UNIT-I

Network theorems
(DC & AC Excitations)
 Content
• Superposition theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem
• Norton’s theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer theorem
• Reciprocity theorem
• Millman’s theorem
• compensation theorem.
 Superposition Theorem
• According to this theorem, if there are a number of e.m.fs. acting
simultaneously in any linear bilateral network, then each e.m.f. acts
independently of the others i.e. as if the other e.m.fs. did not exist.
• The value of current in any conductor is the algebraic sum of the currents due
to each e.m.f.
• Similarly, voltage across any conductor is the algebraic sum of the voltages
which each e.m.f would have produced while acting singly.
• In other words, current in or voltage across, any conductor of the network is
obtained by superimposing the currents and voltages due to each e.m.f. in the
network.
• It is important to keep in mind that this theorem is applicable only to linear
networks where current is linearly related to voltage as per Ohm’s law.
• This theorem stated as follows :
• In a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator (or
source of e.m.f.), the current which flows at any point is the sum of all the
currents which would flow at that point if each generator where considered
separately and all the other generators replaced for the time being by
resistances equal to their internal resistances.
 Explanation

• In Fig. (a) I1, I2 and I represent the values of currents which are due to the
simultaneous action of the two sources of e.m.f. in the network. In Fig.(b) are
shown the current values which would have been obtained if left-hand side battery
had acted alone.
• Similarly, Fig. represents conditions obtained when right-hand side battery acts
alone.
• By combining the current values of Fig.(b) and Fig the actual values of Fig.(a) can
be obtained.
• I1 = I1′ −I1′ ′
• I2 = I2′ ′−I2´
• I = I′ + I′ ′
 AC NETWORK (Superposition Theorem)

• As applicable to a.c. networks, it states as follows :

• In any network made up of linear impedances and containing more than
one source of e.m.f., the current flowing in any branch is the phasor sum of
the currents that would flow in that branch if each source were considered
separately, all other e.m.f. sources being replaced for the time being, by
their respective internal impedances (if any).
 Thevenin Theorem
• It provides a mathematical technique for replacing a given network, as
viewed from two output terminals, by a single voltage source with a
series resistance.
• It makes the solution of complicated networks (particularly, electronic
networks) quite quick and easy.
• Thevenin’s theorem, as applied to d.c. circuits, may be stated as under :
• The current flowing through a load resistance RL connected across any
two terminals A and B of a linear, active bilateral network is given by
Voc || (Ri + RL) where Voc is the open-circuit voltage (i.e. voltage across
the two terminals when RL is removed) and Ri is the internal resistance of
the network as viewed back into the open-circuited network from
terminals A and B with all voltage sources replaced by their internal
resistance (if any) and current sources by infinite resistance
• The application of this extremely useful theorem will be explained with the help of the
following simple example. Suppose, it is required to find current flowing through load
resistance RL, as shown in Fig. (a).
• We will proceed as under :
1. Remove RL from the circuit terminals A and B and redraw the circuit as shown in Fig.
(b). Obviously, the terminals have become open-circuited.
2. Calculate the open-circuit voltage Voc which appears across terminals A and B when
they are open i.e. when RL is removed.
• As seen, Voc = drop across R2 = IR2 where I is the circuit current when A and B are
open.
3. Now, imagine the battery to be removed from the circuit, leaving its internal
resistance r behind and redraw the circuit, as shown in Fig. (c). When viewed
inwards from terminals A and B, the circuit consists of two parallel paths : one
containing R2 and the other containing (R1 + r). The equivalent resistance of the
network, as viewed from these terminals is given as

• This resistance is also called,* Thevenin resistance Rsh (though, it is also

sometimes written as Ri or R0).
• Consequently, as viewed from terminals A and B, the whole network (excluding R1)
can be reduced to a single source (called Thevenin’s source) whose e.m.f. equals
Voc (or Vsh) and whose internal resistance equals Rsh (or Ri) as shown in Fig..
4. RL is now connected back across terminals A and B from where it was temporarily
removed earlier. Current flowing through RL is given by
 A.C. NETWORKS (Thevenin Theorem)
• As applicable to a.c. networks, this theorem may be stated as follows :
• The current through a load impedance ZL connected across any two
terminals A and B of a linear network is given by Vth/(Zth + ZL)
• wher Vth is the open-circuit voltage across A and B and Zth is the internal
impedance of the network as viewed from the open-circuited terminals A
and B with all voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances (if
any) and current sources by infinite impedance.
 General Instructions for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
• We have considered circuits which consisted of resistors and independent
current or voltage sources only.
• However, we often come across circuits which contain both independent
and dependent sources or circuits which contain only dependent sources.
• Procedure for finding the value of Vth and Rth in such cases is detailed
below :
 Norton’s Theorem
• This theorem is an alternative to the Thevenin’s theorem.
• In fact, it is the dual of Thevenin’stheorem. Whereas Thevenin’s theorem reduces a
two-terminal active network of linear resistances and generators to an equivalent
constant-voltage source and series resistance, Norton’s theorem replaces the
network by an equivalent constant-current source and a parallel resistance.
• This theorem may be stated as follows :
• (i) Any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources and resistance
when viewed from its output terminals , is equivalent to a constant-current
source and a parallel resistance. The constant current is equal to the current
which would flow in a short-circuit placed across the terminals and parallel
resistance is the resistance of the network when viewed from these opencircuited
terminals after all voltage and current sources have been removed and replaced
by their internal resistances.
 How To Nortonize a Given Circuit ?

General instructions For Finding Norton Equivalent Circuit

General instructions For Finding Norton Equivalent Circuit
 A.C. NETWORKS (Norton’s Theorem)
• As applied to a.c. networks, this theorem can be stated
as under :
• Any two terminal active linear network containing
voltage sources and impedances when viewed from its
output terminals is equivalent to a constant current
source and a parallel impedance.
• The constant current is equal to the current which
would flow in a short-circuit placed across the
terminals and the parallel impedance is the impedance
of the network when viewed from open-circuited
terminals after voltage sources have been replaced by
their internal impedances (if any) and current sources
by infinite impedance.
 Reciprocity Theorem
• It can be stated in the following manner :
• In any linear bilateral network, if a source of e.m.f. E in any branch
produces a current I in any other branch, then the same e.m.f. E acting
in the second branch would produce the same current I in the first
branch.
• In other words, it simply means that E and I are mutually transferrable.
• The ratio E/I is known as the transfer resistance (or impedance in a.c.
systems).
• Another way of stating the above is that the receiving point and the
sending point in a network are interchangebale. It also means that
interchange of an ideal voltage sources and an ideal ammeter in any
network will not change the ammeter reading.
• Same is the case with the interchange of an ideal current source and an
ideal voltmeter.
AC circuit(Reciprocity Theorem)
 Compensation Theorem
• This theorem is particularly useful for the following two purposes :
(a) For analysing those networks where the values of the branch elements
are varied and for studying the effect of tolerance on such values.
(b) For calculating the sensitivity of bridge network.
• As applied to d.c. circuits, it may be stated in the following for ways :
(i) In its simplest form, this theorem asserts that any resistance R in a branch
of a network in which a current I is flowing can be replaced, for the
purposes of calculations, by a voltage equal to – IR.
OR
(ii) If the resistance of any branch of network is changed from R to (R + ΔR)
where the current flowing originally is I, the change of current at any
other place in the network may be calculated by assuming that an e.m.f. –
I. ΔR has been injected into the modified branch while all other sources
have their e.m.f.s. suppressed and are represented by their internal
resistances only.
 Millman’s Theorem
• This theorem can be stated either in terms of voltage sources or current sources or
both.
• Problem:Use Millman’s theorem, to find the common voltage across
terminals A and B and the load current in the circuit of Fig.
 Cont..

• Following steps are necessary when using Millman’s Theorem :

1. convert all voltage sources into their equivalent current sources.
2. calculate the algebraic sum of the individual dual source currents.
3. if found necessary, convert the final current source into its equivalent
voltage source.
• As pointed out earlier, this theorem can also be applied to voltage sources
which must be initially converted into their constant current equivalents.

• It permits any number of parallel branches consisting of voltage sources

and impedances to be reduced to a single equivalent voltage source and
equivalent impedance.
• Such multi-branch circuits are frequently encountered in both electronics
and power applications.
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• Although applicable to all branches of electrical engineering, this theorem
is particularly useful for analysing communication networks.
• The overall efficiency of a network supplying maximum power to any
branch is 50 per cent.
• For this reason, the application of this theorem to power transmission and
distribution networks is limited because, in their case, the goal is high
efficiency and not maximum power transfer.
• However, in the case of electronic and communication networks, very
often, the goal is either to receive or transmit maximum power (through at
reduced efficiency) specially when power involved is only a few milliwatts
or microwatts.
• Frequently, the problem of maximum power transfer is of crucial
significance in the operation of transmission lines and antennas.
• As applied to d.c. networks, this theorem may be stated as follows :
• A resistive load will abstract maximum power from a network when the
load resistance is equal to the resistance of the network as viewed from
the output terminals, with all energy sources removed leaving behind
their internal resistances.
• In Fig. 2.230 (a), a load resistance of RL is connected across the terminals A and B of
a network which consists of a generator of e.m.f.
• E and internal resistance Rg and a series resistance R which, in fact, represents the
lumped resistance of the connecting wires.
• Let Ri = Rg + R = internal resistance of the network as viewed from A and B.
• According to this theorem, RL will abstract maximum power from the network when
RL = Ri.
Power Transfer Efficiency
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorems - General Case
• We will consider the following maximum power transfer theorems when
the source has a fixed complex impedance and delivers power to a load
consisting of a variable resistance or a variable complex impedance.