EXPERIMENT = 06

VI Characteristics of a diode

THEORY
Structure of P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead
connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode
is marked by a solid line on the diode.

Figure:1

Figure:2

Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the
p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the
junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive
potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the negative
potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The change in
potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign. With
increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin
enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion across
the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. The
electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross
into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of
minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that
may flow through the diode.

Figure:3

Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the

negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore,
very little current will flow until the diode breaks down.
 Figure:4

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the

negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes'
in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged
ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because
the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be
pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier
causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal
electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n
junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.

The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias
voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level,
the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by
either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown
processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current
flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and
cause thermal damage.

se biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

 In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will
conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion
region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward
biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing
the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for
a silicon diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From
the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias
voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Figure:5

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse
biasing, the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an
increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more
difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch
and there is no current flow.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

 In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will
conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion
region width and overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward
biasing voltage should be greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing
the diode acts like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.3 V across it for
a germanium diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a germanium
diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called
cut-in voltage.

Figure:6

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and
the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse
biasing, the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an
increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more
difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch
and there is no current flow.

Diode Equation
 In the forward-biased and reversed-biased regions, the current ( IfIf), and the
voltage (VfVf), of a semiconductor diode are related by the diode equation:

If=Is×(exp^(Vf/n×VT)−1)

where,

Is is reverse saturation current or leakage current,

If is current through the diode(forward current),
Vf is potential difference across the diode terminals(forward voltage)
VT is thermal voltage, given by

VT=(k×T)/q
and
k is Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10 J /°Kelvin,
−23

q is the electronic charge = 1.6x10 joules/volt(Coulombs),

−19

T is the absolute temperature in °Kelvin(°K = 273 + temperature in °C),

At room temperature (25 °C), the thermal voltage is about 25.7 mV,
n is an empirical constant between 0.5 and 2

The empirical constant, n, is a number that can vary according to the voltage and
current levels. It depends on electron drift, diffusion, and carrier recombination in
the depletion region. Among the quantities affecting the value of n are the diode
manufacture, levels of doping and purity of materials.

If n=1, the value of (k×T)/q is 26 mV at 25°C.

When n=2, the value of (k×T)/q becomes 52 mV. For germanium diodes, n is
usually considered to be close to 1. For silicon diodes, n is in the range of 1.3 to
1.6.

PROCEDURE
1. Forward Bias-Si Diode
1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Select the diode.
3. Set the resistor.
4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
5. The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of battery to
the N side(cathode) of the diode.
6. Now vary the voltage upto 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
particular DC voltage .
7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter
reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
9. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI
10. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is called
cut-in voltage.

2. Reverse Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Select the diode.
3. Set the resistor.

4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.

5. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the

negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
6. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
DC voltage .
7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter
reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

3. Forward Bias-Ge Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with
resistor.
4. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of the diode.
5. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
particular DC voltage .
6. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Germanium diode and
Ammeter reading.
7. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
8. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is called
cut-in voltage.

4. Reverse Bias-Ge Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with
resistor.
4. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
5. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for
DC voltage .
6. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and Ammeter
reading.
7. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.

OBSERVATION:
Forward Biased Silicon Diode
Diode Used:1N4004 Vf=0.6
R=140 ohms
S.N. Forward Voltage Forward Current Vdc
1 0 0 0.2
2 0.592 3.56 1.1
3 0.604 7.84 1.7
4 0.616 15 2.7
5 0.622 20 3.4
6 0.626 24.2 4
7 0.63 29.2 4.7

Forward Biased Sillicon DIode

35

30
urrent(mAmp)

25

20

15
 Forward Biased Sillicon DIode
35

30
Forward Current(mAmp) 25

20

15

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Forward Voltage(v)

Reverse Biased Silicon Diode

Diode Used:1N4004 Vr=30
R=151 ohms
S.N. Reverse Voltage Reverse Current Vdc
1 0.17 0.1 0.2
2 3.48 0.1 3.7
3 7.22 0.1 7.5
4 11.8 0.1 12.1
5 18.3 0.1 18.5
6 23.4 0.1 23.45
7 27.9 0.1 27.8
8 30.4 66.962 30.2

Reverse Biased Silicon Diode

80
70
60
Reverse Current

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Reverse Voltage

Forward Biased Germanium Diode

R=1 K.Ohms DC Volt=0.2 Volts
S.N. Forward Voltage Forward Current Vdc
1 0 0 0.2
 2 0.286 3.2 3.5
3 0.294 6.1 6.4
4 0.301 10.8 11.15
5 0.307 18.2 18.5
6 0.31 22.6 22.85
7 0.314 29.9 30.2

Forward Biased Germanium Diode

35

30

25
Fprward Current

20

15

10

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Forward Voltage

Reverse Biased Germanium Diode

R=1 K.Ohms DC Volt=0.2 Volts
S.N. Reverse Voltage Reverse Current Vdc
1 0.2 0 0.2
2 2.2 0 2.2
3 6.6 0 6.6
4 10.3 0 10.25
5 17 0 17
6 23.1 0 23.05
7 30.2 30199.999 30.2

Reverse Biased Germanium DIode

35000

30000

25000
ent
 Reverse Biased Germanium DIode
35000

30000

25000
Reverse Current

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Reverse Voltage

CONCLUSION:
We were able to observe forward and reverse biasing of silicon and germanium d
erve its working in a graphical representation.
 EXPERIMENT = 06
BJT Common Emitter Characteristics

THEORY
Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor

A bipolar junction transistor, BJT, is a single piece of silicon with two back-to-back
P-N junctions.BJTs can be made either as PNP or as NPN.

Figure 1: Structures, layers and circuit symbol of NPN transistor

They have three regions and three terminals, emitter, base, and collector
represented by E, B, and C respectively. The direction of the arrow indicates the
direction of the current in the emitter when the transistor is conducting normally.
An easy way to remember this is NPN stands for "Not Pointing iN".

Figure 2:Structures, layers and circuit symbol of PNP transistor

 Emitter (E):It is the region to the left end which supply free charge carriers i.e.,
electrons in n-p-n or holes in p-n-p transistors.These majority carriers are injected
to the middle region i.e. electrons in the p region of n-p-n or holes in the n region
of p-n-p transistor. Emitter is a heavily doped region to supply a large number of
majority carriers into the base.

Base (B):It is the middle region where either two p-type layers or two n-type layers
are sandwiched. The majority carriers from the emitter region are injected into this
rgion.This region is thin and very lightly doped.

Collector (C):It is the region to right end where charge carriers are collected.The
area of this region is largest compared to emitter and base region . The doping
level of this region is intermediate between heavily doped emitter region and lightly
doped base region.

Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

Figure 3:Four Operating Conditions

Cutoff Region: Base-emitter junction is reverse biased. No current flow.

Saturation Region: Base-emitter junction is forward biased and Collector-base
junction is forward biased.
Active Region: Base-emitter is junction forward biased and Collector-base junction
is reverse biased.
Breakdown Region: IC and VCE exceed specifications and can cause damage to the
transistor.
Breakdown Region: IC and VCE exceed specifications and can cause damage to the
transistor.

Cut-Off Region

In Cut-Off region both junctions are reverse biased, Base-emitter junction is reverse
biased (VBE<0)and also Collector-Base junction is reverse biased( VCB>0).With
reverse biasing, all currents are zero.There are some leakage currents associated
with reverse biased junctions,but these currents are small and therefore can be
neglected.
Application: Open switch

Forward Active Region

In Forward Active region Base-emitter junction is forward biased( VBE>0) and

Collector-Base junction is reverse biased( VCB>0). In this case, the forward bias of
the BE junction will cause the injection of both holes and electrons across the
junction. The holes are of little consequence because the doping levels are adjusted
to minimize the hole current. The electrons are the carriers of interest. The
electrons are injected into the base region where they are called the minority carrier
even though they greatly outnumber the holes.
Application:Amplifier in analog circuits

IC=−αF×IE+ICO
where,
αF is the forward current transfer ratio
ICO is Collector reverse saturation current

Saturation Region

In Saturation region both junctions are Forward biased,Base-emitter junction is

forward biased(VBE>0VBE>0) and also Collector-Base junction is forward
biased(VCB<0VCB<0). Maximum currents flows through the transistor with only a
small voltage drop across the collector junction.The transistor also does not
respond to any change in emitter current or base-emitter voltage.
Application:Closed switch
Reverse Active Region

In Reverse Active region Base-emitter junction is reverse biased( VBE<0VBE<0) and

Collector-Base junction is forward biased( VCB<0VCB<0).The operation is just the
same as the forward active region, except all voltage sources, and hence collector
and emitter currents, are the reverse of the forward bias case. The current gain in
this mode is smaller than that of forward active mode for which this mode in
general unsuitable for amplification.
Application:In digital circuits and analog switching circuits.

IE=−αR∗IC+IEO
where,
αR is the reverse current transfer ratio\newline IEO is the Emitter reverse saturation
current

This configuration is rarely used because most transistors are doped selectively to
give forward current transfer ratios very near unity, which automatically causes the
reverse current transfer ratio to be very low.

BJT -Common Emitter Circuit

The DC behavior of the BJT can be described by the Ebers-Moll Model. The
equations for the model are:

IF=IES×(exp^(vBE/VT ) −1)

IR=ICS×(exp^(VCB/VT)−1)
where,
IES is base-emitter saturation currents,
ICS is base-collector saturation currents

VT=(k×T)/q
where,
k is the Boltzmann’s constant ( k = 1.381 e-23 V.C/ K ),
T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin, and
q is the charge of an electron (q = 1.602 e-19 C).

βF=αF/(1−αF)

βR=αR/(1−αR)
where,
βF is large signal forward current gain of common-emitter configuration,

βR is the large signal reverse current gain of the common-emitter configuration

αF=βF/(1+βF)

αR=βR/(1+βR)
where,
αR is large signal reverse current gain of a common-base configuration,
αF is large signal forward current gain of the common-base configuration.

IC=αF×IF−IR

IE=−IF+αR∗IR

IB=(1−αF)×IF+(1−αR)×IR

The forward and reverse current gains are related by the expression

αR×ICS=αF×IES=IS
where,
IS is the BJT transport saturation current.
The parameters αRαR and αFαF are influenced by impurity concentrations and
junction depths.
The saturation current, IS , can be expressed as

IS=JS×A
where,
A is the area of the emitter and
JS is the transport saturation current density
Input Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the base current, IBIB,
versus the base-emitter voltage,VBEVBE, for various values of the collector-emitter
voltage,VCE

IB=ϕ(VBE,VCE)for constant VCE

Figure 4: Input Characteristics Circuit

Output Characteristics

The most important characteristic of the BJT is the plot of the collector current, I , C

versus the collector-emitter voltage,V , for various values of the base current, I as
CE B

shown on the circuit on the right.

IC=ϕ(VCE,IB)for constant IB
 Figure 5: Output Characteristics Circuit

PROCEDURE
1. BJT Common Emitter - Input Characteristics
1. Initially set rheostat R = 1 Ω and rheostat R = 1 Ω
h1 h2

2. Set the Collector-Emitter Voltage(V ) to 1 V by adjusting the rheostat R

CE h2

3. Base Emitter Voltage(V ) is varied by adjusting the rheostat R .

BE h1

4.Note the reading of Base current(I )in micro Ampere

B

5.plot the I-V characteristics of Common-Emitter configuration.

6. Draw a graph with V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.
BE B

7.Take another set of readings by setting Collector-Emitter Voltage(V CE) to

different values.

2. BJT Common Emitter - Output Characteristics

1. Initially set rheostat R = 1 Ω and rheostat R = 1 Ω
h1 h2

2. Set the Base current(I )15 uA by adjusting the rheostat R

B h1

3. Vary the Collector-Emitter Voltage(V )is varied by adjusting the rheostat R .

CE h2

4. Note the reading of Collector current(I C).

5.plot the I-V characteristics of Common-Emitter configuration
6.Draw a graph with VBE along X-axis and IB along Y-axis.

7.Take another set of readings by setting Base Current(I B) to different values.

 OBSERVATION:
BJT Common Emitter Characteristics
Input Characteristics

Collector Emitter Voltage=1.000 V

No.
Base Emitter Voltage Base Current(uA)
1 0.02 2.077
2 0.2 2.68
3 0.52 4.223
4 0.78 6.114
5 1.1 9.646
6 1.54 18.07
7 2 34.84

BJT CE Input Characteristics

40

35

30

25
Base Current

20

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Base Emitter Voltage

 5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

Base Emitter Voltage

BJT Common Emitter Characteristics

Output Characteristics
Rh1=10 ohms Rh2=100 ohms
Base Current=15.80 uA
No.
Collector Emitter Voltage Collector Current(mA)
1 0.1 6.257
2 1.5 56.82
3 2.6 62.09
4 3.5 62.66
5 4.6 62.76
6 6.4 62.78
7 7.7 62.78
8 9.4 62.78
9 10 62.78

BJT CE Output Characteristics

70

60

50
Collector Current

40

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
 Collector C
30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Collector Emitter Voltage

CONCLUSION:
From this experiment, we were able to observe BJT common input and output characteristics
and their graphical representation of their characteristics.

MANMOHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Budhiganga-4,Morang

LAB REPORT

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY:Pranjali Karki SUBMITTED TO:Er.Binod Ghimire
FACULTY:Bachelor in Civil Engineering SUBJECT TEACHER
ROLL NO.:Sixteen(16)

SIGNATURE