BASIC ELECTRONICS

LABORATORY MANUAL

DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING

FINAL YEAR 5TH SEM

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC KORBA

(AFFILIATED BY CSVTU BHILAI)
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S. No. Experiment Remark

1 Test the performance of P-N Junction Diode in the forward
and reverse biased condition.
2 Test the performance of the given LED Diode.

3 Test the input and output waveform of half wave rectifier:

a) Without filter.
b) With filter.
4 Test the input and output waveform of half wave rectifier:
a) Without filter.
b) With filter.
5 Test the performance of Zener Diode.
6 Test the output waveform of :

a) Positive Clipper

b) Negative Clipper
7 Test the output waveform of :

a) Positive Clamper

b) Negative Clamper
8 Determine the current gain of BJT in Common Emitter
configuration with the help of input output characteristics.
9 Test the performance of Field Effect Transistor (FET).
10 Test the performance of non-inverting amplifier.
 Experiment No: 1

Aim:

Test the performance of P-N Junction Diode in the forward and reverse biased condition.

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipment:

P-N Junction Diode test kit. Or

Name Range Quantity

Bread board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 0-200µA/200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:
 Silicon Diode 1N 4007: Theory:

Donor impurities (pentavalent) are

Max Forward Current = 1A
introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities
Max Reverse Current = 5.0µA
into the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic
Max Forward Voltage = 0.8V semiconductor to form a p-n diode
with a junction called depletion region (this
Max Power Dissipation = 30mW
region is depleted off the charge carriers). This
region gives rise to a potential barrier called Cut-in
Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at which it starts conducting. The P-N junction can conduct
beyond this potential.

The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected the
cathode. Then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential
barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the
holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a
forward current from n-side (injected minority current – due to holes crossing the junction and
entering P- side of the diode). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the
diode can be approximated as short- circuited switch.

If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this
condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier
at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the
junction there by increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue
indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode.
This current is negligible hence the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the following equations

I = IO e VD
η VT − 1
Where I = current flowing in the diode, I0 = reverse saturation current VD = Voltage applied to
the diode

VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV (@ room temp)

= 1(for Ge) and 2 (for Si)

It is observed that Ge diodes has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The
reverse saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the components as shown in the Fig.1.

2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the Silicon diode varies from 0 to
0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to 0.76 V.

3. In each step record the current flowing through the diode as I.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the diode in the reverse bias as shown in the Fig.2.

2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the diode varies from 0 to 10V in
steps of 1 V. Record the current flowing through the diode in each step.

3. Record the current flowing through the diode in each step.

4. Now plot a graph between the voltage across the diode and the current flowing through
the diode in forward and reverse bias. This graph is called the V-I characteristics of the
diodes.

Observations:

(a) Forward & Reverse bias characteristics of Silicon P-N junction diode

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

S. No. Forward Forward S. No. Reverse Reverse

Voltage Current Voltage Current
across the through the across the through the
diode diode diode diode

Vd (Volt) Id (mA) VR (Volt) IR (µA)

Graphs:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the
graph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as Vf, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as If and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for Si P-N junction diode forward biased condition in
first Quadrant and Si P-N junction diode reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.
Calculations from Graph:

Static forward Resistance

Static Reverse Resistance

Dynamic Forward Resistance

Dynamic Reverse Resistance

Results:

Cut in voltage = V

Static Forward Resistance = _

Dynamic Forward Resistance = _

Static Reverse Resistance = _

Dynamic Reverse Resistance = _

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead
to damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
 Viva Questions

1. What are trivalent and pentavalent impurities?

Ans: Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic silicon or germanium to
improve the conductivity of the semiconductor.
Commonly Used Doping Elements
Trivalent Impurities to make p-Type: Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Boron(B) and Indium (In).
Pentavalent Impurities to make n-type: Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and
Bismuth (Bi).

2. How PN junction diode does acts as a switch?

Ans: Apply voltage in one direction; it acts like an open circuit. Reverse the polarity of the
voltage and it acts like a short circuit.
3. Diode current equation?

Ans:

4. What is the value of Vt at room temperature?

Ans: 25mV

5. What is cut-in-voltage?

Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly is
called as the cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.7V for a Silicon diode and 0.3V for a germanium
diode.

6. Dynamic resistance

expression? Ans:
 Experiment No: 3

Aim: Test the input and output waveform of half wave rectifier.
a) Without filter.
b) With filter.

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 1
Resistor 1K 1
Capacitor 100µF 1
Inductor (35 mH), 1

Equipments:

Half wave rectifier kit. Or

Name Range Quantity

CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes 2
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200µA/200mA], [0-20V] Each 1
Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N4007:

Max. Forward Current = 1A

Max. Reverse Current = 5.0µA

Max. Forward Voltage = 0.8V

Max. Power Dissipation = 30mW

Temperature = -65° to 150° C

Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a

signal that is a combination of AC and DC components.

a) A half wave rectifier makes use of single diode to carry out this conversion. It is
named so as the conversion occurs for half cycle of input signal. During the positive
half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flows
through the load resistor. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased
and it is equivalent to an open circuit, hence the current through the load resistance is
zero. Thus the diode conducts only for one half cycle and results in a half wave
rectified output.

b) A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a

signal that is a combination of AC and DC components. In DC supplies, a rectifier is
often followed by a filter circuit which converts the pulsating DC signal into pure DC
signal by removing the AC component. An L-section filter consists of an inductor and
a capacitor connected in the form of an inverted L. A π - section filter consists of two
capacitors and one induction in the form symbol pi.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the
average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.

Ripple factor for half wave rectifier is 1.21

Peak- Inverse – Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that has to be with stood by a diode when it is reverse

biased PIVHWR = Vm

Half-wave rectifier characteristics.

S. No. Particulars Half-Wave

Rectifier
Without filter
1. No. of diodes 1
2. Maximum Rectification 40.6%
Efficiency
3. Ripple Factor 1.21
4. Peak Inverse Voltage Vm
5. Output Frequency f

Circuit Diagram:

Half wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of Half-wave rectifier without filter

Half Wave Rectifier (with L-section filter):

Fig. 2: Half wave rectifier with L-section Filter

Procedure:

PART- a: Half wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.1.

2. Connect the multimeter across the 1kΩ load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4. Now calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
VAC
Ripple factor ( γ ) =
VDC

5. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and
Observe the input and output Waveforms.
6. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and also the frequency.
PART- b: Half wave rectifier with L-section filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.2.

2. Connect the multimeter across the 1kΩ load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4. Now calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
VAC
Ripple factor (  ) =
VDC
 5. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and Observe
the input and output Waveforms.
6. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and also the frequency.

Observations:

Half wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance Factor
(RL)  Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(V) (Hz) p-p(V) (Hz)

Half wave rectifier with L-section filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance 
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Calculations:

1. Ripple Factor γ = VAC / VDC

Expected Waveforms:

With L filter

Results:

1. Half Wave rectifier characteristics are tested.

2. Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier (without filter) = -------------
3. Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier (with L filter) = -------------

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
 Viva Questions

2. What is a rectifier?

Ans: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.

3. What is a ripple factor?

Ans: Ripple factor can be defined as the variation of the amplitude of DC (Direct current) due to
improper filtering of AC power supply. it can be measured by RF = Vrms / Vdc

4. What is efficiency?

Ans: Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power.

5. What is PIV?

Ans: The peak inverse voltage is either the specified maximum voltage that a diode rectifier can
block, or, alternatively, the maximum that a rectifier needs to block in a given application.

6. What are the applications of rectifier?

Ans: The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually
all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all
electronic equipment. Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
rectifiers are used to supply polarized voltage for welding.

7. What is the efficiency of HWF rectifier?

Ans: 40.6 %
 Experiment No: 6

Aim: Test the input and output waveform of Full wave rectifier.
a) Without filter.
b) With filter.

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 2
Resistor 1K 1
Capacitor 100µF 2
Inductor (35 mH), 1

Equipments:

Name Range Quantity

CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes 2
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200µA/200mA], [0-20V] Each 1
Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N4007:

Max. Forward Current = 1A

Max. Reverse Current = 5.0µA

Max. Forward Voltage = 0.8V

Max. Power Dissipation = 30mW

Temperature = -65 to 200° C

Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a

signal that is a combination of AC and DC components.

A full wave rectifier makes use of a two diodes to carry out this conversion. It is named
so as the conversion occurs for complete input signal cycle. The full-wave rectifier consists of a
center-tap transformer, which results in equal voltages above and below the center-tap. During
the positive half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while a negative voltage
appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is forward biased it results in a current I d1
through the load R. During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D2
and hence it is forward biased. Resulting in a current I d2 through the load at the same instant a
negative voltage appears at the anode of D1 thus reverse biasing it and hence it doesn’t conduct.

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a

signal that is a combination of AC and DC components. In DC supplies, a rectifier is often
followed by a filter circuit which converts the pulsating DC signal into pure DC signal by
removing the AC component. An L-section filter consists of an inductor and a capacitor
connected in the form of an inverted L. A 𝜋- section filter consists of two capacitors and one
induction in the form symbol pi.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the
average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol ‘γ’.

Peak- Inverse – Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that has to be with stood by a diode when it is reverse

biased PIVFWR = 2Vm

Full-wave rectifier characteristics:

S. No. Particulars
Full-Wave
Rectifier

1. No. of diodes 2
2. Maximum Rectification 81.2%
Efficiency
3. Vd.c (no load) 2vm
Π
4. Ripple Factor 0.48
5. Peak Inverse Voltage 2Vm
6. Output Frequency 2f

Circuit Diagram:

Full Wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier (with π-section filter):

Fig. 2: Full wave rectifier with π-section filter

Procedure:

PART-a: Full wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.1.

2. Connect the multimeter across the 1kΩ load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4. Now calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
V
AC
Ripple factor (  ) =
VDC

5. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and Observe the
input and output Waveforms.
6. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and also the frequency.

PART-II: Full wave rectifier with π-section filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.2.

2. Repeat the above steps 2-6
3. Plot different graphs for wave forms and calculate ripple factor
Observations:

Full wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance γ
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Full wave rectifier with π-section Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance γ
(RL) Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Calculations:

1. Ripple Factor γ = VAC / VDC

Expected Waveforms

Fig: Waveform of full wave rectifier without filter and with π filter

Results:

Waveform of Full Wave rectifier without filter and with filter is tested.
Ripple factor of full wave rectifier without filter = -------------
Ripple factor of Full wave rectifier with π filter = -------------
 Viva Questions

1. What is a rectifier?

Ans: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.

2. What is a ripple factor?

Ans: Ripple factor can be defined as the variation of the amplitude of DC (Direct current) due to
improper filtering of AC power supply. it can be measured by RF = vrms / vdc

3. What is efficiency?

Ans: Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power.

4. What is PIV?

Ans: The peak inverse voltage is either the specified maximum voltage that a diode rectifier can
block, or, alternatively, the maximum that a rectifier needs to block in a given application.

5. What are the applications of rectifier?

Ans: The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually
all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all
electronic equipment. Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
rectifiers are used to supply polarized voltage for welding.

6. Give some rectifications technologies?

Ans: Synchronous rectifier, Vibrator, Motor-generator set, Electrolytic ,Mercury arc, and Argon
gas electron tube.

7. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?

Ans: 81 %
 Experiment No.:3

Zener Diode Characteristics

Aim: Test the performance of Zener Diode.

Components:

Name Quantity
Zener Diodes 1N4735A/ FZ 6.2 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipments:

Zener Diode Test Kit. Or

Name Range Quantity

Bread board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Breakdown Voltage = 6.2V

Power dissipation = 0.75W

Max Forward Current = 1A

Theory: Zener diode is a heavily doped Silicon diode. An ideal P-N junction diode does not
conduct in reverse biased condition. A Zener diode conducts excellently even in reverse biased
condition. These diodes operate at a precise value of voltage called break down voltage. A Zener
diode when forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A Zener diode when
reverse biased can undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.

Avalanche Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction
widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction increases the kinetic energy of
the charge carriers which collides with the adjacent atoms and generates charge carriers by
breaking the bond, they in-turn collides with other atoms by creating new charge carriers, this
process is cumulative which results in the generation of large current resulting in Avalanche
Breakdown.

Zener Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction
reduces, it leads to the development of strong electric field and application of even a small
voltage at the junction may rupture covalent bond and generate large number of charge carriers.
Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener break down.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

 Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1.

2. Vary VF gradually from 0 to 0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to
0.76 V. In each step record the current flowing through the diode as IF.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias as shown in the fig.2.

2. Vary the voltage across the diode in steps of 1V from 0 V to 6 V and in steps 0.1 V till its
breakdown voltage is reached. Each step note the current flowing through the diode.

3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.

4. Plot a graph between V and I. This graph will be called the V-I characteristics of Zener
diode. From the graph find out the breakdown voltage for the diode.

Observations:

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

Forward Voltage Forward Current Reverse Voltage Reverse Current

S. No. across the diode through the diode S. No. across the diode through the diode
VF (volts) IF (mA) VR (volts) IR (mA)
Graph:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph
sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as VF, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as IF and –ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first Quadrant and reverse
biased condition in third Quadrant.

Fig. 3: V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

Results:

1. Performance of the Zener Diode is tested.

2. The breakdown voltage of Zener diode in reverse bias = _ .
3. The cut in voltage of Zener diode in forward bias = _ .

Precautions:

4. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
5. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
6. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
 Viva Questions

1. What is the difference between p-n Junction diode and zener diode?

Ans: A zener is designed to operate stably in reverse breakdown, which is designed to be at a

low voltage, between 3 volts and 200 volts. The breakdown voltage is specified as a voltage with
a tolerance, such as 10 volts ±5%, which means the breakdown voltage (or operating voltage)
will be between 9.5 volts and 10.5 volts. A signal diode or rectifier will have a high reverse
breakdown, from 50 to 2000 volts, and is NOT designed to operate in the breakdown region. So
exceeding the reverse voltage may result in the device being damaged. In addition, the
breakdown voltage is specified as a minimum only. Forward characteristics are similar to both,
although the zener's forward characteristics is usually not specified, as the zener will never be
used in that region. A signal diode or rectifier has the forward voltage specified as a max voltage
at one or more current levels.

2. What is break down voltage?

Ans: The breakdown voltage of a diode is the minimum reverse voltage to make the diode
conduct in reverse bias.

3. What are the applications of Zener diode?

Ans: Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the
voltage across small circuits.

4. What is cut-in-voltage ?

Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly, is
called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.7v for a Silicon diode.

5. What is voltage regulator?

Ans: A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage independent of
the load current, temperature and ac line voltage variations.
 Experiment No: 4

Aim: Determine the current gain of BJT in Common Emitter configuration with the help of input output
characteristics.

Components:

Name Quantity
Transistor BC 107 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 2
Digital Ammeter 0-200mA/0-200µA 2
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor BC 107:

 Max Collector Current= 0.1A

 Vceo max= 50V
 VEB0 = 6V
 VCB0 = 50V
 Collector power dissipation = 500mW
 Temperature Range = -65 to +150 0C
 hfe = 110 - 220

Theory:

A BJT is called as Bipolar Junction Transistor and it is a three terminal active device
which has emitter, base and collector as its terminals. It is called as a bipolar device because the
flow of current through it is due to two types of carriers i.e., majority and minority carriers.
 A transistor can be in any of the three configurations viz, Common base, Common
emitter and Common Collector.

In CE configuration base will be input node and collector will be the output node .Here
emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output and hence the name common emitter
configuration.
Transistor characteristics are of two types.

Input characteristics:- Input characteristics are obtained between the input voltage and input
current at constant output voltage. It is plotted between V BE and IB at constant VCE in CE
configuration

Output characteristics:- Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and
output current at constant input current. It is plotted between V CE and IC at constant IB in CE
configuration

The different regions of operation of the BJT are:

Emitter Junction Collector Junction Region Application

RB RB CUTT OFF OFF SWITCH

FB FB SATURATION ON SWITCH

FB RB ACTIVE AMPLIFIER

RB FB REVERSE ACTIVE ATTENUATOR

Current Gain: The current gain in common emitter configuration is given as:
β=ΔIc/ΔIb at constant VCE
Where β is the current gain, ΔIc is the change in collector current and ΔIb is the change in
base current.

Circuit Diagram:
 Fig 1: Input Characteristics

Fig. 2: Output Characteristics

Pin assignment of Transistor:

Procedure:

Input Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig.(1).

2) Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their minimum positions before switching
 the supply on.
3) Adjust the VCE to 0 V by adjusting the supply VCC.
4) Vary the supply voltage VBB so that VBE varies in steps of 0.1 V from 0 to 0.5 V and then
in steps of 0.02 V from 0.5 to 0.7 V. In each step note the value of base current IB.
5) Adjust VCE to 1V, 2V and repeat step-4 for each value of VCE.
6) Plot a graph between VBE and IB for different values of VCE. These curves are called input
characteristic of BJT in CE configuration.

Output Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (2).

2) All the knobs of the power supply must be at the minimum position before the supply is
switched on.
3) Adjust the base current IB to 20 µA by adjusting the supply VBB.
4) Vary the supply voltage VCC so that the voltage VCE varies in steps of 0.2 V from 0 to 2 V
and then in steps of 1 V from 2 to 10 V. In each step the base current should be adjusted
to the present value and the collector current IC should be recorded.
5) Adjust the base current at 40, 60 µA and repeat step-4 for each value of IB.
6) Plot a graph between the output voltage V CE and output current IC for different values of
the input current IB. These curves are called the output characteristics.

Observations:
Input Characteristics

VCE = VCE =
0V 2V
VBE(V) IB(µA) VBE(V) IB(µA)
 Output Characteristics

IB = IB = 40µA IB =
20µA 60µA
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

Graph:

Fig. 3: Input Characteristics

 Fig. 4: Output Characteristics

Calculation from graph:

The current gain in common emitter configuration is given as:
β=ΔIc/ΔIb at constant VCE

Results:

1. Input and output Characteristics of a BJT in Common Emitter Configuration are studied.
2. The current gain of BJT in common emitter configuration = -----------.

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.
 Viva Questions

1. What is transistor?

Ans: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a
portmanteau of the term "transfer resistor".

2. Write the relation between α, β and γ?

Ans: α = β β = α γ = 1 + β = 1/(1- α)
1 +β
1−α

3. What is the range of α ?

Ans: The important parameter is the common-base current gain, . The common-base current
gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region.
This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998.

4. Why is α is less than unity?

Ans: It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region.

5. Can we replace transistor by two back to back connected diodes?

Ans: No, because the doping levels of emitter (heavily doped), base(lightly doped) and
collector(doping level greater than base and less than emitter) terminals are different from p and
n terminals in diode.
6. For amplification CE is preferred, why?

Ans: Because amplification factor beta is usually ranges from 20-500 hence this configuration
gives appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain at its output on the other hand in the
Common Collector configuration has very high input resistance (~750K ) & very low output
resistance(~25 ) so the voltage gain is always less than one & its most important application is
for impedance matching for driving from low impedance load to high impedance source

7. To operate a transistor as amplifier, emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is
reverse biased, why?

Ans: Voltage is directly proportional to Resistance. Forward bias resistance is very less
compared to reverse bias. In amplifier input forward biased and output reverse biased so voltage
at output increases with reverse bias resistance.

8. Which transistor configuration provides a phase reversal between the input and output signals?

Ans: Common emitter configuration (1800)

9. What is the range if β?

Ans: β usually ranges from 20-500.

 Experiment No: 5

Aim:
Test the performance of Field Effect Transistor (FET).

Components:

Name Quantity
FET BFW 10/ BFW 11 1
Resistor 1KΩ, 100 KΩ Each 1

Equipment:

FET test kit. Or

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 2
Digital Ammeter 0-200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For FET BFW11:

Gate Source Voltage VGS = -30V

Forward Gain Current IGF = 10mA

Maximum Power Dissipation PD = 300mW

Pin assignment of FET:

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Characteristics of FET

Theory:

A JFET is called as Junction Field effect transistor. It is a unipolar device because the
flow of current through it is due to one type of carriers i.e., majority carriers where as a BJT is a
Bi - Polar device. It has 3 terminals Gate, Source and Drain. A JFET can be used in any of the
three configurations viz, Common Source, Common Gate and Common Drain. The input gate to
source junction should always be operated in reverse bias, hence input resistance Ri = ∞, IG ≈ 0.

Pinch off voltage VP is defined as the gate to source reverse bias voltage at which the
output drain current becomes zero.

In CS configuration Gate is used as input node and Drain as the output node. A JFET in
CS configuration is used widely as an amplifier. A JFET amplifier is preferred over a BJT
amplifier when the demand is for smaller gain, high input resistance and low output resistance.
Any FET operation is governed by the following equation.
The drain current equation and trans-conductance is given as

Where 𝐼𝐷𝑆𝑆 is called as Drain to Source Saturation current & Vp is called as the Pinch off voltage
Procedure:

Transfer Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig 1. All the knobs of the power supply must be at the
minimum position before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the output voltage VDS to 4V by adjusting the supply VDD.
3) Vary the supply voltage VGG so that the voltage VGS varies in steps of -0.25 V from 0 V
onwards. In each step note the drain current I D. This should be continued till ID becomes
zero.
4) Repeat above step for VDS = 8 V.
5) Plot a graph between the input voltage V GS and output current ID for output voltage VDS in
the second quadrant. This curve is called the transfer characteristics.
Drain Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their
minimum positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the input voltage VGS to 0 V by adjusting the supply VGG.
3) Vary the supply voltage VDD so that VDS varies in steps of 0.5 V from 0 to 4 V and then in
steps of 1 V from 4 to 10 V. In each step note the value of drain current ID.
4) Adjust VGS to -1 and -2 V and repeat step-3 for each value of VGS.
5) Plot a graph between VDS and ID for different values of VGS. These curves are called drain
characteristics.
6) Mark the various regions in the drain characteristics graph and calculate the drain
resistance.

Observations:

Transfer Characteristics

VDS = 4V VDS = 6V
VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)
 Drain Characteristics

VGS = 0V VGS = -1V VGS = -2V

VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

Graph:

Transfer Characteristics Drain Characteristics

 1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at a constant VGS.
2. Plot the transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and taking ID on Y-axis at constant VDS.

Calculations from Graph:

1. Drain Resistance (rd): It is given by the relation of small change in drain to source
voltage ( VDS) to the corresponding change in Drain Current ( ID) for a constant gate
to source voltage ( VGS), when the JFET is operating in pinch-off region.
2. Transconductance (gm): Ratio of small change in drain current ( I D) to the
corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant VDS.

gm at constant VDS (from transfer characteristics).

The value of gm is expressed in mho’s ( ) or Siemens (s).

3. Amplification factor (µ): It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source
voltage ( VDS) to the corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( ∆V GS) for a
constant drain current (ID).
Results:

1. Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Field Effect (FET) Transistor are studied.
2. Performance of FET is tested.
3. Drain resistance of FET =…….. Ω.
4. Transconductance of FET =…….. .
5. Amplification factor of FET=………

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the FET. This may lead to
damage the FET.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the Source, Drain and Gate terminals of the transistor.
 Viva Questions

1. Why FET is called a Unipolar device?

Ans: FETs are unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type operation.

2. What are the advantages of FET?

Ans: The main advantage of the FET is its high input resistance, on the order of 100
MΩ or more. Thus, it is a voltage-controlled device, and shows a high degree of
isolation between input and output. It is a unipolar device, depending only upon
majority current flow. It is less noisy. and is thus found in FM tuners and in low-
noise amplifiers for VHF and satellite receivers. It is relatively immune to radiation.
It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence makes an excellent signal
chopper. It typically has better thermal stability than a bipolar junction transistor
(BJT)

3. What is trans-conductance?

Ans: Trans-conductance is an expression of the performance of a bipolar transistor or

field-effect transistor (FET). In general, the larger the trans-conductance figure for a
device, the greater the gain (amplification) it is capable of delivering, when all other
factors are held constant. The symbol for trans-conductance is gm. The unit is
Siemens, the same unit that is used for direct- current (DC) conductance.

4. What are the disadvantages of FET?

Ans: It has a relatively low gain-bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The

MOSFET has a drawback of being very susceptible to overload voltages, thus
requiring special handling during installation.The fragile insulating layer of the
MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to electrostatic damage
during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed in a
properly designed circuit.