Edp 914

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF EDUCATI ON
COURSE CODE: EDP 804
COURSE TITLE: Evaluation Strategies in Educational Planning and
Implementation
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COURSE GUIDE
EDP 804
Evaluation Strategies in Educational Planning and Implementation
Course Developer: Dr. Abiodun Olumide Ayeni

Department of Educational Management,
University of Ibadan,
Ibadan.
Course Writer: Dr. Abiodun Olumide Ayeni

Ibadan.
Course Editor: Prof. Remi Longe

Faculty of Education
University of Ibadan
Ibadan.
Programm e Leader: Dr Ogundiran S O

School of Education,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.
Course Coordinator: Dr Bolupe Awe

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Table of Content Page
Introduction
Course Aim
Course Objectives
Working through this Course
Course Materials
Study Units
Textbooks
Assessment
Course Marking Scheme
Course Overview
How to Get the Most from this Course
Tutor and Tutorials
Summary
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Introduction
The course EDP 804 – Evaluation Strategies in Educational
Planning and Implementation is made up of 21 units, divided into
three modules. It is available for students of educational
management that offer planning and administration courses
especially at the doctorate level. The course covers some germane
topics in educational planning such as: the definition of
educational planning, basic concepts and phases in planning;
objectives and features of educational planning; factors guiding
educational planning and lots more. EDP 804 further covers titles
such as: definition, purposes, principles and guidelines of targets
setting; kinds of evaluation strategies; different types of evaluation
and lots more topics as found essential for students offering this
course EDP 804.
This text has been developed for students of the National
Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) by making reference to materials
written by experts within and outside Nigeria and even to some
materials sourced on the Internet.
Course Aim
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The course aimed at giving students understanding of
evaluation strategies in educational planning and implementation.
To this end, the aim will be achieved by exposing the graduate
students to contemporary educational planning evaluation
strategies which will help them in the course of their performances
both in the classroom and outside the classroom. There is also the
outline of the expected functions of the educational planners.
Further, the course demonstrates to the students how projections
of achievement targets can be undertaken by making use of some
techniques. Also, the course informed students of how needs
assessment can be undertaken while necessary feed back are also
gotten.
Course Objectives
In order to achieve the above mentioned aims, the course has
overall objectives that were synthesized from the specific objectives
of each of the 21 units which are however always made known at
the beginning of each of the units. You are therefore advised to
read through these stated unit objectives, digest them and ensure
that you have achieved then at the end of each unit.
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However, each of these objectives should be achieved at the
end of the course. On successful completion of the course, you
should be able to:
1) Explain the meaning of educational planning.
2) State the objectives and features of educational planning.
3) Discuss the factors that guide educational planning.
4) Mention the stages involved in planning educational
programmes.
5) Explain the social demand and manpower requirements
approaches to educational planning.
6) Discuss the difference(s) between the rate of return and
eclectic approach to educational planning.
7) List the barriers to effective educational planning.
8) Explain the meaning, purposes, principles and guidelines
of target setting.
9) Discuss the functions of evaluation of educational
planning targets.
10) Describe the kinds of evaluation strategies that we have.
11) State the steps involved in the educational planning and
evaluation.
12) Discuss the types of evaluation.
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13) Mention the benefits of mathematical models for
projections and educational planning.
14) Explain the projection techniques.
15) Describe the different ways and steps by which demand for
teachers can be projected.
16) Itemize the steps to be followed in establishing needs of the
pupils and the community.
17) Discuss the benefits and barriers of a need assessment.
18) Mention the demands of needs assessment.
19) Explain what feed back is and the types of feedback that
we have.
20) Define what Programme Evaluation and Review Technique
is.
21) Describe how the Programme Evaluation and Review
Technique is used in the implementation of programmes.
Working through this Course
In order for you to have full understanding of this course, you
must have read through the study units, referenced and relevant
textbooks internet sourced materials and other prescribed
materials. Each unit contains Self-Assessment Exercises (SAE)
and Tutor Marked Assignments (TMA), which will help you to carry
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out a personal assessment on the course. You are required to
submit assignments and class works given periodically while the
final examination will be conducted upon the completion of the
course. This is a 3 credit unit course consisting of 21 study units.
Course Materials
The major components of the course are:
1. Course outline.
2. Course guide.
3. Study units.
4. Textbooks.
Study Units
There are twenty one study units in this course EDP 804,
Evaluation Strategies in Educational Planning and Implementation.
The units are as follows:
MODULE ONE; Objectives and stages in Educational Planing
Unit 1: Definition of Educational Planning, its Basic Concepts
and Phases in Planning Process.
Unit 2: Objectives and Features of Educational Planning.
Unit 3: Factors Guiding Educational Planning
Unit 4: Stages in Planning Educational Programmes.
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MODULE TWO; APPROACHES AND BARRIERS TO EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
Unit 1: Approaches to Educational Planning I.
Unit 2: Approaches to Educational Planning II.
Unit 3: Barriers to Effective Educational Planning.
Unit 4: Definition, Purposes, Principles and Guidelines of
Targets Setting.
MODULE THREE; EVALUATION IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Unit 1: Evaluation of Educational Planning Targets.
Unit 2: Kinds of Evaluation Strategies.
Unit 3: Steps to Educational Project Planning and Evaluation.
Unit 4: Kinds of Evaluation.
Unit 5: Projection of Achievement Targets.
MODULE FOUR;PROJECTION TECHNIQUES AND NEED
ASSESSMENT IN EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Unit 1: Projection Techniques.
Unit 2: Project of Teacher Demand.
Unit 3: Quantitative Needs Assessment and Programme
Implementation.
Unit 4: Benefits and Barriers of a Need Assessment.
Unit 5: Elements of a Needs Assessment.
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Unit 6: Feedback: Meaning, Types and Purposes.
Unit 7: Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).
Unit 8: PERT Diagrammes in the Implementation of
Programmes.
Each of the unit consists of introduction, objectives, content,
conclusion, summary and also suggested textbook(s). Amidst the
unit is the Self Assessment Exercise that direct you to work on
exercises written at the end of each topic or sub-topics. The
purpose of these exercises is to assist you in achieving the stated
objectives of the individual units and of the course itself.
Textbooks
Textbooks are reference materials that each and everyone of
you must cultivate the habit of having. This is just related to
procurement of books by lawyers, medical doctors, accountants
and even architects. As educational planner, you must procure
textbooks related to your field. Though, there are many textbooks
on this course, but you are advised to buy some as will be given
below, because you will find them very useful for this course and
for your personal growth and development. The recommended
textbooks include:
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Babalola, J.B. (2003). Basic Text in Educational Planning.
Department of Educational Management, Ibadan: University
of Ibadan.
Longe, R.S. (1987). Fundamentals of Educational Planning.
Akure: Fagbamigbe Publishers.
Apart from the textbooks, you are also advised to visit the
International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) Website.
Assessment
There are two aspects to the assessment of this course. The
first is the Tutor Marked Assignment, while the second is the end of
the semester written examination. You are expected to apply the
information, knowledge and techniques gathered during the course.
There are twenty one tutor marked assignments in the course.
Seven of them will be used to count as 30% and these assignments
must be submitted to your tutor for formal assessment. There will
be end of semester examination that will contribute the remaining
70% , while at least 75% attendance at tutorials and counselling
sessions must be met.
Course Marking Scheme
The following table shows the breaking down of the marks.
S/N Assessment Marks
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(i) 7 Assignments Each counts for 10 marks
Total = 30 marks of course marks
(ii) Final Examination 70 marks overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks
Course Overview
This table brings together the units, the number of weeks you
should take to complete them and the assignments that follow
them.
Unit Title of Works Weekly Activity Assessment
1. Definition of Educational Planning, 1
its basic concepts and phases in
planning process
2. Objectives and Features of 2
Educational Planning
3. Factors Guiding Educational 3 Assignment
Planning
4. Stages in Planning Educational 4
Programmes
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5. Approaches to Educational 5
Planning I
6. Approaches to Educational 6 Assignment
Planning II
7. Barriers to Effective Educational 7
Planning
8. Definition, Purposes, Principles and 8
Guidelines of Targets Setting
9. Evaluation of Educational Planning 9 Assignment
Targets
10. Kinds of Evaluation Strategies 10
11. Identifying Steps to Educational 11
Project Planning and Evaluation
12. Kinds of Evaluation 12 Assignment
13. Projection of Achievement Targets 13
14. Projection Techniques 14
15. Project of Teacher Demand 15 Assignment
16. Quantitative Needs Assessment and 16
Programme Implementation
17. Benefits and Barriers of a Need 17
Assessment
18. Elements of a Needs Assessment 18 Assignment
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19. Feedback: Meaning, Types and 19
Purposes
20. Programme Evaluation and Review 20
Technique (PERT)
21. PERT Diagrammes in the 21 Assignment
Implementation of Programmes
How to Get the Most from this Course
In the distance learning programme, the course guide serves
as substitute for the university lecture, while the study units
replace the university lecturer. You as a student have the
opportunity of reading and working through the specially designed
study materials at your organized schedule, pace, place, time that
best suits you. So, you can then read each of the units as if you
are listening to a lecturer, and also try to understand and get
meaning out of each of the contents in each of the units you are
going through. Each of the twenty one units follows a common
format. The first item is an introduction that acquaints you to the
topic to be treated, the next is the learning objectives of the unit
which makes you to be able to discover what you should be able to
do by the time you complete the unit. Followed by the objectives is
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the main body of the unit otherwise called content. It puts you
through the body of the work/unit you are reading through.
There are Self Assessment Exercises (SAE) in the course of
reading through the content in each unit, by working through these
exercises, it will help you to achieve the already state objectives of
the units and also get you prepared for both the assignments and
the forth coming examination. You are advised to attempt each of
the Self Assessment Exercises as you come across them while
studying. In cases where you are having questions that are not
clear to you or that requires urgent attention, do not hesitate to
contact your tutor through the telephone or the e-mail or through
some other laid down means of contacting your tutor.
In addition to above, you are advised to:
(1) Read the course guide thoroughly.
(2) Read the course outline very well.
(3) Organise realistically a study schedule guided by the
course overview.
(4) Try as much as possible to adhere strictly and faithfully to
your study schedule.
(5) Start with unit one by reading through the introduction
and the objective for the unit.
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(6) Review the objectives for each unit to confirm that you
have really achieved them. In case you are not satisfied,
then consult your tutor.
(7) Once you are satisfied that you have achieved the unit’s
objectives you can then proceed to the next unit and
ensure that your style of studying is in line with your
schedule already laid out.
(8) Remember to always attempt to evaluate yourself by using
the Self Assessment Exercises that you have in between
each of the contents in each of the units.
(9) Upon the successful completion of the last unit, try as
much as possible to review the course and then prepare
yourself for the final examination.
Tutor and Tutorials
You will be informed of the dates, time and location of your
tutorials, and together with the name and phone number(s) of your
tutor as soon as you are allocated to a tutorial group. Your tutor
will mark and pass his/her comment on your assignments. You
are advised to keep a close watch on your progress and in case you
are facing some difficulties while reading through the course,
consult your tutor via the e-mail or the telephone. You are further
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advised to submit your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor
well before the due date. They will be marked and turned back to
you as soon as possible. Try as much as possible to attend the
tutorial sessions because it is one of opportunities you have to have
face-to-face contact with your tutor. You can ask questions that
answers will be provided to instantly. You can still raise any
problem that you encountered in the course of your study.
Further, prepare your questions well ahead of your tutorial
sessions and there are enough chances of you learning a lot more
from participating in fruitful discussion sessions actively.
Summary
At the end of this course, you will be able to provide answers
to these kinds of questions after being equipped with the basic
knowledge of evaluation strategies in educational planning and
implementation.
(1) How will you define educational planning taking note that
different experts had defined it relatively?
(2) Explain all the objectives of educational planning.
(3) Discuss the five factors that guide educational planning.
(4) Explain in details the different stages involved in the
planning of educational programmes.
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(5) Explain the differences between the social demand and
manpower requirements approach to educational planning.
(6) What are the barriers to effective educational planning?
(7) What are the kinds of evaluation strategies that we have?
(8) Explain the steps to be followed in the process of planning
and evaluating of educational projects.
(9) Discuss the types of evaluation that we have.
(10) Explain the advantages of utilizing mathematical models
for projection and educational planning.
(11) How are teachers projected according to the
student/teacher ratio?
(12) Explain the steps to be followed in establishing needs of
pupils and that of the community.
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EDP 804
Evaluation Strategies in Educational Planning and
Implementation
Course Developer: Dr. Abiodun Olumide Ayeni

Ibadan.
Course Writer: Dr. Abiodun Olumide Ayeni

Ibadan.
Course Editor: Prof. Remi Longe

Faculty of Education
University of Ibadan
Ibadan.
Programm e Leader: Dr Ogundiran S O

Course Coordinator: Dr Bolupe Awe

19
MODULE 1; OBJECT IVES AND STAGES OF EDUCATIONAL
PLANNI NG
UNIT 1: DEFINITION OF EDUCATI ONAL PLANNING, ITS

BASIC FORMS AND PHASES IN PLANNING PROCESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
Module one will expose you to many things about educational
planning and such include the concept of planning, concept of
educational planning, phases in a planning process, and so on.
You have to start off from this level, so that some rudiments of
educational planning will be clear to you.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to (i) explain the
concept of planning (ii) explain the concept of educational planning
(iii) state the phases in a planning process (iv) apply the phases in a
planning process to federal government’s entrepreneurship
programme targeted at alleviating poverty in Nigeria.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Definition of Planning
In defining planning, we can take a look at how God created
the Garden of Eden, animals and trees in six days and God’s
determination that after working for six days, the seventh day
should be a day of rest. God in his infinite nature had reasons
(objectives) for doing so many things that HE did. Just as God
planned for the (i) creation of the world, (ii) human beings (iii)
plants and animals and so on, human beings also, do plan for how
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to get food, jobs, married, and vehicle to aid movement from one
place to another, house for accommodation and even retirement
from place of work. To this end, Fabunmi (2005) said man plans
most of his activities in view of some set goals. So, human beings
often end up taking decisions at doing certain things because of the
reason that he/she wants to achieve specific goals. Dror (1963) and
Fabunmi (2005) therefore agreed that planning is the process of
preparing a set of decisions for action in the future with the view to
achieving goals by optimal means. Branch and Robinson (1968)
agreed that planning is a deliberate, organized and continuous
process of identifying different elements and aspects of an
organism, determining their present state and interaction,
projecting them in concert throughout a period of future time,
formulating and programming a set of actions so as to attain some
desired results. Additionally, Longe (2003) defined planning as a
process of establishing priorities for future actions in an attempt to
solve economic problems, which stem from the existence of scarce
resources. Planning therefore means giving thoughts to the goals,
targets, aspirations and even priorities of a given nation.
Self Assessment Exercise (S.A.E.):
At this juncture, can you think of what planning is, by examining
the different definitions given above?
3.1.1 Definition of Educational Planning:
Different experts have defined educational planning in
different ways and these will be examined now. But note that the
definition of educational planning arose from the definitions of
planning that was examined in section 3.1 above. So, Educational
planning is the process of preparing a set of decisions on education
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in such a manner that the goals, targets and objectives of
education will be realized in the future, through the rational use of
available scarce resources. Fabunmi (2005) further opined that
educational planning is a continuous process of obtaining and
analyzing facts and, from empirical base, of providing information
for decision makers on how best the education system is to
accomplish its goals and how best to achieve cost-effectiveness of
education programmes. In addition, Longe (2003) said educational
planning involves taking of decisions for future action with the view
to achieving predetermined objectives through optimum use of
scarce resources. Therefore, the coverage of educational planning
includes curriculum planning, target planning and manpower
planning within the education sector.
If we take a cursory look at above definitions about planning
and educational planning, one will note that there are some terms
that are common in the definitions. These are: (i) rational use of
scarce resources (ii) future orientation (iii) achievement of set goals,
and targets.
3.1.2 Forms of Planning:

As a student of educational planning, you need to understand
some of the forms of planning that are often used in educational
management, as will be explained below. This is very essential so
that you will be able to explain these concepts to laymen outside
this discipline. The forms are explained as we have below:
(i) Development Planning: Development Planning is a process
by which an individual(s) ensure conscious, judicious and
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rational use and allocation of nation’s scarce resources which
is targeted at the realization of national goals and targets.
(ii) Sectoral Planning: Nigeria as a country is made up of
different units, otherwise called sectors. These sectors
include: agriculture, mining, industry, commerce,
communications, education, health, labour and social
welfare, information, power, transportation and so on. This
can be likened to an human being that is made up of eyes,
nose, mouth, hand, leg and so on, but once pulled together, is
known as human being. Each of the sectors need to be
catered for such that there will be rational and thoughtful
allocation of scarce resources to meet the need of the above
mentioned agriculture sector, education sector,
communication sector, information sector and so on.
(iii) Sectional Planning: From each of the sectors above, there
are sections that make up the sector(s). You will remember
that as a student, you passed through (i) nursery school (ii)
primary school (iii) secondary school and now the (iv)
university. Though, there are some of you that also passed
through the Grade II Teachers’ Colleges, Colleges of
Education and even Polytechnics or Monotechnics. Each of
the school level constitutes a section of the education sector,
which when pulled together make up the sector called
‘education’. Sectional planning however implies the
thoughtful and rational allocation of scarce resources to each
of these sections within the education sector, targeted at
meeting the realization of their respective targets and goals.
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(iv) Curriculum Planning: Curriculum is a set of educational
activities that students are expected to pass through and
taught in the classroom environment by the respective
subject teacher. Though, these days learning do take place
outside the classroom environment. This is such that
students carryout self learning with their learning materials
and via the Information Communication Technology (ICT).
So, curriculum planning is the preparation of curricula,
timetables and different norms for students’ assessment.
These exercises are carried out by teachers.
(v) Technical Planning: This is the type of planning that
involves the formulation of quantitative targets which aimed
at realizing some sets of quantitative ends.
(vi) Manpower Planning: This is the active labour force within a
country. They are the human resources available to a country
and usually between the ages of 18 to 65 years. They are
produced by different educational institutions and employed
in different sectors of the economy. In short, manpower
planning is the process of allocating scarce resources towards
the production of qualified manpower in different areas of
need.
(vii) Participatory Planning: The word participatory implies a
situation where different people, experts, stakeholders are
involved in the process of planning. The stakeholders include
parents, labour employers, labour unions, students union,
communities, organizations, governments at different levels
who all from different angles do contribute to contents of
what is taught to students in schools.
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(viii) Micro Planning: Micro simply means small and fragmented
unit. An example is a ward, council, district, local
government which is smaller than a state. Also, a state is
smaller than the country. So, micro planning is the
allocation of scarce resources at the micro or grassroots level.
It is the opposite of macro planning.
(ix) Macro Planning: Macro planning means allocation of scarce
resources to the achievement of stated goals at the global or
larger or national level. Macro implies larger group or
national level or bigger level. The macro planning has to do
with yearly national budgets.
S.A.E.: Explain the following concepts of planning: (a) development
planning (b) sectoral planning (c) sectional planning (d)
curriculum planning (e) technical planning (f) manpower
planning (g) participatory planning (h) micro planning (i)
macro planning.
3.1.3 Phases in a Planning Process:

The process of planning takes different phases and these will
be explained below. It is essential to explain the phases so that
you as a student of educational planning will be able to explain to
individuals who have nothing to do with education, the different
phases involved in the planning process. The phases are as
follows:
(a) Policy Making: There are different policies such as
educational policy, economic policy, sports policy, health
policy, defense policy and so on and so forth. Owolabi (2005)
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concluded that a policy falls into one category of action, or
doing, intentionally undertaken with a specific purpose in
mind. Further, an action is qualified to be described as policy
because among other things, someone is doing something as
an action and the person undertook the action with a
particular purpose in mind. At this stage, there is the
initiation of a policy that is large (or otherwise called broad)
and Fabunmi (2005) said that policy is a political statement
that is backed up with legislation.
(b) Plan Formulation: Plan formulation evolves from the stated
policy above. The plan however contains some statistical
analysis. For instance, of how many students are to be
admitted, how many will be promoted, how many students’
chairs, tables, beddings should be provided e.t.c.? All these
and many more you can think of comes under plan
formulation.
(c) Plan Implementation: In as much as there are plans, it is
necessary to ensure that such plans does not end up on the
shelve but rather, see the light of the day. Therefore, plan
implementation is the next phase in a planning process. This
phase ensures that whatever that is on paper is thoroughly
carried out to the letter. Invariably, the issue of plan
implementation is an administrative function.
(d) Plan Evaluation: It is good to evaluate or assess what was
done. In fact, God the creator of heaven and earth evaluated
what HE created and concluded that they were good. The
final phase in the planning process is plan evaluation. Plan
has to be evaluated to be able to find out areas of lapses so
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that corrections can be effected. However, if there are areas
of strong points, evaluation will show this and it is a pointer
to the fact that someone should not rest on his/her oars,
rather to press forward.
S.A.E.: Explain in details the phases involved in a planning
process.
4.0 Conclusion
The place of planning in the educational enterprise in a
country cannot be over emphasized. Each country needs to plan
her different sectors, education inclusive. Furthermore, the
different phases involved in the planning process were explained.
5.0 Summary
This unit examined the definitions of (i) planning (ii)
educational planning (iii) different forms of planning and the
phases involved in a planning process.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment:

(i) How will you define educational planning?
(ii) Apply the phases of planning you were taught to the
Nigerian government’s entrepreneurship programme of
alleviating poverty.
7.0 References/Further Readings
Branch, M. and Robinson, I.M. (1968). Goals and Objectives in City
Comprehensive Planning. Town Planning Review, No. 4(38),
pp. 262.
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Dror, Y. (1963). The Planning Process. International Review of
Administrative Sciences, 29(1), pp. 26.
Fabunmi, M. (2005). Perspectives in Educational Planning. Ibadan:
Awemark Industrial Printers.
Longe, R.S. (2003). “Introduction to Educational Planning”. In
Babalola, J.B. (Ed.) Basic Text in Educational Planning,
Department of Educational Management, University of
Ibadan, Ibadan.
Owolabi, S.J. (2005). Policy Making and Educational Policy
Analysis. Uganda: Makerere University Printery.
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UNIT 2: OBJECTIVES AND FEATURES OF EDUCATI ONAL
PLANNING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
In unit one of this course, you were exposed to the definitions
of (i)planning (ii)educational planning; different forms of planning
and the different phases in a planning process. It is believed that
as a student of educational planning, you will be able to carve out
your own definition of what: planning and educational planning is.
Furthermore, you will be able to explain the different forms of
planning as shown to you in unit one of this course. In addition,
you will be able to explain to individuals that have nothing to do
with education the different phases involved in a planning process.
As a follow up to the above, this unit will examine extensively the
objectives of educational planning.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, as a student, you will be able to
mention the different objectives of educational planning. You will
also be able to explain each of these objectives as clearly as
possible to your colleagues and those outside the education faculty.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Objectives of Educational Planning
God in HIS infinite mercies has the objectives of creating a
man, a woman, animals, heavens, and everything that is received
from God. As human beings, you have objective(s) for being what
you are, doing what you are doing, and coming to offer or run a
course at the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN).
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Furthermore, you have reasons (or objectives) for running this
specific programme that you are running and not go ahead to read
Law, Theatre Arts, Economics, Mathematics, Physics, Teacher
Education and so on. Each of the countries in the world has their
respective objectives for having relations with other countries. So
also, each nation has education as one of the sectors that make up
such nation, which is planned for. There are objectives why scarce
resources are allocated to the first level of education (primary),
second level (secondary) and third level (tertiary) of education.
However, by putting everything together, there are reasons why
different countries allocate as much as 26 percent (UNESCO’s
recommendation to all countries of the world) to education sector.
Some countries however, have their reasons for allocating
percentages that is less than the UNESCO’s recommendation to the
education sector. You need to remember however, that while you
were a student of ordinary level economics, it is a common
knowledge that resources are scarce, and so this might be
responsible for the allocation of different percentages to education
sector by the different countries.
Be that as it may, our point of focus in this unit is to explain
as clearly as possible the different objectives of educational
planning.
3.1.1 Educational Planning Enhances Educational Growth and
Development:
One of the re-knowned economists Todaro as at 1985 said
notably that every nation strives after development, and that it is
one of the objectives that most people take for granted. Therefore,
to Todaro (1985), development is not only an economic
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phenomenon but also educational, industrial, infrastructural and
so on. This is because it is more than material and financial side of
people’s lives. Development is therefore a multidimensional
phenomenon which involves the reorganization and reorientation of
the total economic and social systems. In addition, development
has to do with radical changes and reduction in inequality in all
ramifications. However, from the economic perspective, you need
to know that economic growth is the steady process by which the
productive capacity of a given economy increases over time with the
aim of bringing about rising levels of national income. You need to
know also that in the developing economies, Todaro (1985) affirmed
that the planners, economists and even the politicians are usually
concerned with rapid economic growth. You can discover that
development is broader and larger than growth due to its focus of
reorganization and re-orientation of both the economic and social
systems. But growth is concerned majorly with numerical increase
in national income of a given nation. If the above explanations
should be applied to education, both growth and development is
inevitable and every countries of the world, Nigeria inclusive, must
strive to achieve it. Remember that there should be improvement
in infrastructural facilities, improved funding of the education
sector as agitated by different experts in the education sector and
lots more. On the whole, educational planning should target at
educational growth and educational development.
3.1.2 Production of Needed Skilled Manpower:
The economy of a given nation, like Nigeria as earlier said, is
made up of different sectors such as health, education, sports,
banking, manufacturing, transportation, and tourism and so on.
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These sectors will be managed by qualified and well trained
manpower, which have undergone training for a specified length of
years. It is the duty of the tertiary institutions (Universities,
Polytechnics, Monotechnics, Colleges of Education and so on) to
produce this manpower that will invariably be injected into the
economy. But you need to remember that the required length of
training of the skilled manpower vary from one discipline to
another. For instance, for manpower in the areas of Arts, Social
Sciences and Education, it takes four academic sessions especially
for entrants through the Joint Matriculation Examinations, while it
takes three academic sessions for the direct entry candidates. For
the manpower that are trained in the law, agriculture and
technology, it takes five academic sessions, while those in the
medicine, dentistry and some other medical disciplines are trained
for seven academic sessions. It is however important that the
manpower be trained and regularly injected into the Nigerian
economy because of the need to ensure that there is production
of proper ratio of these manpower to cater for the Nigerian
population and also to take care of workers that reach the retiring
age in each of the years. To this extent, the table below shows the
summary of graduands (or trained manpower) of the University of
Ibadan for the 2005 and 2006 academic sessions.
32
Table 1: Summary of Postgraduate Diploma and Higher
Degrees Manpower Trained by the University of
Ibadan for the Years 2005 and 2006
Faculty/Institute/ PGD Masters M.Phil MPH Ph.D Total
Centre Academic Professional
2005 2006 2005 2006 2005 2006 2005 2006 2005 2006 2005 2006 2005 2006
1. Arts 15 3 236 284 20 26 03 04 - - 42 23 316 340
2. Sciences 07 62 179 240 01 39 05 02 - - 33 22 225 365
3. Basic Medical - - 86 49 - - 01 - - - 04 07 91 56
Sciences
4. Clinical - 6 18 36 - - - - - 18 01 01 19 61
Sciences
5. Public Health - - 29 32 - - 01 - 19 17 02 08 51 57
6. Pharmacy 07 - 22 31 - - - - - - 01 04 30 35
7. Agriculture & - - 152 210 03 09 02 05 - - 35 38 192 262
Forestry
8. The Social - - 210 186 420 498 01 - - - 19 14 650 698
Sciences
9. Education 248 51 527 451 80 172 - - - - 46 29 901 703
10. Technology - 01 41 108 - 08 01 - - - 06 13 48 130
11. Law - - 57 10 - - - - - - - - 57 10
12. Veterinary - - 19 20 - - - - - - 08 07 27 27
Medicine
13. Institute of - - 86 144 - - 01 01 - - 04 05 91 150
African Studies
14. ARCIS - - 39 33 - - - - - - 03 02 42 35
15. CEPACS - - 23 20 - - - - - - - - 23 20
16. Institute of 85 - 23 61 - - - - - - 05 08 113 69
Education
Total 362 123 1724 1915 547 752 15 12 19 35 209 181 2876 3018
Sources:
(a) Research Frontiers. Bulletin of the Postgraduate School,

University of Ibadan, Vol. 3, November, 2005.
(b) Research Frontiers. Bulletin of the Postgraduate School,
University of Ibadan, Vol. 5, November, 2006.
The table above shows the summary of educated manpower

produced at Postgraduate Diploma and higher degree levels by the
University of Ibadan for the years 2005 and 2006.It should be
noted however that the higher degree level is made up of Masters
(academic and professional with M.A; M.Sc; M.Ed), Master of
Philosophy, Master of Public Health (MPH), Doctor of Philosophy
33
(Ph.D).The table also shows the sixteen faculties, centres and
institutes that exist in the university.
Faculty of Arts produced a total of 316 and 340 postgraduate
products in 2005 and 2006 respectively. The breakdown shows
that in the year 2005 the educated manpower production is as
follows: PGD-15;M.A(academic)-236;M.A(professional)-20;M.Phil-
03;Ph.D-42. In 2006, the production is as follows: PGD-03; M.A
(academic)-284; M.A (professional)-26; M.Phil-04; Ph.D-23.
The Faculty of Science produced 225 and 365 products in
respectively. In 2005, the production is as follows:PGD-
07;M.Sc(academic)-179;M.Sc(professional)-01;M.Phil-05 and Ph.D-
33.In the year 2006, PGD-62;M.Sc(academic)-240;M.Sc
(professional)-39;M.Phil-02 and Ph.D-22.
Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences produced the following
educated graduates as follows: In 2005, M.Sc (academic)-
86;M.Phil-01 and Ph.D-04.In the year 2006,M.Sc(academic)-49;and
Ph.D-07.The Faculty of Clinical Sciences produced a total of 19 and
61 products in 2005 and 2006.While Faculty of Public Health
produced 51 and57 postgraduate products during the years under
consideration. This is followed by the Faculty of Pharmacy with a
total of 51(2005)and 35(2006).The Faculty of Agriculture and
Forestry produced in the years under consideration a total of 192
and 262 higher degree graduates respectively.
Faculty of the Social Sciences produced 650 and 698
products in 2005 and 2006, while the Faculty of Education
produced 901 in 2005 and 703 in the year 2006.Faculty of
Technology however produced 48(2005)and 130(2006).The Faculty
of Law does not produce any doctoral products in 2005 and
34
2006,but had some Masters(LL.M) graduands numbering 57 and
10 respectively.
For the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, there were 19 and 20
M.Sc(academic);08 and 07 Ph.D products for the years 2005 and
2006.Institute of African Studies produced 86 and 144 academic
master;01 (M.Phil)each;04 and 05 Ph.D graduates for 2005 and
2006 respectively. Additionally, Africa Regional Centre for
Information Science(ARCIS) produced 39 and 33 (M.Sc Inf Sc.
products)for years 2005 and 2006,while it produced 03 and 02
Ph.Ds.
Centre for Peace and Conflict Studies(CEPACS) produced 23
and 20 M.A products for the years 2005 and 2006.Institutes of
Education produced 85 PGD products in 2005,23 and
61M.Ed(academic);05 and 08 Ph.Ds in 2005and 2006 respectively.
35
3.1.3 Enhance Internal and External Efficiency in the Education
System:
Akangbou (1987) and Ayodele (2005) said that efficiency is the

relationship between inputs (resources) that is used up by a system and
the outputs (or objectives) produced by such system. A system can be
said to be efficient if it can bring forth maximum output with the given
limited quantity of input. Ebhohimen (1989) asserted that the efficiency
of the educational system or its sub-system lies in its ability in
converting those scarce resource inputs employed in teaching and
learning to production of useful outputs with longer term benefits.
Summarily, efficiency has to do with relationship between resource
inputs such as money, time, efforts, e.t.c. and expected results such as
production of teachers, engineers, nurses, architects, secretaries,
accountants, e.t.c. Internal efficiency is the relationship between the
resource inputs within a given system (education or health) and the
outputs (graduates).Whereas, external efficiency is the relationship
between the inputs from the education sector (e.g. accountants,
architects, agriculturists, sportsmen and women, e.t.c.) and the outputs
of the whole economy. Giving the conducive environment, necessary
working tools and autonomy, the inputs from the education sector will
yield greater outputs of the national economy. In short, if the inputted
resources invariably yield maximum outputs, there is efficiency in the
system. But if the inputted resources does not yield maximum outputs,
the system is said not to be efficient.
S.A.E.: Mention the first three objectives of educational planning taught
to you.
36
3.1.4 Educational Planning Ensures Taking of Rational
Decisions:
Decisions are said to be rational if it will yield favourable outcome.
Among the rational decisions that can be taken are: (i) employment of
required educated manpower within the economy as at when due (ii)
construction of classrooms to accommodate increasing student
enrolment (iii) production of needed textbooks for students of first,
second and third levels of education (iv) construction of roads and other
needed infrastructures. Decisions that are not rational include: (i)
irrational retrenchment of workers (ii) unwitting destruction of houses
and school buildings (iii) irrational spending of money. You as a student
of educational planning must ensure that you take rational decisions in
all your ways and in whatever little that you are doing or engaged in.
3.1.5 Ensuring Efficient and Effective Allocation of Human,

Material, Financial, Time and Other Resources:
This is another objective of educational planning. Remember that

there are different types of resources made used of in the process of
production of educated manpower in the education sector, among which
are human, materials, financial, time, infrastructures and so on. These
resources are germane to the success of any education enterprise. You
should note that the highlighted resources are also scarce and not
readily available for use. Therefore, there should be efficient and
effective allocation of these resources to the required and pressing points
of need at one point or the other.
37
3.1.6 Enhance the Socio, Economic, Political Growth and
Development of Giving Countries:
Another objective of educational planning is the enhancement of

socio, economic, political growth and development of giving nations. If
you remember very well, the issue of growth and development that was
discussed in section 3.2, we discovered that both growth and
development is inevitable and every country of the world strive towards
it. Educational planning aims at improving the social status and
situation of individuals and the society. Educational planning also
targets at improving the economic growth and development in all
ramifications, such that there will be improvement in the per capita
income of individuals and overall improvement in the income of the
country as a whole. Political growth and development of countries will
also be enhanced, if there is educational planning. Political growth and
development is in the areas of organization of credible and worth-while
elections free of rigging and malpractices at whatever level. So, there will
not be rigging or different ills that are known to characterize bad
elections. Also, political growth and development will be enhanced when
there is successful transition in governance from non-opposition to
opposition party and vice-versa in a given country.
S.A.E.: Explain as clearly as possible five objectives of educational
planning.
3.2 Features of Educational Planning
As an individual, you have your feature or characteristics which are
known to you, your wife, your children, your colleagues in the office and
even your family members. If as an individual, we have our respective
attributes, educational planning too has its attributes which will be
examined now. The following are the features of educational planning:
38
3.2.1 Plan Must be Based on Defined and Stated Objectives:
Statement of objectives is a strong pre-requisite to the success of
any education enterprise or endeavour.For example, an objective might
be production of 100 engineers at the end of an academic year by
Nigerian universities. Another one might be providing access to
1,000,000 secondary school entrants who will be inputs into the
universities, polytechnics and colleges of education at the end of each
school academic session. However, there is the need to ensure that
educational plan must be based on well defined and stated objectives
which will prevent derailment of purpose. Ayo (1988) recorded that the
Nigeria’s Third National Development Plan (1975 – 1980) was an
improvement over the Second National Development Plan especially in
terms of definition of objectives. Though, the five cardinal objectives of
the Second National Development Plan were expanded into seven more
specific objectives as follows: (i) increase in per capita income (ii) more
even distribution of income (iii) reduction in the level of unemployment
(iv) increase in the supply of high level manpower (v) diversification of the
economy (vi) balanced development; and (vii) indigenization of economic
activities. In that wise, he noted that the overall strategy of the plan was
to utilize the resources from oil to develop the productive capacity of the
economy and thus, permanently improve the standard of living of the
people. The stated objectives of the Third National Development Plan
were realized as a result of the optimism generated by the unusually
favourable financial circumstances under which the country operated on
the eve of the plan. So, there was a sharp increase in both the price of
crude oil as well as its level of production.
Coming back to the education scene, just as the objectives of
Nigeria’s National Development Plans were clearly stated, the objectives
39
of the educational plans too should be well stated, so that it can be
realized.
3.2.2 Plan Must be Flexible to allow Development to Take
Place:
You need to remember that what is permanent is change.
Educational plans must be flexible enough, to give room for changes in
terms of additions, subtractions and even modifications. If you
remember very well that as students in the primary and secondary
schools in the 1960s, 1970s, and even 1980s, there was nothing known
and called ICT (Information and Communication Technologies). But in
the 21st century, the household name is ICT, which has made the whole
world to become a global village. The advent of ICT is new in our
educational system, and you should know that for us as a nation not to
be left behind the developments round the world, we have to
accommodate the emerging changes and adapt them to our situation.
Remember therefore, that any educational plan must give room for
flexibility in order to allow for development to take place.
3.2.3 Educational Plan Must be Timely and Reasonable:
As much as there are different decades denoted by one thing or the
other as usually done by United Nations, a country’s educational plan
needs to fall in line with such declared decades. For example, there were
decades of Sustainable Development, Education For All (EFA); Health For
All (HFA); Water For All (WFA); Environment and Global Warming (EGW).
These are timely targets and programmes declared by the United
Nations. The expectation is that all countries of the world will work
towards the realization of such stated targets. Nigerian educational plan
must be such that will fit into these United Nations decade declarations
which is timely, reasonable and human development focused.
40
3.2.4 Educational Plan Must be Based on Available Facts and
Premises and Not on Ordinary Op inion or Rule of Thumb:
At this juncture, the place of conduct of census every ten years
cannot be over emphasized. If it is conducted, there are available facts
and figures that will serve as guide to educational planners and policy
makers. The availability of up-to-date statistics goes a long way at
helping a nation to put up statistics backed up plan, and not educational
plan that is based on rule of thumb or ordinary guess. So, as students,
remember that in order to have an acceptable plan devoid of suspicion or
guess, there should be adequate statistics to back up any plan that is
being worked out by the government. Infact, statistically backed up
plans will not give room for wastages or over shooting of figures. Rather,
there will be adequate and exact plan preparation for the beneficiaries of
such plans.
S.A.E.: Why do you think that educational plan must be based on
available facts and premises and not on ordinary opinion or rule
of thumb?
3.2.5 Educational Plan Must be Communicated in Clear
Language of Instruction:
Communication is powerful and takes place between at least two
persons. It must be noted that whatever plan(s) that is been put together
is to work for some specific individuals. In as much as it is recognized
that plans are meant for some people, such educational plan must be
communicated in clear language so that the intent of such plan will be
made clear to the beneficiaries without any suspicion from anybody.
3.2.6 Educational Plan Must be Attainable and Feasible:
The purpose of conducting census exercises is to create a data
bank from which needed statistics about a country’s development targets
41
can be generated. Once the data are readily available, the educational
plan can be determined to be for specified number of people, and
therefore, will not be outrageous or non attainable. Furthermore, as a
result of the available statistics, it will be easy for such plans to be
feasibly carried out without recourse to rule of thumb.
3.2.7 Educational Plan Must be Simple in All Dimensions:
Educational Plan must be simple in all dimensions in terms of its
contents such as the introduction, body and conclusion and even the
objectives. The simplicity is essential because it might be another person
that will execute such written educational plan. If however, the originally
written plan is complex to the extent that it is not easily understood, its
implementation might not be thorough as it should be.
3.2.8 Educational Plan Must be Economical:
All plans whether educational, health, economic, infrastructural
must not be costly when it comes to its implementation. Resources are
scarce, implementation of educational plan must not be expensive such
that it will gulp so much money during its implementation. There must
not be room for extravagant spending.
S.A.E.: Explain the different features of educational planning that
you know.
4.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, the explicitness of the objectives and features of
educational planning makes each and everyone to view what such
objectives are and to assess whether they are achieved or not.Also, there
can be an assessment of whether the educational plan exhibits the
features as earlier explained.
42
5.0 Summary
In summary, this unit had examined what the different objectives
of educational planning are, and likewise the different features of
educational planning.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
(i) Explain all the objectives of educational planning that you know.
(ii) What are the characteristic features of educational planning?
Akangbou, S.D. (1987). The Economics of Education: An Introduction.
Ibadan: Shaneson Limited.
Ayo, E.J. (1988). Development Planning in Nigeria. Ibadan: University

Press Limited.
Ayodele, J.B. (2005). Fundamentals of Systems Analysis in Education.

Lagos: Bolabay Publications.
Ebhohimen, P. (1989). The Relative Efficiency of Two Class Cohorts: The

Case of Bendel State Secondary Schools during 1979-1985 Period.
Journal of Nigerian Educational Research Association, Vols. 9 and
10, pp. 1-14.
Todaro, M.P. (1985). Economics for a Developing World. Essex:

Longman.
43
UNIT 3: FACTORS GUIDING EFFECTIVE EDUCATI ONAL PLANNING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
This unit will examine the different factors that guide the
formulation of educational plans and the duration of educational plans
will also be examined.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) list the factors
guiding educational planning (ii) explain the five factors guiding
educational planning (iii) explain the different duration of a plan.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Factors Guiding Educational Planning
There are different factors that guide educational planning and the
factors are explained below:
3.1.1 Availability of Planning Experts:
An expert is someone that has undergone formal educational
training in designated tertiary institutions and also certificated.
Additionally, an expert would have undergone different on-the-job
training in form of workshops, conferences, symposia and so on. If there
are educational planning experts, their experiences about the knitty
gritty of the work will positively affect the process of educational
planning. As a student, you can determine who is an expert, based on
the acquired skill, the certification and performance while on the field.
One of the Nigerian economic and development planning expert in the
person of Edward Jide Ayo, who authored the book “Development
Planning in Nigeria” wrote in his book that he had the opportunity of
participating in the preparation and execution of all the four National
Development Plans. He added that as at the 1960s, the Nigerian
44
economy was characterized by being under-developed. But due to the
rigorous economic planning that was put in place by government, there
had been structural transformation. To this end, if economic and
development planning experts can give such testimony, then educational
planning experts should even have better testimonies about their area(s).
The availability of planning experts is germane as a factor that guides
proper educational planning.
3.1.2 Population Growth:
Population has to do with the human composition of a given area,
state, nation or even continent. The population is however made up of
children, boys, girls, men, women, people that are specially created or
put in another way, people that are physically challenged. Though, they
believe that it is in such disability that there is ability. You need to note
that year-in, year-out, there are changes in the population composition
such that people that were boys/girls will increase in age and become
men/women, while those that were children, will graduate to become
boys and girls and invariably adults. You need to note further that
educational need of the children is different from that of the young boys
and girls who are in the primary school level, while that of men and
women who are at the third level of education is also different. As much
as there are differences in the population growth relative to the different
age groups, their educational needs will also differ. Summarily, the
growth in population is one other factor that guides educational
planning.
3.1.3 Favourable Political Environment:

The stability of a nation’s political situation or environment is a
function of progress in varied dimensions. Non occurrence of coup and
45
counter coup on a regular basis in a nation’s polity is a good omen of
favourable political environment. If however, there is political instability
as a result of coup and counter coup, Adepoju (1998) affirmed that good
educational plans are tend to fail. The reason being that if the
educational plan was put together by a civilian government, and the
military hijack the government, democratically put together education
plan will not see the light of the day, rather, the military will put together
their own thought fit education plans. Nigeria between 1983 and 1999
experienced an unstable political environment in which there were coups
and counter coups, and to this end, there could not be any reasonable
educational plan(s) that can be made during the unstable Nigerian polity.
S.A.E.: Mention the first three factors guiding educational planning as
discussed with you.
3.1.4 Religion:
As a student, each and every one of you belong to a religious sect
which could either be Christianity, Islam or other forms of religions. It is
pertinent that each individual will not want his/her religion to be parked
aside and not be considered in the course of educational planning. So,
religion is a strong variable of consideration while planning education for
a given community. This is to give room for acceptability of the proposed
plan by the beneficiaries of such educational plan.
3.1.5 The State of the Economy:

This is another factor that influences educational planning. The
state of the economy implies how financially buoyant and capable the
country is to be able to implement the proposed educational plan. It
should be noted that an economy that do not depend on a single means
of foreign earnings stands the opportunity of realizing favourable foreign
46
exchange. So, an economy that is diversified in terms of means of foreign
exchange earnings will benefit from such varieties and be able to boost of
been favourable at financing her educational plan.
3.2 Duration of Plan
Time specification is highly important in any form of planning. The
reason being that the main task of an educational planner is to construct
strategies into a plan of action over an identified time – horizon that may
however vary from a few days to a number of years (Longe, 1987). As a
student, you are expected to have specified time that will be spent on
this programme which might be four academic sessions or more.
Whatever is the situation, you will have a minimum period of study that
you can spend on this programme, and while there will also be a
maximum period of study on the programme at National Open University
of Nigeria. You cannot be on a programme forever without completing
such registered for programme. To this end, an educational plan, also
has duration which might be short-term, medium-term or long-term.
Each of this duration will be explained below for clarity.
3.2.1 Short-Term Plan:
Different authors have different views about the meaning of short-
term plans. Experts like Longe (2003) maintained that a short-term plan
covers a period of one year or less. Atanda and Lameed (2006) said a
short-term plan extends over one to three years. Business
Dictionary.Com (2009) said a plan with a planning horizon of five years
or less is called short range plan. Therefore, as a student, you can carve
out what you mean by short-term plan. But in this text, a short-term
plan is that plan that spans between one to three years. This short-term
plan is a short-term schedule that can be adopted by a country or a firm
for urgent or emergency reasons.
47
3.2.2 Medium-Term Plan:
Adepoju (1998), Atanda and Lameed (2006) both said that a
medium term plan is the plan that covers between 4 to 5 years and it is
thought to be operationally most efficient. Both Adepoju (1998), Atanda
and Lameed (2006) agreed that medium term plan can be a fixed term or
a rolling plan in which there is preparation for four to five year plan in
succession as it is with Nigeria’s National Development Plans for the
years 1970-1975; 1975-1980; 1980-1985. A medium term plan may
however be on a rolling basis where by there will be adoption of the
practice in which a plan will extend by one year at a time. As much as
that is done, there will be revision of the plan’s targets based on the
gained experience during the process of implementation of the set plans.
Ayo (1988) said that the nation Nigeria targeted the operation of the 3
year rolling plan for 1990-1991-1992. Such was not possible because
Nigeria went through a “chequred” period in her economic planning
efforts.
3.2.3 Long-Term Plan:
Business Dictionary.Com (2009) said that long term planning is
targeted at meeting the future needs which is however estimated through
the means of extrapolation of present and known needs. The long-term
plan can also be called the perspective plan. It is a plan that spans
between 10 to 25 years. The Nigerian government according to Ayo
(1988) adopted the 15-20 year perspective plan for the period 1990 to
2009. There was an expectation however that the first phase of the
Nigeria’s perspective plan would constitute the fifth National
Development Plan. The target of the perspective plan was to put in place
9 strong base for the long-term development of the economy especially
with respect to some fundamental sectors. Like education, agriculture,
48
manufacturing, mining, utilities and energy (power). The long term plan
carries out the duty of helping to show to the world the major landmarks
realizable in educational development. Students, I hope you remember
that education is a social service and it is also capital intensive, while its
results are measurable only after a considerable time span that can
without mincing words extend over many decades. Remember that the
education enterprise is not like the enterprise of buying of rice, yam,
beans and so on, whereby the seller can within the twinkle of an eye
calculate his or her expected profits immediately. A good example of the
long-term plan is the task that Ashby Commission was saddled with as
at 1959, to project for 20 years (1960 – 1980) the middle and senior level
manpower need for Nigeria, which was targeted towards the attainment
of Nigeria’s independence in 1960. It was during this period that Nigeria
could be said to prepare for absorption of her higher education trained
manpower into the economy. Infact, it was such a situation whereby
firms go to scout for best brains that were willing to work with them
(firms). Remember that as at the said period, the spate of unemployment
was not noticeable, because there were plans put ahead by the set up
commission, targeted towards trained manpower absorption by the
Nigerian economy. If one tries to look back at such good days, how good
it would have been that there are other commissions set up by the
Nigerian government to plan for manpower absorption for 1980-2000;
2000-2020; 2020-2040 A.D and so on, and so forth. This effort would go
a long way at ameliorating the pronounced problem of unemployment
that is ravaging the Nigerian economy.
S.A.E.: What are the differences among the short-term, medium-term
and long-term plan?
49
4.0 Conclusion
There are different factors that guide different activities engaged in
by each and everyone, and so there different factors that guide the
educational planning also. Further, the duration of a plan was
examined, as this will provide different durations that government can
tilt its educational plans towards.
5.0 Summary
In summary, this unit had examined the factors guiding
educational planning. It had also explained in details the duration of a
plan.
(i) Itemise the factors that guide educational planning.
(ii) Explain the five factors that guide educational planning.
(iii) Explain the following plan duration (a) Short-term plan, (b)
Medium term plan and (c) Long-term plan.
Adepoju, T.L. (1998). Fundamentals of School Administration, Planning
and Supervision in Nigeria. Ibadan: Alafas Nigeria Company.
Atanda, A.I. and Lameed,W.O. (2006). Essentials of Educational

Management, Ibadan: Awemark Industrial Printers.
Ayo, E.J. (1988). Development Planning in Nigeria. Ibadan: University

Press Limited.
Business Dictionary.Com (2009). Short Term Plan Definition.

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/short-term-
plan.html. Retrieved 14 September, 2009.
Longe, R.S. (1987). Fundamental of Educational Planning. Akure:

Fagbamigbe Publishers.
50
Longe, R.S. (2003). “Introduction to Educational Planning”. In Babalola,
J.B. (Ed.) Basic Text in Educational Planning, Department of
Educational Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
51
UNIT 4: STAGES IN PLANNING EDUCATI ONAL PROGRAMMES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
There are different stages in life and in unit 4, we will examine the
stages involved in the planning of educational programmes. This will
serve as guide to everyone that is involved in the planning of different
educational programmes.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) mention the
different stages involved in planning of educational programmes (ii)
explain each of the stages in planning of educational programmes.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Identification of Needs
Economists agreed that human needs are varying and insatiable.
You as a student found that you need to improve yourself and hence
your registration for this course. There will be lots of disadvantages on
your side either at work, at home, amongst your colleagues if you do not
register for this programme you embarked on with the National Open
University of Nigeria. Your completion of this current programme does
not imply that you will not register for another programme that is of
interest to you, though, dependent on if you satisfy the prerequisite
ordinary level requirements. So, as an individual, our needs are different
and can be defined. Also, in the course of planning for educational
programmes, the first stage is the definition and identification of needs.
You can then ask these questions as follows that: needs for what? needs
for who? and so on and so forth. In defining the needs, there should be
proper understanding of what educational needs are. However,
educational needs can be: space need, infrastructural need, information
52
communication technology need, manpower need, training need for
teaching and non-teaching staff, and lots more. I know that you as a
student can further identify the different educational needs in the
educational system.
3.1.1 Formulation of Problem:
The formulation of problem has from time immemorial been posing
problems to individuals and students inclusive. Inability to define what
the problem is will not provide clarity about getting a picture of what an
educational problem is. So, Adepoju (1998) advised that the adequate
formulation of the problems will help in determining how effective the
solutions or decisions will be enhanced towards getting workable
solutions to the problem.
3.1.2 Consideration of Premises:
The term premises here refer to the environment in which the
planned educational programmes will be carried out. It must be
convincingly noted that environment plays a significant role in successful
carrying out of educational programmes. There are situations in which
the environment will be hostile and not accommodating. This can be as
a result of occurrences of natural disaster such as earthquake, erosion,
flood, climatic conditions and climate change and so on. Situations like
these will work against successful implementation of planned
educational programmes. On the other way round, if the highlighted
natural occurrences do not occur, the premises in which educational
programmes will be carried out will be favourable, rewarding and
welcoming. As a student, remember that when you are ready for
lectures, your environment might not be ready. Your environment might
be ready while you as a person might not be ready for classes. In these
two situations learning cannot take place and planned educational
53
programmes cannot also be successfully carried out. But if the
environment is ready and friendly, while the learner too is ready, the
planned educational programme will be successfully carried out. On the
whole, there is the need for a state of equilibrium, balance and stability
between the premises, educational premises and the recipients that will
benefit from such educational programmes.
S.A.E.: Of what importance is the consideration of premises in the
stages of planning for educational programmes?
3.1.3 Identification of Alternatives:
Problems are bound to occur, while solutions are bound to be
proferred for different problems. Whatever problems that arise, there are
available so many solutions. There are among the solutions some that
are cost effective, while some are not. Some solutions are characterized
with time wasting, while there are some that are time saving. As an
educational planner, you are saddled with the responsibility of
identifying the different available alternative solutions to the problem at
hand, so that the array of solutions can be examined, and there by adopt
the solution that is cost effective and time saving also.
3.1.4 Selection of Best Alternatives:
Remember that the last point examined was identification of
alternatives. Out of the differently available alternatives, the next stage
in planning educational programmes is the selection of best alternative
that will help in finding solution(s) to the identified problem(s). In the
process of selecting the best alternative, there should be the
consideration of questions such as: (i) will such best alternative be cost
effective? (ii) will such alternative waste time or not? (iii) will there be
availability of human, material, monetary, e.t.c. resources to implement
or carry out the best alternatives? It is therefore imperative for managers
54
and planners to consider the above mentioned items while selecting the
best alternative to problems identified.
3.1.5 Implementation Stage:
After the selection of the best alternative, the next stage is
implementation stage. At this stage, it is the point at which the best
chosen alternative is implemented. Here, all the arms of the school such
as teaching, non-teaching and even support staff are involved. This is a
stage at which what is on paper is converted to reality to ensure that
objectives stated are realized. At this juncture, all hands must be on
deck to ensure that every bits of contribution of the implementers are
cropped together by a coordinator otherwise called a principal or the
headmaster.
3.1.6 Evaluation/Review:
This is the last stage in the planning of educational programme(s).
After God had created the world, HE evaluated what was created and
adjudged them GOOD. It is also important to evaluate the stages
involved in planning of educational programme, to find out whether they
were good or not. Furthermore, evaluation is important so as to discover
the areas of lack that requires attention and correction. Once evaluation
is carried out, these areas of lack and insufficiency will be addressed and
it ensures that the programme is on track. Evaluation will further help
at ensuring that the set objectives are realized. While evaluating, the
process of review of each of the earlier-on-considered stages of planning
educational programme is re-checked so as to ensure that they fall in
line with the expected targets and objectives.
S.A.E.: Why do you think that evaluation/review is important as one of
the stages in the planning of educational programmes?
55
4.0 Conclusion
Educational programmes are sensitive because of their importance
to human development. In that wise, it is not an aberration to note that
there are different stages involved in the planning of educational
programmes which will be of benefit to mankind in all ramifications.
5.0 Summary
In summary, this unit had examined the six stages involved in the
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment:
Explain in details the different stages involved in the planning of
educational programmes.
56
MODULE 2; APPROACHES AND BARRIERS TO EDUCATI ONAL
PLANNING
UNIT 1: APPROACHES TO EDUCATI ONAL PLANNING I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
There are different approaches involved in educational planning,
and they are applicable to either the developing or developed countries.
Whatever approach(es) that is(are) examined, there are lessons to be
learnt from each of them. This unit will therefore examine the Social
Demand Approach and the Manpower Requirements Approach to
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) Explain the Social
Demand Approach to educational planning (ii) State the assumptions of
the approach (iii) Explain the limitations of the approach (iv) Explain the
Manpower Requirements Approach to Educational Planning (v) State the
methods of Manpower Requirements Approach.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Social Demand Approach
The Social Demand Approach is one of the approaches to
educational planning. It believes that education services should be
provided for the society, and should be made available to all the citizens
that desire to be educated. Longe (2003) said that the Social Demand
Approach has become acceptable. This is because the government
decides that education should be provided to all those that have the
intention of attending schools, and especially for those that will likely
57
benefit from such venture. Furthermore, the Dutch educational system
provided that “in case there is sufficiently qualified citizen that stands at
the door of any type of school, he/she must be admitted. Further, it is
the responsibility/duty of the appropriate or concerned government
authorities to anticipate his/her requests. This anticipation will make
school capacity to be adequately prepared to accommodate such
student(s). On the whole, the government must admit the provision of
education for all her citizens.
The Social Demand Approach (SDA) views education as
consumption and it is mostly employed in an environment where there is
free and compulsory education as a tool for egalitarianism and
permissiveness. The SDA is also adopted in environment where those at
the helms of affairs respect the public and infact, realize that there
should be satisfaction of public demand as a pointer to social and
political progress. This approach is further embraced in environment
where there is strong recognition and attachment to both the traditional
and cultural values. This is so, because education is provided for all and
sundry. It could therefore be said that individuals and parties seeking
for political offices adopt the Social Demand Approach as one of their
manifestoes targeted at providing education for all. Fabunmi (2005) said
that in Nigeria, the social demand approach was adopted for the
planning of the Universal Primary Education (UPE) of the states that
were controlled by the then Unity Party of Nigeria(UPN), under the
leadership of Late (Chief) Obafemi Awolowo. It is possible that some of
you were beneficiaries of this free education programme while you were
in the primary and secondary schools.
58
3.1.1 Assumptions of the Social Demand Approach:
There are some assumptions that guide the social demand
approach of educational planning and these are as given by Adepoju
(1998):
(a) Education is consumption rather than an investment.
(b) Education is a fundamental right of the people rather than
privilege and therefore should be provided by the government.
(c) Continually, there will be demand for education which will be
greater than the supply.
(d) Children of school age will demand for education specifically
designed and meant for their age.
3.1.2 Limitations of the Social Demand Approach:

Adepoju (1998) listed the following as the limitations of the social
demand approach to educational planning. These are:
(a) The social demand approach to educational planning is greatly
politically motivated. Therefore, it is highly based on political
consideration.
(b) Another limitation of the approach is that it leads to educational
wastages in terms of repetition, withdrawal and poor quality of
output of the school system.
(c) The approach cares for so many school intakes, which makes it
very expensive in terms of salaries payment of the human
59
resources (teaching and non-teaching) that constitute about
65% of the available scarce monetary resources.
(d) There is political undertone or influence in the process of
location of schools, and so, schools can be irrationally located.
(e) There is no consideration of the huge financial involvement of
this approach while been adopted by the government.
S.A.E.: I want you to reflect on educational provision in Nigeria and its
relation to the Social Demand Approach of Educational
Planning.
3.2 Manpower Requirements Approach
The manpower requirements approach can also be called
manpower forecasting approach. It is an approach that is based on
forecasting the manpower needs of a given economy such that the
various skills areas required by the labour market are forecast so as to
produce a certain level of development for a given period. Experts such
as Nwankwo (1981), Akangbou (1987) and Longe (2003) agreed that this
approach has great relevance to developing countries because of the
continuous shortage of the right kind and number of qualified educated
workers. The Manpower Requirements Approach (MRA) is commonly
used in newly independent nations in which there are vacancies that
should be filled. Nwankwo (1981) therefore made it known that the
manpower forecasting approach has been used in forecasting the
manpower requirements for countries such as Nigeria and Ghana.
With respect to Nigeria, the colonial masters inaugurated the Ashby
Commission of 1960 that was saddled with the responsibility of using
manpower demand approach to work out the estimate for expansion of
higher education for the period 1960-1980. The Late Professor Harbison
made the projections as at 1960, and was known as the Harbison’s Rule
60
of Thumb. Harbison’s Report was based on the assumption that: if the
national economy was to achieve 4% rate of economic growth, the senior
and intermediate manpower must grow at both 8 and 13 percent
respectively. Manpower planners were saddled with the responsibility of
estimating the quantity of manpower needed by a given economy if given
the growth target of the Gross Domestic Product. In case, a given GDP
growth rate is to be attained, the needed manpower (senior and
intermediate) must be supplied by the respective educational
institutions. You have to note that the variation between the labour
demand and supply is the ultimate aim of manpower planners so as to
determine whether supply of labour is less or higher than the demand for
labour. In cases where there were some imbalances, the expectation is
that the educational system and its educated manpower supplying
bodies must be adjusted in terms of getting such educational system
expanded or otherwise as the case may be.
3.2.1 Methods of Manpower Requirements Approach:

The following are the methods of manpower requirements
approach:
(a) Employers’ Opinion Method.
(b) Harbison’s Rule of Thumb Method.
(c) Incremental Labour Output Ratio Method.
(d) Density Ratio Method.
(e) International Comparison Method.
(f) Parnes – Mediterranean Regional Project Method.
3.2.2 Assumptions of the Manpower Requirements Approach:
61
(a) There is direct relationship between increase in skilled
manpower and productivity.
(b) Future changes in the distribution of educational personnel are
associated with positive growth and changes within the
economy.
(c) Potentials, skills, competencies and abilities of the people can be
transformed through education.
4.0 Conclusion
Conclusively, the Social Demand Approach has some political
undertone and mostly used when political parties are campaigning for
elections. Manpower Requirements Approach is useful for nations that
look forward to attaining their independence and will likely experience
manpower shortages upon the attainment of independence.
5.0 Summary
This unit examined the Social Demand Approach and Manpower
Requirements Approach to educational planning.
(i) Explain the assumptions behind the operation of the Social
Demand Approach to educational planning.
(ii) Explain the methods of Manpower Requirements Approach to
Akangbou, S.D. (1987). The Economics of Education: An Introduction.

Ibadan: Shaneson Limited.

62
Nwankwo, J.I. (1981). Educational Planning. Theory and Methods.

Karachi: Izharsons Printers.
63
UNIT 2: APPROACHES TO EDUCATI ONAL PLANNING II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
The process of educational planning involves many approaches,
and unit 6 will continue with the other 2 approaches. Remember that in
unit 5, we examined the Social Demand Approach and the Manpower
Requirements Approach. In this unit, we will examine the Rate of Return
Approach and the Eclectic Approach.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) Explain the rate of
return approach (ii) Eclectic approach to educational planning (iii)
Explain the difference(s) between the rate of return and eclectic
approaches (iv) Explain the steps to be followed while using the rate of
return approach to educational planning.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Rate of Return Approach
The rate of return approach is otherwise called the Cost – Benefit
Analysis or the Investment Efficiency Approach. The approach views
education as an investment good. So, individuals within the society is
equipped with skills, knowledge, tendencies by the educating agents
while in return, there will be increased national output for such society,
which is believed would have invested scarce resources in her citizens. It
is believed that investment in education should be undertaken by a given
society if it equals next best alternatives, and the society as well as
individuals is encouraged to invest in the differently available
educational programmes that would greatly increase the rate of economic
growth of such society. Longe (2003) thus said the educational
investment has to be weighed against or compared with other
64
investments in the nation such as roads, health, communications, and
industry and so on. Remember that as a student, you undertake
different activities such as reading, cooking, travelling, and preparation
for office and so on, and there are different steps that you take or follow
while carrying out these activities. While utilizing the rate of return
approach to educational planning, there are different steps that must be
followed, and these steps were highlighted by Longe (2003) as follows:
(a) determination of the costs of various educational programmes;
(b) estimation of the expected benefits from the various educational
programmes;
(c) comparism of costs and benefits in order to obtain rate of return
that is expected from the educational programmes;
(d) comparism of rates in “c” above with alternative rates from other
investments such as roads, health, communications, e.t.c. so as
to determine whether the magnitude of resources allocated can
be shared between the various educational programmes.
Adepoju (1998) then pointed out that the rate of return approach is a
technique that is normally used in evaluating public investment
programmes and it ordinarily points out the direction in which education
can be steered by investing more in it or less on it, if the returns are not
worthwhile.
3.2 The Eclectic Approach
The eclectic approach can otherwise be called the Synthetic
Approach. Fabunmi (2005) said the approach involves making use of the
three approaches (social demand approach, manpower requirements
approach, and rate of return approach) simultaneously for the different
levels of education. In the eclectic approach, the primary education level
is planned using the social demand approach; secondary education is
65
planned using the manpower requirements approach, while the tertiary
education is planned using the rate of return approach.
S.A.E.: What is the difference between the rate of return approach and
the eclectic approach to educational planning?
4.0 Conclusion
The remaining approaches (rate of return and eclectic) have been
examined and the rate of return approach viewed education as an
investment in which there should be returns upon such investment.
Eclectic approach however synthesized the earlier three approaches and
justified which of the approaches is useful for which level of education.
5.0 Summary
In summary, this unit had examined the rate of return approach to
educational planning and the eclectic approach to educational planning.
This unit however, completes the approaches to educational planning.
(i) Explain comprehensively the rate of return approach to
(ii) Explain the eclectic approach to educational planning.
(iii) Explain the steps involved while using the rate of return
approach to educational planning.
(iv) What are the differences between the rate of return approach
and eclectic approach.

66
67
UNIT 3: BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE EDUCATI ONAL PLANNING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
The process of educational planning is not free from one hindrance
or the other, just as we human beings are not free from one problem or
the other while we are still living. This unit therefore examines the
different barriers to effective educational planning, such that one can
take them into consideration while carrying out the work of planning for
education.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) itemize the
different barriers to effective educational planning (ii) discuss each of
these barriers into details (iii) proffer necessary solutions to these
barriers to effective educational planning.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Administrative Bottleneck
This can otherwise be called bureaucracy or red tapism. It is a
process of delaying and ensuring that protocols are followed in the
process of educational plans formulation and implementation.
Administrative bottlenecks involve stage-by-stage processing of
educational plans, which will take several weeks, months, and even
years, before such educational plan is finally approved. The bottleneck is
usually found with the government machinery as found in ministries in
which jobs pass from one stage to another, and from one officer to
another. In the process of such plan moving from one stage or officer to
another, such officer might be transferred to another ministry. The new
personnel that takes over such office where the educational plan requires
attention will need some time to study the document before taking the
68
necessary action. These are some of the reasons why there will be
bureaucracy in the process of effective educational planning.
3.1.1 Economic Problem:
This problem stems from scarcity of monetary resources. If for
instance a country’s economy is dependent on a single product for its
foreign exchange, or it is dependent on its importation and exportation
means alone, monetary resources that will accrue to such country will be
minimal, despite the fact that there will be so many sectors that will be
competing for the few monetary resources that is realizable by such
country. If however, there is variety of sources of foreign exchange
earning by a nation, such country stands the chance of realizing huge
sums of money which will enable her implement the proposed
educational plans to its successful completion.
3.1.2 Non-Commitment to Set Objectives:
It is one thing to set objectives, it is another to work towards
realization of the objectives. The masses, experts and government might
be such that will not be committed to realization of set objectives. This
however might be as a result of non-awareness of what educational plans
are targeted at realizing, lack of focus on educational matters and even
laissez faire attitude on the part of stakeholders in the education sector.
Non-commitment to realization of a nation’s set educational objectives by
stakeholders such as masses, experts, government and so on, serves as
barrier to effective educational planning.
3.1.3 Lack of Adequate and Efficient Information:
Lack of information on the part of experts constitute big problem to
effective educational planning. Fabunmi (2005) on his part noted that in
Nigeria, most planning officers still use the manual information system
to plan a system that is fast becoming outdated in the modern world,
69
and this serves as barrier to effective educational planning, once
information is still manually retrieved. But in the days of computerized
management information system, information retrieval is efficient and
adequate. Therefore, to overcome this barrier, countries and
organisations that still operate a manual means of retrieving information
must change over to the computerized means of management of
information.
3.1.4 Lack of Knowledge about the Goals of the Units within
the Education Sector:
The education sector is made up of different units which are
primary, secondary, tertiary, special, technical and vocational and lots
more. Each of these units has its set goals and targets which are clearly
defined and well laid out in document such as the National Policy on
Education e.t.c. In situations where those that are implementers of
educational plan do not have proper knowledge of the goals of these
units within the education sector, then, there is an impending problem
which serves as a barrier to effective educational planning.
3.1.5 Instability in Policy:
There is instability in policy as a result of lack of continuity of
plans. You need to remember that once there is instability in polity, as a
result of frequent changes in government, there will continually be
instability in policy which invariably serves as a barrier to effective
educational planning. Fabunmi (2005) however reiterated that political
instability is a common feature of the third world nations. It to a great
extent does not augur well for educational planning of countries of the
third world, and so it retards progression, achievement and success in all
ramifications.
70
S.A.E.: Mention five of the barriers to effective educational planning you
were taught.
3.1.6 Inadequate Training:
Another major problem serving as barrier to effective educational
planning is inadequate training for both the planners and the decision
makers. The inadequacy of training stems from the non-availability of
the training school in which both the planners and decision makers can
get enrolled and benefit from such school. Even, in cases where the
training can be held outside the country, there might not be enough
monetary resources allocated for such training. Government needs to
embrace training of her personnel as she (government) stands the chance
of benefiting maximally from the beneficiaries of such training on
3.1.7 Wide Gap between Planners and the Implementers:
Another noticeable problem of effective educational planning is the
gap between planners and the implementers. So far the gap is still wide
between the planners and the implementers, it will continue to serve as a
barrier to successful educational planning. But in cases where such gap
has been closed, and both the planners and implementers work hand-in-
hand, progress, improvement, success will continually be experienced.
There will be positive progress report and mountains of problems and
difficulties will be surmounted. On the whole, there is the need to
ensure that the wide gap between the planners and implementers is
closed so as to prevent further barrier to educational planning.
3.1.8 Lack of Prior Feasibility Studies:
Prior feasibility studies are not conducted by most government,
before embarking on effective educational planning. The non conduct of
prior feasibility studies is a pointer to failure of whatever educational
71
plan that any government might put forth. If feasibility studies is
conducted or carried out, before the real educational plan is written,
areas of flaws, deficiencies and inadequacies will be noted, so that these
can be corrected.
3.1.9 Poor Monitoring and Evaluation System:
The absence of monitoring and evaluation system is also one of the
clogs in the wheel of progress of educational planning. This is the last
medium through which there can be a resolution of crisis, correction of
bad activities and ensuring that all educational planning activities are on
course as expected.
4.0 Conclusion
There are different hinderances to effective educational planning,
just as each and every one of us face one hindrance or the other. But as
much as there are hindrances, there should be thought out solutions to
them, so that there can be progress.
5.0 Summary
Unit seven examined the barriers to effective educational planning
and nine of such barriers were examined in this unit.
(i) List out all the barriers to effective educational planning.
(ii) Explain comprehensively all the barriers to effective educational
planning.
(iii) What are your proffered solutions to these barriers to
educational planning?
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73
UNIT 4: DEFINITION, PURPOSES, PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES
OF TARGET S ETTING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
It is important that individuals must set targets he/she wants to
achieve either in a day, a month and so on. If targets are set, there is
every tendency that each and everyone will work towards its realization.
So, in this unit, we will examine the definition, purposes, principles and
guidelines of setting targets.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) define what a
target is (ii) explain the purposes of target setting (iii) explain the
principles guiding setting of targets (iv) explain the guidelines for target
setting.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of a Target Setting
Target setting is a desired level of performance expected to be
attained by an organization, institution, and even an individual at a
specified time. Therefore, targets setting are commitment to
improvement. Targets are however very relevant to measuring
performance.
3.1.1 Purpose of Setting Targets
Targets are used to assess and report achievement level in
relation to the stated desired level of performance. Furthermore, the
purpose of targets include to indicate the extent of improvement a given
organisation is striving to achieve and realise at a point in time which
can be a month, a quarter, half a year or even a year. Targets further
provide focus of efforts to achieve improvement in allocation of resources,
74
staffing level, strategy development and its implementation. Not only
that, target can also be infrastructural development and maintenance.
3.2 Principles of Targets Setting
The following are the principles guiding setting of targets:
(i) Valuable Part of Planning: Targets are valuable part of
educational planning because planning is the setting of goals
and ensuring its achievement taking into consideration the
availability of scarce resources. So far resources are scarce,
there cannot be room for wastages and so targets of what to be
achieved must be set.
(ii) Targets must be Meaningful, Achievable and Challenging:
Targets must be set such that it forms a critical step in the plan
formulation. To this extent, it is wise that targets to be achieved
must be meaningful, it must be capable of being achieved and in
fact must also be challenging. For example, if someone or a
country sets its target such as improving the retention rate of
girl-child at the primary level by year 2015. This statement is a
broad statement and its not capable of being realised if care is
not taken. But there is need to set target in such a way that the
performance indicators will be taken into consideration. Put in
another way, the above target can be to “increase the school
enrolment and survival rate of girl-child in primary 4 by 10
percent over the base year survival rate by 2015”. It could be
seen that the later set target is meaningful, it is achievable and
infact, it is challenging. Variables such as the targetted 10
percent and year 2015 are well stated out clearly. The exact
class of interest is also noted and can be worked towards.
75
(iii) Target must be Beneficial to Students: Any target that is set
must be of benefit to students because they are at the receiving
end of any policy targets or statements that are set. So far the
students are the future manpower of the country, they are
expected to be the one that will build up the resources of the
country in the near future. The students must benefit from
such targets in all ramifications, whether educational, economic,
psychological, philosophical, sociological and so on.
(iv) Targets should be Interactive: There is need for targets to be
interactive. This will ensure that all those concerned to benefit
from the set target have their inputs which will make a
difference and take different variables into consideration. Such
consideration can be qualitative and quantitative.
(v) Parents must be Informed about Targets: Parents must be
informed about the different targets that are set. This is to
ensure that parents are abreast of the information that will be of
benefit to their children. They (parents) however can also
contribute meaningfully to such targets and even share out of
their wealth of experiences with the school authorities. These
experiences will however be of benefit to the children, school,
parents, and the society at large. Towards this end, it is not an
overstatement to note that parents must be informed about set
school targets, so that they can play their expected
complimentary roles to the school and society at large.
3.3 Guidelines for Setting Targets:
There are different guidelines for the setting of targets and this
includes:
76
(i) Consideration of Variety of Information:
There is need to ensure that past performance is taken into
consideration while setting educational targets. Information to
be considered include: school characteristics, students
characteristic features, available human and material resources,
available infrastructures, weather and so on. Information
consideration is very important so that available information will
serve as guide on whatever steps to be taken. Financial
information will equip the planners with how much finance is
available to the organisation to plan and set targets of her
activities. The available finances will also serve as checks within
which organizational activities are carried out.
(ii) Consistency in Data Collection Methods: Data collection is
an important variable of consideration while setting targets. It is
based on the available data that any target can be quantitatively
set. However, without data, realistic target cannot be set. While
gathering data, there is need to ensure that the mode of
collecting such data is to a great extent reliable and consistent
with the set target. Invariably, reliability and validity of data
must be taken into consideration as much as targets are being
set.
(iii) Stakeholders Involvement While Setting Target: This is
another guideline to be followed while setting targets. In the
education setting, there are different stakeholders such as
students, parents, students unions, organizations,
entrepreneurs, bankers, employers of labour, government and
so on that are utilising the finished products of education at
different levels and so on and so forth. These stakeholders have
77
different situations and experiences that are relative to them,
which they will require that students passing through
educational institutions must have acquired while in school. So,
the schools and other stakeholders must be involved greatly in
the process of setting targets.
(iv) Prioritization of Pressing Area: There are different areas that
needs set targets in the educational system. But, some areas
are more pressing than the other, or that some areas need more
attention than others. What must be done is to prioritize these
pressing areas because of the availability of financial, material,
time, human resources, that will be capable of meeting these
needs at the same time. But it should be noted that resources
are scarce and so, cannot at a single time meet the need of all
the targets. That is why there is need for prioritization which is
the arrangement in the order of importance of these targets.
(v) Graphical Representation of Past Trends: In order to be able
to set realistic targets, there is need to use graphs to represent
the past trends which can be within three to five or ten years.
The graph will show at a given instance what the situation of the
organisation, the student, finance, infrastructure, etc. is, so that
necessary targets can be realistically set. This therefore will
prevent the rule of thumb operation. Visual displays such as
bar charts, pie charts, histographs all aid colour to the
illustration of results and setting of targets. Furthermore, trend
line graphs that is based on a minimum of five years of historical
data or rolling three years average would be taken into
consideration. The different graphs will make available setting
78
of targets for future years based on the available realistic
graphs.
S.A.E.: Mention some of the guidelines for setting targets.
4.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, this unit had informed you about what target setting
is, the purposes of target setting and other basics about target setting.
5.0 Summary
Summarily, the unit had looked into the definition of target setting,
purposes of target setting, principles guiding target setting, and the
guidelines of target setting.
(i) Define what target setting is.
(ii) What are the purposes of target setting?
(iii) Explain the principles guiding target setting.
(iv) Explain the guidelines of target setting.
Guide to Education Planning and Results Reporting.
http://education.alberta.ca/media/442976/Setting Targets
for Education Performance Measures.pdf.
79
MODULE 3; EVALUATION IN EDUCA TIONAL PLANNING
UNIT 1: EVALUATION OF EDUCATI ONAL PLANNING TARGETS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
This module will extensively look at evaluation of educational
planning targets. Evaluation you will agree is very important in whatever
activity we engage in. This will help us to assess whether we are on
track or not. However, this module starts with the definition of what
evaluation is, and other units dealt with other useful topics related to
evaluation of educational planning targets.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) define evaluation
(ii) state the functions of evaluation in educational planning targets (iii)
explain the school elements to be evaluated.
3.0 Main Content
Evaluation of Educational Planning Targets
3.1 Definition of Evaluation
The term evaluation originates from God. This was when HE looked
at all things that HE created and declared they were “GOOD”.
Evaluation is therefore a process by which somebody, an organisation or
an institution or a department wants to find out what is happening to
their steps, processes, programmes so as to find out and discover areas
of deficiencies. This is done in order to proffer remedial solutions to the
areas of deficiencies. There is therefore the continuing effort to improve
human service programmes, financiers, policy makers and service
providers who are greatly and increasingly realizing and recognizing the
importance of rigorous programme evaluation. To this extent, the
process of evaluation wants to find out what the organisation’s
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programmes accomplished, what the programmes cost, and how they
should be operated so as to achieve maximum cost-effectiveness.
Evaluation wants to know which programmes work for which groups,
and conclusions based on evidence, rather than testimonials and
impassioned pleas (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov
/BJA/evaluation/guide/documents/evaluation_strategies-html).
3.2 Functions of Evaluation in Educational Planning T argets
Evaluation has been found to perform several functions in the
different educational planning targets. Among such functions are:
(vi) Support for Administrative Decision-Making: Different
educational planning targets involve taking of decisions about
what to do, when, why, and how to do it. Once evaluation is
carried out, full support is given to all administrative
machineries. Furthermore, the decisions will be taken by
human beings within the organisation. So, evaluation helps the
administrative decision making process comprehensively.
(vii) Improvement of the Curriculum: Curriculum you remember
is the compendium of contents that students must learn while in
school, so that there can be positive change in their attitude and
behaviour, e.t.c. Evaluation therefore leads to improvement of
the curriculum so that contents of what students are taught are
enriched from time to time. It should be remembered that so far
different situations (economic, educational, environment and
climate) are experienced, these differences must be built into the
students’ curriculum so that the students will be abreast of
what is happening and therefore be equipped, up-to-date and
be relevant in the system.
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(viii) Staff Development: This is another function of evaluation. It
gives room for development of the staffers. It needs be realized
that for the attainment of any educational target there must be
adequately developed staff. These developments can be attained
through in-house training and out-of-house training. There are
lots of advantages that accrue to both the staffers, students and
the institutions at large. Whatever training that staff went
through, students stand the chance of gaining greatly from such
training.
(ix) Enhancement of Organisational Public Relations: For any
organisation to achieve its set educational targets, there is need
for public relations which targets at improving the image of such
organisation. Remember that as much as the organisation
ensures that its sustenance and existence is continuous, a basic
requirement for such is good public relations and a good public
relations officer. The officer is expected to be committed to the
set planning target of the institution, so that the continual
existence of the organisation is ensured.
(x) Instructional Counseling and Diagnosis of Student and Staff
Problems: Problems are not made for trees or animals alone.
As human being, we are not free from problems, whether as a
staff or as a student. As a staff, there can be problem with
respect to the family (I meant immediate/nuclear or extended),
our husbands or wives or even at the place of work. If it is the
place of work, it might be about a given concept or terminology.
But as a student, our problem can stem from inability to
comprehend what teachers are teaching us in the class, or we
have problem with our fellow students in the class. Evaluation
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tries to ensure that such problems are brought to the open and
dealt with, so that hindrances to realization of set educational
targets are removed. Evaluation functions as student and staff
problem detector, diagnoniser and also provides the
instructional counselling.
S.A.E.: What are the functions of evaluation in educational planning
targets?
3.3 School Elements to be Evaluated
Sanders (1978) described elements in a school that could become
points of evaluation as follows; (i) general needs assessments (ii)
individual needs assessments (iii) allotment of resources (iv) processes or
strategies for providing services to learners. These services were found to
include: design of the curriculum, classroom processes, materials of
instruction, monitoring of the progress of the student, motivation of the
learner, effectiveness of the teacher, learning environment, development
of the teaching and non-teaching staff, making of decisions, community
involvement and formation of policies of the board of the institution.
4.0 Conclusion
This unit had exposed you to some knowledge pertaining to
evaluation which is however germane to educational planning targets.
Evaluation is very important because it will help to find out whether the
set targets are realized or not.
5.0 Summary
The unit examined the definition of evaluation, functions of
evaluation and the school elements that can be evaluated.
(v) What is evaluation?
(vi) Explain the functions of evaluation.
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(vii) Mention and explain the school elements that can be evaluated.
Sanders, J.R. (1978). School Professionals and the Evaluation Function.
Journal of School Psychology, 16: Pp. 301-311.
Harrell, A.; Burt, M.; Hatry, H.; Rossman, S.; Roth, J. and Sabol, W.
(n.d.). Evaluation Strategies for Human Services Programmes. A
Guide for Policymakers and Providers.
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA/evaluation/guide/documents/eval
uation_strategies.html. Retrieved 30th September, 2009.
84
UNIT 2: KINDS OF EVALUATION STRATEGI ES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
In unit 9, you were exposed to the evaluation and school elements
that will be evaluated. This unit will teach you the kinds of evaluation
strategies that can be adopted.
2.0 Objectives
different kinds of evaluation strategies that we have (ii) explain these
kinds of evaluation strategies.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Programm e Review Committee Approach for Curriculum
Evaluation
This strategy can be acronym PRCA. The duty of the committee is

to review thoroughly the programmes and educational targets of the
institution. There should be a schedule of how such targets and
programmes will undergo comprehensive and thorough review once in
every 5 years. This is to ensure that up-to-date innovations and changes
are built into such curriculum that students are expected to undergo
while schooling. The committee for this curriculum review could be the
school principal or chairman of the Parents Teacher Association.
Sanders (1988) posits that the committee could be composed of a
building committee which made up of the superintendent for instruction,
the school principal, elementary school level chairperson or secondary
school level chairperson and an instructional specialist.
There is the creation of the school level committee (e.g.
primary/secondary/tertiary), or departmental level committee that is
saddled with responsibility of compiling the needed information that
85
will lead to necessary changes in the school curriculum which will be of
benefit to the students and different stakeholders in the school system.
These committees can make little changes as at when required. Sanders
(1988) further noted that the committees can conduct and even keep
records of the ongoing needs assessment for their different areas, while
trying to look at alternative models, materials for teaching and setting
objectives targeted at better approaches to instruction and also meeting
the student pressing needs. Sanders (1988) additionally informed that
the Programme Review Committee Approach does the following (i) review
of programme proposals (ii) preparation of budget (iii) gathering of more
data that is needed in the course of a one year review of a given
programme area (iv) presentation of recommendations to the established
school board of directors for their consideration during their meetings.
While preparing for the review of the curriculum for another year, in
order to incorporate necessary changes, there should be a consideration
of the following: teaching and non-teaching manpower, infrastructural
facilities development, subject offerings, budget allocation,e.t.c.
Problem-Solving Approach for School Improvement:
It has been mentioned that problems are not only meant for dogs,
animals or humans. There are problems with our institutions also,
whatever level they might be. The second evaluation strategy is the
problem-solving approach targeted at school improvement. In the
process of utilizing this approach, there should have been the discovery
of the strengths and weaknesses of the different school units such as the
libraries, laboratories, maintenance units, staff rooms, research units.
The weaknesses will to a great extent brought to lime light the areas of
deficiencies of the school that needed attention such that students and
teacher’s alike will benefit from correction of such deficiencies. In the
86
course of the discovery of the deficiency, there must be prioritization of
the school weaknesses so that the most pressing weakness will come
first, followed by those that are not too pressing. Based on this
prioritization, different committees made up of experts from within and
outside the school are set up. There is the necessity of having different
experts because of the different school problems to be addressed and
from their wealth of experience. The committee to work on school library
will have library and archival experts, those to work on the laboratory
will also be experts of good repute, while those that will work on the
infrastructural facilities development should be experts in such areas,
and can include building engineers, architects, surveyors, and so on.
The committees are therefore expected to put up different proposals
from their discoveries of deficiencies of the school. The proposals are
expected to incorporate workable solutions to the identified problems.
Further, Sanders (1988) informed that there is annual stockading days
during which there is inventory of the strengths and weaknesses of a
given school. This is targeted at discussing what is it that remains to be
done on the work that is undertaken in the past years and also evaluate
the changes that were also implemented in the past years and to discuss
evaluation. These will then lead to development of improvement plans
for the years ahead.
3.1.1 Discrepancy Approach for Assessing School Needs and
Planning
Each stakeholder whether student, teacher, government or even
the community have within them their features that they expect a school
to have. Just like when someone talks about school quality, each and
everyone has within him or her what s/he looks forward to as making up
quality of a school. Though, the presumed quality of Mr. A will be
87
different from that of Mr. B and also different from that of Mrs. C.
Invariably, there will be discrepancies in the individual’s perception of
what school quality will be. Using above approach, each of the school
teachers will be required to state clearly, what they think the features of
their school should be, to be able to measure or meet up with the
standard of the school. It should be remembered that there are some
government established features in the school accreditation formats and
from the different research findings of different experts, there are
highlighted necessary school features. From the above 3 (teachers
thought-of school characteristics, accreditation formats and researchers
findings), Sanders (1988) remarked that the school head will have to
organise resulting list of school characteristics by the following:
(a) School Organisation (school calendar, grade structure, time
schedules, image of student that is educated, availability of
school services, personnel assignments).
(b) Curriculum (effectiveness, comprehensiveness, materials,
resources, ability to meet student needs).
(c) School climate (recognition of achievement, attendance,
vandalism, student/teachers respect and trust, standards
expectations, enthusiasm for learning, availability of support,
e.t.c.).
(d) Instruction (this includes testing and grading, learning
interruptions, practice, grouping, leadership, professional
development of the staff and even support).
It should be realised that above listed characteristics can be viewed
by both students and teachers from different perspectives. It is also
possible that schools might not be working towards realisation of school
set goals. The school staffs are therefore duty bound to discover the
88
areas of discrepancies or deficiencies, so that necessary corrections can
be effected. Sanders (1988) therefore recommended that a staff member
can collect papers from other staff, tabulate how many times different
discrepancies were listed among the above listed school characteristics
and later report where there seems to be clusters. The essence is to be
able to effect necessary corrections where there exist such discrepancies.
The expert further affirm that if the exercise is carried out every 3 years
the school will be kept dynamic, relevant and there will be continuous
development in the direction of the collective vision of the school staff.
S.A.E.: What are the kinds of evaluation strategies that we have?
4.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, you have been taught the different kinds of
evaluation strategies that we have. So, you can make use of any of them
while you embark on evaluation exercise(s) probably on a personal note
or while at your duty post.
5.0 Summary
In summary, the kinds of evaluation strategies you have been
taught are: (a) Programme Review Committee Approach for Curriculum
Evaluation (b) Problem-Solving Approach for School Improvement (c)
Discrepancy for Assessing School Heads and Planning.
(i) Mention the different kinds of evaluation strategies that you
know.
(ii) Explain these kinds of evaluation strategies you have mentioned
above.
Sanders, J.R. (1988). Approaching Evaluation in Small Schools.
http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-929/smal.htm. Retrieved 17th
August, 2009.
89
UNIT 3: STEPS TO EDUCATI ONAL PROJECT PLANNING AND
EVALUATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
You will be taught in this unit the processes to be followed in
identifying steps to planning and evaluation of educational project(s).
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) mention the steps
to be followed in the planning and evaluation of educational projects (ii)
explain these steps as clearly as possible (iii) explain the ingredients that
evaluation plan must be composed of (iv) state the steps to be followed
while preparing evaluation strategy.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of the Problem
Here, some potent questions must be asked such as: what is the
current situation? Who says it is a problem? What will happen if
nothing is done? From these questions, a problem can be defined as a
situation or condition of people or organisation that will exist in the
future and that is however considered undesirable by the members of
such organisation. Once it is a situation of undesirability, it requests for
urgent attention, so that there can be lasting solution to the problem at
hand.
3.1.1 Setting the Objective:
Objective is what to be achieved in the course of carrying out of
some activities. Really, questions such as these can be asked that what
do I want the situation to be in the future? How will I know when I have
achieved it? So, an objective is a situation or condition of either the
people or an organisation that will exist in the future and it is however
considered desirable by the members of such organisation. The
90
objectives should be specific, measurable statements of what someone
wants to accomplish at a given point in time. Objectives are also
declarative statements that should include the what, who, when, where
and how much elements or variables of the above stated problem
statement.
Objectives may aim at solving a problem that is external to the
organisation which usually is a problem of the community or targeted
population. Some other objectives may target solving some problems
that are internal to the organisation and such can include staff training
needs or their motivation. In some other cases, objectives may be
directed at changing the skills, knowledge or even the attitudes of people
such as staff, clients, consumers, or even the general public. You should
note further that problems are stated in negative, undesirable terms
(which is however wrong and fearful), but objectives will state a positive
and desirable situation. It must be remembered that a problem can
hardly be eliminated, and the size of the situation or condition is usually
smaller in the objective rather than in the problem statement.
Remember to limit the objective to a realistic level that is still considered
desirable by the organization.
3.1.2 Choosing among Alternative Strategies:
In the process of choosing among alternative strategies, the
following questions can still be asked: what are the possible ways to solve
the problem? what resources would be needed to do each alternative?,
which alternatives are most feasible?, who needs to be involved in
choosing which way is best?. A therefore strategy is a series or group of
activities which are carried out by members of a given organization
targeted at reaching the stated desired objectives. In order to determine
the appropriate strategy to be employed, (i) list all the possible ways of
91
reaching the objective and (ii) analyse each alternative from several
aspects by including available resources, forces within the environment
that may help or hinder good implementation, and evaluation criteria
such as: appropriateness, adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency and
potential side effects which can be positive or negative.
3.1.3 Preparation for Implementation
Here, some potent questions can still be asked as follows: What
arrangements are needed to be made with other organizations and people
in order to carry out the plan?, how can we get everything done as
scheduled?, how will the needed resources be discovered? In order to get
prepared for implementation of the project, (i) figure out what major
activities will be needed and in what order should they occur? (ii)
determine a schedule for completion of these noted activities (iii)
calculate what resources will be needed to complete these tasks and
activities (iv)assign responsibility(ies) to someone for each activity (v)Plan
what specific tasks will be done, who needs to be involved, when the
tasks will occur, and what specific resources will be needed and how to
obtain them, if necessary.
Remember that activity is a specific procedure or process
completed at a certain point in time which is carried out by personnel
within the system as part of strategy for realizing the desired objective. A
task is a specific process or procedure that includes what will be done,
when, and by whom, that is part of a larger activity.
3.1.4 Designing the Evaluation:
While designing the evaluation, some germane questions can also
be asked, and these include: how will I know when I have achieved my
objective?, how well did the strategies and activities work out?, how
efficient were the resources used? Outside these posed questions, it
92
must be noted that there are two main types of evaluation, which are
process evaluation and outcome evaluation.
Process Evaluation: The process evaluation is targeted at
measuring the effectiveness of the target or organization to carry
out the plan as designed or programmed. So, each of the steps
taken, is evaluated.
Outcome Evaluation: This is intended to measure the degree to
which the objective has been met as the result of the
implementation of the selected strategies and activities. Both the
process and outcome evaluations are made used of together. While
a process evaluation may indicate that the plan is being well-
implemented though, it will not determine if the strategies and
activities implemented are effective in addressing the problem. In
the same vein, outcome evaluation may indicate that the objective
had been met, but without confirmation that the process was
effectively implemented. So, it may not be possible to attribute the
impact of the solution to the problem at hand and to the actual
intervention in question.
3.1.5 Steps to Preparation of Evaluation Strategy:
There are five basic steps to be followed in the preparation of
evaluation design as propounded by Craig (1978) and these are:
(i) Anticipation of what decisions might have to be made about the
plan along the way.
(ii) Look at each part of the plan and anticipate where a comparison
of actual performance against planned performance might yield
information that will help make key decisions.
93
(iii) Design measures of appropriateness, adequacy, effectiveness,
efficiency and side effects in order to compare actual and
planned performance.
(iv) Figure out how to obtain the data for these measurements.
(v) Determine who will analyze the data, how and when.
S.A.E.: (i) What steps will you follow in educational project planning?
(ii) Mention the steps involved in preparation of evaluation
strategy.
3.1.6 Ingredients that Evaluation Plan Must Include:
Craig (1978) further provided the following ingredients that an
evaluation plan must be made up of, and these are:
(i) A review of the decisions that might need to be made during
implementation.
(ii) Description of possible breakdowns between actual and planned
performance.
(iii) Set of measures to be used in comparing the actual and planned
performance.
(iv) List of sources from which data will be gathered.
(v) Plan for how the data will be analyzed and who will analyze such
data.
(vi) Plan for how the evaluation information will be used by the
organization, other users and different stakeholders.
4.0 Conclusion
We have seen the different steps to be followed while evaluating
educational project(s). Furthermore, the different ingredients that
evaluation plan must be made up of have been made known to you, such
that it will be made used of while undertaking evaluative exercises.
94
5.0 Summary
Summarily, this unit had exposed you to the: (i) steps to follow in
the planning and evaluation of educational projects (ii) steps to follow in
preparation of evaluation design (iii) ingredients that evaluation plan
must include.
(i) Explain the steps to be followed in the process of planning and
evaluating educational projects.
(ii) Explain the steps that should be followed in the preparation of
evaluation strategy.
(iii) What are the ingredients that evaluation plan must include?
Project Planning and Evaluation in Five Easy Steps. http://march of
dimes.com/files/HI_Project_Planning_and_Evaluation_in_5
_Easy_Steps.pdf. Retrieved 16/10/2009.
95
UNIT4: TYPES OF EVALUATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
We are going to look at the different types of evaluation that can be
embarked upon. You should note that these are the types of evaluation
that different stakeholders in the education, industrial, sports, economic,
transportation, health, e.t.c. sectors can embark upon. This will help
them to really ascertain how their respective programmes will impact on
the recipients.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) itemise the different types of evaluation that can be embarked
upon
(ii) explain these types of evaluation
(iii) explain the determinants of the readiness for evaluation.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Impact Evaluation
This is the type of evaluation that assesses the effect of one thing or
a programme or a thought of solution on the recipients, or students or
different stakeholders in the education sector. This type of evaluation
focuses on questions of causality. Questions such as: did the
programme have its intended effects on the intended recipients? Harrell,
Burt, Hatry, Rossman and Roth (n.d.) further pose these questions that if
the programme had its intended effects, who was helped and what
activities or characteristics of the programme created the impact?
Further, did the programme have any positive or negative unintended
consequences? These questions are germane because of an expectation
that the designed programme or discovered drug when utilized on the
96
expected recipient, will lead to improvement in their bad situation. For
example there are different drugs that have been produced by drug
experts targeted at reducing the incidence of Human Immunodeficiency
Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS). Medicine
experts will carry out impact evaluation of whether the drugs when
administered on the HIV/AIDS patients there was improvement in their
health status.
Furthermore, in the teaching and learning system, researchers
have worked on different ways by which teachers can teach and teach
well such that students will learn well. The newly discovered teaching
strategies will be tested on students and with the expectation that there
will be improved teaching/learning situation. Such improvement implies
that the newly discovered strategy (ies) had positively impacted on the
students.
3.1.1 Performance Monitoring:
This is another type of evaluation that provides information on the
key aspects of how a system or a given programme is operating. Further,
it examines and even determines the extent to which specified
programme set objectives are being attained. Such objectives can be: (i)
attainment of 60% girl-child primary school enrolment by year 2012 in
BOYOHA State (ii) production of 10,250 teachers by colleges of education
in a given country (iii) reduction in secondary school dropouts from
about 10 percent to 5 percent. Harrell, Burt, Hatry, Rossman and Roth
(n.d.) said that results of this evaluation are used by service providers,
funders and policymakers to assess the performance of the programme
and its accomplishments. For example in Nigeria, the government
introduced the National Programme on Eradication of Poverty (NAPEP)
targeted at total eradication of poverty in the country. To this extent,
97
some tricycles were distributed to the educated unemployed. The
expectation therefore was that the NAPEP will to a great extent reduce
the rate of poverty in Nigeria. If there is an assessment of what the
poverty level is when the NAPEP was introduced and compared with the
rate before the government’s introduction of NAPEP, though it is found
that there was a reduction in poverty level in the land, programme has
performed creditably well at reducing poverty in Nigeria.
3.1.2 Process Evaluation:
Harrell et al informed that this type of evaluation questions about
how a programme operates, it also documents the procedures and the
different activities that are undertaken in the process of service delivery.
One big advantage of the process evaluation answer type as given by the
experts is that they are useful to both service providers and the
practitioners in the process of repeating/replicating or even adaptation of
the programme strategies.
3.1.3 Cost Evaluation:
This evaluation type has to do with determination of how much a
programme costs or the determination of the costs of the components of
the programme. This is in relation to available alternative uses of scarce
resources for the same programme, though taking into consideration the
benefits to be reaped from the programme. Harrell et al believed that in
the current fiscal environment and disposition, programmes must defend
their costs against alternative uses.
S.A.E.: Mention the types of evaluation you have been taught.
3.1.4 Determinants of Readiness for Evaluation:
Evaluability assessment according to Harrell, Burt, Hatry,
Rossman, Roth and Sabol (n.d.) is a systematic procedure for deciding
whether programme evaluation is justified, feasible and even likely to
98
provide useful information. There are important determinants of
readiness for evaluation and these are as discussed below:
i. Availability of Data: Data is very important in the course of
evaluation. So there is need to determine the kinds of data that
will be needed while getting ready to evaluate. There should be the
determination of whom and who will provide the need data.
Experts therefore agreed that evaluations should be designed to
maximise the use of available data, so far they are valid indicators
of important concepts and are found reliable. However, the data
that are needed for evaluation can be in the form of government
statistics that are generated by government establishment such as
the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and even the Federal Office
of Statistics (FOS) as we have in Nigeria. There can also be both
records and statistics of government agency(ies). Furthermore,
data can be retrieved from works of government researchers or
individually set up research organizations targeted at carrying out
researches into specified areas of human endeavour. You must
remember that there will likely be limitations or problems that will
be encountered in the process of data collection. So, in such cases,
all efforts must be made to find solution to the ensuing problem of
inability to collect data.
ii. Availability of Requisite Resources: Resources the adage says is
scarce. Remember that there are innumerable resources needed
for successful evaluation exercise. In that wise, efforts must be
made to ensure that resources such as time, money, expertise,
government, and so on are readily available for the evaluation
exercise. In situations, where there are some disturbances, efforts
must be made to find solutions to such constraints.
99
iii. Time Frame for Evaluation: In order to make the evaluation
relevant and useful, there is need to ensure that the evaluation
takes place at a given relevant time frame, when such exercise will
be useful, relevant and timely. This will make the findings and
outcomes of such evaluation exercise to be highly useful.
iv. Availability of Related Evaluation Information: There is an
adage that says experience is the best teacher. This is such that
there might have been existing an evaluation information
somewhere probably on the same or a closely related intervention
exercise. Harrell et al informed that if there are any successful
previous attempts of evaluation exercise, it may yield promising
models for replication. Furthermore, the experts said that lessons
that were learnt from previous unsuccessful attempts may even
inform the current effort.
v. Generalizability of Findings: Findings that are not generalizable
will be of limited value. Infact, if you look at some laws such as
that of demand and supply, they are applicable to different
situations at different times. It is therefore imperative that findings
of different programmes be generalizable to other communities.
This however makes such programmes to be useful in various
settings.
S.A.E.: List the determinants of readiness for evaluation.
4.0 Conclusion
You will discover that there are different types of evaluation that
can be carried out and there are different determinants of readiness for
evaluation exercise.
100
5.0 Summary
This unit had informed you reliably that there are different types of
evaluation. The different determinant factors for readiness for evaluation
were also made known to you.
(i) Explain the different types of evaluation that we have.
(ii) What are the determinant factors for readiness for evaluation?
Harrell, A.; Burt, M.; Hatry, H.; Rossman, S.; Roth, J. and Sabol, W.
(n.d.) Evaluation Strategies for Human Services. Programmes: A
Guide for Policymakers and Providers.
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA/evaluation/guide/documents/eval
uation_strategies.html. Retrieved 30th September, 2009.
101
UNIT 5: PROJECTION OF ACHIEVEMENT TARGETS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, we will deal with what a model is, what a projection is
and with the benefits of mathematical models for projections and
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
(i) define a model
(ii) give the definition of projection and
(iii) explain the benefits of mathematical models for projections and
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of a Model
A Model is an equation that comprises of a list of variables that are
endogeneous and those that are exogenous. However, a model according
to Ayodele (2005) is a set of structures containing a set of equations that
involve autonomous relationships which are sufficient for determining
the numerical values of the endogenous variables from the values that
are given of the exogenous variables. Model is a set of relationship that
involves at least one variable that is involved in at least one another
relationship that forms part of the model.
Various models are constructed by economists, statisticians,
educational planners and even policy makers targeted at studying and
creating an understanding of the economic and educational situation. It
further makes forecasts that are rational about educational and
economic realities based on a given set of assumptions that are built into
the models.
102
Ayodele (2005) further noted that an economic model for instance
is made up of a set of economic relationships that are generally
expressed through a set of mathematical equations. There are some
variables in the model that express the relationships that exist among
the different variables of the economy. Each of such equations has in it
one or more variables that also appear in one or more relationships that
consist of a model. For instance, a look at the structure of a micro
market equilibrium model consists of the following: demand equation, a
supply equation and even the equilibrium condition that the total
quantity demanded will finally be equal to the total quantity that is
supplied. Algebraically, a linear equilibrium microeconomic model can
be expressed as shown below:
Qdd = a0 - b0P …… (1)
Qss = a1 + b1P …… (2)
Qdd = Qss ………... (3)

Note that Qdd, Qss and P represents total quantity demanded, total
quantity supplied and the price respectively, while the constants are
denoted by a0, a1, b0, b1 . In order to determine both the equilibrium
point and equilibrium price at which quantity demanded by buyers will

equate the quantity supplied by producers, equation 3 will therefore be
solved, as shown below:
If Qdd = Qss, then substitute the values in equations 1 and 2 above
as follows:
a0 - b0P = a1 + b1P
a0 - a1 = b0P + b1P
a0 - a1 = P (b0 + b1)
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a0 - a1 = P OR
b0 - b1
P = a0 - a1
b0 - b1
Models can therefore be a forecasting or equilibrium models. It can
also be a static or dynamic model though, depending on type of
analytical technique that is employed. How relevant a model is, is a
function of the empirical results that it gives taking into consideration
the reality of the behaviour.
3.1.1 Projection:
A Projection according to Owolabi and Fabunmi (1999) is a
statement that is based on assumed conditions of the parameters that
characterise the parent population. Projection is therefore an elaboration
of the effects in future of the presumed present condition. Projection
tries to predict the outcome of spontaneous forces of what can happen if
there were no deliberate manipulations of situations. Care needs to be
taken because of the fact that once the conditions that are assumed for a
projection changes, such projections will be wrong and the errors will
also be great. With time the assumptions on which projection is based
become weak with time as a result of changes in policy, plan, and so on.
Time is a variable that determines the accuracy of projections. If the
period of projection is short, then the projection will be reliable. If
otherwise, the time is long the accuracy of projection decrease with time.
In short, the projection over short period is quite reliable than that of the
long-term. There can be projection of variety of things such as
projections of the male and female student population, needed textbooks,
classrooms and so on. Projection of achievement targets can be increase
104
in enrolment of student, required number of classroom furniture such as
chairs and desks, salary of academic and non-academic staff.
S.A.E.: (i) What is a model? (ii) Define projection.
3.1.2 Benefits of Mathematical Models for Projections and
Educational Planning:
Mathematical models are useful for projections and planning of the
educational system and targets. Educational planners however make
good use of these mathematical models because they are in the business
of planning for educational system whereby targets about student
enrolment, infrastructural needs, salaries of workers are all worked
upon. The planners further work on future details about these targets,
and the future can be five or ten years or more. The future is worked on
to take care of yet to be born population. Models, whether economic or
educational consist of given set of relationships and they are expressed
generally through a set of mathematical equations.
There are lots of advantages that are derivable of mathematical
models for projection and educational planning, and these include:
(i) Ensuring of Logical Consistency: The logical consistency exists
when there is clarity in the specification and estimation of either
the relationships (or association), differences, joint relationship,
prediction of some issues. These exercises involve large and
complex data. The mathematical model(s) gives room for logical
consistency because it has been tested over time and its
shortcomings worked on.
(ii) Facilitation of Rapid Computation of Future Implications of
Education Policies: Mathematical models give room for easy
computation as a result of well stated process which has been
tested overtime. In that wise, different computation can be carried
105
out about values of differences, tests of association, and usage of
regression analysis and also through the use of simulation
analysis.
(iii) Specification and Quantification of Key Relationships:
Mathematical models further give room for specification and
quantification of key relationships, which gives room for intra-
national and international comparison of variables such as human
development index, educational development index. It helps in
stating out clearly the enrolment of students over a specified period
of time, teaching manpower figures, government budgetary
allocation to education and lots more. These values helps in
finding out whether a country is ahead of other countries or such
nation is at par or it is behind other nations of the world.
(iv) Assessment of Priorities in Terms of Funding, Infrastructures
and Lots More: By making use of mathematical models, one can
easily discover within a glance, the areas that are of priority to
government in terms of funding, provision of infrastructures and
other relevant issues. Mathematical models make possible
availability of data to assess areas of priority.
4.0 Conclusion
This unit had introduced you to what a model is. You have also
been informed about what a projection is and the advantages of
mathematical models for projections and educational planning had been
made known to you in this unit.
5.0 Summary
The definition of a model was examined, while in this unit, the
definition of projection had also been examined. The different benefits
106
for utilizing mathematical models for projections and educational
planning were also looked at.
(i) What is the definition of a model?
(ii) What do you understand by projection?
(iii) Explain the advantages of utilising mathematical models for
projections and educational planning.
Ayodele, J.B. (2005). Fundamental of Systems Analysis in Education.
Lagos: Bolabay Publications.
Owolabi, S.O. and Fabunmi, M. (1999). Demographic Analysis in

Educational Management. Ibadan: Powerhouse Press and
Publishers.
Owolabi, S.O. (2006). Quantitative Methods of Educational Planning.

Ijebu-Ode: Lucky Odoni (Nig.) Enterprises.
107
MODULE 4; PROJECTION AND NEED ASSESSMENT IN EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
UNIT 1: PROJECTION TECHNI QUES

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
In this last unit, you were taught the definition of a model, the
meaning of projection and the benefits of mathematical models for
projections and educational planning. In this unit, you will learn about
the different techniques of projection that we have.
2.0 Objectives
different projection techniques that we have (ii) explain each of these
techniques as clearly as possible (iii) calculate the value of Pn, Po, r and
even n from the given formula Pn = Po x (1 + r)n.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Projection Techniques
There are different projection techniques that can be adopted for
achievement of educational targets, and these are:
(i) Grade Ratio Model
(ii) Growth Rate Model and
(iii) Student Flow Model
The above three projection techniques are explained below:
3.1.1 Grade Ratio Model:

The grade ratio model is one that is made used of if data are only
limited to student enrolment by grade. It projects student enrolment for
one class to another in a given academic session or sessions. Ayodele
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(2005) said the grade ratio model projects the enrolment in a given class
in a given year, by using data on new school entrants to that grade and
data on repeaters of that grade. Graphs are used to determine student
progression and also the projection of the students’ enrolment into the
future. So, estimates of the future enrolments are extrapolated from the
given graph by making use of the formula below:
E(i,t) = K(i-1, t-1) x E(i-1, t-1)
Where:
E(I,t) = Students’ enrolment in class i in academic session t.
K(i-1, t-1) = Coefficient of transition rate from “i-1” in academic
session “t-1” and i = 2, 3, 4, … m.
M = Number of classes
E(i-1, t-1) = Students enrolment in the former academic year t-1 and
in the former class i-1.
There is a shortcoming of this model, and this is that there is no
essential consideration of some parameters of promotion, repetition and
dropout rates.
3.1.2 Growth Rate Model:
The growth rate model is commonly used by Demographers and
Social Statisticians in the process of making projections of a specified
population of a given area or nation. It is not only used in the
educational sector, but other sectors such as health, census and so on.
Infact, in its character, the growth rate model is geometric in nature. It
however has a constant term (1+r) and so the reason why it is called
compounding. If it is the other way round, it is (1/1+r) and so, called
discounting.
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This model is used in cases where there is no detailed information
at hand, but rather a base data. The mathematical notation is given as
follows:
Pn = Po x (1+r)n …………(1)
Where:
Pn = Population in the target or final or nth year.
Po = Population in the base or initial year.
r = Rate of change in population growth expressed in
percentage.
n = The number of time intervals, i.e. interval between
the base year and the target year.
The following can be computed from the above equation Po, r and n.
Given that Pn = Po x (1+r)n find Po.
To find Po, divide both sides by (1+r)n.
Pn = Po x (1+r)n
(1+r)n (1+r)n
Pn = Po OR
(1+r) n
Po = Pn …………(2)
(1+r) n
From equation 1, find r

Pn = Po x (1+r)n
Divide both sides by Po, and so,
Pn = Po x (1+r)n
Po Po
Pn = (1+r)n
Po
Taking the logarithm of both sides,
log Pn = log (1+r)n
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Po
log Pn = n log (1+r) OR

Po
n log (1+r) = log Pn
Po
Divide both sides by n
n Po
n
log (1+r) = log Pn

Po
n
log Pn
1+r = Antilog Po
n
r = log Pn
Antilog Po - 1 …………(3)
n
From equation 1, find the value of n.
Pn = Po x (1+r)n
Divide both sides by Po, and so,
Pn = Po x (1+r)n
Po Po
Pn = (1+r)n
Po
Taking logarithm of both sides of the above equation, it becomes;
log Pn = log (1+r)n
Po
log Pn = n log (1+r)

Po
Po
Divide both sides by log (1+r)
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log (1+r) Po
log (1+r)
log Pn
n= Po
log (1+r)
n = log Pn – log Po …………(4)

log (1+r)
In summary, the values of Po, r, and n from equation 1 are as

follows:
Po = Pn
(1+r)n
log Pn
r = Antilog Po -1
n
n = log Pn – log Po
log (1+r)
Example I:
Assume that in 2004, the primary school enrolment was 50,000,
while the rate of increase per annum was 5% between 2004 and 2009.
Calculate the enrolment in 2009.
Solution:
If Pn = Po x (1+r)n
Note that Pn = 2009
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Po = P2004 = 50,000
r = 5% = 0.05
n = 5 years
Substituting above values into;
Pn = Po x (1+r)n
Pn = P2009 = 50,000 x (1+0.05)5
= 50,000 x (1.05)5
= 50,000 (1.276)
Pn = P2009 = 63,800
Example II:
If the target population for the academic year 2008/2009 is
500,000 and the growth rate is 8% while the starting academic session
was 2004/2005. What is the initial student enrolment?
Solution:
Po = Pn
(1+r)n
Note that Po = ?
Pn = 500,000
r = 8% = 0.08
n = 4 years
Substitute above values into the given formula:
Po = Pn
(1+r)n
Po = 500,000
(1+0.08)4
= 500,000
(1.08)4
= 500,000
1.36
Po = 367,647
Example III:
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If the SSS 1 -3 for the 2005/2006 academic session student
enrolment totaled 200,105 and for the target year 2008/2009 academic
year, student enrolment was 280,500. Find the rate of enrolment of the
student.
log Pn
r = Antilog Po - 1
n
Note that from the question above,
Po = 200,105
Pn = 280,500
n = 3 years
Substitute the figures above into the given formula of r, as shown below:
log Pn
r = Antilog Po -1
n
log 280,000
r = Antilog 200,105 - 1
3
r = 1.119 - 1
r = 0.119
r = 11.9
Approximately, r = 12%
3.1.3 Student Flow Model
The student flow model makes use of information on students such
as promotion rate, repetition rate, drop-out rate. The model considers
the internal dynamics and the proper functioning of the education
system of a given state. Though, Owolabi and Fabunmi (1999) noted
that in practice, transition rates vary in response to varying policy
measures such as introduction of automatic promotion as against the
114
repetition system. The student flow in a nation is still a function of the
state of the economy, political and even social dictates of the given
nation. Changes should be expected with respect to the trends at which
students flow within the educational system, which might be positive or
negative. It is positive if the above Owolabi and Fabunmi (1999) noted
practice is introduced. If it is otherwise, the policy is negative and the
promotion policies are not enacted.
There is an assumption about the model, and this is variation in
the transition rates of promotion, repetition, dropout over some academic
sessions. The mathematical notation of the student flow model is given
as follows:
Etg = Pt-1 Et-1 + Rt-1 Et-1
g-1 g-1 g-1 g-1
Where: Etg = Student enrolment in class g in academic year t.
Pt-1
g-1 = Student promotion rate from class g-1 in academic year
t-1.
Et-1
g-1 = Student enrolment in class g-1 in academic year t-1.
Rt-1
g-1 = Student repetition rate in class g in year t-1.
S.A.E.: (i) Mention the different projection techniques that you know.
(ii) What can you say about the Growth Rate Model?
4.0 Conclusion
It is expedient that you know the types of projection techniques
that we have, so that it can be made used of in any particular moment.
Though, there are some calculations that will be made used of while you
are really involved in making use of the stated formulaes.
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5.0 Summary
The different projection techniques have been made known to you
and these are (i) grade ratio model (ii) growth rate model (iii) student flow
model.
(i) Explain the following projection techniques; (a) Grade Ratio
Model (b) Growth Rate Model (c) Student Flow Model.
(ii) Assume that in year 2000 the population of the Lagosians was
100,000, while the growth rate was 3% per annum. Make a
projection of the likely population figure of the Lagosians in the
year 2010.
(iii) In a given Local Government Area, the secondary school
enrolment in 2003 was 20,000 between 2003 and 2008 it
increased at the rate of 5 percent per annum. What was it in
2008.
(iv) The population of a country in 1979 was 55,670,000. What
would it be in 2009 if its growth rate was 2.5% per annum?

Owolabi, S.O. and Fabunmi, M. (1999). Demographic Analysis in
Educational Management. Ibadan: Powerhouse Press and
Publishers.
116
UNIT 2: PROJECTION OF TEACHE R DEMAN D
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
Teachers are veritable force to be reckoned with in any nation,
because they train the education manpower that work for the nation(s).
As much as children are continually given birth to, there will
continuously be need or demand for teachers. So, in this unit, you will
discover how to project for teachers that are needed by the schools.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to explain: (i) how teachers
are projected according to number of classes (ii) how teachers are
projected according to the student/teacher ratio (iii) what is meant by
stock of teaching manpower (iv) what is meant by teacher retention ratio.
3.0 Main Content
Teachers are the engine that turn around a nation’s educational
system and are also called molders of a nation. To this extent, the
Nigeria’s National Policy on Education (2004) affirmed that the Nigerian
educational system cannot rise above the quality of her teachers.
Therefore, since there is no stagnation in the number of students getting
enrolled from one academic session to another, and from one class grade
to another, there is need to examine how demand for teachers are
projected. Owolabi (2006) noted that there are two methods of projecting
teacher demand in most of the African countries and these are:
(i) According to number of classes which is mostly applicable to
primary schools.
(ii) By making use of student/teacher ratio.
117
3.1 Teacher Projection According to Number of Classes
Teacher projection according to number of classes as found in the
primary schools is based partially on the number of streams a country or
an administrative unit will have in its totality or partly on how many of
such would be large enough to deserve detached head teachers. Owolabi
(2006) however said the method can be employed in small administrative
units where it is easy to pin point the classes that may grow large
enough to be split or streams out and may be combined at future dates
or period.
3.2 Teacher Projection According to the Student/Teacher Ratio
This is a method that relates one teacher to the number of student

that must be in a class, taking into consideration the streams of classes
available. It is either called student/teacher ratio (S.T.R.) or
pupil/teacher ratio (P.T.R.). The ratio is gotten by dividing the whole
student enrolment in the school by the established student norm in each
of the classes. That is, in a given nation, her educational policy would
have established the number of students that should be seated in a
class. For instance, in the Nigerian National Policy on Education (2004)
it recommended that there should be 40 students in a particular class to
be taken care of by one teacher. In essence, in the primary and
secondary schools in Nigeria, the pupil/teacher ratio (P.T.R.) is 40: 1.
So, to project the number of teachers required by a school, it is a matter
of using the established number of student in a class (40) by the total
number of students available.
Owolabi (2006) mentioned affirmatively that there are on going
researches to establish what should be the best or optimum
pupil/teacher ratio so that teaching and learning can be effectively
carried out. He added that at what specific size would quality of teaching
118
and learning begin to fall as the number of pupils increase? Except the
above is determined by different countries of the world, the norms of
pupil/teacher ratio or class size would be usually based on resource
availability.
For countries that are poor, it is discovered that there is high norm
of pupil/teacher ratio. In Africa however, the norm that is common is
the 40 pupils to 1 teacher in the primary school section, while at the
second level (secondary) it is 25 students to 1 teacher. In the process of
projecting demand for teachers in any given country, it is imperative to
use the country’s established or already existing teacher/pupil ratio
norm. Owolabi (2006) therefore explained six steps that can be followed
while projecting demand for teachers. The steps are as follows:
Step I: Calculate the number of teachers that are required by dividing
the total number of pupils by the accepted norm for pupil/teacher ratio.
Assume there are 100,000 pupils to be admitted into the primary
schools, and assume further that the pupils/teacher ratio is 40: 1. It
therefore follows that the number of teachers that will be needed for the
100,000 yet-to-be admitted pupils will be 100,000 ÷ 40 = 2500 teachers.
Step II: Determine by calculating the present or base year teacher
surplus or shortages. It can be determined by looking at (for instance)
the number of teachers required above (in Step I) to handle 100,000
students. Therefore, the government can inquire whether the number of
teachers on ground is up to 2500 or not (shortage).
Step III: Estimate the number of teachers that will leave the school
probably as a result of different factors such as retirement, death,
transfer, resignation and so on. This will however, help in determining
the rate of teacher turnover from one year to another. In some cases if
based on trend study of teacher turnover may be about 10 percent have
119
been withdrawing yearly for about 3 to 5 years, then the 10 percent of
teacher turnover can be upheld and used as a guide while projecting for
teacher demand.
Step IV: Project additional student enrolment for each year of the plan
period, by using the growth rate model, grade ratio and the student flow
model. In addition, the automatic promotion can also be used to project
the student enrolment for each year.
Step V: Calculate the additional (marginal or extra) number of teachers
as a result of enrolment expansion, by just simply dividing the extra
student enrolment by the already existing pupil/teacher ratio norm.
Step VI: Sum up Step II, Step III and Step V to be able to find out the
total number of extra teachers that are required.
3.3 Stock of Teaching Manpower

The stock of teaching manpower implies the number of male and
female teachers that are available in the economy. Such teachers are of
different age groups, different states and local government origin,
different educational qualifications (such as N.C.E., B.Ed, B.Sc (Ed),
M.Ed, Ph.D). These teachers handle different subjects and are in
different areas of specialization such as the Arts, Social Sciences,
Sciences and even Technical/Vocational education. The stock of the
teaching manpower has the age structure as one of its features. It then
implies that the stock decreases due to retirement and death of teachers
or as teachers move to other non-teaching profession. It also functions
positively if there is reduction of teaching stock mortality. The stock of
the teaching manpower in a given nation can be attracted and retained if
the following factors are taken into consideration:
i. Availability of promotion opportunities for the teachers.
120
ii. Professionalisation of the teaching profession.
iii. Appropriate recognition of teachers at all levels
iv. Improvement in the conditions of service for teachers.
v. Making the teaching profession attractive through adequate
provision of incentives.
In cases where the above highlighted factors that can attract
teachers to the job are not seriously taken into consideration, there will
be high rate of teacher turnover. It is one of the serious problems facing
the teaching profession right from the first level to the third level. You
must remember that the issue of teacher turnover has constituted a
national problem which Adesina (1990) and Ayeni (2003) referred to as
the problem of “Brain Drain”. This occurred in the forms of withdrawals
from the schools through resignation, death, and transfer to another
school. Other factors are: further education, withdrawal from the
teaching profession or movement within the profession. There are
reasons why teachers withdraw totally from the teaching profession and
among such reasons are:
(i) General dissatisfaction with the profession.
(ii) The desire to enter another type of job largely because of the
financial attractions offered.
(iii) Marital reasons.
(iv) Death.
(v) Retirement.
(vi) Failure on the job.
Adesina (1990) discovered that most people who usually change
from one teaching position to another are greatly motivated by the
following factors:
121
(i) Lower living costs, opportunities for higher earnings, more desirable
living conditions; better school facilities that contribute to
instructional efficiency;
(ii) disagreement with administrative policies and personnel, inability to
meet higher professional standards; and
(iii) dismissal because of inefficiency, insubordination, misconduct and a
reduction in staff personnel.
With the above highlighted problems facing the teachers, experts
such as Adesina (1990) and Ayeni (2003) provided the following
solutions:
(a) there should be encouragement of teachers, consolation and
provision of rent – free quarters.
(b) there should be less harshness and there should be considerate
treatment meted out on the teachers.
(c) teachers should be made to feel that they are wanted and also
that they are training the minds of the nation.
(d) there should be introduction of varying allowances and car loans
for the teachers on the job.
S.A.E.: How are teachers projected according to (i) number of classes (ii)
student/teacher ratio?
3.4 Teacher Retention Ratio
The teacher retention ratio is the rate at which educational planner
finds out the number of teaching manpower force that will still be on the
teaching job. It is symbolically represented as follows:
T(t,r) = Tt+1 - Nt+1 x 100
Tt 1
122
Where:
T(t,r) = Teacher Retention
Tt+1 = The stock of teachers in the academic session t+1.
Nt+1 = Stock of teachers leaving the profession for another
profession in year t+1.
Tt = Stock of teacher in academic year t.
You should remember that while the educational planner is
determining the quantity of teaching force that will be demanded and
retained on the job by schools, the following factors should be greatly
considered:
(i) total number of students enrolled.
(ii) the average number of students that are taught at a time by a
teacher and this is sometimes called the pupil-teacher ratio.
(iii) average number of hours taught by the teacher per week.
(iv) average number of hours of lectures received by students per
week.
4.0 Conclusion
In conclusion, we have seen how important teachers are, because
they are responsible for the training of our children who will become
adults tomorrow. We have also seen that some of these teachers on the
job can decide to quite the job due to some earlier on specified reasons.
5.0 Summary
This unit had examined the projection of teachers according to
number of classes, student/teacher ratio. This unit had examined what
is meant by stock of teaching manpower. It also explained what is meant
by teacher retention ratio.
123
(i) Explain how teachers are projected according to number of
classes.
(ii) How are teachers projected according to student/teacher ratio?
(iii) What do you understand by stock of teaching manpower?
(iv) What is meant by teacher retention ratio?
Adesina, S. (1990). Educational Management. Enugu: Fourth
Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd.
Ayeni, A.O. (2003). Educational System Analysis in J.B. Babalola (Ed).

Basic Text in Educational Planning. Ibadan: Department of
Owolabi, S.O. (2006). Quantitative Methods of Educational Planning.

Ijebu-Ode: Lucky Odoni (Nig.) Enterprises.
124
UNIT 3: QUANTI TATIVE NEEDS ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMME
IMPLEMENTATI ON
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
Human needs are so many and cannot be met. It is the needed to
find out which of the needs are met and which ones are yet to be met.
This unit will therefore deal with the quantitative need assessment and
how such needs are met.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) define what
quantitative needs assessment is (ii) state the steps to be followed in
establishing needs of the pupils and the community (iii) explain as briefly
as possible these steps mentioned in (ii) above.
3.0 Main Content
Definition of Quantitative Needs Assessment
Economists will say that human needs are insatiable especially
because of the scarcity of resources. To this extent, from the education
sector, the needs are endless and whatever is the amount of money made
available by government, individuals, organizations and other education
stakeholders, such available money will not be able to meet the needs of
the education sector. So, there should be a comprehensive definition of
needs assessment which is a critical first step that should be taken by a
school or a community in order to assess or find out what are the level of
their needs. Remember that school needs vary from money to land,
building, other infrastructural facilities needs, up to machine and
equipment needs and even teaching/non-teaching manpower needs.
Needs assessment helps an institution to know where such school is
going to, find out why they are going to such place and even determine
the best route to take to reach the destination. A careful and thorough
125
quantitative needs assessment is the road map for change and it
provides the basis for a strategic plan that addresses specific problems
that required attention. Needs assessment process helps an agency,
school or other entity to determine the nature and the extent of the
problem in the community and helps also in finding out how the on-
going problem is perceived among the diverse groups.
3.1 Steps to Follow in Establishing Needs of Pupils and Community
There are different steps to be followed while establishing the needs

of both pupils and the community, and the steps will be explained as
follows:
A. (i) Assessing the Existing Programme under Objectives:
Whatever programme that is being set up or mounted, there
is every need that the objective(s) must be clearly stated.
Such objectives are targets to be realised and they are
expected to be very clear, unambiguous and concise.
However in many instances, schools that are publicly owned
have their objectives stated by the state or federal government
and are found either in the commissioner or minister of
education’s office or in the office of the state governor or the
president. The schools objectives to be realised must be
clearly stated in measurable terms. If however, the school is
owned by private individuals, it is expected that the objects
for establishing such schools will be in the office of the
school’s proprietor, and which should be clear, measurable
and concise. It is therefore imperative that in the process of
carrying out assessment of school or community need,
objectives of such programme or institution must be first
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assessed to be able to determine what are the reasons for
existence of such school or organisation.
(ii) Assessing the Ex isting Programme under Contents:
Contents are what students will have to go through while
passing through the school. So, the content of the
programme is usually described in the course outline of the
schools concerned. Infact, the course outline can further be
found in the reports of accreditation, official gazettees and
other written materials or reports. In the course of assessing
of needs, care must be taken to ensure that the course
content offerings are readily made available. This will help to
determine whether course contents offerings are adequate or
not. If however, they are not adequate, necessary
amendments will be made to ensure that the course content
offerings are up dated to meet the current needs of the
society.
(iii) Assessing the Existing Programme under Effectiveness in
Daily Operations:
The adage says “it is only change that is permanent”.

Therefore, in each days of the week, month, year, there is
prone to be changes. These changes are however important,
because of different experiences human beings are equipped
with everyday. So, there is need to assess the organisation,
the community and even what is passed across to be able to
determine whether there is effectiveness in the daily
operations. Okure (1997) however suggested that
effectiveness in daily operations of a given programme can be
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assessed through the following three types of performance
measures:
(a) Scores on standardized tests of mental ability, subject-matter
readiness, subject-matter achievement, vocational skill
achievement, etc.
(b) School attendance, grade completion, number of drop-outs,
physical performance and defects, age-grade distribution.
(c) Postgraduate and follow-up measures such as further studies,
number of students completing the programme, and vocational
placement of the students. It is important that schools must get
the analysis of its present operation.
S.A.E.: What do you understand by quantitative needs assessment?
B. Needs Assessment through Establishment of Pupil and

Community Needs:
There is every need to carryout the needs assessment by

establishment of pupils and community needs through: already
existing data and written materials, research and study of the
administrative and supervisory staff, teacher preparation, student
preparation, accreditation and self study reports, state required
academic standards, boards of education, citizen task forces and
the advisory committee reports, full and comprehensive community
survey, single purpose survey, and also outside consultants. These
points are discussed below:
(i) Existing Data and Written Materials: There are different
sources of data retrieval to establish the needs of the pupils.
These data needed be collected, organised, arranged and even
be presented in a clear format. Such sources include: the
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school sources made up of the school official records, test
scores of students, school drop-out statistics, follow-up
studies and even the school research output publications
report. Other information sources are non-school sources
such as: the Department of Economic Planning and Research,
records of the courts, police and security offices, chambers of
commerce offices, and even independent consulting firms.
(ii) Research and Study by Administrative and Supervisory
Staff: In schools, we have both the administrative and
supervisory staff that an be saddled with assessing the needs
of both the pupils and the community on a regular basis.
They are expected to always make available needed statistics
so as to be able to establish the trends of happenings, point
to the changes that are necessary, assists in both the optimal
budgeting and rational allocation of resources, and further
realistically support new requests for resources.
(iii) Teacher Participation: Okure (1997) noted that the
participation and contributions of teachers are essential to
the needs assessment process. So, teachers of different ages
and experiences and from varying disciplines must be
involved and fully participate in the assessment process.
(iv) Student Participation: Remember that students too are
products of the community and can also reason and discover
what their needs are. Towards this end, students of whatever
level should be allowed to meaningfully contribute to
determining what their needs are and in summary be involved
in all the stages of needs assessment.
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(v) Accreditation and Self-Reports: Accreditation of
programmes is very important in order to make the organizers
to be on their toes. However, accreditation helps in showing
both the strong and weak areas of a programme so as to
discover the different steps that can be taken to provide
remediation to problem areas. Accreditation exercises should
be ceased as opportunity of finding out areas of both school
and pupils needs and also help to determine targeted school
improvement. Okure (1997) further said that accreditation
should help a school to (i) identify its common needs
throughout the school system (ii) identify the composition of
the community that the school is serving (iii) pinpoint out the
needs that are unique to a single school (iv) determine the
need for different types of personnel (v) determine broad goals
of the school.
(vi) Government Required Academic Standards: The
government of the different countries have their required
academic standards stated in government documents such as
gazettees policies or even in the constitution. These
standards are expected to be met by the schools, so that the
well-being of the pupils and the community will be improved.
Such government required and stated academic standards
should serve as point of reference for schools to determine
and assess their needs, in order to ensure the meeting of
such pupil needs.
(vii) Board of Education: This is a board saddled with the
responsibility of overseeing what is happening with the units
of education. The board can be at the local or state or federal
130
levels and must be highly involved in the process of
determination of need assessment. The board is expected to
identify, react, modify, profer likely solution and thereby
improve the level of need assessment of the pupils and their
community.
(viii) Citizen Task Forces and Advisory Committee Reports:
The citizens also have their responsibility of determining the
need areas of themselves and the students, and even the
community in which they are living. Giving the opportunity,
the citizens should constitute task forces and advisory
committees on pupils and community need assessment areas.
The citizen can determine what recreational items needed by
them to make life more worthwhile.
(ix) Comprehensive Community Survey: This has to do with all
round survey or discovery of the community needed or
available resources. The community can set up a committee
to look at this in order to find out what are the pressing needs
of the community. While the survey is being conducted,
different areas such as economic, cultural, agricultural,
vocational, health, recreational areas are assessed to be able
to find out critical areas of needs of the communities.
(x) Single Purpose Survey: The single purpose survey may be
short, and targeted at obtaining unique information. For
example, it may want to find out the needs of the specially
created people within the community, and the result of such
findings made available to the public.
(xi) Outside Consultants: In cases where there are no experts to
carryout the consulting job, outside consultants can be
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employed to help in finding out the needs of the pupils and
the community as a whole. The consultants are expected to
conduct survey round the schools and the community as a
whole so as to find out the various areas of needs and there
by provide necessary suggestion targeted at meeting such
needs. Note however that these consultants can be those that
are independently into the consulting job or those that are
from either the universities, or world known bodies (or
organisations) such as the UNESCO, USAID, World Bank,
e.t.c.
C. Determining Unmet Needs:
Unmet needs are easily determined once needs of both the students
and the community is assessed. Okure (1997) suggested that unmet
needs can be determined by using the formula below:
X - Y = P, where
X = Total Needs
Y = Needs Being Adequately Met
P = Unmet Needs
3.2 Programm e Implementation
After the identification of the needs of the community or individuals
and even the schools, the next stage is to implement the needs assessed
and so, Okure (1997) said that any conscientious and through
assessment of needs will usually result in the identification of more
desirable improvements than the financial, personnel and time resources
will support. So, the areas to be given priority attention and
implementation will have to be a combination of what is mandated, what
is pressured and finally what a needs assessment identifies. Towards
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the programme implementation, the following are the criteria that will
help in selection of those areas to be given priority attention as follows:
(i) Will the programme meet the most critical needs of the targeted
population that is assessed or to be served?
(ii) Does it even show the potential for changing behaviour of the
pupils?
(iii) Is the programme to be implemented within the financial
capability of the community?
(iv) Is the programme administratively manageable in terms of
variables such as personnel, time, money, programme
materials?
(v) Can it be calculated that the potential results will be
commensurate with the cost, effort and the planning required?
(vi) If there is disruption of the existing programme, will it not cancel
out the gains achieved in the new programme?
(vii) Will the new programme clear up the difficulties or deficiencies
that will improve the performance in other areas?
(viii) Does it address itself specifically to more than one identified
need of the group to be served?
(ix) Have there been efforts made to study similar projects elsewhere
so as to determine whether it is profitable by discovering other
people’s mistakes and avoiding such mistakes.
The expectation is that in the process of implementing the
programme, answer to the above implementation question guides
above should be a “yes”, except for point vi. The belief is that
implementation of the strategies must be carried out for effecting
desired improvements.
133
4.0 Conclusion
This unit is very essential like other units because it delved into
what quantitative needs assessment is. It has also been found that as
much as we are still living as humans, our needs are insatiable and so,
day-in-day-out, such needs will be changing in order to meet the world
changing needs also. Remember also that what is permanent is
“change”.
5.0 Summary
In summary, this unit had examined the definition of quantitative
needs assessment, steps to be followed in establishing needs of pupils
and that of the community, and also what it calls for to implement the
new programme under the process of satisfying the assessed needs.
(i) What do you understand by quantitative needs assessment?
(ii) Explain briefly the steps to be followed in establishing needs of
pupils and that of the community.
(iii) Explain what it calls for to implement the newly identified
programme(s).
Okure, S.J. (1997). Quantitative Techniques in Educational Planning for
Economic Development: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Calabar:
Eastland Press, 34 Ballantyne Street.
134
UNIT 4: BENEFITS AND BARRI ERS OF A NEEDS ASSESSMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
In the last unit, you were taught quantitative needs assessment
and programme implementation. In unit seventeen, we will examine the
benefits and barriers of a needs assessment.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to: (i) explain the benefits of
conducting a needs assessment exercise (ii) explain some of the barriers
of a needs assessment exercise.
3.0 Main Content
Benefits of Needs Assessment
The following is a list of the benefits that communities and
organisations will reap from conducting a needs assessment as follows:
(i) Needs Assessment Makes Project Defensible, Fundable and
Measurable: A comprehensive needs assessment achieve results
because the solutions are targeted at solving real causes of the
problems identified. With the needs assessment, there are
proponents of prevention programme, who can explain and defend
their activities by carrying out a description of their relationship to
the actual problems identified. Such proponents can demonstrate
the basis for their plan when they request participation or financial
assistance from government agencies, corporations, foundations or
other supporters and stakeholders. Really, there are most finding
sources and agencies that insist that a given project is evaluated so
as to determine the efficacy of such project. The gotten information
from the needs assessment serves as the basis for a subsequent
evaluation. Project funders are however attracted to demonstrable
135
change once there are evidences of progress and success of such
project or programme.
(ii) Needs Assessment Targets Resources: Resources the economists
agreed is scarce. These resources range from men, materials,
money and even time. Needs assessment that is comprehensively
carried out and properly completed enables a community, agency
or even a coalition to more effectively utilize the scarce resources.
This is because solutions are targeted at getting to the route and
real causes of the identified problem(s). Note that so far resources
for most organisations, communities, e.t.c. are scarce, this
targeting can help to achieve results without wasting precious time
or funding.
(iii) Needs Assessment Re-Energize Existing Efforts: Remember that
programmes, patterns, procedures do become stale after a period of
time, and in that wise, people do get tired, especially if they are
working for prevention which do not have or lead to remarkable
measurable milestones of success. Additionally, some activities,
approaches and even processes that worked perfectly well a few
years ago may infact, not now seem quite as effective. So, a new
initiative or even a different twist on an existing programme, that is
identified by a needs assessment, can therefore be the energizer
which will get people further involved and active once more. There
is need for consistent enthusiasm and involvement of the
concerned stakeholders which makes them to be relevant and
important. Energized coalition members are usually critical
especially if there are projects that needs to obtain private sector
funding or needs to gain attention of the media or even advocate for
legislative change.
136
(iv) Needs Assessment Help to Attract Media Attention: The media
range from the print media such as magazines, newspapers, e.t.c.
up to electronic media such as radio and the television. The media
can further be gotten through the Information Communication
Technology (ICT), especially through the internet. So, media
attention can be gathered so that attention on an issue or problem
facing a given community will be made. Known and thereby ensure
that necessary action is taken. Further, media experts can write
articles and stories both in the print and electronic media or on the
websites of different media outfits targeted at drawing attention of
the public to the level of seriousness of the problem at stake. Due
to this attraction by the media, necessary funding can be attracted.
Note however, that a good “needs assessment” must be full of
information, backed up or supported with updated statistics.
(v) Needs Assessment Helps in taking Decisions on whether old
Programm es should continue or New Ones Developed: There
are activities and programmes that have already been in existence
for sometime which needs re-examination. This will help in
determining whether changes in the community or society in
general continue to make the efforts relevant. One good tool that
will help in determining what is working and what is not working is
a needs assessment.
(vi) Needs Assessment is a Good Strategy for Involving Various
Members of an Organisation in Important Activities: One of the
best ways to make people feel valued is to ask for their opinion. So,
the needs assessment gives people the opportunity to express their
own views, relate their experiences and help to collect information
from other members of the community. Members of the
137
community can however be trained to distribute and collect surveys
also.
S.A.E.: Mention the benefits of assessment of needs.
3.1 Barriers to Conducting a Needs Assessment
There are some barriers to conducting a needs assessment, among
which are:
(i) Time: The process of conducting a needs assessment takes
time and sometimes may seem obvious. Though, the reality can
be much more challenging. So, collecting data and researching
into attitudes can be a lengthy process. To some extent, about
six months to a year can be spent researching into different
issues and problems of concern. Infact, some expected
participants will say “I have no time to participate in this
programme”.
(ii) Finance: This is a big requirement for the success of any
activity to be undertaken by a group, organisation, individual or
even a community. In the process of assessing needs, such
assessors will have to move from one place to another, request
for one facility or the other and even needs to administer
necessary questionnaires on their respondents. All these require
money, and once the monetary aspect is not present, there is
little or nothing that anybody can do.
(iii) Uncooperative Attitude of the Citizens or Samples: In cases
where needs assessment is been carried out, there will be the
need for some samples to respond to some questions, fill some
researcher instrument items, provide some sensitive answers to
some sensitive issues. There is the tendency that in the course
of doing these, the samples might refuse to cooperate with the
138
needed assessors. This however will jeopardize the efforts of
such assessors, and thereby hinder the needs assessment
exercises.
As students, you should remember that there is nothing that is
having a good side that is not having its bad or ugly side also. So, these
are some of the barriers to the conduct of needs assessment.
4.0 Conclusion
This unit had ex-rayed that as much as needs assessment exercise
is having its potential benefits, its barriers or the bad side cannot be
ruled out, and these barriers had been explained to you in this unit.
5.0 Summary
In summary, the unit had exposed and made clear some of the
benefits that will be reaped from the conduct of a needs assessment
exercise. Also, some of the barriers were also made known to you. This
however corroborate the adage that says “whatever has an advantage will
have its disadvantage”.
S.A.E.: What are some of the barriers of needs assessment?
(i) Highlight the benefits of a needs assessment exercise.
(ii) Explain 5 of these benefits of a needs assessment exercise.
(iii) List out the barriers of a needs assessment exercise.
(iv) Explain the barriers you have listed in (iii) above.
Community How To Guide on Needs Assessment and Strategic
Planning: http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/ people/injury/alcohol/
community % 20 Guides % 20 html/Book 2_Needs Assess.html.
Retrieved 18/10/2009.
139
Okure, S.J. (1997). Quantitative Techniques in Education Planning
for Economic Development: An Interdisciplinary Perspective.
Calabar: Eastland Press, 34 Ballantyne Street.
140
UNIT 5: ELEMENTS OF NEEDS ASSESSMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
In unit 17, we examined the benefits and the barriers of needs
assessment exercise, and we therefore realised that there is nothing that
is having a positive side that does not have a negative side. But care
must just be taken to ensure that the barrier does not outweigh the
derivable benefits.
2.0 Objectives
The objective of this unit which is on elements of needs assessment
is that at the end, you should be able to list and explain the elements of
a needs assessment.
3.0 Main Content
A comprehensive needs assessment includes the following
elements:
(i) Collection and Analysis of Data.
(ii) Survey of Information.
(iii) Focus or Discussion Groups.
(iv) A Public Policy Review.
(v) A Review of Current Programmes, Activities and Resources.
i. Collection of Data:
In order to be successful either in the short run or/and long-run, a
needs assessment must be comprehensive. In some areas, it might
be difficult and tough to collect all of the suggested data, but it is
important to collect as much data as possible. However, as the
project moves on, a trend report can be prepared on a bi-annual
basis or annual basis to show the attained progress or probably to
141
demonstrate the need for further action. So, data plays an
important part in the comprehensive needs assessment process.
Data play the following roles such as: determining the current
extent of the problem at hand so as to establish a baseline,
determines where the coalition or an organisation wants to be in
the future and data gives the organisation the information it needs
to determine when they have achieved their targeted goal(s). Data
can be made available from some of these sources: school systems,
courts, probation and parole agencies, prevention agencies, colleges
and universities, census bureau, public health departments and so
on.
You must note that the more data that can be collected, the more
effective the plan to solve the problem at hand. But the inability to
collect data is disastrous, though, it shows a green light for the
organisation to get a means of establishing a more effective data
collection system as part of their strategic plan.
Assume that a needs assessment project has to do with solving the
problem of alcohol intake by students in the secondary schools, data can
be retrieved from the following broad categories:
(a) Demographics: Total population and ethnic breakdown of the
state, country, or local government area:
(i) The number and ethnicity of youths under age 21 and what
percentage of the total population they represent.
(ii) Number of licensed drivers that are under 21 years and what
percentage of the total number of licensed drivers they
represent.
142
(b) Highway Safety Data:
(i) Alcohol-related crashes involving underage youth and
how those compare to adults 21 years and over.
(ii) Alcohol-related injuries involving underage youth and how
those compare to adults 21 years and over.
(iii) Alcohol-related fatalities involving underage youth and how
those compare to adults 21 years and over.
(c) School Data:

(i) Suspensions, expulsions and other events related to alcohol.
(ii) Vandalism and/or campus disruptions related to alcohol.
(iii) Students referred for counselling, judicial action or other
activity due to use of alcohol.
ii. Survey of Information:
Information can be obtained from several sources and this
includes:
(a) Youth Surveys: Here there can be contact on the public school
system(s) within ones community and the local colleges and
universities to determine whether they survey students or adults
regarding some problems such as drug and use of alcohol. If
appropriate information is available, it may become part of the
needs assessment and will serve as a baseline against which future
surveys can be compared.
(b) Donated Survey Research Services: Some professional polling,
advertising or market research organisations, colleges, and even
universities can charge some money to conduct statistically
accurate surveys. If such organisations exist within ones
community, they can be asked to consider donation of their
143
services as a public service and as a means for generating positive
public relations. If however, it does not exist, an organisation or
coalition can draft a funding proposal for a local foundation, noting
that many foundations are interested in research-based activities
and programmes.
(c) Market Surveys: In cases where a budget is not sufficient to
conduct a scientific survey, a market survey can be conducted to
provide valuable information. A market survey can help to elicit
requisite information, though, not based on representative samples
and statistically precise measures. In the process of conducting
market surveys, volunteers can distribute questionnaire
instruments in recreational centres, churches, restaurants, movie
theatres and so on.
iii. Conduct of a Public Policy Review:
A public policy review includes an examination of the following:
laws and regulations related to the problem under investigation, policies
and practices of public institutions such as the school systems, police
departments about the problem under investigation, regulations on
advertising in public places about the problem under study.
iv. Conduct a Review of Current Programme:
Before proposing different activities for the organisation to
undertake, it is very important to determine whether similar activities are
already underway. This is a much more effective use of limited and
scarce resources, which enables an organisation to learn from the
experience of other organisations. A review of current programmes will
determine where gaps exist so that efforts can be targeted at the areas of
greatest need. The review if carried out will help organisation to
understand what is currently being accomplished in the areas of
144
enforcement, prevention, education, public policy and even media.
Conducting a review of current programme will reveal many appropriate
programmes and activities that are not will publicized.
v. Conduct of Focus Groups with Key Community Groups:
A focus group is a process of eliciting comments, opinions and
perceptions about a particular idea, problem or product. Focus groups
are made used of by many organisations to even test their products
before such products or items are on a general note introduced to the
general public. Some of the focus groups could be youths, educators
from secondary schools, colleges or even universities, parents, media
representatives, business groups and so on. Market research firms,
public opinion pollsters, advertising agencies often have members that
specialize in conducting focus groups. These identified experts might
charge fees that are prohibitive for non-profit organisations and
government agencies. While leading a focus group, it calls for special
attributes, while some people may not be appropriate group leaders.
Therefore, an ideal focus group moderator must have the following
features: She/he must be a good listener; responds positively to all
comments whether rational or irrational; must appear to be neutral
regarding opinions voiced by group participants; does not display any
prior or special knowledge about the problem on hand and must prob
sensitively for reactions and comments from anyone. After the focus
group exercise, there is need to analyse the information that is retrieved,
so that necessary conclusions can be drawn.
S.A.E.: What are the elements of a needs assessment?
4.0 Conclusion
It could be concluded that it is wise that we have examined in unit
18, the elements that make up a needs assessment. These elements
145
must be fully taken into consideration while putting together needs
assessment personnel and programme.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have examined the various elements of a needs
assessment and these are: collection and analysis of data; survey of
information; focus or discussion groups; public policy review and also
review of current programmes, activities and resources. This unit further
examined the features that a focus group leader must have or possess.
(i) Highlight the five main elements of a needs assessment.
(ii) Explain the five elements you have highlighted above.
(iii) Explain the characteristic feature that a focus group leader must
possess.
Community How To Guide on Needs Assessment and Strategic Planning:
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/ people/injury/alcohol/ community %
20 Guides % 20 html/Book 2_Needs Assess.html. Retrieved
18/10/2009.
146
UNIT 6: FEEDBACK: MEANI NG, TYPES AND PURPOSES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
This unit examines the meaning, types and purposes of feedback.
Once there is input of any sort, there must be a feedback so as to find
out it what is inputted is properly decoded.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
(i) define the feedback
(ii) explain the types of feedback and the purposes of
feedback.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Feedback?
Feedback describes the situation when output from an event or
phenomenon in the past will influence the same event/phenomenon in
the present or future. Whenever an event is part of a chain of cause and
effect that forms a circuit or loop, then the event is said to feedback into
itself (http://en.wikipedia. org/wik/Feedback). Feedback is also a
synonym for (i) Feedback signal which is the information about the initial
event that is the basis for subsequent modification of the event (ii)
Feedback loop which is the causal path that leads from the initial
generation of the feedback signal to the subsequent modification of the
event. Additionally, feedback is a mechanism, a process or a signal that
is looped back to control a system within itself. Such a loop is called a
feedback loop. Intuitively, there are many systems that have an obvious
input and output; feeding back part of the output so as to increase the
input is positive feedback, while feeding back part of the output in such
a way as to partially oppose the input is called the negative feedback.
147
In a more general term therefore, a control system has input from
an external signal source and output to an external load; and this
defines a natural direction or path of propagation of signal. The feed
forward sense or path describes the signal propagation from input to
output; while feedback describes signal propagation in the reverse sense.
Whenever a sample of the output of the system is fed back, in the reverse
sense, by a distinct feedback path into the interior of the system, to
contribute to the input of one of its internal feed forward components,
especially an active device or a substance that is consumed in an
irreversible reaction, it is called the “feedback”.
Positive feedback amplifies possibilities of divergences (evolution,
change of goals). It is the condition to change, evolution, growth. It
however gives the system the ability to access new points of equilibrium.
Whereas, negative feedback helps to maintain stability in a system in
spite of external changes. It is related to homeostasis. For example, in a
population of foxes (which are predators) and rabbits (prey), an increase
in the number of foxes will cause a reduction in the number of rabbits;
and the smaller rabbit population will sustain fewer foxes, while the fox
population will fall back.
Http://en.wikipedia.org/wik/Feedback informed that feedback is
distinctly different from reinforcement that occurs in learning or in
conditional reflexes. Feedback it is learnt combines immediately with the
input signal to drive the responsive power gain element, without
changing the basic responsiveness of the system to future signals.
Reinforcement changes the basic responsiveness of the system to future
signals, without combining with the immediate input signal.
Reinforcement is however, a permanent change in the responsiveness of
148
the system to all future signals. Feedback however is only transient,
being limited by the duration of the immediate signal.
3.2 Types of Feedback
The diagram below shows some types of feedback.
Input A Output
Ideal Feedback Model

Note that the feedback is negative if B < 0.
(i) Positive Feedback: There is positive feedback if the feedback
signal increases and it leads to more modification in behaviour
or whatever anyone ventures into. It also sought to increase the
event that caused something.
(ii) Negative Feedback: Feedback is said to be negative if the
feedback signal decreases, which leads to less modification in
behaviour or other ventures or activities. It reduces the
feedback signal that caused it, and so called self-correcting or
balancing loop.
(iii) Equilibrium Feedback: Feedback is said to be at equilibrium
when the feedback signal does not change.
(iv) Formative Feedback: This feedback represents information
that is communicated to the learner that is intended to modify a
learner’s thinking or behaviour for the purpose of improving
learning. For formative feedback to be effective, it should permit
or allow for comparison of actual performance with some
established standard of performance. Formative feedback may
149
further be refined as multidimensional, non-evaluative,
supportive, learner-controlled, timely, specific, credible,
infrequent, contingent and genuine (Brophy, 1981; Schwartz
and White, 2000).
The main goal of formative feedback is to enhance learning and
performance.
S.A.E.: (i) What is feedback? (ii) What is the difference between positive
and negative feedback?
3.3 Purpose of Feedback
The main purpose of formative feedback is to increase student
knowledge, skills and his/her understanding in some content areas or
general skills and there are innumerable types of feedback that may be
employed toward this end. The purposes of feedback is both directive
and facilitative. The directive feedback informs the student about what
needs to be fixed or revised, and tended to be more specific than
facilitative feedback, that provides both comments and suggestions that
help students in their own revision and conceptualisation.
4.0 Conclusion
Feedback is very important in the business of education because it
will help to discover whether what is taught by the teacher is understood
by the students. Furthermore, in whatever project that is dabbled into,
especially those that will be of benefit to the populace and community at
large, feedback is highly important to be able to determine whether the
project is of profit to the recipient community.
5.0 Summary
This unit had examined what is feedback, the types of feedback
and the purposes of feedback.
150
(i) What is feedback?
(ii) Explain the types of feedback that we have.
(iii) Explain the purposes of feedback.
Brophy, J.E. (1981). Teacher Praise: A Functional Analysis. Review of
Educational Research, 51(1), Pp. 5-32.
Feedback. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedback. Retrieved on 2nd

October, 2009.
Schwartz, F. and White, K. (2000). Making Sense of it All: Giving and

Getting Online Course Feedback. In K.W. White and B.H. Weight
(Eds), The Online Teaching Guide: A Handbook of Attitudes,
Strategies and Techniques for the Virtual Classroom. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.
151
UNIT 7: PROGRAMME EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNI QUE
(PERT) NET WORK
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
There are different programmes and projects that individuals,
organisations, firms, schools want to accomplish. But due to lack of
knowledge about how to go about the steps to be taken for successful
completion of such projects and programmes, such project
implementation ended up been a failure. But unit 20 will make known
to you the Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) Network
that can be taken to in order to ensure successful project
implementation and execution.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(i) Explain the Programme Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT)
(ii) Explain the PERT conventions
(iii) Explain ten of the terminologies of PERT.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Introduction to Programme Evaluation and Review Technique
The Programme (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique

commonly abbreviated as PERT, is a model for project management
designed to analyse and represent the tasks involved in completing a
given project. Though, Okure (1997) recorded that in recent years a new
planning technique christined “systems analysis” captured the attention
of many educational administration theorists. The systems analysis
originated from operations research, which was a technique developed
prior to and during World War II by the British to apply radar research
152
technology to solving varying military problems. As at 1961, the use of
systems techniques was accelerated in the United States especially when
Robert McNamara was the Secretary of the Department of Defence. The
simple guide behind the system analysis is that it is a complex of
interdependencies between parts and processes that involve predictable
or at least identifiable regularities of relationships. If however, one of the
parts of the system is altered in some way, each of the other parts makes
a predictable adjustment also to the alteration made.
The Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is one of
the planning techniques that grew out of the systems analysis concept.
PERT is a method that analyzes the tasks involved in completing a given
project, especially by identifying the time needed to complete each task,
identifying the minimum time needed to complete the total project. Put
in another way, PERT is basically a process which facilitates an
organized attack on a project by breaking up and charting the events
which must be completed in order for the project to be completed
successfully, economically and even within the specified time. PERT was
developed primarily to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and
complex projects. PERT was able to in fact incorporate uncertainty by
making it possible to schedule a project while not knowing or having a
knowledge precisely about the details and durations of all the activities.
PERT is an event-oriented technique rather than start – and completion-
oriented one. Its usage is more in projects where time, rather than cost,
is the major variable factor. Further, PERT is applied to very large-scale,
one-time, complex, non-routine infrastructure and research and
development projects.
153
3.3 PERT Conv entions
(i) A PERT chart is a tool that facilitates taking of decision. So, the
first draft of a PERT chart will number its events sequentially in
10s (e.g. 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, e.t.c.). This is to allow the later
insertion of additional events.
(ii) Two consecutive events in a PERT chart are linked by activities,
that are conventionally represented as arrows
(e.g. ) in the diagram above.
(iii) The events are presented in a logical sequence and no activity can
commence until its immediately preceding event is completed.
(iv) The project or activity planner decides which milestones should be
PERT events and also decides their proper sequence.
(v) A PERT chart may invariably have multiple pages with many sub-
tasks to be accomplished. PERT has been found to be valuable to
manage situations where tasks are going simultaneously to reduce
the redundancy.
S.A.E.: What is Programme Evaluation and Review Technique?
3.3 PERT Termin ologies
There are some important terminologies that are commonly used in
PERT, and these will be explained as below:
(i) A PERT Event: This is a point that marks the start or
completion of one or more tasks. A PERT event consumes no
time, and uses no resources. It however marks the completion
of one or more tasks and is not “reached” until all of the
activities leading to that event have been completed.
(ii) A Predecessor Event: An event (or events) that immediately
precedes some other event without any other events intervening.
Such event may be the consequence of more than one activity.
154
(iii) A Successor Event: An event (or events) that immediately
follows some other event without any other events intervening.
It may be the consequence of more than one activity.
(iv) A PERT Activity: This is the actual performance of a task. It
consumes time, and as well requires resources (such as labour,
materials, space, machinery) and it can be understood as
representing the time, effort, and resources required to move
from one event to another. A PERT activity cannot be completed
until the event preceding it has occurred.
(v) Optimistic Time (O): The optimistic time is the minimum
possible time required to accomplish a task, with the
assumption that everything proceeds better than is normally
expected.
(vi) Pessimistic Time (P): This is the maximum possible time
required to accomplish a task, assuming everything goes wrong
(but excluding major catastrophes).
(vii) Most Likely Time (M): This is the best estimate of the time
required to accomplish a task, assuming everything proceeds as
normal.
(viii) Expected Time (T E): This is the best estimate of the time
required to accomplish a task, assuming everything proceeds as
normal (the implication being that the expected time is the
average time the task would require if the task were repeated on
a number of occasions over an extended period of time).
TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6.
(ix) Float or Slack: This is the amount of time that a task in a
project network can be delayed without causing a delay –
155
subsequent tasks – (free float) or project completion – (total
float).
(x) Critical Path: This is known to be the longest possible
continuous pathway taken from the initial event to the terminal
event. It determines the total calendar time required for the
project; and, therefore, any time delays along the critical path
will delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the same
amount.
(xi) Critical Activity: An activity that has total float equal to zero.
So, activity with zero float does not imply that it is on the critical
path.
(xii) Lead Time: This is a time by which a predecessor event must
be completed in order to allow sufficient time for the activities
that must elapse before a specific PERT event reaches
completion.
(xiii) Lag Time: This is the earliest time by which a successor event
can follow a specific PERT event.
(xiv) Slack: The slack of an event is a measure of the excess time
and resources available in achieving this event. Positive Slack
(+) would indicate ahead of schedule, while negative slack would
indicate behind schedule and zero slack would indicate on
schedule.
(xv) Fast Tracking: This is the performance of more critical
activities in parallel.
(xvi) Crashing Critical Path: This is the shortening duration of
critical activities.
S.A.E.: Mention ten of the PERT terminologies.
156
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit, you have been informed about one of the “systems
analysis” tools. This unit is however an introductory unit to the PERT
Network, taking you through some of its terminologies and the
conventions.
5.0 Summary
This unit had examined the historical introduction to the
emergence of the “systems analysis” network, one of which is the PERT.
The unit also explained some of the terminologies of PERT. The unit had
also explained some of the PERT conventions.
(i) Explain the historical development of Programme Evaluation
and Review Technique.
(ii) Explain the conventions of Programme Evaluation and Review
Technique.
(iii) Explain ten of the terminologies of Programme Evaluation and
Review Technique.
Okure, S.J. (1997). Quantitative Techniques in Educational Planning for

Economic Development. An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Calabar:
Programme Evaluation and Review Technique. http://en.

wikipedia.org/wiki/program_Evaluation_and_Review_
Technique. Retrieved 10/10/2009.
157
UNIT 8: PERT DIAGRAMS IN THE IMPLEMENTATI ON OF
PROGRAMMES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
Unit 20, exposed you to some rudimentary knowledge of the PERT.
So, this unit will deal with PERT diagrams in the process of
implementation of programs.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) explain how PERT
diagram helps in the implementation of programmes. You should also be
able to calculate the expected time (TE) of competing programmes by
using the formula T E = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6.
3.0 Main Content
PERT is a network based procedure that facilitates planning,
scheduling and controlling of education programmes and projects (Sarva,
2000). The PERT provides the methods for measuring actual progress of
a programme against the expected progress. This gives room for
comparing consequences of proposed alternative strategies, for predicting
future programme status, and for optimizing utilization of scarce
resources.
One key step while planning for implementation of the educational
programme, is to list all possible activities. The second step is to gather
necessary information about predecessors of each activities. Sarva
(2000) went on to inform that one way of doing this is to identify the
immediate predecessors of each activity. Third, based on the information
given above, PERT network for the programme can be developed. Fourth,
so far the PERT network of the programme is developed then the need is
to obtain information on the time required to complete each activity. The
next is fifth. This involves provision of three alternative time estimates
158
(i.e. optimistic activity time; most probable activity time; and pessimistic
activity time). The three activity time estimates help the programme
team to make the best guess of the expected activity time. Uncertainty
can be expressed by providing estimates ranging from the best to the
worst possible time for competing individual activities. On a final note,
the PERT network for the given educational programme is drawn on the
basis of the above information.
So far the PERT network is drawn, the next step is to estimate the
critical path in the network. This estimation is done by using forward
pass and backward pass methods, (Okure, 1997). The estimation of the
critical path using the methods above, helps to establish early start and
latest finish time of each activity. Further, activity slack is estimated by
making use of early start and latest finish times. Those activities that
have no slack are termed as the critical activities and the longest path on
the PERT network is identified as the critical path. So, the time that is
required to traverse the critical path becomes the programme
implementation period. In cases where all these information are
tabulated, it becomes the implementation schedule of the Educational
Programme, as shown in the table below:
In the table, there are seven tasks labeled A through G. Some of
the tasks can be done concurrently (A and B) while others cannot be
done until their predecessor task is complete (C cannot begin until A is
complete). In addition, each task has three time estimates: the optimistic
time estimate (O), the most likely or normal time estimate (M), and the
pessimistic time estimate (P). The expected time (TE) is computed by
using the formula :
TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6.
159
Activity Predecessor Time Estimates Expected
Opt (O) Normal Pess. (P) Time
(M)
A - 2 4 6 4.00
B - 3 5 9 5.33
C A 4 5 7 5.17
D A 4 6 10 6.33
E B,C 4 5 7 5.17
F D 3 4 8 4.50
G E 3 5 8 5.17
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programme_Evaluation_
and_Review_Technique. Retrieved 10/10/2009
3.1 PERT Diagrams in the Implementation of Programmes

Network is a foundation of a PERT system. A network is a flow
diagram that is made up of “Events” that is tied together with connecting
arrows that depict the “Activities” necessary to accomplish the respective
events. The network however represents all that is necessary from “start
to finish” for a specific end objective. Note that examples of events are:
approved projects review of literature, testing that is started and testing
that is completed. Samples of activities are: design of instruments to be
administered on the samples, procurement of stationeries, purchase of
refreshments, preparation of behavioural objectives (Okure, 1997).
Circles or boxes are made used of to denote events; while arrows are
used for activities. However, activities that do ot consume scarce
resources are called dummy activities and are even represented by
broken lines.
Okure (1997) reminded us that in construction of network, it is not
so necessary to list all events as either beginning an activity or ending
one. If only completed activity is taken note of, it is therefore assumed
that the activities needed to complete the event start when the previous
event is completed. The different activities may start at anytime after the
160
previous event is completed even if it is not detailed in the network. For
example, in the diagram that will be given below, activity 8 – 9 can begin
at anytime after event 8 has been completed.
Note that there are circles and boxes in which different events are
numbered and this make up the network. Different activities are
identified by using the numbers of the events between the activity that
takes place.
Activity 1 – 2 3 4
Activity 8 – 9
1 2 7 8 9
5 6
For instance, Activity 1 – 2 represents all the activities that take place
between events one and two.
Note however, that:
(1) Events 1.3.5.7 are starting off events.
(2) The activities 1 – 2, 7 – 8, 3 – 4, 5 – 6, 8 – 9 consume the scarce
resources.
(3) Activity 1 – 2 must be completed before starting off activities 3 –
4 and 5 – 6.
(4) Assume however that there are sufficient resources available,
there can be simultaneous conduct of activities 3 – 4 and 5 – 6.
161
(5) Activities 2 – 3, 4 – 7, 2 – 5, 6 – 7 are called dummy activities
because they will not consume many resources.
(6) Activity 1 – 2 can be said to be a constraining activity of 2 – 5
and 2 – 3.
(7) 1 and 2 and 7, 8 and 9 are representing series and the portion of
the network connecting events 2, 3, 4 and 7 and 2, 5, 6 and 7
can be said to be parallel construction.
(8) Event 2 serves as constraints to events 3 and 5. Activities along
2 – 3, 2 – 5 constitute a burst construction.
(9) On the other way round, events 4, 6, 7 along with activities 4 –
7, 6 – 7 implied merge construction.
(10) The events 3 and 5 constitute what is called multiple start
events, while events 4 and 6 are multiple completion events.
S.A.E.: What can you say about the PERT diagram made used of in the
implementation of programmes?
4.0 Conclusion
This unit is germane because of the samples shown about
calculation of the expected time of project completion and the diagram
showing the step by step activity to be followed while using PERT.
5.0 Summary
This unit had taught you how to calculate the expected time by
using the fomula:
TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6
The unit also showed the simple PERT diagram of how activities are
implemented.
1. Calculate the expected time from the table below using the
formula TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6.
162
Activity Ending Time Estimates TE
O M P
A 2 3 5 8
B 4 2 6 8
C 3 2 2 2
D 5 1 4 10
E 6 2 4 6
F 5 7 8 10
G 6 1 2 4
2. Explain the PERT diagram used in the process of

implementation of programmes.
Okure, S.J. (1997). Quantitative Techniques in Education Planning for
Economic Development: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Calabar:
Programme Evaluation and Review Technique. http://en.

wikipedia.org/wiki/program_Evaluation_and_Review_
Technique. Retrieved 10/10/2009.
Sarva, S.A. (2000). Planning Under SSA: Pre-Project Activities and Plan
for Implementation. http://www.educationforallinindia.
com/page150.html. Retrieved on 15/10/2009.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All authors whose materials were consulted in the course of writing this
book are all gratefully acknowledged.
163

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

COURSE CODE: EDP 804

COURSE TITLE: Evaluation Strategies in Educational Planning and

Evaluation Strategies in Educational Planning and Implementation

Course Developer: Dr. Abiodun Olumide Ayeni

Course Writer: Dr. Abiodun Olumide Ayeni

Course Editor: Prof. Remi Longe

Programm e Leader: Dr Ogundiran S O

Course Coordinator: Dr Bolupe Awe

Working through this Course

Course Marking Scheme

How to Get the Most from this Course

Tutor and Tutorials

The course EDP 804 – Evaluation Strategies in Educational

Planning and Implementation is made up of 21 units, divided into

three modules. It is available for students of educational

management that offer planning and administration courses

especially at the doctorate level. The course covers some germane

topics in educational planning such as: the definition of

educational planning, basic concepts and phases in planning;

objectives and features of educational planning; factors guiding

such as: definition, purposes, principles and guidelines of targets

setting; kinds of evaluation strategies; different types of evaluation

course EDP 804.

This text has been developed for students of the National

Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) by making reference to materials

written by experts within and outside Nigeria and even to some

materials sourced on the Internet.

evaluation strategies in educational planning and implementation.

To this end, the aim will be achieved by exposing the graduate

students to contemporary educational planning evaluation

strategies which will help them in the course of their performances

outline of the expected functions of the educational planners.

Further, the course demonstrates to the students how projections

of achievement targets can be undertaken by making use of some

techniques. Also, the course informed students of how needs

assessment can be undertaken while necessary feed back are also

In order to achieve the above mentioned aims, the course has

overall objectives that were synthesized from the specific objectives

of each of the 21 units which are however always made known at

the beginning of each of the units. You are therefore advised to

that you have achieved then at the end of each unit.

end of the course. On successful completion of the course, you

should be able to:

1) Explain the meaning of educational planning.

2) State the objectives and features of educational planning.

3) Discuss the factors that guide educational planning.

4) Mention the stages involved in planning educational

5) Explain the social demand and manpower requirements

approaches to educational planning.

6) Discuss the difference(s) between the rate of return and

eclectic approach to educational planning.

7) List the barriers to effective educational planning.

8) Explain the meaning, purposes, principles and guidelines

9) Discuss the functions of evaluation of educational

10) Describe the kinds of evaluation strategies that we have.

11) State the steps involved in the educational planning and

12) Discuss the types of evaluation.

projections and educational planning.