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INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................... 2
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES......................................................3
INTRODUCTIONS TO SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS...............................3
GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION.......................................................................................................... 5
FURTHER RESULTS ON SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS.............................................6
CHAPTER 2.............................................................................................................................................. 8
DETERMINANTS................................................................................................................................... 8
THE DETERMINANT FUNCTION......................................................................................... 8
EVALUATING DETERMINANTS BY ROW REDUCTION.....................................9
PROPERTIES OF THE DETERMINANT FUNCTION.................................................9
CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................................. 12
EXAMPLES............................................................................................................................................. 12
X,TRUE_SUR,MSE SIM,MSE ZHAO,MSE JIAN,MSE PZHAO,MSE PJIAN...................................................15
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................... 16
APPENDICES........................................................................................................................................ 17
VITA........................................................................................................................................................... 18
(ONLY MENTION DEGREES EARNED, NOT DEGREES IN PROGRESS)...............................18
INTRODUCTION
1
This paper provides an elementary treatment of linear algebra that is
suitable for students in their freshman or sophomore year. Calculus is not a
prerequisite.
The aim in writing this paper is to present the fundamentals of linear alge-
bra in the clearest possible way. Pedagogy is the main consideration. Formalism
is secondary. Where possible, basic ideas are studied by means of computational
examples and geometrical interpretation.
The treatment of proofs varies. Those proofs that are elementary and hve sig-
nificant pedagogical content are presented precisely, in a style tailored for beginners.
A few proofs that are more difficult, but pedgogically valuable, are placed at the end
of of the section and marked “Optional”. Still other proofs are omitted
completely, with emphasis placed on applying the theorem.
Chapter 1 deals with systems of linear equations, how to solve them, and
some of their properties. It also contains the basic material on matrices and their
arithmetic properties.
Chapter 2 deals with determinants. I have used the classical permutation
approach. This is less abstract than the approach through n-linear alternative forms
and gives the student a better intuitive grasp of the subject than does an
inductive development.
Chapter 3 introduces vectors in 2-space and 3-space as arrows and develops the
analytic geometry of lines and planes in 3-space. Depending on the background of
the students, this chapter can be omitted without a loss of continuity.
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CHAPTER 1
An equation of this kind is called a linear equation in the variables x and y. More
generally, we define a linear equation in the n variables x1, . . . , xn to be one that
can be expressed in the form
Definition. A finite set of linear equations in the variables x1, x2, . . . , xn is called
a system of linear equations.
Not all systems of linear equations has solutions. A system of equations that
has no solution is said to be inconsistent. If there is at least one solution, it is
called consistent. To illustrate the possibilities that can occur in solving systems of
linear equations, consider a general system of two linear equations in the unknowns
x and y:
a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2
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The graphs of these equations are lines; call them l1 and l2. Since a point (x, y) lies
on a line if and only if the numbers x and y satisfy the equation of the line, the
solutions of the system of equations will correspond to points of intersection of l1
and l2. There are three possibilities:
l1 l2 l1 l2 l 1, l 2
Figure 1.1. (a) no solution, (b) one solution, (c) infinitely many solutions
(a) l1 and l2 are parallel, in which case there is no intersection, and consequently
no solution to the system.
(b) l1 and l2 intersect at only one point, in which case the system has exactly one
solution.
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(c) l1 and l2 coincide, in which case there are infinitely many points of
intersection, and consequently infinitely many solutions to the system.
Although we have considered only two equations with two unknowns here, we
will show later that this same result holds for arbitrary systems; that is, every system
of linear equations has either no solutions, exactly one solution, or infinitely many
solutions.
GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
In this section we give a systematic procedure for solving systems of linear
equations; it is based on the idea of reducing the augmented matrix to a form that
is simple enough so that the system of equations can be solved by inspection.
Remark. It is not difficult to see that a matrix in row-echelon form must have zeros
below each leading 1. In contrast a matrix in reduced row-echelon form must
have zeros above and below each leading 1.
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A B AB
m × r × = m × n
r n
inside
outside
Proposition 1.2.2. Assuming that the sizes of the matrices are such that the in-
dicated operations can be performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are
valid.
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Some Important Theorems
Theorem 1.3.1. If A is an invertible n × n matrix, then for each n × 1 matrix B,
the system of equations AX = B has exactly one solution, namely, X = A−1 B.
In our later work the following fundamental problem will occur over and over
again in various contexts.
Let A be fixed m × n matrix. Find all m × 1 matrices B such that the system
of equations AX = B is consistent.
If A is an invertible matrix, Theorem 1.3.2 completely solves this problem by
asserting that for every m×n matrix B, AX = B has the unique solution X =
A−1 B.
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CHAPTER 2
DETERMINANTS
Example 2.1.1. There are six different permutations of the set of integers {1, 2, 3}.
These are
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EVALUATING DETERMINANTS BY ROW REDUCTION
In this section we show that the determinant of a matrix can be evaluated by re-
ducing the matrix to row-echelon form. This method is of importance since it avoids
the lengthy computations involved directly applying the determinant definition.
We first consider two class of matrices whose determinants can be easily eval-
uated, regardless of the size of the matrix.
Theorem 2.2.1. If A is any square matrix that contains a row of zeros, then
det(A) = 0.
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between a square matrix and its determinant. One of the immediate consequences of
this material will be an important determinant test for the invertibility of a matrix
Consider Table 2.1 and its implications in the area of linear algebra.
Function 1 2 3
Determinant 0 0 0
Inverse 1 1 1
It should be evident from the examples in this section that whenever a square
matrix has two proportional rows (like the first and second rows of A), it is possible
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to introduce a row of zeros by adding a suitable mutliple of one of these rows to the
other. Thus, if a square matrix has two proportional rows, its determinant is zero.
We hope this has given some insights into the basics of linear algebra and its
impact on the world around us. We leave you now with two encapsulated postscript
graphs which illustrate the main points discussed in this paper.
0.5
-10 -5 0 5t 10
-0.5
-1
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CHAPTER 3
EXAMPLES
Some examples of the definitions found in the file ps-defs.tex follow below.
Here are examples of how you can use equation numbers with multiple line
equations.
= (f + g)(a) + h(a)
= (f + g)(a) + h(a)
= ((f + g) + h)(a)
= (f + g)(a) + h(a)
= ((f + g) + h)(a)
12
Below is a figure which shows how to line up small figures on multiple lines.
The .dvi version is immediately below. The .pdf version may be found underneath
the complete figure and commented out. If you exchange the sections commented
out, then you can compile a .pdf file.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 3.1. Two rows of graphics: (a) Square (b) Circle (c) Rectangle
13
Three figures across the page requires fairly small figures to fit within the Grad-
uate School margins.
14
The verbatim environment can be useful when using data from a spreadsheet
as is done below.
On the following page is an example of how to rotate text that is too long to
fit within the horizontal margins that are required.
15
REFERENCES
[1] Anton, H., Elementary Linear Algebra, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977.
[2] Huang, X. and Krantz, S.G., On a problem of Moser, Duke Math. J. 78
(1995), 213–228.
[3] Kellog, O.D., Harmonic functions and Green’s integral, Trans. Amer. Math.
Soc. 13 (1912), 109–132.
[4] Kruzhilin, N.G., Local automorphisms and mappings of smooth strictly pseudo-
convex hypersurfaces, (Russian), Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 271 (1983), 280–
282.
[5] Macdonald, I.G., Symmetric Functions and Hall Polynomials, Second
edition, Clarendon, Oxford, 1995.
[6] Rasulov, K.M., Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 252 (1980), 1059–1063; English transl.
in Soviet Math. Dokl. 21 (1980).
[7] Rasulov, K.M., Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 270 (1983), 1061–1065; English transl.
in Soviet Math. Dokl. 27 (1983).
APPENDICES
17
VITA
Graduate School
Southern Illinois University
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