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

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Load current,
𝐼 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 𝜋
𝐼𝐿 = { 𝑚
0 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

𝑉𝑚
Where Max. load current, 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅
𝑓 +𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝐿

where 𝑅𝑓 is the dynamic resistance of the diode

𝑅𝐿 is the load resistance & 𝑅𝑠 transformer secondary winding resistance.

Derivation of VDC

DC Average current 𝑰𝑫𝑪

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 1 2𝜋

𝐼𝐷𝐶 = = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 2𝜋 [∫0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫𝜋 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = [∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫𝜋 0𝑑𝜔𝑡 ] since 𝐼𝐿 =0, 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
2𝜋 0 𝑚

𝜋
1
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = [∫ 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]
2𝜋 0

𝐼𝑚 𝜋 −𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡]0 = [-1-1] =
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋

DC Average Voltage 𝑽𝑫𝑪

𝐼𝑚
VDC = IDC RL = RL
𝜋

𝑉𝑚
Where , 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅
𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
⸫ VDC = 𝑅 =
𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿 𝜋 𝜋 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

When the load resistor 𝑅𝐿 >> 𝑅𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑠 ,

𝑽𝒎
The dc value of the output voltage is 𝑽𝒅𝒄 =
𝝅

Derivation of Vrms

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Root mean square load current, 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔

1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼𝐿 2 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = √2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √2𝜋 [∫0 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫𝜋 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]

1 𝜋
= √2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡 since 𝐼𝐿 =0, 𝜋 ≤ 𝜔𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋

2
𝜋 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 2
𝐼𝑚
=√ 2𝜋 ∫0 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = √𝐼𝑚 [1 ∫𝜋 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − 1 ∫𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]
2 2𝜋 2 0 2 0

2
𝐼𝑚 1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡
=√ 2𝜋 [2 [𝜔𝑡]𝜋0 − 2 [ 2 ]𝜋0 𝑑𝜔𝑡]

𝐼𝑚 𝜋 2 𝑰𝒎
=√ 2𝜋 [ 2 − 0] =
𝟐

Root mean square load voltage, 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔

𝐼𝑚
Vrms = Irms RL = RL
2

𝑉𝑚
Where , 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅
𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
⸫ Vrms = 𝑅 =
𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿 2 2 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

When the load resistor 𝑅𝐿 >> 𝑅𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑠 ,

𝑽𝒎
The rms value of the output voltage is 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐

Derivation of Ripple factor

The ripple factor is the measure of conversion from AC to DC of the half wave rectifier is

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼

𝑟= = 𝐼𝑎𝑐 ----(1)
𝑑𝐶 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑐

2 2 2
Where 𝐼𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐

Substituting in (1),

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 2 −𝐼 2
√𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝐼 2
𝑟=𝐼 = =√( 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) − 1
𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Substitute, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = & 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
2 𝜋

𝐼𝑚 2
We get, 𝑟 = √( 𝐼2𝑚 ) − 1 = 1.21
𝜋

Thus, the ripple factor of the half wave rectifier is 1.21 or the amount of ac present in the
output is 121 % of the dc voltage.

Derivation of Rectification Efficiency

The efficiency of the half wave rectifier is

𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑑𝑐

𝜂= =
𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃𝑎𝑐

DC output power 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝟐 𝑅𝐿

AC input power 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )

𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝟐 𝑅𝐿
𝜂=
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
Substitute, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = & 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
2 𝜋

𝐼
( 𝑚 )𝟐 𝑅𝐿
𝜋
⸫ 𝜂= 𝐼𝑚 𝟐 = 0.406 = 40.6%
( ) (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝐿 )
2

If 𝑅𝐿 >> 𝑅𝑓 , the efficiency 𝜼 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟔 % or with no diode loss only 40.6% of the ac input

power is converted into dc power in the load.

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During the rectification process, the resultant output DC voltage and current are therefore
both “ON” and “OFF” during every cycle. As the voltage across the load resistor is only
present during the positive half of the cycle (50% of the input waveform), this results in a low
average DC value being supplied to the load.

The variation of the rectified output waveform between this “ON” and “OFF” condition
produces a waveform which has large amounts of “ripple” which is an undesirable feature.
The resultant DC ripple has a frequency that is equal to that of the AC supply frequency.

Full Wave Rectifier.

Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or current
which is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have some
fundamental advantages over the half wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC) output
voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has much less ripple
than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother output waveform.

Center-Tapped Transformer Full Wave Rectifier:

In a Center tapped transformer Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are used, one for
each half of the cycle. A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is
split equally into two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C). This
configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is positive with
respect to the transformer centre point C producing an output during both half-cycles, twice
that for the half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown in Fig.9.

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 Fig.9: Full Wave Rectifier with 2 diodes

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes connected to a single load resistance
(RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. For the positive half cycle
of input, point A of the transformer is positive with respect to point C, so diode D1 conducts
in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.

For the negative half cycle of input, point B is positive with respect to point C, so diode D2
conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor RL is in the same
direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistor RL is the phasor sum
of the two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a “bi-
phase” circuit.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the center tapped
transformer rectifier is the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier
uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge” configuration to
produce the desired output.

The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped
transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to
one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown in Fig.10.

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle.

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 Fig.10: Bridge Rectifier

During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes
D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown in the Fig.11.

Fig.11: Working of Bridge Rectifier for Input Positive halfcycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes
D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the
load is the same direction as before as shown in the Fig.12.

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 Fig.12: Working of Bridge Rectifier for Input Negative halfcycle

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional and same as the previous two diode full-wave rectifier.

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of
just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2*0.7 = 1.4V ) less than
the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g.
100Hz for a 50Hz supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz supply.)

Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave bridge rectifier, pre-
made bridge rectifier components are available “off-the-shelf” in a range of different voltage
and current sizes that can be soldered directly into a PCB circuit board or be connected by
spade connectors.

Expressions for Vdc, Vrms, Ripple factor and Rectification efficiency for Full
Wave Rectifier

Derivation of VDC

DC Average current 𝑰𝑫𝑪

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 1 2𝜋

𝐼𝐷𝐶 = = 2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = 2𝜋 [∫0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫𝜋 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = [2 ∫0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡] = 𝜋 [∫0 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]
2𝜋

𝐼𝑚 𝜋 −𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝐷𝐶 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡]0 = [-1-1] =
𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋

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DC Average Voltage 𝑽𝑫𝑪

2𝐼𝑚
VDC = IDC RL = RL
𝜋

𝑉𝑚
Where , 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅
𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

2𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿 2𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
⸫ VDC = 𝑅 =
𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿 𝜋 𝜋 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

When the load resistor 𝑅𝐿 >> 𝑅𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑠 ,

𝟐𝑽𝒎
The dc value of the output voltage is 𝑽𝒅𝒄 =
𝝅

where 𝑅𝑠 is the series resistance of the source 𝑉𝑠

𝑅𝑓 is the dynamic resistance of the diode

𝑅𝐿 is the load resistance.

Derivation of Vrms

Root mean square load current, 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔

1 2𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼𝐿 2 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = √2𝜋 ∫0 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡

1 𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √2𝜋 [∫0 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫𝜋 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]

1 𝜋
= √2𝜋 2 ∫0 𝐼𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡

2
𝜋 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 2
𝐼 𝐼 1 𝜋 1 𝜋
=√ 𝑚𝜋 ∫0 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = √ 𝑚𝜋 [2 ∫0 𝑑𝜔𝑡 − 2 ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡]
2

𝐼 2
1 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 𝐼 2 𝜋 𝑰𝒎
=√ 𝑚𝜋 [2 [𝜔𝑡]𝜋0 − 2 [ 2 ]𝜋0 𝑑𝜔𝑡] =√ 𝑚𝜋 [ 2 − 0] =
√𝟐

Root mean square load voltage, 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔

𝐼𝑚
Vrms = Irms RL = RL
√2

16
 𝑉𝑚
Where , 𝐼𝑚 =
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿
⸫ Vrms = =
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿 √2 √2 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑆 +𝑅𝐿

When the load resistor 𝑅𝐿 >> 𝑅𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑠 ,

𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√𝟐

Derivation of Ripple factor

The ripple factor, the measure of conversion from AC to DC of the full wave rectifier is

𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑎𝑐

𝑟= =
𝑑𝐶 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑑𝑐

2 2 2
where 𝐼𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 𝐼𝑑𝑐

2 −𝐼 2
√𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐼𝑎𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑟= = =√( ) −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
Substitute, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = & 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
√2 𝜋

𝐼𝑚 2

We get, 𝑟 = √( √2
2𝐼𝑚 ) −1 = 0.482
𝜋

Thus, the ripple factor of the full wave rectifier is 0.482 or the amount of ac present in the
output is 48.2 % of the dc voltage, which is a drastic improvement from 121 % of half wave
rectifier.

Derivation of Rectification Efficiency

The efficiency of the full wave rectifier is

𝑑𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑑𝑐

%𝜂 = 𝑥 100 = 𝑥 100
𝑎𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃𝑎𝑐

DC output power 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝟐 𝑅𝐿

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AC input power 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )

𝑰𝒅𝒄 𝟐 𝑅𝐿
𝜂=
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 )

𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
Substitute, 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = & 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
√2 𝜋

2𝐼
( 𝜋𝑚 )𝟐 𝑅𝐿
we get 𝜂 = 𝐼 = 0.812 = 81.2 %
( 𝑚 )𝟐 (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝑠 +𝑅𝐿 )
√2

If 𝑅𝐿 >> 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑓 , the efficiency 𝛾 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟐 % or with no diode loss 81.2 % of the ac input
power is converted into dc power in the load.

The main disadvantage of this type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger transformer for
a given power output is required with two separate but identical secondary windings making
this type of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared to the “Full Wave Bridge Rectifier”
circuit equivalent.

Full-wave Rectifier with Capacitor filter

We saw in the previous section that the single phase half-wave rectifier produces an output
wave every half cycle and that it was not practical to use this type of circuit to produce a
steady DC supply. The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value
(0.637 Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output waveform is twice that of the
frequency of the input supply frequency.

The average DC output of the rectifier can be improved while at the same time reducing the
AC variation of the rectified output by using smoothing capacitors to filter the output
waveform. Smoothing or reservoir capacitors connected in parallel with the load across the
output of the full wave bridge rectifier circuit increases the average DC output level even
higher as the capacitor acts like a storage device as shown in Fig.13.

18
 Fig13: Bridge rectifier with capacitor filter

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a more
smooth DC output voltage. Here the capacitor is charged to the peak voltage of the output DC
output, but when it drops from its peak voltage back down to zero volts, the capacitor cannot
discharge as quickly due to the RC time constant of the circuit, maintaining the voltage across
the load resistor until the capacitor re-charges once again on the next positive slope of the DC
output. In other words, the capacitor only has time to discharge briefly before the next DC
pulse recharges it back up to the peak value. Thus, the DC voltage applied to the load resistor
drops only by a small amount. But we can improve this still by increasing the value of the
smoothing capacitor.

Choke capacitor filter

It consists of an inductor connected in series with rectifier output circuit and a capacitor
connected in parallel with the load resistor RL as in Fig14.

Fig.14: Choke capacitor filter

19
When the pulsating DC signal from the output of the rectifier circuit is fed into choke filter,
the AC ripples present in the output DC voltage gets filtered by choke coil. The inductor has
the property to block AC and pass DC. This is because DC resistance of an inductor is low
and AC impedance of inductor coil is high. Thus, the AC ripples get blocked by inductor coil.

Although the inductor efficiently removes AC ripples, a small percentage of AC ripples is

still present in the filtered signal. These ripples are then removed by the capacitor connected
in parallel to the load resistor. Now, the DC output signal is free from AC components, and
this regulated DC can be used in any application.

Zener Diode

The Zener Diode or “Breakdown Diode”, as they are sometimes referred too, are basically
the same as the standard PN junction diode but they are specially designed to have a low and
specified Reverse Breakdown Voltage which takes advantage of any reverse voltage applied
to it.

The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose diode consisting of a silicon PN
junction and when biased in the forward direction, that is Anode positive with respect to its
Cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated current.

However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow of current through itself when
reverse biased, that is the Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as the
reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the zener diode begins to conduct in the
reverse direction.

This is because when the reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated
voltage of the device a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor
depletion layer and a current starts to flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum
circuit value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achieved, this reverse
saturation current remains fairly constant over a wide range of reverse voltages. The voltage
point at which the voltage across the zener diode becomes stable is called the “zener voltage”,
( Vz ) and for zener diodes this voltage can range from less than one volt to a few hundred
volts.

20
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be
very accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes
semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, ( Vz ) for
example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical
straight line.

Zener Diode V-I Characteristics

Fig.15: Zener Diode V-I Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes
anode connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, as seen in
Fig.15, the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant
negative voltage regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains
nearly constant even with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains
between the breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important characteristic of the zener diode as it
can be used in the simplest types of voltage regulator applications.

21
The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in
parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current
and the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below
the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

The Zener Diode Regulator

Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under
varying load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage
source, via a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient
current to maintain a voltage drop of Vout.

We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-
wave rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value
changes so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener stabiliser circuit
as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be
produced.

Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

Fig.16: Zener Diode Voltage Regulator

The resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through
the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilised
output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode. The zener diode is connected with its
cathode terminal connected to the positive side of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and

22
will be operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum
current flowing in the circuit.

When no load is connected ((IL = 0 ): With no load connected to the circuit, the load current
will be zero, (IL = 0 ), and all the circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn
dissipates its maximum power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a
greater diode current when the load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase
the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken when selecting the
appropriate value of series resistance so that the zener’s maximum power rating is not
exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.

When the load RL is connected across the diode: The load is connected in parallel with the
zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).
There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilization of the voltage is effective and
the zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region
at all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependant upon the power rating of the
device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.

Voltage regulation can be done through two techniques:

1. Line regulation: In this case, series resistor Rs and load resistor RL are kept constant. It is
assumed that all the variations in voltage arise due to fluctuations in input power supply. The
regulated output voltage is achieved for input voltage above certain minimum level.

% regulation is given by

∆𝑉𝑜
× 100
∆𝑉𝑖𝑛

2. Load regulation: In this case, the input voltage is fixed, while the load resistance is varied.
The constant output voltage is obtained as long as the load resistance R L is maintained above
a minimum value.

𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
% regulation is given by × 100
𝑉𝐹𝐿

A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased condition. A voltage regulator circuit
can be designed using a zener diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the load
in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in the load current. The zener voltage

23
regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with the input voltage
VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse biased
condition. The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the same as the breakdown
voltage VZ of the diode.

Zener Diode Example 1:

A 5.0V stabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply
input source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using the zener
regulator circuit in Fig.16, calculate:

a). The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.

b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.

d). The zener current IZ at full load.

A typical zener diode for general electronic circuits is the 500mW, BZX55 series or the larger
1.3W, BZX85 series were the zener voltage is given as, for example, C7V5 for a 7.5V diode
giving a diode reference number of BZX55C7V5.

Fixed Voltage Regulator

24
The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage Vi applied to one input
terminal, a regulated output dc voltage VOUT from a second terminal, and the third terminal
connected to ground. A popular example is the 7805 IC which provides a constant 5 volts
output. A fixed voltage regulator can be a positive voltage regulator or a negative voltage
regulator. A positive voltage regulator provides with constant positive output voltage. All
those IC’s in the 78XX series are fixed positive voltage regulators. In the IC nomenclature –
78XX; the part XX denotes the regulated output voltage the IC is designed for. Examples:-
7805, 7806, 7809 etc.

The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal devices that provide a fixed positive output
voltage as shown in figure.

78XX based Fixed IC voltage regulator

One of the important sources of DC supply are batteries. But using batteries in sensitive
electronic circuits is not a good idea as batteries eventually drain out and loose their potential
over time.

Also, the voltage provided by batteries are typically 1.2V, 3.7V, 9V and 12V. This is good for
circuits whose voltage requirements are in that range. But, most of the TTL IC’s work on 5V
logic and hence we need a mechanism to provide a consistent 5V Supply.

For getting constant and steady output, the voltage regulators are implemented. The
integrated circuits which are used for the regulation of voltage are termed as voltage regulator
ICs. The 78XX family of linear voltage regulators that produce a regulated output. It is a
fixed linear voltage regulator. The xx present in 78xx represents the value of the fixed output
voltage that the particular IC provides.

IC 7805 is a three terminal linear voltage regulator IC with a fixed output voltage of 5V
which is useful in a wide range of applications. Currently, the 7805 Voltage Regulator IC as
shown in Fig.17 is manufactured by Texas Instruments, ON
Semiconductor, STMicroelectronics, Diodes incorporated, Infineon Technologies, etc. Some
of the important features of the 7805 IC are as follows:
 It can deliver up to 1.5 A of current (with heat sink).
 Has both internal current limiting and thermal shutdown features.
 Requires very minimum external components to fully function.

25
 Fig.17: Pin Diagram of IC LM 7805

PIN 1-INPUT

The function of this pin is to give the input voltage. It should be in the range of 7V to 35V.
We apply an unregulated voltage to this pin for regulation. For 7.2V input, the PIN achieves
its maximum efficiency.

PIN 2-GROUND
We connect the ground to this pin. For output and input, this pin is equally neutral (0V).

PIN 3-OUTPUT
This pin is used to take the regulated output. It will be, 5𝑉(4.8𝑉 − 5.2𝑉).

Fig.18: Circuit of 7805

The capacitor C1 near the input is bypass capacitor, used to bypass very small extent spikes to
the ground or earth. Also, the capacitor C2 near the output is optional and if used, it helps in
the transient response as shown in Fig.18.

Applications of Voltage Regulator 7805 IC

 Current regulator

26
  Regulated dual supply

 Building circuits for Phone charger, UPS power supply circuits, portable CD player
etc

 Fixed output regulator

 Adjustable output regulator etc.

74XX series based fixed IC voltage regulator

A voltage regulator is one of the most widely used electronic circuitry in any device. A
regulated voltage (without fluctuations & noise levels) is very important for the smooth
functioning of many digital electronic devices. A common case is with micro controllers,
where a smooth regulated input voltage must be supplied for the micro controller to function
smoothly.IC regulators are available with fixed positive or negative output voltages or
variable negative or positive output voltages.

Figure shows the functional diagram for 74XX series. Control element(pass transistor) in
series with load between input and output. A reference voltage Vref drives the non-inverting
input of an amplifier. The resistor R1 and R2 sense a change in the output voltage and provide
a feedback voltage. Output sample circuit senses a change in output voltage. The error
detector compares the feedback voltage with a Zener diode reference voltage. Error detector
compares sample voltage with reference voltage causes control element to compensate in
order to maintain a constant output voltage. The resulting difference voltage causes the
transistor Q1 controls the conduction to compensate the variation of the output voltage. The
block diagram of the IC voltage regulator is as shown in Fig.19.

Fig.19: Circuit diagram of 74XX series based fixed IC voltage regulator

27
The output voltage will be maintained at a constant value of:  R 
Vo  1  1 VZ
 R2 

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A LED is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric current passes
through it. The LED is a forward biased pn junction diode. When the diode is forward biased,
the recombination of electrons and holes takes place. After recombination, electron goes into
a new state, and its kinetic energy is given off as heat and light photons. This process of light
emission in pn-junctions Electroluminescence. The metal contact of p-material is made much
smaller to permit the emergence of maximum number of photons so that in an LED, the light
generated per watt of electric power is high. Intensity of light increases linearly with forward
current. Voltage levels of LED’s are 1.2V to 3.2V. The response time is short. Symbol and
construction of LED are as shown in Fig.20.

Fig.20: Symbol and construction of LED

Advantages of LED

1. Lower energy consumption

2. Longer life time

3. Improved physical robustness

4. Smaller size

5. Faster switching

28
Applications of LED

There are many applications of LED. Some are as explained:

1. LED used as bulb in homes and industries.

2. LED’s are used in motor cycles and cars.
3. LED’s are used in mobile phones and televisions as display.
4. LED’s are used in automobile head lamps.

Photo Diode: It is a PN junction or PIN semiconductor device that consumes light energy to
produce electric current. It is also called as photo detector, light detector or photo sensor.
Diodes are designed to work in reverse bias condition. These diodes have slow response time.
Symbol and circuit of diode as shown in Fig.21.

Fig.21: Symbol and construction of Photo Diode

When photons of sufficient energy strike the diode, electron-hole pairs are formed. When
holes in p-region move towards n-side and electrons in n-region move towards the p-side and
current is generated.

Fig.22: V-I Characteristics of Photo Diode

29
V-I Characteristics of Photodiode are as shown in Fig.22. where, current increases with
increase in intensity of light, where fc is unit of light intensity. Dark current is small reverse
current of pn-diode when there is no light applied to the diode.

Applications of photodiodes:

There are many applications of photodiode. Some are as explained:

1. Optical communication systems

2. Automotive devices

3. Solar cell panels

4. Consumer electronics like CD players, TV and remote controls

5. Measurement of light intensity

6. Camera light meters and street lights

7. Photo detection circuits

8. Logic circuits and analysers

Photocoupler

Photocoupler is a device that uses a short optical path or link to couple a signal from one
electrical circuit to another while providing electrical isolation.

It is a package of an LED and photodiode where as circuit is electrically isolated as shown in

Fig.23. Interconnection is by means of a light sensitive optical interface.

Circuit consists of an LED that produces infra red light when forward biased. A
semiconductor photosensitive diode acts as a receiver that is used to detect the emitted infra
red beam from LED. Output is available across Resistor R2.

Fig.23: Block diagram of photocoupler

30
Advantages:

 Provides the required electrical isolation between a lower voltage control signal and a
much higher voltage or mains current output signal.

 Used to detect the operation of the switch or another type of digital input signal.

Applications:

• Microprocessor input/output switching, DC and AC power control, PC

communications, signal isolation and power supply regulation which suffer from
current ground loops, etc.

31