Micromeritics

Micromeritics study in different formulation • Colloidal dispersion are characterized by

particles that are too small to be seen in the ordinary microscope. • The particles of
pharmaceutical emulsion and suspension and the “fines” of powder fall in the range of the
optical microscope. • Particles having the size of coarser powder , tablet granulation , and
granular salts fall with in the sieve range. Control of particle size and the size range of a drug
can be significantly related to its physical, chemical and pharmacological properties.
Bioavailability, and physical stability in some dosage forms can also be affected by particle
size. Micromeritics is the science and technology of small particles . The unit of particle size
most frequently used in micromeritics is micrometer, also called as a micron.

Applications 1) Release & Dissolution Particle size & surface area influence the release
of a drug from a dosage form that is administered orally, rectally parenterally & topically.
Higher surface area brings about intimate contact of the drug with the dissolution fluids in
vivo & increases the drug solubility & dissolution.
2) Absorption & Drug Action Particle size & surface area influence the drug absorption
& subsequently the therapeutic action. Higher the dissolution, faster the absorption &
hence quicker & greater the drug action.
3) Physical Stability Micromeritc properties of a particle i.e the particle size in a
formulation influences the physical stability of the suspensions & emulsions. Smaller the
size of the particle, better the physical stability of the dosage form owing to the brownian
movement of the particles in the dispersion

Factors influenced by particle size Surface area : increased S.A. affects the therapeutic
efficiency of medicinal compounds that possess a low solubility in body fluids by
increasing the area of contact between the solid and the dissolving fluid. Thus compound
dissolves in a shorter time.
Extraction : the time required for extraction is shortened by the increased area of contact
between the solvent and solid and the reduced distance the solvent has to penetrate the
material.
Dissolution : the time required for dissolution of solid chemicals is shortened by the use
of smaller particles
Drying : the drying of wet mass may be facilitated by milling, which increase the S.A.
and reduces the distance the moisture must travel with in the particle to reach the outer
surface.
Mixing : the mixing of several solid ingredients of a pharmaceutical is easier and more
uniform if the ingredients are approximately the same and small size.
Lubrication : lubricant used in compressed tablets and capsules function by virtue of
their ability to coat the surface of granulation or powder.

Properties of powder based on particle size and shape Porosity : the porosity or voids
of powder is defined as the ratio of the void volume to the bulk volume of packing. (v) Є
= Vb-Vp particle Vb Here ; Vb – Vp = void volume Vb = bulk volume Vp = true volume
of Packing arrangements ; powder beds of uniform sized spheres can assume two ideal
packing arrangement. closest or rhombohedral most open ,loosest or cubic packing the
 theoretical porosity of powder of uniform spheres in closest packing is 26% and for
loosest packing is 48%.

Density (ρ): density is universally defined as weight per unit volume. Three type of
densities can be defined True density Granule density Bulk density
Bulkiness : Specific bulk volume ,the reciprocal of bulk density, it is often called
bulkiness or bulk. Bulkiness increase with a decrease in particle size .
Flow properties : powder may be free flowing or cohesive. Factors that affect the Flow
properties are particle size , shape , surface texture, porosity and density. Angle of repose
(φ) have been used as indirect method for quantifying powder flowability. φ = tan-1 (h/r)
Here: h = height of pile r = radius of pile

Compression :The strength of compressed tablet dependson number of factor, most important
are which are particle size and compression. As the compression increases the tablet hardness
and fracture resistance also increases.

Particle size and the lifetime of a drug • In production : particle size influences the
production of formulated medicines as solid dosage form both tablets and capsules are
produced Powders with different particle size have different flow and packing properties
which alter the volume of powder during each encapsulation or table compression event In
Body: after administration of the medicine, the dosage should release the drug in to solution at
optimum rate . This depends on several factors, one of which will be particle size of drug.
Particles having small dimension will tend to increase the rate of solution
Conclusion Particle size is an important parameter both for the production of medicines
containing particulate solids and in the efficacy of the medicine administration .

Methods for determining particle size:

1- Optical microscopy (range: 0.2 –100 um): • The microscope eyepiece is fitted with a
micrometer by • which the size of the particles may be estimated.
2- Sieving (range: 40 – 9500μm ): -Standard sized sieves are available to cover a wide
range of sizes. These sieves are designed to sit in a stack so that material falls through
smaller and smaller meshes until it reaches a mesh which is too fine for it to pass through.
3. The result achieved will depend on the duration of the agitation and the manner of the
agitation.
The fraction of the material between pairs of sieve sizes is determined by weighing the
residue on each sieve.
The stack of sieves is mechanically shaken to promote the passage of the solids.
3.Sedimentation (range: .08 –300μm): • by measuring the terminal settling velocity of
particles through a liquid medium in a gravitational centrifugal environment using •
Andreasen apparatus.
4.- Particle volume measurement (range: .5 - 300 um): - In this type of machine the powder
is suspended in an electrolyte solution . This suspension is then made to flow through a short
insulated capillary section between two electrodes and the resistance of the system is
measured.
When a particle passes through the capillary there is a momentary peak in the resistance, the
amplitude of the peak is proportional to the particle size. Counting is done by a computer

Derived properties of powders:

 The porosity or voids ε of powder is determined as the ratioVp is the true volume of
particles. bulk volume = true volume + volume of spaces between particles. The volume
of the spaces, the void volume, V = Vb - Vp
the total volume occupied is known as the bulk volume Vb . Suppose a nonporous
powder, is placed in a graduated cylinder: Derived properties of powders: 1- Porosity:

Conti.nue of void volume to bulk volume.

Porosity = ε = Vb – Vp/Vp = 1 – Vp/Vb Porosity is frequently expressed in percent, ε x
100 .

• 2- Densities of particles: Density is defined as weight per unit volume (W/V). Types of
densities:
A- true density:The true density, or absolute density,of a sample excludes the
volume of the pores and voids within the sample.
B- bulk density (w/v) the bulk density :value includes the volume of all of the
pores within the sample.

Densities of particles • During tapping, particles gradually pack more efficiently, the
powder volume decreases and the tapped density increases.
(Bulkiness increases with a decrease in particle size). In mixture of materials of different
sizes, the smalle particles sift between the larger ones and tend to reduce bulkiness. The
bulk density of calcium carbonate vary from 0.1 to 1.3, and the lightest (bulkiest) type
require a container about 13 times larger than that needed for the heaviest variety. It is an
important consideration in the packaging of powders. 3- Bulkiness = Specific bulk
volume = reciprocal of bulk density:
Derived properties of powders:

Flow properties: Powders may be free-flowing or cohesive (“sticky”). Many common

manufacturing problems are attributed to powder flow: •
1.Powder transfer through large equipment such as hopper.
2- Uneven powder flow → excess entrapped air within powders →capping or
lamination.
3- Uneven powder flow → increase particle’s friction with die wall causing lubrication
problems, and increase dust contamination risks during powder transfer.
Derived properties of powders:
- non-uniformity (segregation) in blending
powder flow problems
Tests to evaluate the flowability of a powder:
1- Carr’s compressibility index • A volume of powder is filled into a graduated glass
cylinder and repeatedly tapped for a known duration. The volume of powder after
tapping is measured. • Carr’s index (%) =Tapped density – Poured or bulk density x
100/Tapped density • Bulk density = weight / bulk volume • Tapped density = weight /
true volume
Tests to evaluate the flowability of a powder: Flow discription % compressability
Excellent flow 5-15 good 16-18 fair 19-21 poor 22-35 Very poor 36-40 Extremly poor
>40
. Between 1.25 and 1.5, added glidant normally improves flow. Value greater than 1.5
indicates poor flow ( = 33% Carr ). more cohesive, less free-flowing powders such as
flakes. The powder with low interparticle friction, such as coarse spheres. Value less
than 1.25 indicates good flow ( = 20% Carr ). Hausner ratio=Tapped density /Poured or
bulk density Hausner ratio was related to interparticle friction: Tests to evaluate the
flowability of a powder: 2- Hausner ratio: > 1.5 added glidant doesn’t improve flow.

r = d / 2 tan φ = h / r tan φ = μ φ = the maximum angle possible between the surface

of a pile of powder and horizontal plane = coefficient of friction μ between the particles:
The frictional forces in a loose powder can bemeasured by the angle of repose φ. 3-
The angle of repose φ

Tests to evaluate the flowability of a powder:

.The user normally selects the funnel ori The sample is poured onto a horizontal surface
and the angle of the resulting pyramid is measured.
3- The angle of repose φ: ***The rougher and more irregular the surface of the
particles,the higher will be the angle of repose.

Angle of repose greater than 40 (poor flow) l

Angle of repose between 30-34 (Pass flow) l

Angle of repose between 20-30 (good flow) l

Angle of repose less than 20 (excellent flow) l

fice through which the powder flows slowly and reasonably constantly.

Alteration of Particle’s size & The size distribution can also be altered to improve
flowability by removing a proportion of the fine particle fraction or by increasing the
proportion of coarser particles, such as occurs in granulation.l Coarse particles are more
preferred than fine ones as they are less cohesive. lDistribution There is certain particle
size at which powder’s flow ability is optimum.

Alteration of Particle Shape & texture Particle’s Shape:

Generally, more spherical particles have better flow properties than more irregular
particles.
• Spherical particles are obtained by spray drying, or by temperature cycling
crystallization.

• Particle's texture: particles with very rough surfaces will be more cohesive and have a
greater tendency to interlock than smooth surfaced particles.

Hygroscopic powders, stored and processed under low humidity conditions.

Drying the particles will reduce the cohesiveness and improve the flow
.
Adsorbed surface moisture films tend to increase bulk density and reduce
porosityMoisture content of particle greatly affects powder’s flowability.
 Reduction of electrostatic charges can improve powder flowability

Electrostatic charges can be reduced by altering process conditions to reduce frictional

contacts. Alteration of Surface Forces

. • Formulation additives ( Flow activators): • Flow activators are commonly referred as

glidants. • Flow activators improve the flowability of powders by reducing adhesion and
cohesion. • e.g. talc, maize starch and magnesium stearate

. Factors affecting the flow properties of powder

factors affecting the flow properties of powder

1. Alteration of Particle’s size & Distribution
2. Alteration of Particle shape & texture
3. Alteration of Surface Forces
4. Formulation additives (Flow activators)

Factors affecting the flow properties of powder Alteration of Particle’s size &
Distribution •
There is certain particle size at which powder’s flow ability is optimum.
• Coarse particles are more preferred than fine ones as they are less cohesive.
• The size distribution can also be altered to improve flowability by removing a
proportion of the fine particle fraction or by increasing the proportion of coarser
particle’s such as occurs in granulation.

Factors affecting the flow properties of powder Alteration of Particle shape &
texture Particle’s Shape • Generally, more spherical particles have better flow
properties than more irregular particles. • Spherical particles are obtained by spray
drying, or by temperature cycling crystallization.
.
. Factors affecting the flow properties of powder Alteration of Particle shape &
texture Particle’s texture • Particles with very rough surfaces will be more cohesive
and have a greater tendency to interlock than smooth surfaced particles.
.
. Factors affecting the flow properties of powder Alteration of Surface Forces •
Reduction of electrostatic charges can improve powder flowability. • Electrostatic
charges can be reduced by altering process conditions to reduce frictional contacts. •
Moisture content of particle greatly affects powder’s flowability. • Adsorbed surface
moisture films tend to increase bulk density and reduce porosity. • Drying the
particles will reduce the cohesiveness and improve the flow. • Hygroscopic powder’s
stored and processed under low humidity conditions.
.
. Factors affecting the flow properties of powder Formulation additives (Flow
activators) • Flow activators are commonly referred as a glidants. • Flow activators
improve the flowability of powders by reducing adhesion and cohesion. e. g. Talc,
maize starch and magnesium stearate
.
. Derived properties of powders
 Importance of Study of Micromeritics
Knowledge and control of the size and the size range of particle is of profound
importance in pharmacy.Size and surface area can be related to the physical, chemical
and pharmacological properties of a drug.
1.Particle size affect its release from dosage forms that are administered
orally, parenterally, rectally and topically
2. Physical stability and pharmacologic response of suspensions, emulsion and tablets
depends on particle size.
3. It is also important in flow properties and proper mixing of granules and. powders
in tableting.
4. Both Tablets and capsules are produced using equipment which controls the mass of
drug and other particles by volumetric filling. Therefore any interference with the
uniformity of fill volumes may alter the mass of drug incorporated into the tablet or
capsules. Thus reduce the uniformity of the medicine.
5. Powders with different particle sizes have different flow and packing properties
which alter the volumes of powder during each encapsulation or tablet compression.
6.The rate of solution depends on the several factors. One factor is the particle size.
Thus particles having small dimensions will tend to increase the rate of solution.
For example:
a). Griseofulvin has a low solubility by oral administration but is rapidly distributed
following absorption. The solubility of Griseofulvin can be greatly increased by particle
size reduction.
b). Reduction of particles size also increase the rate of absorption of tetracycline,
Aspirin and Sulphonamides.
c). Reduction of particle size of nitrofurantoin increased the rate of absorption.
Therefore the toxic effect due to rapid absorption.
Different means of expressing particle size.
There are different means of expressing particle size:
Millimeter (mm)……. 10-3 meter
Micro meter (µ m) ……. 10-6 meter
nano meter (nm)…….. 10-9 meter
pico meter ……………10-12 meter
fanto meter………………... 10-15 meter
Particle Dimension in Pharmaceutical Disperse system
Particle size
Micrometer (µ m) Millimeter (mm)
Disperse systems
0.5-10 0.0005 - 0.010 Suspension, fine emulsion
10-50 0.010- 0.050 Coarse emulsion, flocculated
suspension
50- 100 0.50- 0.100 Lower range of sieve range, fine
powder range
150-1000 0.150-1.000 Coarse powder range
1000- 3360 1.000- 3.360 Average granule size

Methods of determining particle size

. Optical Microscopy
 Sieving Methods
Sedimentation Methods

Particle volume measurement

- Coulter Counter Method (Electrical stream sensing method)
Laser light scattering methods.
Methods of determining surface area:
- Adsorption method
- Air permeability method
Sieving Method
Sieving method is an ordinary and simple method. It is widely used as a method for the
particle size analysis.
Range of analysis:
The International Standards organization (ISO) sets a lowest sieve diameter of 45 µm
and sincepowders are usually defined as having a maximum diameter of 1000 µm, this
could be considered to be the upper limit.
In practice sieves can be obtained for size analysis over a range from 5 to 125 000 µm.

Sample preparation and analysis condition

1. Sieve analysis is usually carried out using dry powders.
2. Although, for powders in liquid suspension or which agglomerate during dry sieving,
a process of wet sieving can be used.

Principle of Measurement:
Sieve analysis utilizes a woven, punched or electroformed mesh often in brass, bronze or stainless
steel with known aperture (hole) diameters which form a physical barrier to particles.
Most sieve analyses utilize a series, stack ( Load /Mountain or nest (layer) of sieves which have
the smallest mesh above a collector tray followed by meshes which get progressively coarser
towards the top of the series.
A sieve stack usually comprises 6-8 sieves with a progression based on a √2 or 2√2 change in
diameter between adjacent aperture.

Powder is loaded on to the coarsest sieve of the assembled stack and the nest is subjected to
mechanical vibration for, say 20 minutes
After this time , the particles are considered to be retained
on the sieve mesh with an aperture corresponding to the minimum or sieve diameter.
A sieving time of 20 minutes is arbitrary and BS 1796 recommends sieving to be continued
until less than 0.2% material passes a given sieve aperture in any 5 minutes interval

Advantages : 1. This method is very simple.

 2. Not expensive
3. Easy to operate

Disadvantages: 1. Not too much precise method.

2. Not applicable for all disperse systems.

Sedimentation Methods

Sedimentation Method is also an ordinary and simple method.

It is widely used as a method for the particle size analysis.
Range of analysis:

Sample preparation and analysis conditions

In this method particle size can be determined by examining the powder as it sediments out.
(a). In cases where the powder is not uniformly dispersed in a fluid it can be introduced as a thin
layer on the surface of the liquid.
(b). If the powder is lyophobic, e.g. hydrophobic in water , it may be necessary to add dispersing
agent to aid wetting of the powder.
(c). In case where the powder is soluble in water it will be necessary to use non- aqueous liquids or
carry out the analysis in a gas.
Principle of Measurement
Particle size analysis by sedimentation method can be divided into two main categories according
to the method of measurement used.
1. One of the type is based on measurement of particle in a retention zone.
2. Another type uses a non-retention measurement zone.
An example of a non-retention zone measurement is known as the pipette method.
In this method , known volumes of suspension are drawn off and the concentration differences are
measured with respect to time.
One of the most popular of the pipette methods was that developed
by Andreasen and Lundberg and commonly called the Andreasen pipette.
The Andreasen fixed-position pipette consists of a 200 mm graduate cylinder which can hold
about 500 ml of suspension fluid.
A pipette is located centrally in the cylinder and is held in position by a ground glass stopper so
that its tip coincides with the zero level.
A three way tap allows fluid to be drawn into a 10 ml reservoir which can then be emptied into a
beaker or centrifuge tube.
The amount of powder can be determined by weight following drying or centrifuging.
The weight of each sample residue is therefore called the weight of undersize and the sum of the
successive weight is known as the cumulative weight of undersize. It can be expressed
directly in weight units or percent of the total weight of the final sediment..
The data of cumulative weight of undersize is used for the determination of particle weight
distribution, number distribution,
The largest particle diameter in each sample is then calculated from Strokes’ Law.
The particle size may be obtained by gravity sedimentation as expressed in Strokes’ law.

V=h/t

Where ,
v = rate of settling
h = Distance of the fall in time , t
dst = the mean diameter of the particles based on the velocity of sedimentation
ρs= density of the particles
ρo = density of the dispersion medium
g = Acceleration due to gravity
ηo = Viscosity of the medium
Note: The question holds spheres falling freely without hindrance and at a constant rate.

Coulter Counter Method (Electrical stream sensing zone method)

Coulter Counter Method (Electrical stream sensing zone method) is a sophisticated method. It is a
precise and accurate method.

Range of analysis:

Sample preparation and analysis conditions

1. Powder samples are dispersed in an electrolyte to form a very dilute suspension

2. The suspension is usually subjected to ultrasoni agitation for a period to break up any
particle agglomerates.
3. A dispersant may also be added to aid particl deagglomeration.

Principle of Measurement

1.The particle suspension is drawn through an aperture accurately drilled through a sapphire
crystal set into the wall of a hollow glass tube.
2. Electrodes, situated on either side of the aperture and surrounded by an electrolyte solution.
3. Monitor the change in electrical signal which occurs when a particle momentarily occupies the
orifice and displaces its own volume of electrolyte..
4. The volume of suspension drawn through the orifice is determined by the suction potential
created by a mercury thread rebalancing in a convoluted U tube.
5.The volume of electrolyte fluid which is displaced in the orifice by the presence of a particle
causes a change in electrical resistance between the electrodes which is proportional to the
volume of the particle.
6.The change in resistance is converted between into a voltage pulse which is amplified and
processed electronically .
7. Pulses falling within pre-calibrated limits or thresholds are used to split the particle size
distribution into many different size ranges.
In order to carry out size analysis over a wide diameter range it will be necessary to change orifice
diameter used, to prevent
Coarse particles blocking a small diameter orifice . Conversely, finer particles in a large diameter
orifice will cause too small a relative in volume to be accurately quantified.
Advantages : 1. It is one of the precise and accurate method.
2. Analysis range is wide.
Disadvantages: 1. It is a sophisticated method.
2. It is a expensive method.

Micromeritics Applications 1. Release and dissolution. 2. Absorption and drug

action. 3. Physical stability. 4. Dose uniformity
. Release and dissolution • Particle size and surface area influence the release of a
drug from a dosage form. • Higher surface area allows intimate contact of the drug
with the dissolution fluids in vivo and increases the drug solubility and dissolution.
.
. Absorption and drug action • Particle size and surface area influence the drug
absorption and subsequently the therapeutic action. • Higher the dissolution, faster
the absorption and hence quicker and greater the drug action
1. . Physical stability • The particle size in a formulation influences the physical
stability of the suspensions and emulsions. • Smaller the size of the particle,
better the physical stability of the dosage form.
2. . Dose uniformity • Good flow properties of granules and powders are important in
the manufacturing of tablets and capsules.
3. . Methods for determining particle size • Many methods available for determining
particle size such as optical microscopy, sieving, sedimentation and particle
volume measurement. 1. Optical microscopy (range: 0.2-100 µm). 2. Sieving
(range: 40-9500 µm). 3. Sedimentation (range: 0.08-300 µm). 4. Particle volume
measurement (range: 0.5-300 µm).
4. Range of particle sizes A guide to range of particle sizes applicable to each
method
5. Particle size Method 1 µm Electron microscope, ultracentrifuge, adsorption 1 –
100 µm Optical microscope, sedimentation, coulter counter, air permeability >50
µm Sieving
6. . Optical microscopy (range: 0.2-100 µm) The microscope eyepiece is fitted with a
micrometer by which the size of the particles may be estimated
7. . Optical microscopy (range: 0.2-100 µm) • According to the optical microscopic
method, an emulsion or suspension is mounted on ruled slide on a mechanical
stage. • The microscope eyepiece is fitted with a micrometer by which the size of
the particles can be estimated. • The ordinary microscope used for measurement
the particle-size in the range of 0.2 to about 100 µm.
.
8. . Disadvantage of microscopic method 1. The diameter is obtained from only two
dimensions of the particle. 2. The number of particles that must be counted (300-
500) to obtain a good estimation of the distribution makes the method somewhat
slow and tedious
 wide range of size. • These sieves are designed to sit in a stack so that material falls
through smaller and smaller meshes until it reaches a mesh which is too fine for it to
pass through
Sieving (range: 40-9500 µm) • The stack of sieves is mechanically shaken to promote
the passage of the solids. • The fraction of the material between pairs of sieve sizes is
determined by weighing the residue on each sieve. • The result achieved will depend
on the duration of the agitation and the manner of the agitation.
. Sedimentation (range: 0.08-300 µm) • By measuring the terminal settling velocity of
particles through a liquid medium in a gravitational centrifugal environment using
Andreasen appartus.

Particle volume measurement (range: 0.5-300 µm) • In this type of machine the
powder is suspended in an electrolyte solution. • This suspension is then made to flow
through a short insulated capillary section between two electrodes and the resistance
of the system is measured. • When a particle passes through the capillary there is a
momentary peak in the resistance, the amplitude of the peak is proportional to the
particle size. • Counting is done by a computer.

. Particle volume measurement (range: 0.5-300 µm)

.
Density of powders • Density is defined as weight per unit volume (W/V). • During
tapping, particles gradually pack more efficiently, the powder volume decreases and
the tapped density increases.
Types of Density 1. True density: The true density or absolute density of a sample
excludes the volume of the pores and voids within the powder sample. 2. Bulk density:
The bulk density value includes the volume of all of the pores within the powder
sample.
. Flow properties of powders • Powders may be free-flowing or cohesive (Sticky). •
Many common manufacturing problems are attributes to powder flow.
1. Powder transfer through large equipment such as hopper.
2. Uneven powder flow → excess entrapped air within powders → capping or
lamination.
3. Uneven powder flow → increase particle’s friction with die wall causing lubrication
problems and increase dust contamination risks during powder transfer.
Flow properties of powders

Flow properties of powders 5. Powder storage, which for example result in caking
tendencies within a vial or bag after shipping or storage time. 6. Separation of small
quantity of the powder from the bulk-specifically just before the creation of individual
doses such as during tableting, encapsulation and vial filling which affect the weight
uniformity of the dose (under or over dosage
. Powder flow problems

Flow properties of powders • Tests to evaluate the flowability of a powder. 1.Carr’s

compressibility index. 2.Hausner ratio. 3.The angle of repose (θ).
. Carr’s compressibility index • A volume of powder is filled into a graduated glass
cylinder and repeatedly tapped for a known duration. The volume of powder after
tapping is measure. Tappeddensity-Pouredorbulkdensity Carr’s index (%)= X 100
Tappeddensity Bulkdensity=weight/bulkvolume
. Carr’s compressibility index Flow description % Compressibility Excellent flow 5 – 15
Good 16 – 18 Fair 19 – 21 Poor 22 – 35 Very Poor 36 -40 Extremely poor > 40
Relationship between powder flowability and %
. Hausner ratio Tappeddensity Hausner ratio = Pouredorbulkdensity Hausner ratio was
related to interparticle friction: • Value less than 1.25 indicates good flow (=20% Carr

Hausner ratio • The powder with low interparticle friction, such as coarse spheres. •
Value greater than 1.5 indicates poor flow (= 33% Carr’s Compressibility Index)). •
More cohesive, less free-flowing powders such as flakes. • Between 1.25 and 1.5
added glidant normally improves flow. • > 1.5 added glidant doesn’t improve flow.

. The angle of repose (θ) • The sample is poured onto the horizontal surface and the
angle of the resulting pyramid is measured. • The user normally selects the funnel
orifice through which the powder flows slowly and reasonably constantly.

The angle of repose (θ) 1. Angle of repose less than 20 (Excellent flow). 2. Angle of
repose between20-30 (Good flow). 3. Angle of repose between 30-40 (Pass flow). 4.
Angle of repose greater than 40 (Poor flow). • The rougher and more irregular the
surface of the particles, the higher will be the angle of repose.
.

. References 1. Text book of Physical Pharmaceutics by CVS Subramanyam. 2. Text

book of Physical Pharmacy By Albert Martin. 3. www.google.com.