CONTENTS:

❖ Junction diode characteristics: Open circuited p-n junction,

❖ p-n junction as a rectifier,
❖ V-I characteristics,
❖ effect of temperature,
❖ diode resistance,
❖ diffusion capacitance,
❖ diode switching times,
❖ breakdown diodes,
❖ Tunnel diodes, photo diode, LED.
❖ Diode Applications -
➢ clipping circuits,
➢ comparators,
➢ Half wave rectifier,
➢ Full wave rectifier,
➢ rectifier with capacitor filter.

Junction diode characteristics:

A P-N junction diode is a piece of silicon that has two terminals. One of the terminals is
doped with P-type material and the other with N-type material. The P-N junction is the
basic element for semiconductor diodes. A Semiconductor diode facilitates the flow of
electrons completely in one direction only – which is the main function of semiconductor
diode.
There are two operating regions: P-type and N-type. And based on the applied voltage,
there are three possible “biasing” conditions for the P-N Junction Diode, which are as
follows:
Zero Bias – No external voltage is applied to the PN junction diode.

Forward Bias– The voltage potential is connected positively to the P-type terminal and
negatively to the N-type terminal of the Diode.

Reverse Bias– The voltage potential is connected negatively to the P-type terminal and
positively to the N-type terminal of the Diode.

Open circuited p-n junction:

Zero Biased Condition

In this case, no external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode; and therefore, the
electrons diffuse to the P-side and simultaneously holes diffuse towards the N-side
through the junction, and then combine with each other. Due to this an electric field is
generated by these charge carriers. The electric field opposes further diffusion of charged
carriers so that there is no movement in the middle region. This region is known as
depletion width or space charge.

Diffusion Current:

Unbiased
Condition

V-I characteristics,

Forward Bias:

In the forward bias condition, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the N-
type material and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-Type material.
This connection is also called as giving positive voltage. Electrons from the N-region cross
the junction and enters the P-region. Due to the attractive force that is generated in the
P-region the electrons are attracted and move towards the positive terminal.
Simultaneously the holes are attracted to the negative terminal of the battery. By the
movement of electrons and holes current flows. In this condition, the width of the depletion
region decreases due to the reduction in the number of positive and negative ions.
Forward Bias Condition

Drift Current: is due to flow of electrons when a diode is forward biased.

By supplying positive voltage, the electrons get enough energy to overcome the potential
barrier (depletion layer) and cross the junction and the same thing happens with the holes
as well. The amount of energy required by the electrons and holes for crossing the
junction is equal to the barrier potential 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si, 1.2V for GaAs. This
is also known as Voltage drop. The voltage drop across the diode occurs due to internal
resistance. This can be observed in the below graph.

Forward bias V-I Characteristics

Reverse Bias

In the forward bias condition, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the N-
type material and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type material.
This connection is also known as giving positive voltage. Hence, the electric field due to
both the voltage and depletion layer is in the same direction. This makes the electric field
stronger than before. Due to this strong electric field, electrons and holes want more
energy to cross the junction so they cannot diffuse to the opposite region. Hence, there
is no current flow due to the lack of movement of electrons and holes.
 Depletion layer in

Reverse Biased condition

The electrons from the N-type semiconductor are attracted towards the positive terminal
and the holes from the P-type semiconductor are attracted to the negative terminal. This
leads to the reduction of the number of electrons in N-type and holes in P-type. In addition,
positive ions are created in the N-type region and negative ions are created in the P-type
region.

Circuit diagram for Reverse bias

Therefore, the depletion layer width is increased due to the increasing number of positive
and negative ions.

Due to thermal energy in crystal minority carriers are produced. Minority carriers mean a
hole in N-type material and electrons in P-type material. These minority carriers are the
electrons and holes pushed towards P-N junction by the negative terminal and positive
terminal, respectively. Due to the movement of minority carriers, a very little current flows,
which is in nano Ampere range (for silicon). This current is called as reverse saturation
current. Saturation means, after reaching its maximum value, a steady state is reached
wherein the current value remains same with increasing voltage.

The magnitude of reverse current is of the order of nano-amperes for silicon devices.
When the reverse voltage is increased beyond the limit, then the reverse current
increases drastically. This particular voltage that causes the drastic change in reverse
current is called reverse breakdown voltage. Diode breakdown occurs by Avalanche
breakdown
 V-I Characteristics Graph for Reverse Bias

p-n junction as a rectifier:

One of the most important applications of a P-N junction diode is the rectification of
Alternating Current (AC) into Pulsating Direct Current (DC). A P-N junction diode allows
electric current in only forward bias condition and blocks electric current in reverse bias
condition. In simple words, a diode allows electric current in one direction. This unique
property of the diode allows it to acts like a rectifier.

There are two primary methods of diode rectification:

● Half Wave Rectifier
● Full Wave Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified. When the p-n junction
diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversing biased it provides
high resistance. During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input
voltage is applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During alternate half-
cycles, the optimum result can be obtained.

The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the positive half of
the input, the current will flow from positive to negative which will generate only a positive
half cycle of the a.c supply. When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will
be decreasing at the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the a.c supply
will reduce, and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to the load resistor.
In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive and the diode will
be reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no current generated, and we
cannot get power at the load resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow during
reverse bias due to minority carriers.

Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of half-wave rectifier:
Average DC Load Voltage :

Negative half cycles are absent in the output wave form of a half wave rectifier. So, in
order to find the average value of the rectifier, the area under the positive half cycle has
divided by the total base length.

The area under the positive half cycle is the integral of sinusoidal wave equation from the
limits 0 to π. The total base length is the difference of limits of a complete cycle (2π – 0
= 2π), which includes the base length of both the positive and negative cycles.

The average output voltage of a half wave rectifier can be derived as,

Average voltage, VDC = Vm/2π 0∫π sinωt dωt

= Vm/2π [ – cosωt]0π = Vm/2π [- cosπ + cos0]

= Vm/2π [1+1] = 2Vm/2π = Vm/π

The average voltage equation for a half wave rectifier is VDC = Vm/π.

RMS Load AC Voltage:

In a half wave rectifier, the negative half cycle will be removed from the output. So, the
total base length(2π) should be taken from the interval 0 to 2π.
The RMS voltage, VRMS = √ Vm2/2π 0∫π sin2ωt dωt

= √ Vm2/2π 0 ∫π(1 – cos2ωt) / 2 ) dωt = √ Vm2/4π [ωt – sin2ωt / 2]0π

= √ Vm2/4π [ π – (sinπ) / 2 – (0 – (sin0) / 2)] = √ Vm2/4π ( π ) = √ Vm2/ 4

Therefore the RMS voltage, VRMS = Vm/ 2

Ripple factor of rectifier

The ratio of the RMS value (root mean square) of the AC component to the DC component
of the output is defined as the Ripple factor and is denoted by γ.

Ripple factor, γ = VAC/VDC | VDC is the average value of the DC output.

VRMS = √ VDC2 + VAC2 or IRMS = √ IDC2 + IAC2

VAC = √ VRMS2 – VDC2

Therefore the ripple factor equation is, γ = √ (VRMS2 – VDC2) / VDC2 = √ ( VRMS / VDC)2 – 1

To calculate the ripple factor of a half wave and full wave rectifier, just substitute the RMS
and Average value of the respective rectifier in the above equation.

Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier

RMS Voltage of a half wave rectifier, VRMS = Vm / 2 | Vm is the peak voltage.

Average Voltage of a half wave rectifier, VAVG = Vm / π

Ripple factor, γ = √ ( [ (Vm/ 2) / (Vm / π) ]2 -1 ) = √ ( π / 2 )2 – 1 = 1.21

Efficiency of rectifier

The ratio of DC output power to the AC input power of a rectifier is called as its efficiency.
It is denoted by η.

Rectifier efficiency, η = DC output power/input AC power = P DC / PAC

Efficiency of Half wave rectifier

IRMS = Im / 2 , PAC = IRMS2 (rf + RL) = ( Im / 2)2 (rf + RL)

Vm is the peak Current |

PDC = IAVG2 RL = ( Im / π)2 RL

For a half wave rectifier, the Efficiency η = PDC / PAC = ( ( Im / π)2 RL ) / ( ( Im / 2)2 (rf +
R L) )

= 4 RL / π2 (rf + RL) = 0.405 RL / (rf + RL)

Therefore the maximum efficiency = 40.5%

Full Wave Rectifiers

A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle of alternating
current into pulsating DC.Unlike halfwave rectifiers that utilize only the halfwave of the
input AC cycle, full wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle. The lower efficiency of the half
wave rectifier can be overcome by the full wave rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

The circuit of the full wave rectifier can be constructed in two ways. The first method uses
a centre tapped transformer and two diodes. This arrangement is known as a centre
tapped full wave rectifier.

The circuit of the full wave rectifier consists of a step-down transformer and two diodes
that are connected and centre tapped. The output voltage is obtained across the
connected load resistor.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high. The step-down transformer in
the rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low voltage AC. The anode of the
centre tapped diodes is connected to the transformer’s secondary winding and connected
to the load resistor. During the positive half cycle of the alternating current, the top half of
the secondary winding becomes positive while the second half of the secondary winding
becomes negative.
During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is connected to the top of
the secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is connected to the bottom
of the secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 will conduct acting as a short circuit and
D2 will not conduct acting as an open circuit
During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is forward
biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and the bottom
half of the circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained
for both positive and negative half cycle.

Characteristics of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the characteristics of Full-wave rectifier:
Average DC Load Volatge of Full wave rectifier

In a full wave rectifier, the negative polarity of the wave will be converted to positive
polarity. So the average value can be found by taking the average of one positive half
cycle.

Derivation for average voltage of a full wave rectifier,

The average voltage, VDC = Vm/π 0∫π sinωt dωt

= Vm/π [ – cosωt]0π = Vm/π [- cosπ + cos0]

= Vm/π [1+1] = 2Vm/π

Average voltage equation for a full wave rectifier is VDC = 2Vm/π.

So during calculations, the average voltage can be obtained by substituting the value of
maximum voltage in the equation for VDC.

RMS AC Voltage of Full wave rectifier

The RMS voltage, VRMS = √ Vm2/π 0∫π sin2ωt dωt

= √ Vm2/π 0 ∫π(1 – cos2ωt) / 2 ) dωt = √ Vm2/2π [ωt – sin2ωt / 2]0π

= √ Vm2/2π [ π – (sinπ) / 2 – (0 – (sin0) / 2)] = √ Vm2/2π ( π ) = √ Vm2/ 2

RMS voltage, VRMS = Vm/ √2

Ripple factor of Full wave rectifier

RMS Voltage of a full wave rectifier, VRMS = Vm / √2

Average Voltage of a full wave rectifier, VAVG = 2 Vm / π

r = √ ( [ (Vm/√ 2 ) / (2 Vm / π) ]2 – 1 ) = √ ( π / (2 √ 2) )2 – 1 = 0.48

Efficiency of Full wave rectifier

Similarly for a full wave rectifier,

IRMS = Im / √ 2 , PAC = ( Im / √ 2)2 (rf + RL)

PDC = ( 2 Im / π)2 RL

For a half wave rectifier, the Efficiency η = PDC / PAC = ( ( 2 Im / π)2 RL ) / ( ( Im / √ 2)2
(rf + RL) )

= 8 RL / π2 (rf + RL) = 0.810 RL / (rf + RL)

Maximum efficiecy = 81.0%

Hence we can see that, the efficiency of a full wave rectifier is double that of a half wave
rectifier.

Ripple Factor

Full Wave Rectifier with Filter:

Even though the full wave rectifier rectify both positive and negative half cycles, the DC
signal obtained at the output still contains some ripples. To reduce these ripples at the
output, we use a filter.

The filter is an electronic device that converts the pulsating Direct Current into pure Direct
Current.

The filter is made up of a combination of electronic components such as resistors,

capacitors, and inductors. The property of inductor is that it allows the DC components
and blocks the AC components. The property of a capacitor is that it allows the AC
components and blocks the DC components.

In this tutorial, a center tapped full wave rectifier with a filter made up of capacitor and
resistor is explained. The filter made up of capacitor and resistor is known as capacitor
filter.

In the circuit diagram, the capacitor C is placed across the load resistor RL.

The working of the full wave rectifier with filter is almost similar to that of the half wave
rectifier with filter. The only difference is that in the half wave rectifier only one half cycle
(either positive or negative) of the input AC current will charge the capacitor but the
remaining half cycle will not charge the capacitor. But in full wave rectifier, both positive
and negative half cycles of the input AC current will charge the capacitor.

The main duty of the capacitor filter is to short the ripples to the ground and blocks the
pure DC (DC components), so that it flows through the alternate path and reaches output
load resistor RL.

When input AC voltage is applied, during the positive half cycle, the diode D 1 is forward
biased and allows electric current whereas the diode D2 is reverse biased and blocks
electric current. On the other hand, during the negative half cycle the diode D 2 is forward
biased (allows electric current) and the diode D1 is reverse biased (blocks electric
current).

During the positive half cycle, the diode (D 1) current reaches the filter and charges the
capacitor. However, the charging of the capacitor happens only when the applied AC
voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage.

Initially, the capacitor is uncharged. That means no voltage exists between the plates of
the capacitor. So when the voltage is turned on, the charging of the capacitor happens
immediately.

During this conduction period, the capacitor charges to the maximum value of the input
supply voltage. The capacitor stores a maximum charge exactly at the quarter positive
half cycle in the waveform. At this point, the supply voltage is equal to the capacitor
voltage.

When the AC voltage starts decreasing and becomes less than the capacitor voltage,
then the capacitor starts slowly discharging.

The discharging of the capacitor is very slow as compared to the charging of the capacitor.
So the capacitor does not get enough time to completely discharged. Before the complete
discharge of the capacitor happens, the charging again takes place. So only half or more
than half of the capacitor charge get discharged.

When the input AC supply voltage reaches the negative half cycle, the diode D 1 is reverse
biased (blocks electric current) whereas the diode D 2 is forward biased (allows electric
current).

During the negative half cycle, the diode (D2) current reaches the filter and charges the
capacitor. However, the charging of the capacitor happens only when the applied AC
voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage.

The capacitor is not completely uncharged, so the charging of the capacitor does not
happens immediately. When the supply voltage becomes greater than the capacitor
voltage, the capacitor again starts charging.
In both positive and negative half cycles, the current flows in the same direction across
the load resistor RL. So we get either complete positive half cycles or negative half cycles.
In our case, they are complete positive half cycles.

How exactly the capacitor filter removes the ripples in the signal

The pulsating Direct Current (DC) produced by the full wave rectifier contains both AC
and DC components.

We know that the capacitor allows the AC components and blocks the DC components
of the current. When the DC current that contains both DC components and AC
components reaches the filter, the DC components experience a high resistance from the
capacitor whereas the AC components experience a low resistance from the capacitor.

Electric current always prefers to flow through a low resistance path. So the AC
components will flow through the capacitor whereas the DC components are blocked by
the capacitor. Therefore, they find an alternate path and reach the output load resistor R L.
The flow of AC components through the capacitor is nothing but the charging of a
capacitor.

Thus, the filter converts the pulsating DC into pure DC.

Effect of temperature:

The characteristic curve of a Si diode shifts to the left at the rate of -2.5 mV per degree
centigrade change in temperature in the forward bias region.
In the reverse bias region, the reverse saturation current of Si and Ge diodes doubles for
every 10° C rise in temperature
Diode resistance:
The depletion layer in p-n junction diode offers resistance to flow of electrons. The
resistance offered by diode under forward biased depends on the width of the depletion
layer. When forward biased is applied the width of the depletion layer gets decreased.
However, the depletion layer can’t be completely eradicated. The thin layer of depletion
layer is always exist. The resistance offered by this thin layer of depletion region under
forward biased state is called forward resistance of the diode.

When the p-n junction diode is reverse biased the width of the depletion region increases
and the charge carriers are blocked by the depletion layer. The resistance of the depletion
layer is large because of more width of depletion layer. Under reverse biasing, the diode
offers very large resistance to the electric current. This resistance is called the reverse
resistance.

In reverse biased, only small amount of electric current due to minority carrier flows
through the diode. Thus, the resistance of the diode must be infinite in reverse biased
but, practically it does not have infinite resistance because of the current flowing through
the depletion layer due to minority charge carriers.
There are two types of resistance of p-n junction diode.
1. Forward Resistance of diode
2. Reverse Resistance of diode

Forward resistance

Forward resistance is a resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is forward
biased.

In a forward biased p-n junction diode, two type of resistance takes place based on the
voltage applied.

The two types of resistance takes place in forward biased diode are

● Static resistance or DC resistance

● Dynamic resistance or AC resistance

Static resistance or DC resistance

When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to a DC circuit, a DC

or direct current flows through the diode. Direct current or electric current is nothing but
the flow of charge carriers (free electrons or holes) through a conductor. In DC circuit, the
charge carriers flow steadily in single direction or forward direction.

The resistance offered by a p-n junction diode when it is connected to a DC circuit is

called static resistance.

Static resistance is also defined as the ratio of DC voltage applied across diode to the DC
current or direct current flowing through the diode.

The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode under forward biased condition is
denoted as Rf.
Dynamic resistance or AC resistance

The dynamic resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when AC
voltage is applied.

When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to AC circuit, an AC

or alternating current flows though the diode.

In AC circuit, charge carriers or electric current does not flow in single direction. It flows
in both forward and reverse direction.

Dynamic resistance is also defined as the ratio of change in voltage to the change in
current. It is denoted as rf.
Reverse resistance

Reverse resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is reverse
biased.

When reverse biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the width of depletion
region increases. This depletion region acts as barrier to the electric current. Hence, a
large amount of electric current is blocked by the depletion region. Thus, reverse biased
diode offer large resistance to the electric current.

The resistance offered by the reverse biased p-n junction diode is very large compared
to the forward biased diode. The reverse resistance is in the range of mega ohms (MΩ).

Average AC Resistance
So, let’s say the AC signal that is applied to the diode is a large signal. And because of
that, we are getting this voltage swing.

So, if this AC signal is applied to the diode then the variation in this voltage is equal to
delta Vd and the variation in the current is equal to delta Id.

So, in this case, diode resistance can be found by connecting the two extreme points of
the operation.

And by connecting it we can find the slope of the line. And the inverse of this slope will
represent the value of the average AC resistance.

So, we can say that the average AC resistance will be equal to a change in voltage divided
by a change in current.

So, let’s say, a very large AC signal has been applied to this diode. And because of that,
the variation in the voltage is from 0.8V to 1V.
While the variation in the current is from let’s say 10 mA to 30 mA. So, from this, we can
say that the change in the current is equal to 20 mA, while the change in the voltage is
equal to 0.2V.

So, the average AC resistance will be equal to 0.2V divided by 20mA. And that will be
equal to 10 ohms. So, in this way, when a very large AC swing is applied to the diode
then we can find the value of this average AC resistance

diffusion capacitance(CD)
Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode. Diffusion capacitance
is also sometimes referred as storage capacitance. It is denoted as C D.

In a forward biased diode, diffusion capacitance is much larger than the transition
capacitance. Hence, diffusion capacitance is considered in forward biased diode.

The diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge of minority electrons and minority
holes near the depletion region.

When forward bias voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, electrons (majority
carriers) in the n-region will move into the p-region and recombines with the holes. In the
similar way, holes in the p-region will move into the n-region and recombines with
electrons. As a result, the width of depletion region decreases.

The electrons (majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter into the p-
region will become minority carriers of the p-region similarly; the holes (majority carriers)
which cross the depletion region and enter into the n-region will become minority carriers
of the n-region.
A large number of charge carriers, which try to move into another region will be
accumulated near the depletion region before they recombine with the majority carriers.
As a result, a large amount of charge is stored at both sides of the depletion region.

The accumulation of holes in the n-region and electrons in the p-region is separated by a
very thin depletion region or depletion layer. This depletion region acts like dielectric or
insulator of the capacitor and charge stored at both sides of the depletion layer acts like
conducting plates of the capacitor.

Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the electric current or applied voltage. If

large electric current flows through the diode, a large amount of charge is accumulated
near the depletion layer. As a result, large diffusion capacitance occurs.

In the similar way, if small electric current flows through the diode, only a small amount
of charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, small diffusion capacitance
occurs.

When the width of depletion region decreases, the diffusion capacitance increases. The
diffusion capacitance value will be in the range of nano farads (nF) to micro farads (μF).

The formula for diffusion capacitance is

CD = dQ / dV

Where,

CD = Diffusion capacitance
 dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored outside the depletion region

dV = Change in voltage applied across diode

diode switching times:

While changing the bias conditions, the diode undergoes a transient response. The
response of a system to any sudden change from an equilibrium position is called as
transient response.
The sudden change from forward to reverse and from reverse to forward bias, affects
the circuit. The time taken to respond to such sudden changes is the important criterion
to define the effectiveness of an electrical switch.
● The time taken before the diode recovers its steady state is called as Recovery
Time.
● The time interval taken by the diode to switch from reverse biased state to
forward biased state is called as Forward Recovery Time.
 ● The time interval taken by the diode to switch from forward biased state to
reverse biased state is called as Reverse Recovery Time.

To understand this more clearly, let us try to analyze what happens once the voltage is
applied to a switching PN diode.

Carrier Concentration
Minority charge carrier concentration reduces exponentially as seen away from the
junction. When the voltage is applied, due to the forward biased condition, the majority
carriers of one side move towards the other. They become minority carriers of the other
side. This concentration will be more at the junction.
For example, if N-type is considered, the excess of holes that enter into N-type after
applying forward bias, adds to the already present minority carriers of N-type material.
Let us consider few notations.

During Forward biased Condition − The minority carriers are more near junction and less
far away from the junction. The graph below explains this.
During reverse bias condition − Majority carriers doesn’t conduct the current through the
junction and hence don’t participate in current condition. The switching diode behaves
as a short circuited for an instance in reverse direction.

The minority carriers will cross the junction and conduct the current, which is called as
Reverse Saturation Current. The following graph represents the condition during reverse
bias.

In the above figure, the dotted line represents equilibrium values and solid lines represent
actual values. As the current due to minority charge carriers is large enough to conduct,
the circuit will be ON until this excess charge is removed.
The time required for the diode to change from forward bias to reverse bias is called
Reverse recovery time

The following graphs explain the diode switching times in detail.

From the above figure, let us consider the diode current graph.

breakdown diodes:

A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the
reverse direction.
A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor
device that is designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the voltage across the
terminals of a Zener diode is reversed and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee
voltage), the junction breaks down and the current flows in the reverse direction. This
effect is known as the Zener Effect.

How does a Zener Diode work in reverse bias?

A Zener diode operates just like a normal diode when it is forward-biased. However, when
connected in reverse biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode. As
the reverse voltage increases to the predetermined breakdown voltage (Vz), current starts
flowing through the diode. The current increases to a maximum, which is determined by
the series resistor, after which it stabilizes and remains constant over a wide range of
applied voltage.
There are two types of breakdowns for a Zener Diode:
● Avalanche Breakdown
● Zener Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode

Avalanche breakdown occurs both in normal diode and Zener Diode at high reverse
voltage. When a high value of reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the free
electrons gain sufficient energy and accelerate at high velocities. These free electrons
moving at high velocity collides other atoms and knocks off more electrons. Due to this
continuous collision, a large number of free electrons are generated as a result of electric
current in the diode rapidly increases. This sudden increase in electric current may
permanently destroy the normal diode, however, a Zener diode is designed to operate
under avalanche breakdown and can sustain the sudden spike of current. Avalanche
breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.

Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode

When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the Zener voltage, the electric
field in the depletion region gets strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band.
The valence electrons that gain sufficient energy from the strong electric field of the
depletion region break free from the parent atom. At the Zener breakdown region, a small
increase in the voltage results in the rapid increase of the electric current.

Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown

● The Zener effect is dominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts and the avalanche effect
takes over above that.
● They are both similar effects, the difference being that the Zener effect is a
quantum phenomenon and the avalanche effect is the movement of electrons in
the valence band like in any electric current.
● Avalanche effect also allows a larger current through the diode than what a
Zener breakdown would allow.

There are many ways in which a Zener diode is packaged. Some are used for high levels
of power dissipation and the others are contained with surface mount formats. The most
common type of Zener diode is contained within a small glass encapsulation. It has a
band around one end marking the cathode side of the diode.
 Zener diode symbol

From the diagram, we can see that the band around the package corresponds to the
line on the diode circuit symbol and this can be an easy way of remembering which end
is for which.
The Zener diode circuit symbol places two tags at the end of the bar – one in the upward
direction and the other in the lower direction as shown in the figure. This helps in
distinguishing Zener diodes from other forms of diodes within the circuit.

V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

When reverse-biased voltage is applied to a Zener diode, it allows only a small amount
of leakage current until the voltage is less than Zener voltage.
The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode.
From the graph, we understand that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics of
any other P-N junction diode.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, initially a small reverse saturation
current Io flows across the diode. This current is due to thermally generated minority
carriers. As the reverse voltage is increased, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the
reverse current increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown
has occurred. We call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage and it is denoted
by Vz.

Application of Zener Diode

Following are the applications of Zener diode:

Zener diode as a voltage regulator:

Zener diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across small loads.
The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of current. Zener
diode is connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias and once the Zener diode
exceeds knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become constant.

Zener diode in over-voltage protection:

When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the
resistor drops resulting in a short circuit. This can be avoided by using the Zener diode.

Zener diode in clipping circuits:

Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting the parts of
either one or both the half cycles of an AC waveform.

Tunnel diodes
A Tunnel Diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode. The tunnel diode shows negative
resistance. When voltage value increases, current flow decreases. Tunnel diode works
based on Tunnel Effect. The following image shows the symbol of a Tunnel Diode.
Leo Esaki invented Tunnel diode in August 1957. Therefore, it is also called as Esaki
diode. The materials used for this diode are Germanium, Gallium arsenide and other
silicon materials. Tunnel diode shows a negative resistance in their operating range. So,
it can be used as amplifier, oscillators and in any switching circuits.

Width of the Depletion Region in Tunnel Diode

When mobile charge carriers both free electrons and holes are missing, the region in a
p-n junction has a region called Depletion region. To stop the flow of electrons from the
n-type semiconductor and holes from the p-type semiconductor, depletion region acts as
a barrier.
Depending on the number of impurities added, width of depletion region varies. To
increase electrical conductivity of the p-type and n-type semiconductor impurities are
added. A wide and big depletion region is formed when a smaller number of impurities is
added to p-n junction diode. At the same time, when a greater number of impurities is
added, narrow depletion region occurs.

The p-type and n-type semiconductor is heavily doped in a tunnel diode due to a greater
number of impurities. Heavy doping results in a narrow depletion region. When compared
to a normal p-n junction diode, tunnel diode has a narrow depletion width. Therefore,
when small amount of voltage is applied, it produces enough electric current in the tunnel
diode.
Tunneling Effect

Tunneling is known as a direct flow of electrons across the small depletion region from n-
side conduction band into the p-side valence band. In a p-n junction diode, both positive
and negative ions form the depletion region. Due to these ions, in-built electric potential
or electric field is present in the depletion region. This electric field gives an electric force
to the opposite direction of externally applied voltage.
As the width of the depletion layer reduces, charge carriers can easily cross the junction.
Charge carriers do not need any form of kinetic energy to move across the junction.
Instead, carriers punch through junction. This effect is called Tunneling and hence the
diode is called Tunnel Diode.

Due to Tunneling, when the value of forward voltage is low value of forward current
generated will be high. It can operate in forward biased as well as in reverse biased. Due
to high doping, it can operate in reverse biased. Due to the reduction in barrier potential,
the value of reverse breakdown voltage also reduces. It reaches a value of zero. Due to
this small reverse voltage leads to diode breakdown. Hence, this creates negative
resistance region.

Tunnel Diode Working Phenomenon

Unbiased Tunnel Diode

In an unbiased tunnel diode, no voltage will be applied to the tunnel diode. Here, due to
heavy doping conduction band of n – type semiconductor overlaps with valence band of
p – type material. Electrons from n side and holes from p side overlap with each other
and they will be at same energy level.

Some electrons tunnel from the conduction band of n-region to the valence band of p-
region when temperature increases. Similarly, holes will move from valence band of p-
region to the conduction band of n-region. Finally, the net current will be zero since equal
numbers of electrons are holes flow in opposite direction.
Small Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

When a small voltage, that has lesser value than the built-in voltage of the depletion layer,
is applied to the tunnel diode, there is no flow of forward current through the junction.
Nevertheless, a minimal number of electrons from the conduction band of n region will
start tunneling to valence band in p region.

Therefore, this movement creates a small forward biased tunnel current. When a small
voltage is applied, tunnel current starts to flow.
Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

When the amount of voltage applied is increased, the number of free electrons generated
at n side and holes at p side is also increased. Due to voltage increase, overlapping
between the bands are also increased.

Maximum tunnel current flows when the energy level of n-side conduction band and the
energy level of a p-side valence band becomes equal.
Further Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode

A further increase in the applied voltage will cause a slight misalignment of the conduction
band and valence band. Still there will be an overlap between conduction band and
valence band. The electrons move from conduction band to valence band of p region.
Therefore, this causes small current to flow. Hence, tunnel current starts decreasing.
Largely Increased Voltage Applied to the Tunnel Diode
The tunneling current will be zero when applied voltage is increased more to the
maximum. At this voltage levels, the valence band and the conduction band does not
overlap. This makes tunnel diode to operate same as a PN junction diode.
When applied voltage is more than the built-in potential of the depletion layer the forward
current starts flowing through the tunnel diode. In this condition, current portion in the
curve decreases when the voltage increases and this is the negative resistance of tunnel
diode. Such diodes operating in negative resistance region is used as amplifier or
oscillator.

V-I Characteristics of Tunnel Diode

Due to forward biasing, because of heavy doping conduction happens in the diode. The
maximum current that a diode reaches is Ip and voltage applied is Vp. The current value
decreases, when more amount of voltage is applied. Current keeps decreasing until it
reaches a minimal value.
The small minimal value of current is Iv. From the above graph, it is seen that from point
A to B current reduces when voltage increases. That is the negative resistance region of
diode. In this region, tunnel diode produces power instead of absorbing it.

photo diode

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric

current. Sometimes it is also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor.
These diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias conditions, it means that
the P-side of the photodiode is associated with the negative terminal of the battery, and
the n-side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. This diode is very complex
to light so when light falls on the diode it easily changes light into an electric current.
The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an LED but the arrows point inwards as
opposed to outwards in the LED. The following image shows the symbol of a photodiode.
Working of a Photodiode
Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN junction, covalent bonds are ionized.
This generates hole and electron pairs. Photocurrents are produced due to generation of
electron-hole pairs. Electron hole pairs are formed when photons of energy more than
1.1eV hits the diode. When the photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the
atom with high energy. This results in release of electron from atom structure. After the
electron release, free electrons and hole are produced.

In general, an electron will have a negative charge and holes will have a positive charge.
The depletion energy will have built-in electric field. Due to that electric field, electron-
hole pairs move away from the junction. Hence, holes move to anode and electrons move
to the cathode to produce photocurrent.

The photon absorption intensity and photon energy are directly proportional to each other.
When energy of photos is less, the absorption will be more. This entire process is known
as Inner Photoelectric Effect.

Intrinsic Excitations and Extrinsic Excitations are the two methods via which the photon
excitation happens. The process of intrinsic excitation happens, when an electron in the
valence band is excited by photon to conduction band.

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

Photodiode operates in reverse bias condition. Reverse voltages are plotted along X axis
in volts and reverse current are plotted along Y-axis in microampere. Reverse current
does not depend on reverse voltage. When there is no light illumination, reverse current
will be almost zero. The minimum amount of current present is called as Dark Current.
Once when the light illumination increases, reverse current also increases linearly.

LED.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric
current flows through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine
with holes emitting light in the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward
direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction.
Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the semiconductor
material used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit a coloured light at a particular
spectral wavelength when forward biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated
with a transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.

LED Symbol
The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small arrows
denoting the emission of light.

Simple LED Circuit

The figure below shows a simple LED circuit.

The circuit consists of an LED, a voltage supply and a resistor to regulate the current and
voltage.
How does an LED work?

When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are sent from p → n while the
minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the concentration of minority
carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the junction recombine with the
majority charges carriers.

The energy is released in the form of photons on recombination. In standard diodes, the
energy is released in the form of heat. But in light-emitting diodes, the energy is released
in the form of photons. We call this phenomenon electroluminescence.
Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical phenomenon where a
material emits light in response to an electric current passed through it. As the forward
voltage increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a maximum.
Diode Applications :
The application areas of diodes include communication systems as limiters, clippers,
gates; computer systems as logic gates, clampers; power supply systems as rectifiers
and inverters; television systems as phase detectors, limiters, clampers; radar circuits
as gain control circuits, parameter amplifiers, etc. The following description describes
the various applications of diodes briefly.
Before taking a look at various applications of diodes, let us quickly take a peek at a
small list of common applications of diodes.

● Rectifiers
● Clipper Circuits
● Comparators
and many more. Now let us understand each of these applications of diodes in more
detail.

clipping circuits:
Clipping Circuits are used in FM transmitters, where noise peaks are limited to a particular
value so that excessive peaks are removed from them. The clipper circuit is used to put
off the voltage beyond the preset value without disturbing the remaining part of the input
waveform.
● Based on the diode configuration in the circuit, these clippers are divided into two
types:
○ Series Clipper
○ Shunt Clipper
The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate positive portions of the input signal can
be termed as a Positive Clipper. Among the positive diode clipper circuits, we have the
following types −
● Positive Series Clipper
● Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr reference
voltage
● Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr reference voltage
● Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr reference voltage
● Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr reference voltage

Positive Series Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that
attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Series Clipper.
The following figure represents the circuit diagram for positive series clipper.

Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the

input makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the

diode reverse biased and hence it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across

the load resistor becomes zero as no current flows through it and hence V0 will be zero.

Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the

circuit negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and
hence it conducts like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be

equal to the applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output V0

Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased
with positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the
waveform, is termed as Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for positive series clipper when the reference voltage
applied is positive.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and the reference
voltage appears at the output. During its negative cycle, the diode gets forward biased
and conducts like a closed switch. Hence the output waveform appears as shown in the
above figure.
Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr
A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased
with negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the
waveform, is termed as Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr.
The following figure represents the circuit diagram for positive series clipper, when the
reference voltage applied is negative.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and the reference
voltage appears at the output. As the reference voltage is negative, the same voltage
with constant amplitude is shown. During its negative cycle, the diode gets forward
biased and conducts like a closed switch. Hence the input signal that is greater than the
reference voltage, appears at the output.

Positive Shunt Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and that
attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Shunt Clipper.
The following figure represents the circuit diagram for positive shunt clipper.

Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the

input makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the

diode forward biased and hence it conducts like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across

the load resistor becomes zero as no current flows through it and hence V0 will be zero.

Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the

circuit negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse biased and

hence it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be

equal to the applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output V0.

Waveforms
In the above figures, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand that only a
portion of the positive peak was clipped. This is because of the voltage across V0. But
the ideal output was not meant to be so. Let us have a look at the following figures.

Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the positive cycle is present in the practical output
due to the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v. Hence there will be a difference in the
practical and ideal output waveforms.
Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased
with positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the
waveform, is termed as Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for a positive shunt clipper when the reference voltage
applied is positive.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward biased and nothing but the
reference voltage appears at the output. During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse
biased and behaves as an open switch. The whole of the input appears at the output.
Hence the output waveform appears as shown in the above figure.
Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased
with negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the
waveform, is termed as Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr.

The following figure represents the circuit diagram for positive shunt clipper, when the
reference voltage applied is negative.

During the positive cycle of the input, the diode gets forward biased and the reference
voltage appears at the output. As the reference voltage is negative, the same voltage
with constant amplitude is shown. During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse
biased and behaves as an open switch. Hence the input signal that is greater than the
reference voltage, appears at the output.
The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate negative portions of the input signal can
be termed as a Negative Clipper. Among the negative diode clipper circuits, we have the
following types.
● Negative Series Clipper
● Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr reference voltage
● Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr reference voltage
● Negative Shunt Clipper
● Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr reference voltage
● Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr reference voltage

Negative Series Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that
attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Series Clipper.
The following figure represents the circuit diagram for negative series clipper.

Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the

input makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the

diode forward biased and hence it acts like a closed switch. Thus the input voltage

completely appears across the load resistor to produce the output V0.

Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the

circuit negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse biased and

hence it acts like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be zero

making V0 zero.

Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased
with positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the
waveform, is termed as Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative series clipper when the reference voltage
applied is positive.

During the positive cycle of the input, the diode starts conducting only when the anode
voltage value exceeds the cathode voltage value of the diode. As the cathode voltage
equals the reference voltage applied, the output will be as shown.
Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased
with negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the
waveform, is termed as Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative series clipper, when the reference voltage
applied is negative.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward biased and the input signal
appears at the output. During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and hence
will not conduct. But the negative reference voltage being applied, appears at the output.
Hence the negative cycle of the output waveform gets clipped after this reference level.

Negative Shunt Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and that
attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Shunt Clipper.
The following figure represents the circuit diagram for negative shunt clipper.

Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the

input makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the
diode reverse biased and hence it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across

the load resistor equals the applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output

V0

Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the

circuit negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and

hence it conducts like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor becomes
zero as no current flows through it.

Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased
with positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the
waveform, is termed as Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative shunt clipper when the reference voltage
applied is positive.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an
open switch. So whole of the input voltage, which is greater than the reference voltage
applied, appears at the output. The signal below reference voltage level gets clipped off.
During the negative half cycle, as the diode gets forward biased and the loop gets
completed, no output is present.
Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr
A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased
with negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the
waveform, is termed as Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr. The following figure
represents the circuit diagram for negative shunt clipper, when the reference voltage
applied is negative.

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an
open switch. So whole of the input voltage, appears at the output Vo. During the negative
half cycle, the diode gets forward biased. The negative voltage up to the reference
voltage, gets at the output and the remaining signal gets clipped off.

Two-way Clipper
This is a positive and negative clipper with a reference voltage Vr. The input voltage is
clipped two-way both positive and negative portions of the input waveform with two
reference voltages. For this, two diodes D1 and D2 along with two reference voltages
Vr1 and Vr2 are connected in the circuit.

This circuit is also called as a Combinational Clipper circuit. The figure below shows the
circuit arrangement for a two-way or a combinational clipper circuit along with its output
waveform.

During the positive half of the input signal, the diode D1 conducts making the reference
voltage Vr1 appear at the output. During the negative half of the input signal, the diode
D2 conducts making the reference voltage Vr1 appear at the output. Hence both the
diodes conduct alternatively to clip the output during both the cycles. The output is taken
across the load resistor.

comparators :