LECTURES NOTES

ON
ANALOG ELECTRONICS & OP-AMP

BY
Er. Jadunath Murmu, Sr. lect E&TC Engg.
GOVT.POLYTECHNIC,NAYAGARH

1
 P-N JUNCTION DIODE
1 . 1 P-N Junction Diode

When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined with n-type semiconductor, the contact
surface is called p-n junction

A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows the
electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or reverse
direction. If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other hand,
if the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. P-N junction semiconductor
diode is also called as p-n junction semiconductor device.

Symbol of PN junction diode

In the above figure, arrowhead of a diode indicates the conventional direction of electric
current.

1 . 2 Working of Diode

Diode working in two biased condition

i)Forward bias

ii) Reverse Bias

Forward Bias

When an external voltage is applied to P-N junction in such a direction that it cancels the
potential barrier and permits the current flow is called forward bias.

The p-n junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-type is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and the n-type to the negative terminal. The built-in electric field at the

2
p-n junction and the applied electric field are in opposing directions (against potential barrier)
when the p-n junction is forward biased so potential barrier is reduced. As potential barrier is
very small i.e 0.3 Volt for Ge and 0.7 volt for Si. Therefore a small forward voltage is sufficient
to eliminate the barrier , so junction resistance becomes almost Zero.

Following point are to be noted

i. Depletion layer is minimum

ii. Junction offer low resistance
iii. Flow of current is maximum
iv. Diode act as close switch

Reverse Bias

When an external voltage is applied to P-N junction in such a direction that it increase the potential
barrier and then it is called as reverse bias

The p-n junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-type is linked to the negative terminal
of the battery and the n-type is attached to the positive side. The applied electric field and the
built-in electric field are both in the same direction in this situation.

3
The resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field, resulting in a
more resistive, thicker depletion zone. If the applied voltage is increased, the depletion area
gets more resistant and thicker.

Following point are to be noted

i. Depletion layer is maximum

ii. Junction offer high resistance
iii. Flow of current is zero
iv. Diode act as open switch

Application of Diode

i. Rectifiers
ii. Clipper Circuits
iii. Clamping Circuits
iv. Reverse Current Protection Circuits

1 . 3 V-I characteristic of PN junction Diode.

VI characteristics of PN junction diodes is a curve between the voltage across the

junction and current through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is
taken along the y-axis.

4
Circuit arrangement for determining the V
V-I characteristics of P-N
N junction is known shown in
fig-1

Fig-1

The V-I characteristics

teristics curve of the p
p-n junction diode is shown in the graph shown in fig 2.
With the help of the curve, we can see that the diode works in three different areas, which are:

i) Zero external voltage.

ii) Forward bias
iii) Reverse bias

Fig-2

5
 i) Zero external voltage.

When the external voltage is zero, i.e. circuit is open at K, the potential barrier at junction does
not permit current flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero as indicating O in fig.1

ii) Forward bias

When the p-n junction diode is in forwarding bias, the p-type is linked to the positive terminal
of the external voltage, while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal. The potential
barrier is reduced. At some forward voltage ( 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for germanium
diodes) the potential barriers is altogether eliminated and current starts flowing in the circuit.

From now onwards, the current increases with the increase in forward voltage. Thus a rising
curve OB is obtained with forward bias shown in fig-2. From the forward characteristics it seen
that at first region OA, the current increases very slowly and curve is non-linear. Because the
voltage supplied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. However, once the external
voltage exceed the potential barrier voltage, the pn junction behaves like an ordinary
conductor and current rises very sharply with increase in external voltage shown in curve AB
which is linear.

iii) Reverse bias

When the PN junction diode is under Reverse bias, the p-type is linked to the negative
terminal of the external voltage, while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal. As a
result, the potential barrier at the junction increases. So the junction resistance becomes very
high and practically no current flows through the circuit.

Very small current ( i.e. some micro ampere) flows in the circuit due to minority charge
carriers. When the applied voltage is raised, the kinetic energy of the minority charges
increases, it become enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atoms. At this
stage break down of the junction occurs and sudden rise of reverse current and fall down the
resistance of barrier this may destroy the junction permanently.

Important Terms

i) Breakdown voltage. It is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn junction

breakdown which sudden rise in reverse current.

6
 ii) Ideal diode. An ideal diode is one which behaves as a perfect conductor
(Resistance=0) when forward biased and as a perfect insulator (Resistance= ∞) when
reverse biased

Fig.1

iii) Knee voltage. It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction
starts to increase rapidly.

1 . 4 DC load line

Consider a crystal diode connected in series with a load resistance R L across a supply voltage
VS shown in fig-1. Here the diode is forward biased. A line drawn on the characteristics of the
device that represents all d.c. conditions that could exist within the circuit for given values of
VS and RL is called as DC load line.

Fig.1

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the diode circuit,

VS –VD –ID RL=0

Or ID=VS/RL –VD /RL

7
 Fig.2

This represents a straight line

So d.c. load line is straight line

From the above equation, when VD =0, then ID=(VS/RL)

When ID=0, then VD=VS

A line passing through the point (VS/RL) and VS is called a dc load line

Quiescent point (Q-point)

The points where the characteristic curve and the load line intersect are the possible operating
point(s) (Q points) of the circuit; at these points the current and voltage parameters are
compatible with circuit condition

Importance of dc load line

 The DC load line analysis main intention is to find the Quiescent Point (Q – point)
 Another way of expressing a Q point is by addressing it as biasing. Biasing in
electronics means establishing predetermined voltages or currents at various points of
an electronic circuit to promote proper operating conditions in electronic components.
 The linear analysis of the circuit is obtained for the non-linear devices like diode or
transistors by using this concept.
 The main intention behind the analysis of the load line is to find the operating point
referred to as the quiescent point (Q-point).
 The Q-points formed by the dc load line are the centers at which the voltage and current
parameters equivalent to each other for both the parts of the circuit.

8
  From this, the operating point obtained is essential while drawing the ac load lines.
 If the resistance is constant and the dc voltage applied to the circuit varies. The load
lone concept is significant for analyzing the circuit in an efficient manner.

1 . 6 Junctions break down.

It is the minimum reverse voltage at which p-n junction breaks down which sudden rise in
reverse current. The breakdown voltage depends upon the width of the depletion region
(doping level). Depending upon the doping level, it is two type

a) Zener breakdown. The Zener breakdown takes place in the junctions which are
heavily doped( having narrow depletion layers). When breakdown voltage is applied, a
very strong electric field appears across narrow depletion layer which break the bonds
& electron-hole pairs are generated. A small further increase in reverse voltage
produces large number of current carriers which suddenly increase the reverse current
b) Avalanche breakdown. The avalanche breakdown takes place in the junctions
which are lightly doped( having wide depletion layers) .when the reverse bias voltage is
increased, the accelerated free electrons collide with the semiconductor atoms in the
depletion region.. due to the collision with valence electrons , covalent bonds are broken
and electron-hole pair are generated. In this way process leads to avalanche (flood) of
carriers and consequently a very low reverse resistance. So pn junction conduct very
large reverse current.

9
Differences Between Zener Breakdown and Avalanche Breakdown

1 . 7 P-N
N Diode clipping Circuit.

P-N
N Diode clipping Circuit is wave shaping circuit, which can control the shape of
the output waveform by eliminating or clipping or remove a part (some portion) of
applied wave. This is done without distorting the other (remaining) part of
waveform.

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Classification of Clipping Circuit
1. Positive clippers.
2. Negative clippers.
3. Biased clippers Positive clippers.
4. Biased clippers Negative clippers.
5. Combination clippers.

1. Positive clippers.
The clipper which removess the positive half cycle of input voltage
It actually removes the positive half cycles of the input voltage.

 Here the diode is kept in parallel with the load

 During the positive half cycle of input wave the diode D is forward biased
and act close switch this causes the diode conduct current heavily
 The voltage across the diode or across the load R L is zero so out voltage
during positive half cycle is zero.
 During the negative half cycle of input wave the diode D is reverse biased
and diode behaves open switch this causes tthe he diode conduct current
cur does
not flow, consequence the entire input voltage appear across the diode or
across the load resister RL, if R is much smaller than R
 Hence out put voltage = Vm= -Vm

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2. Negative clippers.
The clipper which removess the negative half cycle of input voltage
It actually removes the negative half cycles of the input voltage.

 Here the diode is kept in parallel with the load

 During the positive
ositive half cycle of input cycle the diode D is reverse biased
and act open switch this causes the diode conduct current does not flow,
consequence the entire input voltage appear across the diode or across the
load resister RL, if R is much smaller than R
 Hence out put voltage = Vm= Vm
 During the negative half cycle of input wave the di
diode
ode D is forward biased
and diode behaves close switch this causes the diodee conduct current
heavily.
 The voltage across the diode or across the load R L is zero
zer so out voltage
during negative half cycle is zero.

3. Biased clippers :
When a small portion of positive or negative half cycles of the
signal voltage is to be removed. a biased clipper.

 The name bias is designated because the adjustment of the clipeing level is
achieved by adding of biasing voltage in series with the diode
 Biased clipper
lipper are also called peak clippers because it remove both positive
and negative edges in output form applied input voltage

a. Bias Negative clippers.

12
 When a small portion of the negative half cycle is to be removed, it is
called a biased negative clipper

 A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal
and biased with negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the
negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Clipper
 when the input signal voltage is positive, the diode ‘D’ is reverse-biased.
reverse
This causes it to act as an open
open-switch.
switch. Thus the entire positive half cycle
appears across the load.
 When the input signal volt voltage
age is negative but does not exceed battery
the voltage ‘V’, the didiode ‘D’ remains reverse-biased
biased and most of the
input voltage appears
pears across the output.
 When during the nega
negative
tive half cycle of input signal, Vi > Vr then diode D
is forward biased and so conducts heavily. The output voltage is equal to
‘- Vr’ and stays at ‘- Vr’ as long g as the magnitude of the input signal
voltage is greater than the magnitude of the battery voltage, ‘Vr’. Thus a
biased negative clipper removes input voltage when the input signal
voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage

b. Bias Positive clippers.

When a small portion of the positive half cycle is to be removed, it is called
a biased positive clipper
 A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input
signal and biased with positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates
the positive
sitive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Clipper

13
  when the input signal voltage is negative, the diode ‘D’ is reverse-
reverse
biased. This causes it to act as an open
open-switch.
switch. Thus the entire
negative half cycle appears across the load.
 When the input signal volt voltage
age is positive but does not exceed
battery the voltage ‘Vr’, the di
diode
ode ‘D’ remains reverse-biased
reverse and
most of the input voltage ap
appears
pears across the output.
 When during the positive half cycle of input signal, Vi > Vr then diode
D is forward
rward biased and so conducts heavily. The output voltage is
equal to ‘ Vr’ and stays at ‘Vr’ as long as the magnitude of the input
signal voltage is greater than the magnitude of the battery voltage,
‘Vr’. Thus a biased positive clipper removes input voltage
volta when the
input signal voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage

4. Combination clippers.

When a portion of both positive and negative of each half

cycle of the input voltage is to be clipped (or removed), is called as
combination clipper.

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During the positive half of the input signal, the diode D1 conducts making the
reference voltage Vr1 appear at the output. During the negative half of the
input signal, the diode D2 conducts making the reference voltage Vr1 appear
at the output. Hence both the diodes conduct alternatively to clip the output
during both the cycles. The output is taken across the load resistor.

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 SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

2 . 1 Thermistors, Sensors & barretters

Thermistors:

A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose electrical

resistance varies with changes in temperature.

 A thermistor is particularly sensitive to temperature changes.

 Basically it is a two terminal solid state thermally sensitive transducer constructed using
sensitive semiconductor based metal oxides with metalized or sintered connecting leads
formed into a ceramic disc or bead.

Thermistor Types:

The thermisters are classified according to their temperature co-efficient of resistance,

it is two type.

 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor

 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor:

In an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases. And when
temperature decreases, resistance increases.
Hence in an NTC thermistor temperature and resistance are inversely proportional.
These are the most common type of themistor.
 The relationship between resistance and temperature in an NTC thermistor is governed
by the following expression:
( )
𝑅 =𝑅 𝑒
Where RT is the resistance at temperature T(K)
R0 is the resistance at temperature T0(K)
T0 is the reference temperature (normally 25oC)
β is a constant, its value is dependant on the characteristics of the material.
The nominal value is taken as 4000.
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor
When temperature increases, the resistance increases.And when temperature decreases, resistance
decreases. Hence in a PTC thermistor temperature and resistance are directly proportional.
 They are frequently used as a form of circuit protection. Similar to the function of fuses,
PTC thermistors can act as current-limiting device.

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  The relationship between resistance and temperature in an NTC thermistor is governed
by the following expression:
( )
𝑅 =𝑅 𝑒
Where:
 R1 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T 1[oK]
 R2 = resistance of the thermistor at temperature T 2 [oK]
 β = constant depending upon the material of the transducer (e.g. an oscillator
transducer)
Uses of Thermistors
Thermistors have a variety of applications. They are widely used as a way to measure
temperature as a thermistor thermometer in many different liquid and ambient air
environments. Some of the most common uses of thermistors include:
 Digital thermometers (thermostats)
 Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars & trucks)
 Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
 Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)
 Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)
 To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
 Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino starter kit)
 Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects caused by
changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)
 Used in wheatstone bridge circuits

Sensors:

17
 5. RECTIFIER CIRCUITS & FILTERS

Rectifier
Rectifier is Electronics device which conversion of alternating
current (AC) to direct current (DC).

3.1 Classification of rectifiers

Rectifiers may be classified in to two categories depending upon the period of
conduction. They are
(a) Half-wave rectifiers
(b) Full–wave rectifiers
Full wave rectifiers may further be classified in to two categories depending upon
nature of the circuit connection. They are
(a) Centre tapped full-wave
wave rectifier
(b) Bridge full-wave
wave rectifier
Half wave rectifier
A half wave rectifier circuit is one which conducts current only during the positive half
cycles of input a.c. supply. The negative half cycles of a.c. supply are suppressed i.e.
during negative half cycles, no current is conducted and hence no voltage appears
across the load. Therefore current always flows in one direction through the load.
Working

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 First, a high AC voltage is applied to the to the primary side of the step-down
transformer and we will get a low voltage at the secondary winding which will be
applied to the diode.
During the positive half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be forward
biased and the current flows through the diode.
During the negative half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be reverse
biased and the flow of current will be blocked. The final output voltage
waveform on the secondary side (DC) is shown in figure above.

Advantages of half-wave rectifier:

 Half wave rectifier is a simple circuit.
 It has a low cost.
 We can easy to use it.
 We can easily construct.
 It has a low number of component, therefore it is cheap.
Disadvantages of half-wave rectifier:
 The transformer utilization factor is low.
 They produce a low output voltage.
 DC saturation of transformer core resulting in magnetizing current and also some
hysteresis losses and generation of harmonics.
 The power output and therefore rectification efficiency are quite low. This is due to the
fact that power is delivered only during the one-half cycle of the input alternating voltage.
 Ripple factor is high and elaborate filtering is, therefore required to give steady dc
output.
 They only allow a half cycle through per sine wave, and the other half cycle is wasted.
This leads to power loss.
Analysis
3.2.1 DC output current and voltage
i. DC output current:

Iavg=Idc= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜔𝑡

19
 = ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡 + 0
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
= [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ]
= [−(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0)]
= [−(−1 − 1)]
= [2]
=

ii. DC output voltage:

The d.c. output voltage is given by
Vdc =Id.c xRL
= xR
=

3.2.2 RMS output current and voltage

RMS Current
The value of RMS current is given by

Irms = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)

= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡) + ∫ 0 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)

= ∫ ( )𝑑(𝜔𝑡)
20
 = (𝜔𝑡) −

= (𝜋 − 0) − ( −

= 𝜋

=
Iv . RMS Voltage:
VRMS =IRMS xRL
= xR
=
3.2.3 Rectifier efficiency
The Rectifier is defined as the ratio of d.c. output power to the a.c. input power
𝑑. 𝑐. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
𝜂= =
𝑎. 𝑐. 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃
Now Pdc =(𝐼 ) 𝑋𝑅 =
Further Pac=Pa +Pr
where Pa = Power dissipated at the junction of diode
=𝐼 x Rf = 𝑥𝑅 ∵𝐼 =
Pr= Power dissipated in the load resistance
=𝐼 x RL = 𝑥𝑅 ∵𝐼 =

So Pac= 𝑥𝑅 + 𝑥𝑅 = 𝑥 (𝑅 + 𝑅

𝐼 𝑅
𝑃 𝜋
𝜂= =
𝑃 𝐼
𝑥 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )
4
4 𝑅
= .
𝜋 𝑅 +𝑅
0.406
=
𝑅
1+
𝑅

21
 Hence rectifier efficiency
4
𝜂= 𝑥 100%
𝜋

𝜂 = 40.67
3.2.4 Ripple factor.:
Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of effective value or rms value of a.c. components of
output voltage or current to the average value or d.c components of voltage and current
. . . . .
Ripple factor,𝛾 =
.

𝑉( . . ) 𝐼 ( . . )
𝛾= =
𝑉 𝐼
Where Vr(rms) =r.m.s. value of a.c. component of output voltage
Vdc = d.c. value of output voltage
Ir(rms) = r.m.s. value of a.c. component of output current
Idc = d.c. value of output current
The r.m.s value of the rectified out put load current is given by

𝐼 = 𝐼 +𝐼 ( )

𝐼 ( ) = 𝐼 −𝐼
Dividing the both sides by Idc
𝐼 ( ) 𝐼 −𝐼
=
𝐼 𝐼
𝐼
𝛾= ( ) −1
𝐼
Now put the value of Irms and Id.c at above equation
Irms=
Idc =
Then

𝐼
𝛾= 4 −1
𝐼
𝜋

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 𝜋
𝛾= − 1 = 1.21
4

Notes
 A.c. components presents in rectifier output is known as ripple
 Less ripple factor is more effective

3.2.5 Regulation:
The regulation is defined as the variation of dc output voltage with change in d.c. load
current
𝑉 −𝑉
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
𝑉
In general 𝑉 = − 𝐼 𝑥(𝑅 + 𝑅 )
Vno load = load risitance is not connected at out put of the rectifier ckt i.e I dc=0
So , Vno load=

Vfull load = load risitance is connected at out put of the rectifier ckt i.e I dc current follow
So
𝑉 𝑉
− ( − 𝐼 𝑥(𝑅 + 𝑅 )
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉
− 𝐼 𝑥(𝑅 + 𝑅 )
𝜋
(𝐼 𝑥(𝑅 + 𝑅 )
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉
− 𝐼 𝑥(𝑅 + 𝑅 )
𝜋
Note:
 Ideal power supply, the output voltage should be independent of the load current
 Lower Percentage of regulation is better

3.2.6 Transformer utilization factor

Transformer utilization factor is defined as the ratio of d.c. power to be delivered to the load to
the ac rating of the transformer secondary
𝑑. 𝑐. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑃
𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
𝑃 ( )

23
According to the theory of transformer, the rated voltage of the

secondary will be and the actual r.m.s. current flowing through it

√

will be so
𝑉 𝐼
𝑃 =
2√2
But 𝑉 = 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )
𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )𝐼
𝑃 =
2√2
Now

𝐼
𝑥𝑅
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 𝜋
𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )𝐼
2√2

2√2𝑥𝑅
𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )

2√2
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = = 0.287
𝜋

3.2.7 Peak inverse voltage:

Peak inverse voltage is defined as the maximum voltage across the diode in the reverse direction.
 During the –ve half cycle , the diode will not be conducting and maximum
voltage across the diode is the PIV i.e Vm

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Full wave rectifier:

In fill wave rectifier, current flows through the load in the same direction for
both half cycles of input a.c. voltage. The commonly used full wave rectifier
circuits are

(1) Centre tap full wave rectifier (2) full wave bridge rectifier.
Centre tapped full wave rectifier
The circuit employs two diodes and a Centre tapped secondary winding is used
with two diodes connected so that each uses one half cycle of input a.c. voltage.in
other words the first diodes utilizes the a.c voltage appearing across the upper
half of secondary winding for rectification, while the second diode uses the lower
half winding.

Disadvantages of Centre tapped full wave rectifier

1. It is difficult to locate the Centre tap on the secondary winding.
2. The d.c output is small as each diode utilizes only one half of the transformer
secondary voltage.
3. The diodes used must have high peak inverse voltage.
Full wave bridge rectifier
Full wave operation van be obtained even without the Centre tapped
transformer in bridge rectifier. It contains fort diodes connected to form bridge.
Alternating voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge
through the transformer. Between other ends of the bridge the load resistance is
connected through the load.

25
 Advantages and disadvantages of bridge rectifier
The following are advantages
1. No centre tap is needed in the transformer secondary.
2. The output is twice that of the centre tap circuit for the same secondary voltage.
3. The peak inverse voltage is one half that of the centre tap circuit.
The following are disadvantages
1. It requires four diodes.

2. As during each half cycle of a.c input two diodes that conduct are in series,
therefore voltage drop in the internal resistance of the rectifying unit will be twice. This
is objectionable when secondary voltage is small.

Analysis
3.2.1 DC output current and voltage
i. DC output current:

Iavg=Idc= ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝜔𝑡
= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡
= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝜔𝑡

26
 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 ]
= [−(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0)]
= [−(−1 − 1)]
= [2]
=
ii. DC output voltage:
The d.c. output voltage is given by
Vdc =Id.c xRL
= xR
=
3.2.2 RMS output current and voltage
RMS Current
The value of RMS current is given by

Irms = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑(𝜔𝑡)

= ∫ 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑 (𝜔𝑡)

= ∫ ( )𝑑(𝜔𝑡)

= (𝜔𝑡) −

= (𝜋 − 0) − ( −

= 𝜋

=
√

27
Iv . RMS Voltage:
VRMS =IRMS xRL
= xR
√
=
√
3.2.3 Rectifier efficiency
The Rectifier is defined as the ratio of d.c. output power to the a.c. input power
𝑑. 𝑐. 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
𝜂= =
𝑎. 𝑐. 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃
Now Pdc =(𝐼 ) 𝑅 =
Further Pac=Pa +Pr
where Pa = Power dissipated at the junction of diode
=𝐼 Rf = 𝑅 ∵𝐼 =
√
Pr= Power dissipated in the load resistance
=𝐼 x RL = 𝑥𝑅 ∵𝐼 =
√

So Pac= 𝑥𝑅 + 𝑥𝑅 = 𝑥 (𝑅 + 𝑅

4𝐼 𝑅
𝑃 𝜋
𝜂= =
𝑃 𝐼
𝑥 (𝑅 + 𝑅 )
2
8 𝑅
= .
𝜋 𝑅 +𝑅
0.812
=
𝑅
1+
𝑅
Hence rectifier efficiency
8
𝜂= 𝑥 100%
𝜋

𝜂 = 81.2% 𝑖𝑓𝑅 = 0

28
3.2.4 Ripple factor.:
Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of effective value or rms value of a.c. components of
output voltage or current to the average value or d.c components of voltage and current
. . . . .
Ripple factor,𝛾 =
.

𝑉( . . ) 𝐼 ( . . )
𝛾= =
𝑉 𝐼
Where Vr(rms) =r.m.s. value of a.c. component of output voltage
Vdc = d.c. value of output voltage
Ir(rms) = r.m.s. value of a.c. component of output current
Idc = d.c. value of output current
The r.m.s value of the rectified out put load current is given by

𝐼 = 𝐼 +𝐼 ( )

𝐼 ( ) = 𝐼 −𝐼
Dividing the both sides by Idc
𝐼 ( ) 𝐼 −𝐼
=
𝐼 𝐼
𝐼
𝛾= ( ) −1
𝐼
Now put the value of Irms and Id.c at above equation
Irms=
√
Idc =
Then

𝐼
𝛾= 2 −1
4𝐼
𝜋

𝜋
𝛾= − 1 = 0.48
8

29
 3.3 Filters:

Filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c. component of rectifier out put but allows
the d.c. component to reach the load

Necessity of filter circuit

 The filter circuit is necessary for smoothing of the voltage obtained by the
rectifier.

 The out put of rectifier obtained DC voltage contains AC components.

These AC components are called ripples.

 The filter circuit is needed to remove the ripples from DC output voltage
so that the output voltage across the load will be regulated

 Ripple is wasted power, and has many undesirable effects in a DC

circuit: it heats components, causes noise and distortion, and may cause
digital circuits to operate improperly.

 Ripple may be reduced by an electronic filter, and eliminated by a voltage

regulator.

Type of filter circuit

b. Series Inductor Filter

c. Shunt Capacitor Filter

30
 d. Choke Filter

e. 𝝅Filter

c. Series Inductor Filter

In series inductor filter the inductor is connected in series with the rectifier output and
the load resistor shown in fig . Thus, it is called series inductor filter.
The property of an inductor is the inductance reactance is given by XL =2𝜋𝐹𝐿. The
inductance reactance increases with increase in the frequency of the a.c. current and
frequency of dc. Current is Zero it means to block AC and provides zero resistance to
DC so inductor is used in filtering circuit. When the value of DC output from f the
rectifier is more than the average value then the rectifier store the excess current in the
form of magnetic energy.

t
When the value of DC from the rectifier is less than the average value then the inductor
release the stored magnetic energy in order to balance the effect of the low value of DC.
In this way series inductor filter maintains the regulated DC supply. Moreover,
31
inductor blocks the AC ripples present in the output voltage of rectifier; thus, smooth
DC signal can be obtained. Shown in out put waveform.

d. Shunt Capacitor Filter

The large value of capacitor is connected in parallel with respect to the output of
rectifier circuit and also in parallel with the load resistor. The rectifier output is applied
across the capacitor and out put voltage is taken across the load resister RL as shown
in fig

Working of capacitor in shunt capacitor Filter

When the rectifier voltage is applied, the capacitor charges to its peak voltage level. So
the voltage across a capacitor becomes equal to output voltage of rectifier

When the rectifier voltage decrease , the capacitor starts discharges through load
resistance RL. So the output voltage also decreases. The charging and discharging of
capacitor is shown in fig.

The value of load resistance RL is large so that the capacitor discharges slowly and the
voltage across the capacitor falls slightly less than the peak value of rectifier voltage

32
When there is the next pulse the capacitor charges to a peak value. Thus, the process
repeats and the output voltage almost equal to peak value and smooth DC voltage is
maintained across RL

The discharge time(T) of a capacitor (C) depends on the product (τ = T. C). if load
resistance RL is small, the capacitor will discharge quickly before the next half cycle
and the voltage across the load will not remain steady.

The filtering action of the capacitor filter can be explained by using its reactance.
The capacitive reactance of a capacitor is given by

XC=

For D.C. the frequency is zero therefore the reactance is infinity i.e XC=∞ it means that
the capacitor act as an open for D.C. component cannot pass through a capacitor it
passes only through the load resistance RL

As A.C having the frequency a capacitor acts as a short and so A.C. component pass
through the capacitor to ground. In this way, a capacitor maintains a smooth D.C.
voltage across it

Advantages:

1. It is low cost and small size filter

2. It is not affected by magnetic interference.

3. It is suitable for high voltage application

Disadvantages:

1. It is not suitable for heavy load current

2. Its required large value of the capacitor

e. Choke Filter

33
 Choke filter consists of an inductor connected in series with rectifier output
circuit and a capacitor connected in parallel with the load resistor.

It is also called L-section

section filter because the inductor and capacitor are connected
in the shape of inverted L. The output pulsating DC voltage from a rectifier
circuit passes through the inductor or choke coil.

Working of Choke Filter or L

L-section filter

When the pulsating DC signal from the output of the rectifier circuit is feed into choke
filter, the AC ripples present in the output DC voltage gets filtered by choke coil. The
inductor has the property to block AC and pass DC. This is because DC resistance of an
inductor is low and AC impeda
impedance
nce of inductor coil is high. Thus, the AC ripples get
blocked by inductor coil.

Although the inductor efficiently removes AC ripples, a small percentage of AC ripples

is still present in the filtered signal. These ripples are then removed by the capacitor
connected in parallel to the load resistor. Now, the DC output signal is free from AC
components, and this regulated DC can be used in any application.

If the inductor of high inductive reactance (XL), greater than the capacitive reactance at
ency is used than filtering efficiency gets improved .
ripple frequency

34
 f. 𝛑 Filter

The construction arrangement of all the components resembles the shape of Greek
letter Pi (π). Thus it is called Pi filter. Besides, the capacitor is present at the input side.
Thus, it is also called capacitor input filter.

Working of Pi filter (π- filter)

The output voltage coming from rectifier also consist of AC components. Thus it
is a crucial need to remove these AC ripples to improve the performance of the
device. The output from the rectifier is directly applied to the input capacitor.
The capacitor provides
rovides a low impedance to AC ripples present in the output

35
voltage and high resistance to DC voltage. Therefore, most of the AC ripples get
bypassed through the capacitor in input stage only.

The residual AC components which are still present in filtered DC signal gets
filtered when they pass through the inductor coil and through the capacitor
connected parallel across the load. In this way, the efficiency of filtering increases
multiple times.

In the case of L-section

section filter, one inductor and capacitor we
were
re present so if some
AC ripples say 1% is left after filtering that can be removed in Pi-filter.
Pi Thus, Pi
filter is considered more efficient.

36
 TRANSISTORS

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device which consists of

two pn-junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or n-type semiconductor
material between a pair of opposite type semiconductors.

It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the
collector and the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and
holes as charge carriers so called as Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The emitter is the most heavily doped of the three regions. Also, the width of the
emitter is normally smaller than the collector and greater than the base, while the
base width is the smallest of the three. The emitter is heavily doped so that it can
inject a large number of charge carriers (electrons or holes) into the base. The base is
lightly doped and very thin, it passes most of the emitter injected charge carriers to the
collector. The collector is moderately doped.

The primary function of BJT is to increase the strength of a weak signal, i.e., it
acts as an amplifier. A BJT can also be used as a solid state switch in electronic
circuits.

Terminals/Regions of a transistor
BJT consists of 3 regions all of which have a different doping concentration.
They are–

1. Emitter

2. Base

3. Collector

37
 1. Emitter

The emitter is the portion on one side of the transistor which emits (supply)
electrons or holes to the other two portions.
.
The emitter is always forward bias w.r.t base in both PNP and NPN transistors,
so that it can emit a large number of majority carriers as It is the most heavily
doped region of the BJT Emitter supplies electrons to the emitter-base junction in
NPN while it supplies holes into the same junction in PNP transistor.

2. Base

The base is the middle portion between collector and emitter & it forms two PN
junctions between them.
The base is the most lightly doped portion of the BJT. Being the middle portion of
the BJT allows it to control the flow of charge carriers between emitter and
collector.
The base-emitter junction is forward bias, allowing low resistance for emitter
circuit.
The base-collector junction shows high resistance because this junction is
reversed bias.

The base-collector junction shows high resistance because this junction is

reversed bias.
3. Collector

The portion on the opposite side of the Emitter that collects the emitted charge
carriers (i.e. electrons or holes) is known as collector.
Collector-base junction should be always reversed biased in both PNP and NPN
transistors.
The reason for reverse biasing is to remove charge carriers (electrons or holes)
from the collector-base junction.
The collector of NPN transistor collects electrons emitted by emitter. While in
PNP transistor, it collects holes emitted by emitter.
38
 Types of BJT
There are two types of BJTs −

 NPN Transistor
 PNP Transistor

NPN Transistor

An npn-transistor
transistor is composed of two nn-type
type semiconductor materials which are
separated by a thin layer of p
p-type semiconductor.

The two terminals viz. Emitter and Collector are taken out from the two n-type
n
semiconductor and the Base terminal is from the p
p-type
type semiconductor.

For npn-transistor,
transistor, the conventional current flows out of the emitter as indicated
by the outing arrow.

PNP Transistor

A pnp-transistor
transistor is composed of two p
p-type
type semiconductors which are separated
by a thin layer of n-type
type material.

39
The two terminals viz. Emitter and Collector are taken out from the two p-type
p
semiconductor layers and the Base terminal is from the n
n-type
pe semiconductor.
For the pnp-transistor,
transistor, the conventional current flows into the emitter as
indicated by the inward arrow.

4.1 Principle of Bipolar junction transistor

Base-Emitter junction (BE) is forward bias while collector-emitter

emitter junction (CE) is
reverse bias. At BE junction, the potential barrier decreases with forward bias. So,
electron start flowing from emitter terminal to base terminal.
As the base is lightly doped terminal, so very little number of electrons from emitter
terminal combine with holes in base terminal.
Due to combination of electrons and holes, current from base terminal will start
flowing known as Base current (ib).
Base current is only 2% of the emitter current Ie while the remaining electrons will flow
from the reverse bias collector junction known as Collector current (ic).
The total emitter current will be the combination of base current & collector current
given by;
ie = ib+ic

40
Where ie is approximately equal to ic because Ib is almost 2% of the IC.

Working of NPN Transistor

With the forward-biasedbiased emitter
emitter-base junction and reverse-biased
biased collector-base
collector
junction, it can be seen that the forward bias causes the flow of electrons from the n- n
type emitter into the p-type
type base. This constitutes the emitter current (I( E). As these
electrons flow through the p-type
type base, they tend to combine with the holes.
Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence, only a small number electrons (less
than 5%) combine with the holes to constitute the base current ((IB). The remaining
(more than 95%) electrons cross over the base region and reach to the collector region to
constitute the collector current ((IC). In this manner, the entire emitter current flows in
the collector circuit.

The emitter current is the sum of base and coll

collector currents.
41
 IE=IB+IC

Working of PNP Transistor

For the pnp-transistor,
transistor, the forward bias of emitter
emitter-base
base junction causes the flow of holes in the
p-type
type emitter region towards the n type base and constitutes the emitter current (IEIE). As
n-type
these holes cross into the n-type
type base region, they tend to combine with the electrons. Since
the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence only a small number of holes (less than 5%)
combine with the electrons. The remaining (more than 95%) cross the base and reach into the
collector region to constitute the collector current ( ICIC).
In this manner, the entire emitter current flows into the collector circuit. It may be noted that the
current conduction inside the pnp
pnp-transistor
transistor is due to the movement of holes. However,
Howeve in the
external connecting wires, the current is still due to the flow of electrons.

Again, the emitter current is the sum of collector current and base current.

IE=IB+IC

4.2 Different modes of operation of transistor

transistors are non-linear devices. They have four distinct modes of operation, which describe the
current flowing through them.

These biasing methods make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of regions (mode)
such as

1. Active region

2. Saturation region
42
 3. Cutoff region

4. Inverse active region

Emitter Junction Collector Junction Region of Operation

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region

Forward biased Reverse biased Active region

Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse active region

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cut off region

1. Active region

This is the region in which transistors have many applications. This is also called
as linear region. A transistor while in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.

This region lies between saturation and cutoff. The transistor operates in active region when
the emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased.
In the active state, collector current is β times the base current, i.e.
IC=βIB
Where IC = collector current, β = current amplification factor, and I B = base current.
43
In this region, the transistor is used for amplification
2. Saturation region

This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as a closed switch. The transistor has
the effect of its collector and emitter being shorted. The collector and emitter currents are
maximum in this mode of operation.
The following figure shows a transistor working in saturation region.

The transistor operates in saturation region when both the emitter and collector junctions are
forward biased.
In saturation mode,
𝐶
β<
𝐵

As in the saturation region the transistor tends to behave as a closed switch,

IC=IE
Where IC = collector current and IE = emitter current.

3. Cutoff region

This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as an open switch. The transistor has
the effect of its collector and base being opened. The collector, emitter and base currents
are all zero in this mode of operation.
The figure below shows a transistor working in cutoff region.

44
 The transistor operates in cutoff region when both the emitter and collector junctions
are reverse biased.
As in cutoff region, the collector current, emitter current and base currents are nil, we
can write as
IC=IE=IB=0IC=IE=IB=0
Where IC = collector current, IE = emitter current, and IB = base current.

4.4 Transistor as an amplifier:

A transistor acts as an amplifier by raising the strength of a weak signal. The DC bias
voltage applied to the emitter base junction makes it remain in forward biased
condition. This forward bias is maintained regardless of the polarity of the signal. The
below figure shows how a transistor looks like when connected as an amplifier.

45
 The low resistance in input circuit as Emitter base is forward bias , lets any small
change in input signal to result in an appreciable change in the output. The emitter
current caused by the input signal contributes the collector current, which when
flows through the load resistor RL, results in a large voltage drop across it as reverse
bias i.e high resistance at out put side . Thus a small input voltage results in a large
output voltage, which shows that the transistor works as an amplifier.

Example

Let there be a change of 0.1v in the input voltage being applied, which further
produces a change of 1mA in the emitter current. This emitter current will obviously
produce a change in collector current, which would also be 1mA.
A load resistance of 5kΩ placed in the collector would produce a voltage of
5 kΩ × 1 mA = 5V
Hence it is observed that a change of 0.1v in the input gives a change of 5v in the
output, which means the voltage level of the signal is amplified.

4.5 Transistor circuit configuration & its characteristics

Generally the transistor has three terminals – emitter (E), base (B) and collector. But
in the circuit connections we need four terminals, two terminals for input and
another two terminals for output.

To overcome these problems we use one terminal as common for both input and
output actions.

Using this property we construct the circuits and these structures are called
transistor configurations. Generally there are three different configurations of
transistors are:

a) Common Base (CB) Configuration.

b) Common Emitter (CE) Configuration.
c) Common Collector (CC) Configuration.

46
 A. Common Base (CB) Configuration

The name itself implies that the Base terminal is taken as common terminal for both
input and output of the transistor. The common base connection for both NPN and
PNP transistors is as shown in the following figure.

let us consider NPN transistor in CB configuration. When the emitter voltage is

applied, as it is forward biased, the electrons from the negative terminal repel the
emitter electrons and current flows through the emitter and base to the collector to
contribute collector current. The collector voltage VCB is kept constant throughout
this.
In the CB configuration, the input current is the emitter current IE and the output
current is the collector current IC.

Current Amplification Factor (α):

The ratio of change in collector current (ΔIC )to the change in emitter current (ΔIE) when
collector voltage VCB is kept constant, is called as Current amplification factor. It is denoted
by α.

α= ΔI
ΔI at constantVCB

47
Input Characteristics for CB Configuration of Transistor
Transistor:
The curve between emitter current IE and emitter base voltage VEB at constant collector
base voltage VCB shows in the fig the input characteristics of a CB configuration circuit
which describes the variation of emitter current, IE with Base-Emitter
Emitter voltage, VBE
keeping Collector-Base
Base voltage, VCB constant.

This leads to the expression for the input resistance as

Output Characteristics for CB Configuration of Transistor

Transistor:
The curve between collector current IC and collector base voltage VCB at constant
emitter current IE shows in the fig. The output characteristics of CB configuration
co
Figure show the variation of collector current, IC with VCB when the emitter current, IE
is held constant. From the graph shown,

The
he output resistance can be obtained as:
48
 B. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration
Configuration.

The name itself implies that the Emitter terminal is taken as common terminal for both
input and output of the transistor. The common emitter connection for both NPN and
PNP transistors is as shown in figure .

The emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse biased. The
input current
rent is the base current IB and the output current is the collector
current IC here.

Base Current Amplification factor β

The ratio of change in collector current ΔIC to the change in base current ΔIB is known as Base
Current Amplification Factor. It is denoted by β

β= at constant VCE

Input Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor:

49
The curve between base current IB and base emitter voltage VBE at constant collector
emitter voltage VCE shows in the Figure shows the input characteristics for the CE
configuration of transistor which illustrates the variation in IB in accordance with VBE
when VCE is kept constant.

The input resistance of the transistor can be obtained as

Output Characteristics for CE Configuration of Transistor:

The curve between collector current IC and collector emitter voltage VCE at constant
base current IB shows in the fig.. The output characteristics of CE configuration (Figure
11) are also referred to as collector characteristics. This plot shows the variation in IC
with the changes in VCE when IB is held constant.

50
From the graph shown, the output resistance can be obtained as:

C. Common Collector (CC) Configuration

Configuration.

The name itself implies that the Collector terminal is taken as common terminal for
both input and output of the transistor. The common collector connection for both
NPN and PNP transistors is as shown in the following figure.

Just as in CB and CE configurations, the emitter junction is forward biased and the
collector junction is reverse biased. The input current is the base current IB and the
output current is the emitter current IE here.
Current Amplification Factor γ
The ratio of change in emitter current ΔIE to the change in base current ΔIB is known
as Current Amplification factor in common collector CC configuration. It is denoted by γ
ΔIE
γ=
ΔIB

 The current gain in CC configuration is same as in CE configuration.

 The voltage gain in CC configuration is always less than 1.

51
Input Characteristics for CC Configuration of Transistor
Figure shows the input characteristics for CC configuration which describes the
variation in IB in accordance with VCB, for a constant value of Collector-Emitter
Collector
voltage, VCE.

Output Characteristics for CC Configuration of Transistor

Figure 7 below shows the output characteristics for the CC configuration which exhibit
the variations in IE against the changes in VCE for constant values of IB.

52
Relation between β and α
C
We know that β=
B
………………
………………1.

C
α= ………………
………………2.
E

IE=IB+IC

ΔIE=ΔIB+Δ
ΔIC

ΔIB=ΔIE−Δ
ΔIC …………… 3.

Put the value of ΔIB in equation 1 we get

C
β=
E− C

divide the denominator and numerator by ΔIE

C
α=
E

𝛂
β=
𝟏 𝛂

53
Comparison of Transistor Configuration

The following table shows the comparison of transistor configuration.

Characteristics Common Emitter Common Base Common Collector

Current Gain High No Considerable

Applications Audio frequency High frequency Impedance matching

Input Resistance Low Low Very high

Output Resistance High Very high Low

Voltage Gain Approx. 500 Approx. 150 Less than 1

54
 5. TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS
5.1 Transistor biasing:

The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper collector
emitter voltage during the passage of signal is known as Transistor Biasing. The circuit
which provides transistor biasing is called as Biasing Circuit.

Need for DC biasing

If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be amplified.
Because, for a BJT, to amplify a signal, two conditions have to be met.
 The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
 The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.

Factors affecting the operating point

The main factor that affects the operating point is the temperature. The operating
point shifts due to change in temperature.
As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected.

 ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)

 VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)
So the main problem which affects the operating point is temperature. Hence
operating point should be made independent of the temperature so as to achieve
stability. To achieve this, biasing circuits are introduced.

5.2 Stabilization

The process of making the operating point independent of temperature changes or

variations in transistor parameters is known as Stabilization.
Once the stabilization is achieved, the values of IC and VCE become independent of
temperature variations or replacement of transistor. A good biasing circuit helps in the
stabilization of operating point.

Need for Stabilization

55
Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following reasons.

 Temperature dependence of IC
 Individual variations
 Thermal runaway

Let us understand these concepts in detail.

Temperature Dependence of IC:

As the expression for collector current I C is

IC=βIB+ICEO

=βIB+(β+1)ICBO

The collector leakage current ICBO is greatly influenced by temperature variations. To

come out of this, the biasing conditions are set so that zero signal collector current I C = 1
mA. Therefore, the operating point needs to be stabilized i.e. it is necessary to keep
IC constant.

Individual Variations:

As the value of β and the value of VBE are not same for every transistor, whenever a
transistor is replaced, the operating point tends to change. Hence it is necessary to
stabilize the operating point.

Thermal Runaway:

As the expression for collector current I C is

IC=βIB+ICEO
=βIB+(β+1)ICBO
The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat
dissipation. If the operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect
which increases this heat dissipation.

56
The self-destruction of such an un-stabilized transistor is known as Thermal run
away.
In order to avoid thermal runaway and the destruction of transistor, it is necessary to
stabilize the operating point, i.e., to keep IC constant.

5.3 Stability Factor:

It is understood that IC should be kept constant in spite of variations of ICBO or ICO. The
extent to which a biasing circuit is successful in maintaining this is measured
by Stability factor. It denoted by S.
The rate of change of collector current IC with respect to the collector leakage current
ICO at constant β and IB is called Stability factor.

S=
dIC
at constant IB and β
dICO

The stability factor should be as low as possible so that the collector current doesn’t get
affected. S=1 is the ideal value.

The general expression of stability factor for a CE configuration can be obtained as

under.

IC=βIB+(β+1)ICO

Differentiating above expression with respect to I C, we get

57
Hence the stability factor S depends on β, I B and IC.

5.4 Different method of Transistors Biasing

Biasing:
The commonly used methods of transistor biasing are
are:

 Base Resistor method

 Collector to Base bias
 Voltage-divider bias

a. Base Resistor method::

In this method, a resistor RB of high resistance is connected in base, as the name
implies. The required zero signal base current is provided by V CC which flows through
RB. The base emitter junction is forward biased, as base is positive with respect to
emitter.
The required value of zero signal base current and hence the collector current (as I C =
βIB) can be made to flow by selecting the proper value of base resistor RB. Hence the

58
value of RB is to be known. The figure below shows how a base resistor method of
biasing circuit looks like.

Advantages:

 The circuit is simple.

 Only one resistor RE is required.
 Biasing conditions are set easily.
 No loading effect as no. resistor is present at base-emitter junction.

Disadvantages:

 The stabilization is poor as heat development can’t be stopped.

 The stability factor is very high. So, there are strong chances of thermal run
away. Hence, this method is rarely employed.

b. Voltage Divider Bias Method

The voltage divider bias method is the most widely used method. Here, two resistors
R1 and R2 are employed, which are connected to VCC and provide biasing. The resistor
RE employed in the emitter provides stabilization.

59
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider formed by R1 and R2. The
voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base
base-emitter
emitter junction. This causes the base
current and hence collector current flow in the zero signal conditions. The figure below
shows the circuit of voltage divider bias method.

60
 6. TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS & OSCILLATORS
6.1 Practical circuit of transistor amplifier:

The circuit of a practical transistor amplifier is as shown below, which represents a voltage divider
biasing circuit.

Biasing Circuit

The resistors R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization circuit, which helps in
establishing a proper operating point.

Input Capacitor Cin

This capacitor couples the input signal to the base of the transistor. The input capacitor
Cin allows AC signal, but isolates the signal source from R 2. If this capacitor is not
present, the input signal gets directly applied, which changes the bias at R 2.

Coupling Capacitor CC

This capacitor is present at the end of one stage and connects it to the other stage. As it
couples two stages it is called as coupling capacitor. This capacitor blocks DC of one

61
stage to enter the other but allows AC to pass. Hence it is also called as bloc king
capacitor.
Due to the presence of coupling capacitor CC, the output across the resistor RL is free
from the collector’s DC voltage. If this is not present, the bias conditions of the next
stage will be drastically changed due to the shunting effect of R C, as it would come in
parallel to R2 of the next stage.

Emitter by-pass capacitor CE

This capacitor is employed in parallel to the emitter resistor R E. The amplified AC

signal is by passed through this. If this is not present, that signal will pass through
RE which produces a voltage drop across RE that will feedback the input signal
reducing the output voltage.

The Load resistor RL

The resistance RL connected at the output is known as Load resistor. When a number
of stages are used, then RL represents the input resistance of the next stage.

Various Circuit currents

Let us go through various circuit currents in the complete amplifier circuit. These are
already mentioned in the above figure.

Base Current

When no signal is applied in the base circuit, DC base current IB flows due to biasing
circuit. When AC signal is applied, AC base current ib also flows. Therefore, with the
application of signal, total base current iB is given by
iB=IB+ib

Collector Current

When no signal is applied, a DC collector current IC flows due to biasing circuit. When
AC signal is applied, AC collector current ic also flows. Therefore, the total collector
current iC is given by

iC=IC+ic

62
Where
IC=βIB= zero signal collector current
ic=βic= collector current due to signal

Emitter Current

When no signal is applied, a DC emitter current IE flows. With the application of

signal, total emitter current iE is given by

iE=IE+ie
It should be remembered that

IE=IB+IC

ie=ib+ic
As base current is usually small, it is to be noted that

IE≅IC and ie≅ic

6.2 DC load line and DC equivalent circuit:

DC load line:

The D.C load line is a line on the output characteristics of a transistor which gives the value of IC and
VCE corresponding to zero signal conditions.

The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will be

63
 VCE=VCC−ICRC
As VCC and RC are fixed values, the above one is a first degree equation and hence will
be a straight line on the output characteristics. This line is called as D.C. Load line.
The figure below shows the DC load line.

To obtain the load line, the two end points of the straight line are to be determined. Let
those two points be A and B.

To obtain A

When collector emitter voltage VCE = 0, the collector current is maximum and is equal
to VCC/RC. This gives the maximum value of VCE. This is shown as

VCE=VCC−ICRC

0=VCC−ICRC

IC=VCC/RC

This gives the point A (OA = VCC/RC) on collector current axis, shown in the above
figure.

To obtain B

When the collector current IC = 0, then collector emitter voltage is maximum and will
be equal to the VCC. This gives the maximum value of IC. This is shown as

VCE=VCC−ICRC
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 =VCC

(AS IC = 0)
This gives the point B, which means (OB = V CC) on the collector emitter voltage axis
shown in the above figure.
Hence we got both the saturation and cutoff point determined and learnt that the load
line is a straight line. So, a DC load line can be drawn.
DC equivalent circuit:

In D.C. equivalent circuit of a transistor amplifier, only d.c condition are to be consider
i.e. no signal is applied. As dc current can not flow through a capacitor therefore all the
capacitors look like open circuits in the d.c. equivalent circuit.

Following
ng two steps are applied to the transistor ckt:

I. Reduce all a.c. source to zero

II. Open all the capacitor
Applying above two steps we get from above circuit

Fig-1

65
 Fi-2 DC equivalent ckt of fig-1

AC equivalent circuit:
In the a.c. equivalent circuit of transistor amplifier, only AC condition are to be
consider
Following Two steps are applied the transistor circuit:
a. Reduce all d.c source to zero( i.e. I cc =0)
b. Short all the capacitor

Fig-3 AC equivalent ckt of Fig =1

6.4 Calculation of gain

gain:

1. Graphical Method

The graphical method to calculate the current gain and voltage gain of the
amplifier.

66
The out put characteristics are shown in fig.

First we draw the d.c. and ac load lines. The slope of dc load line is -1/R dc while
the slope a.c. load line -1/Rac . Here, Rdc=Rc +Re and Rac =RL||RC

From the fig that collector current varies between (IC) max and (IC) min. While
the collector-emitter voltage varies between (Vce) max and (Vce) min . Let a.c. voltage
varies between (Vi) max and (Vi) min the current gain and voltage gain are given

67
2. Using Circuit Analysis

68
6.5 Phase reversal

The phase difference of 1800 between the signal voltage and output voltage in
common emitter amplifier is known as Phase reversal.

6.10 Multi stage transistor amplifier

A transistor ckt contains more than One stage of amplification is known as

multistage transistor amplifier

In a multistage amplifier, a number of single amplifier are connected in cascade

arrangement . i.e. out of first stage is connected to the input of the second stage
through a suitable coupling device and so on

Type of coupling used:

1. R.C Coupling
2. Transformer coupling
3. Direct coupling

69
 6.10.1 R.C. coupled amplifier:

The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit is shown in

below

The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE configuration and a
common power supply VCC is used. The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor
Re form the biasing and stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor C e offers a low
reactance path to the signal.

The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor C in present at the initial stage
of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor C C is the coupling
capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the stages and
controls the shift of operating point. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled
amplifier.

Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and appears
at the collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor C C to the next
stage.

This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output again appears across its
collector load. Thus the signal is amplified in stage by stage action.

70
The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product of
the gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the first
stage, the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the
input resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the last
stage remains unchanged.
As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because the
phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain and
function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in the
following graph.

From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the
frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for
the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies, the
reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cin and the coupling capacitor CC are
so high that only small part of the input signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass
capacitor CE is also very high during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter
resistance effectively. With all these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.

71
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)
Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at high
frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As a result of this,
the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain. Along with this,
as the capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it increases the base current of the transistor due
to which the current gain (β) reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.

At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)

The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies, as shown
in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor CC decreases which tends to
increase the gain. But this lower capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of the next
stage by which there is a reduction in gain.
Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.

Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier.
 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.

Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the applications of RC coupled amplifier.
 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.
 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.

6.10.2 Transformer coupled amplifier

When they are coupled to make a multistage amplifier, the high output impedance of one
stage comes in parallel with the low input impedance of next stage. Hence, effective load
resistance is decreased. This problem can be overcome by a transformer coupled amplifier.
In a transformer-coupled amplifier, the stages of amplifier are coupled using a transformer.
Let us go into the constructional and operational details of a transformer coupled amplifier.

Construction of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The amplifier circuit in which, the previous stage is connected to the next stage using a
coupling transformer, is called as Transformer coupled amplifier .
72
The coupling transformer T1 is used to feed the output of 1st stage to the input of 2nd stage.
The collector load is replaced by the primary winding of the transformer. The secondary
winding is connected between the potential divider and the base of 2nd stage, which provides
the input to the 2nd stage. Instead of coupling capacitor like in RC coupled amplifier, a
transformer is used for coupling any two stages, in the transformer coupled amplifier circuit.

The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re together form the biasing and
stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to the
signal. The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the
initial stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor CC is
the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the
stages and controls the shift of operating point.

Operation of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

When an AC signal is applied to the input of the base of the first transistor then it gets
amplified by the transistor and appears at the collector to which the primary of the
transformer is connected.
The transformer which is used as a coupling device in this circuit has the property of
impedance changing, which means the low resistance of a stage (or load) can be reflected as a
high load resistance to the previous stage. Hence the voltage at the primary is transferred
according to the turns ratio of the secondary winding of the transformer.

73
This transformer coupling provides good impedance matching between the stages of
amplifier. The transformer coupled amplifier is generally used for power amplification.

Frequency Response of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The figure below shows the frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier. The gain
of the amplifier is constant only for a small range of frequencies. The output voltage is equal to
the collector current multiplied by the reactance of primary.

At low frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in decreased gain. At high
frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass condenser to reduce
the output voltage and hence gain.
So, the amplification of audio signals will not be proportionate and some distortion will also
get introduced, which is called as Frequency distortion.

Advantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The following are the advantages of a transformer coupled amplifier −

 An excellent impedance matching is provided.

 Gain achieved is higher.
 There will be no power loss in collector and base resistors.
 Efficient in operation.

Disadvantages of Transformer Coupled Amplifier

The following are the disadvantages of a transformer coupled amplifier −

74
  Though the gain is high, it varies considerably with frequency. Hence a poor frequency
response.
 Frequency distortion is higher.
 Transformers tend to produce hum noise.
 Transformers are bulky and costly.

Applications
The following are the applications of a transformer coupled amplifier −

 Mostly used for impedance matching purposes.

 Used for Power amplification.
 Used in applications where maximum power transfer is needed.

75
6.11 Feed back in amplifier
The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device back to the input is known as
Feedback

Principle of Feedback Amplifier

A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are the amplifier and the feedback
circuit.

From the above figure, the gain of the amplifier is represented as A. the gain of the amplifier is
the ratio of output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi. the feedback network extracts a voltage
Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.

This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for negative Let us consider the
case of negative feedback. The output Vo must be equal to the input voltage (Vs - βVo)
multiplied by the gain A of the amplifier. feedback, from the signal voltage V s. Now,

Vi=Vs+Vf=Vs+βVo (Positive feedback)

Vi=Vs−Vf=Vs−βVo (Negative Feed back)

The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback fraction.

Let us consider the case of negative feedback. The output V o must be equal to the input voltage
(Vs - βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the amplifier.
76
Hence,

(Vs−βVo)A=Vo
Or
AVs−AβVo=Vo
OR

AVs=Vo(1+Aβ)
Therefore,
V
V =
Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the amplifier. This is defined as the ratio
of output voltage Vo to the applied signal voltage Vs, i.e.,

Outputvoltage
Af= Inputsignalvoltage = VV

So, from the above two equations, we can understand that,

The equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with negative feedback is
given by
A
Af = 1+Aβ

he equation of gain of the feedback amplifier, with positive feedback is

given by

Af =

Negative Feedback
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or current is out of phase with
the input and thus opposes it, is called as negative feedback.

77
In negative feedback, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of 180 o into the circuit while the
feedback network is so designed that it produces no phase shift or zero phase shift. Thus the
resultant feedback voltage Vf is 180o out of phase with the input signal Vin.

Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there are many advantages of
negative feedback such as

 Stability of gain is improved

 Reduction in distortion
 Reduction in noise
 Increase in input impedance
 Decrease in output impedance
 Increase in the range of uniform application
It is because of these advantages negative feedback is frequently employed in amplifiers .

There are two main types of negative feedback circuits. They are −

 Negative Voltage Feedback

 Negative Current Feedback

Negative Voltage Feedback:

In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the output
voltage. This is further classified into two types −

 Voltage-series feedback
 Voltage-shunt feedback

Negative Current Feedback:

In this method, the voltage feedback to the input of amplifier is proportional to the output
current. This is further classified into two types.

 Current-series feedback
 Current-shunt feedback

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Voltage-Series Feedback
In the voltage series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with
the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as shunt-driven series-
fed feedback, i.e., a parallel-series circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of voltage series feedback, by which it is
evident that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output but in series with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output, the output impedance is
decreased and due to the series connection with the input, the input impedance is increased .

Voltage-Shunt Feedback
In the voltage shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in parallel with
the input voltage through the feedback network. This is also known as shunt-driven shunt-
fed feedback i.e., a parallel-parallel proto type.
The below figure shows the block diagram of voltage shunt feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in shunt with the output and also with the input.

79
As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output and the input as well, both the
output impedance and the input impedance are decreased .

Current-Series Feedback
In the current series feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with
the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven series-
fed feedback i.e., a series-series circuit.
The following figure shows the block diagram of current series feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output and also with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output and the input as well, both the
output impedance and the input impedance are increased.

Current-Shunt Feedback
In the current shunt feedback circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in series with
the input voltage through the feedback circuit. This is also known as series-driven shunt-
fed feedback i.e., a series-parallel circuit.
80
The below figure shows the block diagram of current shunt feedback, by which it is evident
that the feedback circuit is placed in series with the output but in parallel with the input.

As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output, the output impedance is
increased and due to the parallel connection with the input, the input impedance is decreased .

6.12 Power amplifier and its classification

A transistor amplifier which raises the power level of the signals that have audio frequency
range is known as Transistor audio power amplifier

After the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, it has several voltage amplifications
done, after which the power amplification of the amplified signal is done just before the loud
speaker stage. This is clearly shown in the below figure.

While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal, the power amplifier raises the
power level of the signal. Besides raising the power level, it can also be said that a power
amplifier is a device which converts DC power to AC power and whose action is controlled by
the input signal.

Classification Based on Frequencies

Power amplifiers are divided into two categories, based on the frequencies they handle. They
are as follows.

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  Audio Power Amplifiers − The audio power amplifiers raise the power level of
signals that have audio frequency range (20 Hz to 20 KHz). They are also known
as Small signal power amplifiers.
 Radio Power Amplifiers − Radio Power Amplifiers or tuned power amplifiers
raise the power level of signals that have radio frequency range (3 KHz to 300 GHz).
They are also known as large signal power amplifiers.

Classification Based on Mode of Operation

On the basis of the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input cycle during which collector
current flows, the power amplifiers may be classified as follows .

 Class A Power amplifier − When the collector current flows at all times during the
full cycle of signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.
 Class B Power amplifier − When the collector current flows only during the
positive half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B power
amplifier.
 Class C Power amplifier − When the collector current flows for less than half cycle
of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C power amplifier.
There forms another amplifier called Class AB amplifier, if we combine the class A and
class B amplifiers so as to utilize the advantages of both.
Before going into the details of these amplifiers, let us have a look at the important
terms that have to be considered to determine the efficiency of an amplifier.

6.12.1 Difference between voltage amplifier and power amplifier

Voltage Amplifier
The function of a voltage amplifier is to raise the voltage level of the signal. A voltage
amplifier is designed to achieve maximum voltage amplification.
The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by

Av=β( )
The characteristics of a voltage amplifier are as follows −
 The base of the transistor should be thin and hence the value of β should be greater than
100.
 The resistance of the input resistor Rin should be low when compared to collector load
R C.
 The collector load RC should be relatively high. To permit high collector load, the
voltage amplifiers are always operated at low collector current.
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  The voltage amplifiers are used for small signal voltages.

Power Amplifier
The function of a power amplifier is to raise the power level of input signal. It is required to
deliver a large amount of power and has to handle large current.
The characteristics of a power amplifier are as follows −
 The base of transistor is made thicken to handle large currents. The value of β being (β <
100)
 The size of the transistor is made larger, in order to dissipate more heat, which is
produced during transistor operation.
 Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching.
 Collector resistance is made low.
6.12.2 Transformer coupled class A power amplifier
The circuit in which the output current flows for the entire cycle of the AC input supply. it has
such as low output power and efficiency. In order to minimize those effects, the transformer
coupled class A power amplifier has been introduced.
The construction of class A power amplifier can be understood with the help of below figure.
This is similar to the normal amplifier circuit but connected with a transformer in the collector
load.

Here R1 and R2 provide potential divider arrangement. The resistor Re provides stabilization,
Ce is the bypass capacitor and Re to prevent a.c. voltage. The transformer used here is a step-
down transformer.
The high impedance primary of the transformer is connected to the high impedance collector
circuit. The low impedance secondary is connected to the load (generally loud speaker).

83
Transformer Action
The transformer used in the collector circuit is for impedance matching. R L is the load
connected in the secondary of a transformer. RL’ is the reflected load in the primary of the
transformer.
The number of turns in the primary are n1 and the secondary are n2. Let V1 and V2 be the
primary and secondary voltages and I1 and I2 be the primary and secondary currents
respectively. The below figure shows the transformer clearly.

Circuit Operation
If the peak value of the collector current due to signal is equal to zero signal collector current,
then the maximum a.c. power output is obtained. So, in order to achieve complete
amplification, the operating point should lie at the center of the load line.
The operating point obviously varies when the signal is applied. The collector voltage varies in
opposite phase to the collector current. The variation of collector voltage appears across the
primary of the transformer.

Advantages
The advantages of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.

 No loss of signal power in the base or collector resistors.

 Excellent impedance matching is achieved.
 Gain is high.
 DC isolation is provided.

84
Applications
The applications of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.
 This circuit is where impedance matching is the main criterion.
 These are used as driver amplifiers and sometimes as output amplifiers.
6.12.3 Class A push – pull amplifier
It is possible to obtain greater power output and efficiency than that of the Class A amplifier
by using a combinational transistor pair called as Push-Pull configuration.

In this circuit, we use two identical transistors T1 and T2 are used, connected in order to
operate them like PUSH a transistor to ON and PULL another transistor to OFF at the same
time. This push-pull configuration can be made in class A, class B, class C or class AB
amplifiers.
Construction of Push-Pull Class A Power Amplifier

The construction of the class A power amplifier circuit in push-pull configuration is

shown as in the figure below. This arrangement mainly reduces the harmonic distortion
introduced by the non-linearity of the transfer characteristics of a single transistor amplifier.
In Push-pull arrangement, the two identical transistors T 1 and T2 have their emitter terminals
shorted. The input signal is applied to the transistors through the transformer T r1 which
provides opposite polarity signals to both the transistor bases. The collectors of both the
transistors are connected to the primary of output transformer T r2. Both the transformers are
center tapped. The VCC supply is provided to the collectors of both the transistors through the
primary of the output transformer.
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The resistors R1 and R2 provide the biasing arrangement. The load is generally a loudspeaker
which is connected across the secondary of the output transformer. The turns ratio of the
output transformer is chosen in such a way that the load is well matched with the output
impedance of the transistor. So maximum power is delivered to the load by the amplifier.

Circuit Operation
The output is collected from the output transformer Tr2. The primary of this transformer Tr2 has
practically no dc component through it. The transistors T1 and T2 have their collectors
connected to the primary of transformer Tr2 so that their currents are equal in magnitude and
flow in opposite directions through the primary of transformer Tr2.
When the a.c. input signal is applied, the base of transistor T 1 is more positive while the base of
transistor T2 is less positive. Hence the collector current ic1 of transistor T1 increases while the
collector current ic2 of transistor T2 decreases. These currents flow in opposite directions in two
halves of the primary of output transformer. Moreover, the flux produced by these currents
will also be in opposite directions.
Hence, the voltage across the load will be induced voltage whose magnitude will be
proportional to the difference of collector currents i.e.

(ic1−ic2)
Similarly, for the negative input signal, the collector current ic2 will be more than ic1. In this
case, the voltage developed across the load will again be due to the difference

(ic1−ic2)

As ic2>ic1
The polarity of voltage induced across load will be reversed.

ic1−ic2=ic1+(−ic2)
To have a better understanding, let us consider the below figure.

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The overall operation results in an a.c. voltage induced in the secondary of
output transformer and hence a.c. power is delivered to that load.
It is understood that, during any given half cycle of input signal, one transistor is
being driven (or pushed) deep into conduction while the other being non-
conducting (pulled out). Hence the name Push-pull amplifier. The harmonic
distortion in Push-pull amplifier is minimized such that all the even harmonics
are eliminated.

Advantages
The advantages of class A Push-pull amplifier are as follows
 High a.c. output is obtained.
 The output is free from even harmonics.
 The effect of ripple voltages are balanced out. These are present in the power supply
due to inadequate filtering.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of class A Push-pull amplifier are as follows

 The transistors are to be identical, to produce equal amplification.

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  Center-tapping is required for the transformers.
 The transformers are bulky and costly.
6.12.4 Class B push – pull amplifier
Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only one half
cycle of the input is used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is not completely
utilized. In order to compensate these problems, the push-pull configuration is introduced in
class B amplifier.
Construction
The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two identical transistors T 1 and
T2 whose bases are connected to the secondary of the center-tapped input transformer T r1. The
emitters are shorted and the collectors are given the VCC supply through the primary of the
output transformer Tr2.
The circuit arrangement of class B push-pull amplifier, is same as that of class A push-pull
amplifier except that the transistors are biased at cut off, instead of using the biasing resistors.
The figure below gives the detailing of the construction of a push-pull class B power amplifier .

Operation
The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier shown in the above figure clears that both the
transformers are center-tapped. When no signal is applied at the input, the transistors T 1 and
T2 are in cut off condition and hence no collector currents flow. As no current is drawn from
VCC, no power is wasted.
When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer Tr1 which splits the signal
into two signals that are 180o out of phase with each other. These two signals are given to the
two identical transistors T1 and T2. For the positive half cycle, the base of the transistor

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T1 becomes positive and collector current flows. At the same time, the transistor T 2 has
negative half cycle, which throws the transistor T2 into cutoff condition and hence no collector
current flows.
For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition and the transistor T2 gets
into conduction, to contribute the output. Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts
alternately.

6.13 Oscillators
Oscillators are electronic circuits that generate a continuous periodic waveform at a precise frequency
Oscillators convert a DC input (the supply voltage) into an AC output (the waveform)
Oscillators are used in many pieces of test equipment producing either sinusoidal sine waves,
square, sawtooth or triangular shaped waveforms or just a train of repetative pulses of a
variable or constant width.

Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a transistor amplifier, and a feedback circuit.
 Tank Circuit − The tank circuit consists of an inductance L connected in parallel with
capacitor C. The values of these two components determine the frequency of the
oscillator circuit and hence this is called as Frequency determining circuit.
 Transistor Amplifier − The output of the tank circuit is connected to the amplifier
circuit so that the oscillations produced by the tank circuit are amplified here. Hence the
output of these oscillations are increased by the amplifier.
 Feedback Circuit − The function of feedback circuit is to transfer a part of the output
energy to LC circuit in proper phase. This feedback is positive in oscillators while
negative in amplifiers.
6.13.1 Types of oscillators

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 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR:
A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal semiconductor device. Its operation is
based on a controlled input voltage

 FET is low noise device

 FET is normally used in high impedance requirement
 It can be used an amplifier or switch
 Its operation depends upon the flow of majority carrier(i.e. Either electron or
holes)
 It is a voltage controlled device whose output drain current (I D) can be controlled
by applied input voltage between Gate and source terminal.

Terminal details of JFET:

 Source − It is the entry point for majority carriers through which they enter into the
semiconductor bar.
 Drain − It is the exit point for majority carriers through which they leave the
semiconductor bar.
 Gate – The two P-region are internally connected and a single lead is brought out this is
called Gate terminal.
 Channel − It is the area of N type material through which majority carriers pass from
the source to drain.

Classification of Field effect Transistor (FET)

Most commonly two types of FETs are available.

 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)

 Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (IGFET)

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 Further Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) are two type N-Channel JFET and P-
Channel JFET.

N-Channel JFET
It has a thin layer of N type material formed on P type substrate. Following figure shows the
crystal structure and schematic symbol of an N-channel JFET. Then the gate is formed on top
of the N channel with P type material. At the end of the channel and the gate, lead wires are
attached and the substrate has no connection.
When a DC voltage source is connected to the source and the drain leads of a JFET, maximum
current will flow through the channel. The same amount of current will flow from the source
and the drain terminals. The amount of channel current flow will be determined by the value
of VDD and the internal resistance of the channel.
A typical value of source-drain resistance of a JFET is quite a few hundred ohms. It is clear that
even when the gate is open full current conduction will take place in the channel. Essentially,
the amount of bias voltage applied at ID, controls the flow of current carriers passing through
the channel of a JFET. With a small change in gate voltage, JFET can be controlled anywhere
between full conduction and cutoff state.

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 P-Channel JFETs
It has a thin layer of P type material formed on N type substrate. The following figure
shows the crystal structure and schematic symbol of an N-channel JFET. The gate is
formed on top of the P channel with N type material. At the end of the channel and the
gate, lead wires are attached. Rest of the construction details are similar to that of N-
channel JFET.

Normally for general operation, the gate terminal is made positive with respect to the
source terminal. The size of the P-N junction depletion layer depends upon fluctuations
in the values of reverse biased gate voltage. With a small change in gate voltage, JFET
can be controlled anywhere between full conduction and cutoff state.

Output Characteristics of JFET

The output characteristics of JFET are drawn between drain current (I D) and drain source
voltage (VDS) at constant gate source voltage (VGS) as shown in the following figure.

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Initially, the drain current (ID) rises rapidly with drain source voltage (VDS) however suddenly
becomes constant at a voltage known as pinch-off voltage (VP). Above pinch-off voltage, the
channel width becomes so narrow that it allows very small drain current to pass through it.
Therefore, drain current (ID) remains constant above pinch-off voltage .

Parameters of JFET
The main parameters of JFET are −

 AC drain resistance (Rd)

 Transconductance
 Amplification factor

AC drain resistance (Rd): − It is the ratio of change in the drain source voltage (ΔVDS) to
the change in drain current (ΔID) at constant gate-source voltage. It can be expressed as,
Rd = (ΔVDS)/(ΔID) at Constant VGS
Transconductance (gfs) − It is the ratio of change in drain current (ΔID) to the change in
gate source voltage (ΔVGS) at constant drain-source voltage. It can be expressed as,
gfs = (ΔID)/(ΔVGS) at constant VDS
Amplification Factor (u) − It is the ratio of change in drain-source voltage (ΔVDS) to the
change in gate source voltage (ΔVGS) constant drain current (ΔID). It can be expressed as,
u = (ΔVDS)/(ΔVGS) at constant ID

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 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS:
8.1 Pin configuration IC – CA – 741 OP AMP

 Pin 1 is Offset null.:

 An offset null- adjustment potentiometer is used to compensate for offset voltage

 The null-offset potentiometer is used to compensate for irregularities in the
opamp manufacturing process which may cause an offset

 Pin 2 is Inverting input terminal.

 All input signals at this pin will be inverted at output pin

 Pin 3 is a non-inverting input terminal.

 All input signals at this pin will be processed normally without inversion

 Pin 4 is negative voltage supply (VCC):

 Pin 5 is offset null.
 Pin 6 is the output voltage.
 Pin 7 is positive voltage supply (+VCC)
 Pin 8 has no connection.

8.2 Operational amplifier stages

The block diagram of the Operational Amplifier is shown in the following figure.

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The op-amp consist of mainly four stages

1. Input stage:
2. Intermediate Stage:
3. Level shifting stage:
4. Output Stage:

Input stage:

 The Input stage is a dual-input and balanced output differential amplifier

 This stage provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier for the next stage of operation
 It provides the high input impedance

Intermediate Stage:

 This stage is dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier, which is driven by the
output of first stage.
 So, in this stage, the DC voltage is greater than the ground potential or 0V.

Level shifting stage:

 Since direct coupling is used, therefore the DC voltage at the output of intermediate stage
is above the ground potential so suppress the dc level down to zero volts with respect to
ground
 Intermediate stage increases the overall gain of the op-amp.
 It is dual input unbalanced output differential amplifier.

Output Stage:

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  In this stage, the push-pull amplifier is used
 The output of the level-shifting stage is given to the input of the push-pull amplifier.
 The push-pull amplifier increases the output voltage and high current-delivering
capability of the operational amplifier.
 It provides a low output resistance.

8.3 Equivalent circuit of operational amplifier

The output voltage is given by

Vout = AVd = A (V1 – V2)

Here, AVd is equivalent Thevenin’s voltage source and Rout is Thevenin’s equivalent resistance.

8.4 Open loop OP-AMP configuration:

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