PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 2022

Experiment 4: p-n junction diode and Zener diode

p-n junction diode

Aim: To obtain the forward and reverse bias characteristics of the given diodes and to find the
static and dynamic resistances.

Apparatus: p-n Junction Diode Characteristic Trainer, Voltmeter, Ammeter (mA, µA),
Connecting wires.

Theory: A diode consists of P-type and D-type impurities fused together to form a PN
junction. The PN junction will permit current to flow through it in one direction only. It
will not allow the current to flow through it in the reverse direction. The basis property
of the diode is thus unidirectional current flow. The diode has two terminals P and N.

If the positive terminal of a power supply is connected to the P-side and negative terminal
of the supply to the N-side, the diode is said to be forward -biased. If the P-side of the
diode is connected to the negative terminal of the supply and the N-side of the diode to
the positive terminal of the supply, the diode is said to be reverse-biased.

When the diode is forward-biased, the barrier potential at junction reduces. The majority
carriers then diffuse across the junction. This causes current flow through the diode. In
reverse bias, the barrier potential increases, and almost no current can flow through the
diode.

From V-I characteristics or simply characteristics, we can observe the response of the
device, when it is connected in an electrical circuit. V-I characteristics is a graph between
the voltage applied across its terminals and the current that flows through it. It tells us
how much diode current flows for a particular value of diode voltage.

The fig(a) below shows the PN junction, represented by its schematic symbol

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The P region of the diode is called the anode, and the N region the cathode. The symbol
looks like an arrow pointing from the P region to the N region. It serves as a remainder o
us that the conventional current flows easily from the P region to the N region of the
diode.

In fig(b) shown below, the DC battery is pushing the conventional current in the same
direction as the diode arrow. Hence the diode is forward biased diode, a resistance R is
included in the circuit so as to limit the current. If excessive current is permitted to flow
through the diode, it may get permanently damaged. The pot helps in varying the voltage
applied to the diode. The milli ammeter measures the current in the circuit. The voltmeter
measures the voltage across the diode.

Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:

A) FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS –ve
is connected to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps
of 0.1V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across
the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (Vf) on X-axis and current (If) on Y-axis.

B) REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS –ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps of
1V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the
diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (VR) on X-axis and current (IR) on Y-axis.

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Observation Table:

(A) Forward Bias

S. No. Applied Voltage (V) Forward Voltage (Vf) Forward Current

(If(mA))

(A) Reverse Bias

Applied Voltage (V) Reverse Voltage (Vr) Reverse Current

S. No. (Ir(mA))

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Model Graph:

Calculations:

Calculation of Static and Dynamic Resistance for a given diode.

In forward bias condition: Static Resistance, Rs = Vf/If =

Dynamic Resistance, RD = ∆Vf/ ∆If =

In Reverse bias condition: Static Resistance, Rs = VR/IR =

Dynamic Resistance, RD = ∆VR/ ∆IR=

Result: I-V characteristics of p-n junction diode are plotted and studied.

Viva-Voice Questions:

1. Define energy gap.

2. How p-n junction is formed?

3. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

4. What happens to depletion width of p-n junction diode in case of forward and reverse bias.

5. Explain depletion layer in p-n junction.

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Zener Diode

AIM: To plot the V-I characteristics of a zener diode and to calculate the dynamic resistance of
the diode under reverse-biased condition.

APPARATUS: Zener diode characteristics trainer kit, Voltmeter, Ammeter (mA), Connecting
wires.

Theory: A PN junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse
bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called
breakdown voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage it.

To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with it. Once the diode starts conducting, it
maintains almost constant voltage across its terminals whatever may be the current through it.
That is, it has very low dynamic resistance. A zener diode is a PN-junction diode, specially made
to work in the breakdown region.

From the VI characteristics of the zener diode, shown in figure below it is found that the operation
of zener diode is same as that of ordinary PN diode under forward-biased condition. Whereas
under reverse biased condition, breakdown of the junction occurs. The breakdown voltage
depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin
and, consequently, breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage and further, the breakdown
voltage is sharp. Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. Thus break
down voltage can be selected with the amount of doping.

The sharp increasing currents under breakdown conditions are due to the following two
mechanisms. 1) Avalanche breakdown. 2) Zener breakdown.

AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN: As the applied reverse bias increases, the field across the
junction increases correspondingly. Thermally generated carriers while traversing the junction
acquire a large amount of Kinetic energy from this field. As a result the velocity of these carriers

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increases. These electrons disrupt covalent bond by colliding with immobile ions and create new
electron-hole pairs. These new carriers again acquire sufficient energy from the field and collide
with other immobile ions thereby generating further electron-hole pairs. This process is
cumulative in nature and results in generation of avalanche of charge carriers within a short time.
This mechanism of carrier generation is known as Avalanche multiplication. This process results
in flow of large amount of current at the same value of reverse bias.

ZENER BREAKDOWN: When the P and N regions are heavily doped, direct rupture of covalent
bonds takes place because of the strong electric fields, at the junction of PN diode. The new
electron-hole pairs so created increase the reverse current in a reverse biased PN diode. The
increase in current takes place at a constant value of reverse bias typically below 6V for heavily
doped diodes. As a result of heavy doping of P and N regions, the depletion region width
becomes very small and for an applied voltage of 6V or less, the field across the depletion region
becomes very high, of the order of 107V/m, making conditions suitable for zener breakdown. For
lightly doped diodes, zener breakdown voltage becomes high and breakdown is then
predominantly by Avalanche multiplication. Though zener breakdown occurs for lower
breakdown voltage and Avalanche breakdown occurs for higher breakdown voltage, such diodes
are normally called zener diodes.The zener effect is predominant for breakdown voltages less
than about 4V. The avalanche break down is predominant for voltages greater than 6V. Between
4 and 6V, both effects are present. It is the zener effect that was first discovered, and the term
zener diode is in wide use for a break down diode whether it uses zener effect or avalanche effect,
or both. If the applied reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, a zener diode acts like a
constant-voltage source. For this reason, a zener diode is also called voltage reference diode.

Circuit diagram:

Forward Bias Condition:

Reverse Bias condition:

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Procedure:

1. Connect the supply, which is provided on the trainer to the input voltage terminals.
2. Connect milli ammeter to the terminals.
3. Connect either of the two zeners to the diode terminals and voltmeter to the V terminals.
4. By increasing input voltage in regular steps, note down the current and voltage readings.
5. Repeat the same procedure for reverse bias circuit also.
6. Plot the graph between Vz and Iz.
7. Calculate the dynamic resistance of zener diode in break down region, Dynamic resistance
rd = VZ/IZ.
8. Repeat the same procedure for another zener diode.

Observation table:

(a) Forward bias:

Vz (Volts) Iz (mA)

(b) Reverse Bias:

Vz (Volts) Iz (mA)

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Model Graph:

Result: I-V characteristics of Zener diode are plotted and studied.

Viva-voice Questions:

1. What is a Zener diode?

2. What is meant by a junction diode?

3. What is meant by reverse breakdown?

4. What is the cause of reverse breakdown?

5. What is zener current?

6. What is meant by the break down voltage of a diode

7. What are the differences between an ordinary diode and zener diode?

8. What is the use of a zener diode?

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Experiment 5: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Aim: To study the characteristics of given BJT transistor for the common emitter, common base
and common collector configurations.

Apparatus: BJT characteristics trainer kit, Ammeter, Voltmeter, patch chords.

Theory:

A Bipolar Junction Transistor, or BJT is a three terminal device having two PN-junctions
connected together in series. Each terminal is given a name to identify it and these are known as
the Emitter (E), Base (B) and Collector (C). There are two basic types of bipolar transistor
construction, NPN and PNP, which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type
and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made. Bipolar Transistors are
"CURRENT" Amplifying or current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing
through them in proportion to the amount of biasing current applied to their base terminal.

The principle of operation of the two transistor types NPN and PNP, is exactly the same the only
difference being in the biasing (base current) and the polarity of the power supply for each type.
The symbols for both the NPN and PNP bipolar transistor are shown above along with the
direction of conventional current flow.

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The direction of the arrow in the symbol shows current flow between the base and emitter
terminal, pointing from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region, exactly the same
as for the standard diode symbol. For normal operation, the emitter-base junction is forward-
biased and the collector-base junction is reverse-biased.

Transistor Configurations: There are three possible configurations possible when a transistor is
connected in a circuit: (a) Common base, (b) Common emitter (c) Common collector. We will be
focusing on the first two configurations in this experiment. The behaviour of a transistor can

be represented by d.c. current-voltage (I-V) curves, called the static characteristic curves of the
device. The three important characteristics of a transistor are: (i) Input characteristics, (ii) Output
characteristics and (iii) Transfer Characteristics. These characteristics give information about
various transistor parameters, e.g. input and out dynamic resistance, current amplification PNP
NPN 10 factors, etc.

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