LECTURENOTESON

PROPERTI
ESOFMATERI
ALS–QUS104

TheQuant
it
ySur
veyori
sexpect
edt
ohaveadequat
eknowl
edgeofbui
ldi
ngmat
eri
alst
obe
abl
etopr
oper
lyadvi
sehi
s/herpr
ospect
ivecl
ientorempl
oyerwhencal
ledupont
odosoi
nan
ef
for
ttor
educecostpar
ti
cul
arl
yatt
hedesi
gnst
age.

Mat
eri
alsusedf
ort
heconst
ruct
ionofbui
ldi
ngsar
enumer
[Link]
esi
ncl
ude

[Link](
ti
mber
)

[Link]
nt

[Link]

[Link]
egat
es

[Link]
ete

[Link]
ocks

[Link]
icks

[Link]
ast
ics

[Link]
icasphal
t

10.
Bit
umen

11.
Coalt
ar

12.
Gypsum

13.
Met
als(
egi
ron,
steel
,Al
umi
nium,
all
oyset
c)

1
Wood:

Thi
sisahar
dfi
brousmat
eri
alt
hatmakesupat
reeandi
sfoundbeneat
hthebar
koft
het
runk
orbr
[Link]
ied,woodcanbeusedasf
uel
,bui
ldi
ngmat
eri
alandi
not
her
ar
easofcr
aftandmanuf
act
uresuchasf
urni
tur
emaki
ng,
musi
cali
nst
rumentet
c.

Di
ff
erent
iat
ingBet
weenWoodandTi
mber
:

Thet
ermst
imberandwoodar
eusedsynonymousl
ybutt
heyhavedi
sti
nctmeani
ngsi
nthe
bui
ldi
ngi
ndust
[Link]
sthehar
dfi
brousmat
eri
alt
hatmakesupt
het
reeundert
hebar
kof
t
het
runkorbr
ancheswher
east
imbermaybedef
inedasawoodwhi
chr
etai
nsi
tsnat
ural
physi
calst
ruct
ureandchemi
calcomposi
ti
onandi
ssui
tabl
eforvar
iousengi
neer
ingwor
ks.
Thi
simpl
iest
hatnotal
lwoodcanbeusedast
imber
.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofWood:

Woodcanbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
womaj
orcat
egor
ies,
namel
ysof
twoodandhar
dwood

i
. Sof
twood:Thi
sisawoodofconi
fer
oust
reeort
reewi
thevergr
eenneedl
e-l
ike
l
eavesf
ound mai
nlyi
ntemper
atecl
imat
[Link]
esar
epi
ne,cypr
ess,cedar
,
spr
uce,
redwood,
Dougl
asf
iret
[Link]
urni
tur
ear
ebei
ngmadeofsof
twood.

i
i. Har
dwood:Thi
siswoodofdeci
duoust
reeort
reewi
thbr
oadl
eavesf
oundmai
nlyi
n
t
het
ropi
calr
egi
onsoft
hewor
[Link]
hei
rleavesannual
lypar
ti
cul
arl
ydur
ing
t
hedr
[Link]
esar
eir
oko,mahogany,i
ronwood,ash,oak,t
eak,wal
nut
,
hi
ckor
y,cher
ry,
ebony,
etc.

2
St
ruct
ureofTi
mber
:

Thecr
oss-
sect
ionorr
adi
alsect
ionofat
reer
eveal
sthef
oll
owi
ngpar
ts,eachofwhi
chhasa
speci
fi
cfunct
ion.

[Link]
k:Thi
sist
her
oughout
ercover
ingorl
ayeroft
hest
em ort
[Link]
kpr
otect
s
t
hewoodagai
nstmechani
caldamage.I
thasani
nnerl
ayercal
ledbastwhi
chconveys
t
henut
ri
entf
rom t
hecr
owndownwar
dsandst
orest
hem.

[Link]
um:Thecambi
um i
sacyl
i
ndr
icall
ayerofcel
lsi
nthest
em t
hatpr
oducest
henew
t
issuesr
esponsi
blef
ori
ncr
easedgi
rt
h,par
ti
cul
arl
ysapconduct
ingt
issues,xyl
em and
phl
oem andt
hebar
[Link]
um gr
owswoodcel
lsont
hei
nsi
deandsmal
lerbast

3
 cel
lsont
heout
side.

c. Sapwood:Thi
sist
heout
erwoodoft
het
reet
runk.I
tist
hesof
twoodpor
ti
onbet
ween
t
hei
nnerbar
kandt
hehear
[Link]
stsi
nthel
if
epr
ocessoft
het
ree
byst
ori
ngupst
archandal
soconduct
ingsap,hencet
[Link]
lsi
n
t
hesapwoodar
eact
ive.

[Link]
twood:Thi
sist
hecent
ralwoodofat
ree.I
tist
hemostmat
urepor
ti
onoft
het
ree
l
ocat
edatt
hecent
reoft
het
runk.I
tisdar
kerandhar
dert
hant
hewoodsur
roundi
ngi
t.
Ast
het
reegr
ows,
thecel
lsi
nthehear
twoodgr
adual
lybecomei
nact
iveandl
if
elessbut
[Link]
twoodgi
vesaf
ir
m andst
rongsuppor
ttot
het
ree.

e. Pi
th:Thi
sist
hecent
ralspongyt
issueoft
hest
em whi
chconsi
stsoft
hin-
wal
led,
loosel
y
connect
edcel
ls.I
naf
ell
edt
ree,
iteasi
lycr
umbl
esandr
ots.

Di
ff
erencesBet
weenSapwoodandHear
twoodofaTr
ee.

Theunder
-l
ist
eddi
ff
erencesar
enot
edi
rr
espect
iveoft
het
ypeoft
ree,i
.ewhet
hert
het
reei
sa
sof
twoodorhar
dwood.

SN PROPERTY HEARTWOOD SAPWOOD

1 Col
our Dar
keri
ncol
our Li
ght
eri
ncol
our

2 Cel
l
s Cont
aini
nact
ivecel
ls Cont
ainact
ivecel
ls

3 Pr
esence off
ood Cont
ainnof
oodorwat
er Cont
ainf
oodandwat
er
andwat
er

4 At
tack of mi
cro Noteasi
lyat
tackedbymi
croor
gani
sms Can be easi
ly at
tacked by mi
cro
or
gani
sms suchasFungi or
gani
smssuchasf
ungi

5 Locat
ion Foundmor
etowar
dst
hecent
reoft
he Foundneart
hecambi
um
t
ree

6 St
rengt
h St
ronger Sof
ter

7 Age Ol
der younger

8 Dur
abi
li
ty Mor
edur
abl
e Lessdur
abl
e

4
Di
ff
erencesBet
weenHar
dwoodandSof
twoodi
nTer
msOfCel
lSt
ruct
ure.

Compar
ism oft
hei
nter
nalorcel
lst
ruct
uresoft
het
wot
ypesofwoodr
eveal
sthef
oll
owi
ng
di
ff
erences:

S/
N PROPERTY SOFTWOOD HARDWOOD

1 Col
our Li
ght
er Dar
ker

2 Gr
owt
h Fast
er Sl
ower

3 Wei
ght Li
ght
er Heavi
er

4 Densi
ty Low Hi
gh

5 Annualgr
owt
hri
ngs Wi
deanddi
sti
nct Nar
rowandi
ndi
sti
nct

6 Hear
twoodandSapwood cannot be di
sti
ngui
shed
di
sti
ngui
shed

7 St
rengt
h St
rongal
ongt
hegr
ain St
rong al
ong and acr
oss t
he
gr
ain

8 Conver
sion Easy Di
ff
icul
t

9 Pr
esence of r
esi
nous Exi
sti
npor
es Doesnotexi
st
mat
eri
al

5
10 Exampl
es Pi
ne, Cypr
ess, Cedar
,Ir
oko,Mahogany,Ebony,Oak,
Chi
r,Fi
rEt
c Cher
ry,
Etc

Advant
agesofWoodoverot
herBui
ldi
ngMat
eri
alssuchasConcr
eteandSt
eel
:

[Link]
sli
ghti
nwei
ght
.

[Link]
seasyt
otr
anspor
t

c. I
tisEasyt
ohandl
e

d.I
tist
hei
dealmat
eri
alt
obeusedi
nseawat
er.

e. I
tisagoodabsor
berofshockandsosui
tabl
eforconst
ruct
ionwor
kinhi
ll
yar
easwhi
ch
ar
epr
onet
oear
thquakes.

f
.Itcanbeeasi
lywor
kedwhi
chmakesr
epai
rsandal
ter
ati
onst
owoodwor
kst
obedone
wi
thease.

g.I
thasver
ygoodf
ini
shedappear
ance.

h.I
tischeap.

i
.Ithasmor
ether
mali
nsul
ati
on,
soundabsor
pti
onandel
ect
ri
calr
esi
stancecompar
edt
o
st
eelandconcr
ete.

j
.Iti
sver
ydur
abl
[Link]
astver
ylongi
fkeptf
reeofdet
eri
orat
ingagent
s.

Useofwood:

Owi
ngt
otheabovement
ionedadvant
ages,
woodi
sver
ywi
del
yusedi
nbui
ldi
ngf
or:

i
. Door
s

i
i. Wi
ndows

i
ii
. Doorandwi
ndowFr
ames

i
v. Tempor
arypar
ti
ti
onwal
ls

6
 v. Rooft
russmember
s

vi
. For
mwor
kincast
ingconcr
ete.

vi
i. Cei
li
ngwor
k,

Ot
herar
easofconst
ruct
ionact
ivi
ti
eswher
eti
mberi
susedar
e:

vi
ii
. Rai
lwaysl
eeper
segr
edcedar
,ir
onwood,

i
x. Scaf
fol
ding -bamboo

x. Pi
les-r
edcedar
,ir
onwood,

xi
. Pegs-coconut
,pal
m,

Char
act
eri
sti
csofGoodTi
mber
:

Agoodt
imbermusthavet
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs:

i
. St
rengt
h,

i
i. Dur
abi
li
ty

i
ii
. Toughnessand

i
v. Smoot
hfi
nishedappear
ance.

Theabovef
ourar
ethepr
inci
palchar
act
eri
sti
[Link]
heri
mpor
tantchar
act
eri
sti
csofgood
t
imberar
e:

v. Nar
rowannualr
ings:Thecl
osert
heannualr
ings,
thegr
eat
ert
hest
rengt
[Link]
eesof
r
api
dgr
owt
hhavewi
deannualr
ingsandpr
oducecoar
segr
ainedwood,
whi
let
hose
ofsl
owergr
owt
hpr
oducewoodwi
thnar
rowannualr
ingsorf
inegr
[Link]
twoods
havewi
derannual
ringst
hanhar
dwoodbecauseoft
hei
rrapi
dgr
owt
h.

vi
. CompactMedul
lar
yrays:Medul
l
aryr
aysar
esheet
sofconnect
ivet
issuet
hat
r
adi
ate bet
ween t
he pi
th and t
he bar
[Link]
lar
yrays of
fermor
e
r
esi
stancet
oshr
inkagei
eitgi
vest
hewoodbet
termechani
calpr
oper
ti
es.

vi
i. Dar
kcol
our
:Hear
twoodi
sdar
kert
hansapwoodandt
imberf
rom hear
twoodi
s
st
ronger
.

7
 vi
ii
. Uni
for
m Text
ure:Thi
sindi
cat
est
hatt
hewoodi
ssound.

i
x. Sweetsmel
landshi
nyf
reshcutsur
[Link]
stooi
sindi
cat
iveofsoundwood.

x. Pr
oduceSonor
oussoundwhenst
[Link]
oussoundi
sacl
earpl
easantsound.

xi
. Fr
eef
rom def
ect
s:Def
ect
sweakent
het
imberandaf
fectwor
kabi
li
[Link]
kabi
li
tyi
s
t
heeasewi
thwhi
chwoodcanbewor
kedorshaped.

xi
i. Heavywei
ght
:Thi
sindi
cat
est
hatt
hewoodi
sfr
om hear
twood.

xi
ii
. Nowool
iness(
nor
oughf
ibr
es)atf
reshcutsur
[Link]
imberhassmoot
hcut
sur
face

Pr
oper
ti
esr
equi
redoft
imberusedi
nEngi
neer
ingorConst
ruct
ionWor
ks.

[Link]
rengt
h

[Link]
abi
li
ty

[Link]

[Link]
dness

[Link]
exi
bil
it
y

[Link]
easi
ngcol
our

[Link]
ishedappear
ance

[Link]
stancet
osal
twat
eract
ion

[Link]
ght
nessi
nwei
ght

Decayoft
imber
:

Ti
mberi
ssai
dtobedecayed(
ordi
seased)wheni
tissodet
eri
orat
edduet
oexcessdef
ect
s
t
hati
tloosesi
tsval
ueasanengi
neer
ingmat
eri
[Link]
imbert
akespl
aceduet
osever
al
causessuchas:

i
. Al
ter
nat
ewetanddr
ycondi
ti
ons,

i
i. At
tackoff
ungiandi
nsect
s,

8
 i
ii
. I
mpr
operseasoni
ng,

i
v. Veget
abl
egr
owt
h,

v. Shocksandi
mpactduet
onat
ural
for
cessuchasear
thquakes.

vi
. Poorvent
il
ati
on.

ATTACKOFFUNGIANDI
NSECTSONTI
MBERSTRUCTURES:

FUNGI
:Fungiar
emi
croscopi
cpl
antor
gani
smst
hatat
tackwoodcausi
ngdecayi
nti
mber
st
ruct
ures.

Condi
ti
onst
hatencour
ageat
tackoff
ungi
.

Theyat
tackt
imberonl
ywhent
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
onsar
esat
isf
iedconcur
rent
ly.

i
. Themoi
stur
econt
entoft
imberi
sabove20%

i
i. Ther
eispr
esenceofai
r(
oxygen)and

i
ii
. war
mth(
favour
abl
etemper
atur
e)

I
fanyoft
heabovecondi
ti
oni
sabsent
,thedecayofwoodduet
ofungiwoul
dnotoccur
.Hence,
st
ruct
uralwood havi
ng moi
stur
econt
entl
esst
han 20% wi
llr
emai
n sound f
orcent
uri
es.
Si
mil
arl
y,woodssubmer
gedi
nwat
erwi
llnotbeat
tackedbyf
ungibecauseofabsenceofai
r.

Def
ect
sinwoodcausedbyf
ungi

Thef
oll
owi
ngdef
ect
sar
ecausedi
nti
mberbyf
ungi
.

i
. Bl
uest
ain

i
i. Dr
yrot

i
ii
. Wetr
ot

i
v. Br
ownr
ot

v. Whi
ter
ot

9
 vi
. Hear
trot

[Link]
uest
ain:Cer
tai
ntypeoff
ungiwhenf
eedi
ngonwoodchanget
hecol
ouroft
hesapt
o
bl
uishcol
our
.Thi
siscal
ledbl
uest
ain.

[Link]
yRot
:Thi
sisaf
ungalat
tackonwoodwher
ebyt
hef
ungif
eedonwoodconver
ti
ngi
t
t
odr
ypowderf
[Link]
yrotoccur
swher
ether
eisnof
reeci
rcul
ati
onofai
rsuchas
i
mpr
oper
lyvent
il
atedbasement
,rooms,
unseasonedsof
twoodandsapwood.

c. WetRot
:Thi
sisachemi
caldecomposi
ti
onoft
hewoodoft
het
imbercausedbysome
var
iet
iesoff
ungiandi
ndoi
ngsoconver
tthet
imberi
ntogr
eyi
sh-
brownpowder
,known
aswetr
ot.

Condi
ti
onst
hatf
avourt
hedevel
opmentofwetanddr
yrotar
e:

i
. Absenceofsunl
ight

i
i. Dampness

i
ii
. Pr
esenceofsap(
impr
operseasoni
ng)

i
v. St
agnantai
r

v. War
mth

Di
ff
erent
iat
ingBet
weenDr
yRotandWetRot
:

Dr
yRot
:Thi
sisaf
ungalat
tackonwoodwher
ebyt
hef
ungif
eedonwoodandconver
titt
odr
y
powderf
[Link]
yrotoccur
swher
ether
eisnof
reeci
rcul
ati
onofai
rsuchasi
mpr
oper
ly
vent
il
ated basement
,rooms,unseasoned sof
twood and [Link] mostf
avour
abl
e
condi
ti
on f
ort
her
api
d gr
owt
h off
ungir
esponsi
blef
ordr
yrotar
eabsenceofsunl
ight
,
dampness,
presenceofsap,
stagnantai
randwar
[Link]
heot
herhandi
sachemi
cal
decomposi
ti
onoft
hewoodoft
het
imbercausedbysomevar
iet
iesoff
ungiandi
ndoi
ngso
conver
tthet
imberi
ntogr
eyi
shbr
ownpowder
.Condi
ti
onst
hatf
avourt
hedevel
opmentofwet

10
r
oti
ncl
ude,al
ter
nat
edr
yandwetcondi
ti
ons,unseasonedori
mpr
oper
lyseasonedt
imber
exposedt
orai
nandwi
nd.

Pr
event
ionofFungalAt
tackonTi
mber

Oneoft
hepr
imer
equi
rement
sint
hecont
roloff
ungalat
tacki
sthedr
ynessoft
imber
.The
t
imbershoul
dnotbesubj
ect
edt
oal
ter
nat
ewetanddr
ycondi
ti
[Link]
hisi
sunavoi
dabl
e,a
pr
operpr
eser
vat
ivet
reat
mentshoul
dbecar
ri
edout
.Fel
ledt
reesshoul
dbeai
r-
dri
edasr
api
dly
aspossi
bleandsomet
imbershoul
dbeki
ln-seasonedpr
oper
lyi
naccor
dancewi
thgoodki
ln-
seasoni
ngpr
act
[Link]
eaf
ter
,theyshoul
dbepr
otect
edf
rom r
ainandot
hersour
cesof
moi
stur
[Link]
event
il
ati
onshoul
dal
sobeensur
edar
oundt
het
imberandnot
imberused
i
nast
ruct
urei
stocont
ainsapwoodbecausesapwoodi
spr
onet
ofungalat
tackasar
esul
tof
t
hef
oodsuppl
yst
oredati
tspar
enchyma.

I
nsummar
y,Pr
event
ionofFungalAt
tackonWoodUsedi
nConst
ruct
ioncanbeachi
evedby;
i
. Appl
icat
ionofpr
eser
vat
ives.
i
i. Pr
operseasoni
ng.
i
ii
. Pr
otect
ionf
rom r
ainandot
hersour
cesofmoi
stur
e.
i
v. Adequat
event
il
ati
on.
v. Avoi
dingt
heuseofsapwoodasst
ruct
ural
timber
.

Br
iefExpl
anat
ionont
hef
ir
stt
woabove:
i
. Appl
icat
ionofpr
eser
vat
ives:
Decayi
nti
mberusedf
orcer
tai
npur
posescanonl
ybepr
event
edi
fiti
ssubj
ect
edt
oan
ef
fect
ivepr
ocessofpr
eser
vat
[Link]
imberr
equi
redf
orpi
les,sl
eeper
sfences,gat
e,wal
l
pl
ate,
andj
oistbui
lti
ntowal
lsshoul
dbet
reat
edwi
thsomef
orm ofpr
eser
vat
ives.

Woodpr
eser
vat
ivesar
echemi
calagent
susedt
opr
otectandpr
eser
vet
imberagai
nstagent
s
ofdet
eri
orat
[Link]
ncommonusei
ncl
ude:
[Link]
-t
arorcr
eosot
e
[Link]
achl
orophenol
c. zi
ncchl
ori
deand
[Link]
um chl
ori
de
Met
hodofAppl
yingPr
eser
vat
ives:
a. Di
ppi
ng

11
 b. Handbr
ushi
ng
c. Spr
ayi
ng
d. Soaki
ng
e. Char
ryi
ng
i
i. Pr
operseasoni
ng
Ti
mbercutf
rom f
reshl
yfal
lent
reesi
stoowetf
ornor
maluseandi
sdi
mensi
onal
lyunsui
tabl
e.
Seasoni
ngi
sthepr
ocessofr
educi
ngt
hemoi
stur
econt
ent(
dryi
ng)oft
imbert
oacer
tai
nlevel
i
nor
dert
opr
eventt
het
imberf
rom possi
blef
erment
ati
onanddecayandmaki
ngi
tsui
tabl
efor
use.I
tcan al
so be def
ined as t
he pr
ocess ofdr
ying t
he wood t
o moi
stur
e cont
ent
appr
oxi
mat
elyequalt
otheaver
agehumi
dit
yoft
hesur
roundi
ngswher
eiti
stobeper
manent
ly
f
ixed.

Ver
yrapi
dseasoni
ngaf
terr
emovalofbar
kshoul
dbeavoi
dedsi
ncei
tcausesabnor
mal
har
deni
ngandt
husi
ncr
easer
esi
stancet
openet
rat
ionofpr
eser
vat
ives.

Someoft
headvant
agesofseasoni
ngoft
imberi
ncl
ude:

a. I
treducest
het
endencyoft
het
imbert
ospl
itanddecay

b. I
treducesi
tswei
ght

c. I
treducesshr
inkageandwar
pingaf
terpl
acementi
nst
ruct
ure

d. I
tincr
easesst
rengt
h,dur
abi
li
tyandwor
kabi
li
tyoft
imber
.

METHODSOFSEASONI
NG:Ti
mbercanbeseasonednat
ural
lyorar
ti
fi
cial
lyORacombi
nat
ion
ofbot
h.

I
. Ai
rorNat
uralSeasoni
ng:Thel
ogofwoodi
ssawni
ntopl
anksofconveni
entsi
zes
andst
ackedundershedi
ncr
oss-
wisedi
rect
ioni
nal
ter
nat
elayer
ssoast
oper
mit
f
reeci
rcul
ati
onofai
[Link]
ati
onofdr
yingdependsupont
het
ypeofwoodand
t
hesi
zesoft
hepl
[Link]
ateofdr
yingi
showeverver
ysl
[Link]
rseasoni
ng
r
educest
hemoi
stur
econt
entoft
hewoodt
obet
ween12-15%.I
tisusedver
y
ext
ensi
vel
yindr
yingt
ies,
andver
ylar
gesi
zest
ruct
uralt
imber
.

I
I. Ar
ti
fi
cialSeasoni
ng:Thi
sist
hepr
ocessofdr
yingt
imberusi
ngot
hermedi
ainst
ead
off
reeai
r.

12
Thepr
eval
entmet
hodsofar
ti
fi
cial
seasoni
ngar
easf
oll
ows;

[Link]
lnseasoni
ng–t
hepr
ocessofdr
yingt
imberwi
tht
heuseofheat
edai
rorsuper
heat
ed
st
eam ci
rcul
atedt
hroughpi
pes.

[Link]
erseasoni
ng–t
hel
ogsofwoodar
ekeptcompl
etel
yimmer
sedi
nrunni
ngst
ream
ofwat
er,
consequent
lyt
hesap,
sugargum ar
ebl
eachedoutandt
hel
ogsl
aterkeptout
i
nai
randdr
ied.

c. Boi
li
ng:t
hisi
nvol
vesboi
li
ngi
nwat
erorexposi
ngt
hewoodt
otheact
ionofst
eam spr
ay.
I
tisver
yqui
ckbutexpensi
ve.

[Link]
lpr
ocess-t
hisi
sthebestmet
hodbutmostexpensi
ve,
thet
imberi
sst
ackedi
n
achamberwi
thf
reeai
rspacecont
aini
ngpr
oduct
sofcombust
ionoff
ueli
nthef
ir
e
pl
ace,
seasoni
ngt
aki
ng15-
60days.

e. El
ect
ri
cSeasoni
ng-Thel
ogsar
epl
acedi
nsuchawayt
hatt
hei
rtwoendst
oucht
he
el
ect
[Link]
renti
spassedt
hrought
heset
up,andwoodbei
ngabadconduct
or
r
esi
stst
hef
low ofcur
rent
,gener
ati
ngheati
nthepr
ocess,whi
chr
esul
tsi
ndr
yingt
he
[Link]
awbacki
sthat

t
hewoodmayspl
it
.

f
. Chemi
calorsal
tseasoni
ng:Thi
sinvol
vest
reat
ingt
hewoodwi
thaqueoussol
uti
onof
cer
tai
nchemi
calwhi
chr
educesvapourpr
essur
eandt
hisset
supvapourpr
essur
e
gr
adi
enti
nthewoodl
eadi
ngt
othedr
yingoft
hewood.

I
nsectAt
tack:

Ther
ear
esever
ali
nsect
swhi
chsur
vivebyf
eedi
ngont
hest
archcont
ainedi
nwood
cel
[Link]
hesei
sthef
urni
tur
ebeet
leot
her
wiseknowngener
all
y
asWoodwor
[Link]
m beet
legr
owst
oasi
zeof2.
5-5mm l
ongandi
s
usual
lybr
owni
ncol
ourwi
thaf
ineyel
lowi
shcover
ing.

Mechani
sm ofat
tackonwoodcausedbyI
nsect
s

13
 [Link]
m(Beet
le):

Woodwor
mist
hegener
icnameunderwhi
chal
lwoodbor
ingi
nsect
sar
ecommonl
y
[Link]
mist
hecommonestf
orm ofi
nsectat
tackoft
imberi
nbui
ldi
ngs,
at
tacki
ngst
ruct
uralt
imber
s,r
ooft
imber
s,f
loor
sandj
oist
set
[Link]
ing
i
nsect
swi
llat
tackevenwel
lseasonedt
imber
,incl
udi
nghar
dwood.
Woodwor
m At
tack:
Thef
emal
eadul
tlayshereggsi
nthecr
acks,
crevi
ces,
joi
ntsandunpr
otect
edwood
ar
easoft
het
imber
.Theeggshat
choveraper
iodi
ntol
arvae,whi
cht
henbur
row
i
ntot
het
imber
,feedi
ngont
hecel
lul
osecont
entandsubsequent
lyweakeni
ngt
he
t
imber
.Att
heendoft
hepupalst
aget
headul
temer
gesf
rom t
het
imbert
hrough
f
li
ghthol
es,
readyt
ocommencet
hel
if
ecycl
eagai
[Link]
songoi
ngcycl
ewi
lll
eadt
o
t
hepr
ogr
essi
vebr
eakdownoft
het
imberst
ruct
urei
nfest
ed,ul
ti
mat
elyr
esul
ti
ngi
n
compl
etecol
lapse.

14
 [Link]
mit
eAt
tack:Ter
mit
esorwhi
teant
s ar
ethemostdest
ruct
iveofal
linsect
agenci
[Link]
etel
yexcavat
ethewoodatt
hecent
rel
eavi
ngt
he
out
ershel
lint
act
.Theyal
soat
tackf
urni
tur
eandwoodwor
kinhousesand
evenr
ail
waysl
eeper
s.
[Link]
tackbyAnt
:car
pent
erAnt
sar
eusual
lybl
acki
ncol
ourandvar
yinsi
ze
wi
thi
nthesamenest
.Unl
iket
ermi
te,
theydonoteatwoodbutmer
elyt
unnel
i
toutf
orhabi
tat
[Link]
mal
lyat
tacksl
ight
lyr
ott
edorwat
er-
sof
tened
woodbutmaycont
inuei
ntowoodwhi
chappearper
fect
lysound.

Pr
event
ionandTr
eat
mentofI
nsectAt
tack.

Cont
rolofi
nsect
sismuchsi
mpl
ert
haner
adi
cat
ingf
ungi
.Thet
unnel
smadeby
i
nsect
shel
pint
hedeeppenet
rat
ionoft
oxi
cel
ement
sthatar
eusedt
odest
roy
t
[Link]
ocessesofpr
event
ionandt
reat
menti
ncl
ude;

i
. Lar
gescal
efumi
gat
ion:

Thi
scanbecar
ri
edoutusi
ngpower
fulgasessuchast
urpent
inemi
xedwi
thsmal
l
quant
it
yofor
tho-
dichl
[Link]
svapouri
sver
ydeadl
ytoi
nsect
sandi
snot
poi
sonoust
ohumanbei
ngsandani
mal
s.

Theuseofhydr
ocyani
caci
dgasandcr
eosot
ear
enotr
ecommendedast
hegasi
s
hi
ghl
ypoi
sonousanddanger
oust
ohumansandt
hecr
eosot
ehasof
fensi
veodour
andundesi
rabl
ecol
our
.Thevapour
sar
eal
sodanger
oust
ohumanbei
ngs.

i
i. Repl
acementofaf
fect
edpar
t:

Anyunsaf
eorunsust
ainabl
eti
mberhast
ober
emovedandr
epl
acementwi
llbe
wi
thnewt
imber
s,whi
char
ethent
reat
edi
mmedi
atel
y.

i
ii
. Tr
eat
mentofaf
fect
edpar
t:

Tr
eat
menti
scar
ri
edoutonaf
fect
edpar
tst
hatar
est
il
lusef
ul.

15
PAI
NT:

Pai
nti
sal
i
qui
dcoat
ingt
hati
sappl
iedt
ovar
ioussur
facesf
orpr
otect
ionanddecor
ati
on.

16
Reasonsf
orPai
ntAppl
icat
iononSur
faces

i
. Topr
otectt
heunder
lyi
ngsur
facef
rom at
mospher
icmoi
stur
e,f
ungiandi
nsect
s.

i
i. Topr
ovi
deadecor
ati
ve,
easi
lymai
ntai
nedsur
face.

i
ii
. Toenhancel
ightandheatr
efl
ect
ivepr
oper
ti
esont
hesur
face.

i
v. Topr
otectagai
nstchemi
calef
fect
ssuchaspr
otect
ionofmet
alagai
nstcor
rosi
on.

St
agesofPai
ntAppl
icat
ion:

Ther
ear
eusual
lyt
hree(
3)st
agesi
napai
nti
ngappl
icat
ion,
namel
ypr
imi
ng(
pri
mer
),under
coat
,
andf
ini
shi
ngcoat
.

Pr
imer
:Thi
sist
hef
ir
stcoatofpai
ntappl
iedt
oar
oughsur
[Link]
imi
ngcoati
susual
ly
desi
gnedt
osealt
hesur
facet
ohel
ppr
eventcor
rosi
onandt
opr
ovi
desui
tabl
efoundat
ionf
or
t
henextcoatwhi
chi
stheunder
coat
.

Under
coat
:Thi
sist
hesecondst
ageofpai
ntappl
icat
ion.I
tisappl
iedaf
tert
hesur
facehas
beenpr
epar
edorcoat
edwi
thpr
imer
.Theunder
coati
susedt
ogi
veopaci
tyandasmoot
h
sur
facewhi
chactasagoodkeyf
ort
hef
inal
coat
.

Fi
nishi
ngCoat
:Thef
ini
shi
ngcoati
sthef
inalcoatandt
het
hir
dst
ageofpai
ntappl
icat
ion.I
tis
madeupofadur
abl
ecoat
ingofr
equi
redcol
ourort
ext
[Link]
adi
ti
onal
ly,mostf
ini
shi
ngcoat
s
wer
egl
ossf
ini
shedandt
hist
endst
ohavet
hebestr
esi
stancet
oweat
hercondi
ti
ons,si
nce
t
heypr
ovi
dever
ysmoot
hsur
faces.

ComponentofPai
nt:

Themai
ncomponent
sofpai
ntsar
e:

TheVehi
cleorbi
nder

Thepi
gment

Theext
ender
.

Vehi
cle:Thi
sisaf
lui
dmat
eri
ali
nthepai
ntwhi
chbecomeshar
denaf
terappl
icat
ionandactas
abi
nder
.
Pi
gment
:Thesear
efi
nei
nsol
ubl
epar
ti
cleswhi
chgi
vest
hecol
our
ingabi
li
tyandbodyt
othe

17
pai
[Link]
imer
sandunder
coat
stendt
ohavel
argepr
opor
ti
onsofpi
gmenti
nor
dert
opr
oduce
opaci
ty,
whi
lef
ini
shi
ngcoathasl
owpr
opor
ti
onsi
ncei
tist
opr
oduceagl
ossf
ini
sh.

Ext
ender
:These ar
e sol
ventort
hinnert
hatar
e added t
othe pai
ntt
o cont
rolt
he f
low
char
act
eri
sti
csandt
hegl
ossoft
hepai
ntwi
thanaddedadvant
ageofr
educi
ngt
hecost
becauset
heyar
enoti
nvol
vedi
nthecol
our
ingpr
ocessbutenhancei
ncr
easei
nvol
umeoft
he
mi
xtur
e.

TypesofPai
nt:

[Link]
lpai
nt:

Thesewer
epai
ntsf
ormal
lybasedonl
inseedoi
lbutmoder
noi
lpai
ntsar
emanuf
act
uredf
rom
al
kyl
sandot
hersynt
het
icr
esi
nswhi
chal
low gr
eat
ercont
rolovert
hef
low char
act
eri
sti
cs,
har
deni
ngt
ime,
andhar
dnessoft
hepai
nti
[Link]
ethemostwi
del
yusedpai
ntf
orgener
al
pur
posesi
ncl
udi
ngappl
icat
ionsonwoodandmet
als.

TheI
ngr
edi
ent
sofanoi
l-
basedpai
ntar
e:
[Link]
cle-
[Link]
gment
s
c. Sol
vent
s
[Link]
ier
s
e. Adul
tr
ant

[Link]
sionPai
nt:

Thesear
epai
ntst
hatar
emi
sci
blewi
thwat
[Link]
ewi
del
yusedi
nint
eri
ordecor
ati
[Link]
ar
esui
tabl
eforappl
icat
iont
onewcementandsandpl
ast
eredsur
faces.

[Link]
lul
osePai
nts
Thesear
esol
vent
-basedpai
ntswhi
choccuri
nthef
orm ofni
tr
ocel
lul
osedi
ssol
vedi
nasol
vent
suchasacet
[Link]
ast
ici
zer
sar
eaddedt
ogi
veel
ast
ici
tyandsynt
het
icr
esi
nsar
eaddedt
o
gi
veagl
osspr
oper
ty,
sincepur
ecel
lul
osegi
vesl
it
tl
egl
oss.
Dr
yingusual
lyoccur
srapi
dlybutwel
lvent
il
atedar
easar
eessent
ialbecauset
hepai
nti
shi
ghl
y
f
lammabl
[Link]
lul
osepai
ntsar
ethemostsui
ted t
o spr
ayappl
icat
[Link]
oper
ti
es,
t
oget
herwi
tht
hef
actt
hatt
hepai
ntsgi
veof
fapenet
rat
ingodour
,tendt
orest
ri
ctt
heuseof
cel
lul
osepai
ntst
ofact
oryappl
icat
ions.I
nthesecondi
ti
ons,hi
ghqual
it
yfi
nishescanbe

18
obt
ained and t
her
esul
ti
ng coathasgood r
esi
stancet
ofungalat
tackand t
o chemi
cal
s
i
ncl
udi
ngal
kal
is.
[Link]
tumi
nousPai
nts

Thesear
epai
ntssour
cedf
rom bi
tumenandar
eint
endedpr
imar
il
yforpr
otect
ionofmet
als
usedext
ernal
lyandhavepoorgl
oss-
ret
ent
ionpr
oper
ti
[Link]
eamenabl
etoappl
icat
ioni
n
t
hincoat
sandt
her
efor
ecausel
if
ti
ngi
fappl
iedonoi
l-
basedcoat
[Link]
ightsof
tenst
hepai
nt,
butr
esi
stancecanbei
mpr
ovedbyuseofal
umi
num i
nthef
inalcoat
.

Tool
sUsedForPai
ntAppl
icat
ion:Themai
ntool
sar
e:

[Link]
ushes [Link]
ler
sand [Link]
ayi
ngguns.

Br
ushes:Mostpai
ntsar
eappl
iedwi
thbr
ushesi
nthedecor
ati
onofbui
ldi
ngst
hanwi
thany
ot
hert
oolbecauseabr
ushwoul
dgoi
ntocor
ner
sandi
ntr
icaci
esi
naccessi
blet
oot
hert
ool
s.

Mai
ntenanceaf
teruse:

Af
teruse,br
ushesshoul
dbewashedt
hor
oughl
ywi
thwat
erandal
lowedt
odr
ybef
orebei
ng
kepti
napr
operpl
ace.

Rol
ler
s:Theuseofr
oll
ersf
orpai
ntappl
icat
ionsavesagr
eatdealoft
[Link]
emadei
n
si
zesf
rom about50-
350mm wi
[Link]
gnedi
ndi
ff
erentshapes,
convex,
concave
orcor
rugat
edt
osui
tunusualcont
our
s.

Mai
ntenanceaf
teruse:

Tomai
ntai
nitaf
teruse,cl
eanwat
eri
susedf
oremul
sionpai
ntsandf
ort
excot
eoroi
lpai
nts,
ker
osenei
susedf
orwashi
ng.I
tshoul
dther
efor
ebeal
lowedt
odr
ybef
oreappr
opr
iat
est
orage.

Spr
ayi
ngGun:I
templ
oyst
heuseofcompr
essedai
rtodr
ivet
hepumpwhi
chl
if
tst
hepai
nt
f
rom t
hecont
ainerunderpr
essur
[Link]
nti
spassedunderpr
essur
ethr
oughamet
al
r
einf
orcedhoset
othegunwhi
chal
lowst
hepai
ntt
opassoutwhent
het
ri
ggeri
spul
[Link]
cont
roloft
heguni
saneedl
eorbal
ltypecut
-of
fval
ve.

Theuseofspr
ayi
ngguni
smor
eeconomi
calwher
elar
gear
easofpai
nti
ngar
einvol
[Link]
cor
rect
lyused,
aspr
ayi
nggundoesnotr
esul
tint
oomuchoverspr
ay.I
tisf
ast
,cover
ingupt
o
10m2/
minut
e,andt
hespr
aycant
akehi
ghsol
idmat
eri
alssuchasr
ustpr
event
ivepai
nt.

19
Mai
ntenanceaf
teruse:

Af
terusage,t
heguni
swashedt
hor
oughl
ywi
thker
oseneort
hinnersot
hatal
lthepai
ntt
hat
st
ickt
othebodycanber
emoved.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofani
dealpai
nt:

Char
act
eri
sti
csofani
dealpai
nt:
i
. Uni
for
m spr
eadasat
hinf
il
m andhi
ghcover
age
i
i. Goodwor
kabi
li
ty
i
ii
. Dur
abi
li
ty
i
v. Suf
fi
cientel
ast
ici
tyt
oremai
nunaf
fect
edbyexpansi
onorcont
ract
ionoft
hesur
face
pai
ntedorbyweat
heract
ionofat
mospher
e.
v. Shoul
dbei
mper
vioust
oai
randwat
er
vi
. Shoul
dbecheapandeconomi
cal
tof
orm ahar
dsur
face.

20
 :Nott
Cement obeconf
usedwi
thConcr
ete.

Def
ini
ti
on:

Cementi
sabi
nder
,asubst
ancet
hatset
sandhar
densandcanbi
ndot
hermat
eri
alst
oget
her
.
I
not
herwor
d,cementi
sanymat
eri
alt
hathar
densandbecomesst
rongl
yadhesi
veaf
ter
appl
icat
ioni
npl
ast
icf
[Link]
erm cementi
sof
tenusedi
nter
changeabl
ywi
thgl
ueand
adhesi
ves.I
nengi
neer
ingandbui
ldi
ngconst
ruct
iont
het
erm usual
lyr
efer
stoaf
inepowder
ed
manuf
act
uredsubst
anceconsi
sti
ngofhydr
aul
iccement
ingmat
eri
alandgypsum t
hathar
dens
andadher
esaf
terbei
ngmi
xedwi
thwat
er.

Usesofcement
:

Cement
sar
eusedf
orvar
iouspur
poses,
suchas

i
. Concr
eti
ng:bi
ndi
ngsandandgr
avel
toget
hert
ofor
m concr
ete

i
i. Fl
oororwal
lti
li
ng:cementi
smi
xedwi
thwat
ert
ofor
m past
ewhi
chi
susedt
olay
t
il
es.

i
ii
. Coat
ing:Cementi
nfor
m ofpast
eisusedt
ocoatsur
facest
opr
otectt
hem f
rom
chemi
calat
tack.

i
v. Bl
ockmaki
ng:Cementi
smi
xed wi
th sand and wat
ert
o makebl
ocksused i
s
masonr
y.

NOTE:Cement
sar
emadei
nawi
devar
iet
yofcomposi
ti
onsf
orawi
devar
iet
yofuses.

PROPERTI
ESOFCEMENT:Somenot
iceabl
epr
oper
ti
esofcementar
e:

i
. Hydr
ati
on

i
i. Heatevol
uti
on

i
ii
. Fi
neness

i
v. Set
ti
ng

v. Soundness

vi
. St
rengt
h(bot
htensi
le&compr
essi
vest
rengt
h).

21
vi
i. col
our

i
. Hydr
ati
on:Thi
sisachemi
calr
eact
ionpr
ocess;

WhenPor
tl
andcementi
smi
xedwi
thwat
er,t
het
wocombi
nei
nachemi
calpr
ocessknownas
hydr
ati
on,andacr
yst
all
inest
ruct
uredevel
[Link]
ovi
dedt
hatt
her
equi
redamountofwat
eri
s
avai
labl
e,hydr
ati
on,and t
her
efor
e st
rengt
h gai
n,cont
inues i
ndef
ini
tel
y,al
though ata
pr
ogr
essi
vel
yreduci
ngr
[Link]
sexpl
ainst
heneedt
okeepconcr
etedampf
orat
imeaf
ter
pl
aci
ng,apr
ocedur
eknown ascur
[Link]
ing hydr
ati
on,heati
sgi
ven of
[Link]
ti
ng i
san
out
comeofhydr
ati
on.

i
i. HeatEvol
uti
on:

Heati
sevol
vedwhencementi
susedandt
hedegr
eeofheatgener
atedi
sdependentoni
ts
chemi
calcomposi
ti
[Link]
oll
owi
ngcompoundspr
esenti
nvar
yingquant
it
iesgi
vecementi
ts
char
act
eri
sti
csheatevol
uti
on pr
oper
ti
[Link]
rangementoft
hecompound i
n or
derof
decr
easi
ngi
ntensi
tyofheatevol
uti
oni
sasgi
venbel
ow:

C3Agener
atesheatmostf
oll
owedbyC3St
oC4AFt
henf
inal
lyC2S

ieC3A>C3S>C4AF>C2S H =+ve

i
ii
. Fi
nenessofGr
indi
ng:

Thi
sisoneoft
hepr
oper
ti
est
hathast
hegr
eat
esti
nfl
uenceont
henetcomposi
ti
onand
hydr
ati
onofcement
.Thef
inert
hecement
,thequi
ckert
her
ateofhydr
ati
onandt
hegr
eat
er,
t
her
ateofheatevol
uti
[Link]
nenessi
ncr
easest
hecohesi
venessoft
hemi
x(wor
kabi
l
ity)
.Ital
so
r
educesbl
eedi
ng(
separ
ati
onofwat
erf
rom cement
).Thi
smeanst
hati
tisver
yimpor
tantf
or
cementt
omai
ntai
ndi
ff
erentf
inenessf
ordi
ff
erentpur
poses.

However
,wor
kdonewi
thver
yfi
necementi
sli
kel
ytosuf
ferf
rom shr
inkageandcr
acki
[Link]
s
i
sasar
esul
tofr
api
dhydr
ati
onandhi
ghheatevol
uti
onwhi
chl
eadst
oexpansi
on

22
 i
v. Set
ti
ngofcement
/set
ti
ngt
ime

Set
ti
ngofcement
:

Set
ti
ngdescr
ibest
hehar
deni
ngorst
if
fnessofcementaf
terwat
eri
[Link]
sset
,or
har
den,byt
heevapor
ati
onoft
hepl
ast
ici
zingl
iqui
dsuchaswat
er,al
cohol
,oroi
l,byi
nter
nal
chemi
calchange,byhydr
ati
on,orbyt
hegr
owt
hofi
nter
laci
ngset
sofcr
yst
[Link]
her
cementhar
denast
heyr
eactwi
thoxygenorcar
bondi
oxi
dei
ntheat
mospher
e.

Set
ti
ngTi
me:

Thi
sist
het
imei
ttakescementt
ohar
denwhenmi
xedwi
thwat
[Link]
nit
ialset
ti
ngt
ime
shoul
dnotbet
ool
it
tl
eort
ooshor
tsoast
opr
ovi
desuf
fi
cientt
imef
orpl
aci
ngconcr
etet
othe
r
equi
redt
[Link]
inalset
ti
ngt
imei
ndi
cat
est
hemaxi
mum per
iodf
orcementt
ohar
den
af
tert
hei
nit
ialset
ti
nghast
akenpl
[Link]
ualt
imespeci
fi
edf
ort
hei
nit
ialandf
inalset
ti
ng
var
ieswi
thdi
ff
erentt
ypesofcement
.Theyar
eal
soaf
fect
edbywat
er-
cementr
ati
o,andt
he
t
emper
atur
eoft
heat
mospher
[Link]
ncr
easei
nwat
er-
cementr
ati
onor
mal
lydel
ayst
heset
ti
ng
ofcement
.Dur
ingt
hist
ime,f
alsesetoccur
spr
emat
urel
yandi
tisusual
lyasar
esul
tof
cr
yst
all
izat
ionofGypsum sal
taf
terwat
ermusthavebeenadded.I
tcanbeover
comeby
cont
inuousst
ir
ri
ng.

Set
ti
ngt
imeal
sogi
vesawayofchecki
ngt
hequant
it
iesoruni
for
mit
yofconcr
[Link]
ete
t
hati
smor
ewor
kabl
erequi
resl
ongerset
ti
ngt
ime.

v. SoundnessofCement
:

Soundnessi
stheabi
li
tyofcementt
omai
ntai
naconst
antvol
[Link]
eshoul
dnotbeany
i
ncr
easeordecr
easei
nvol
umeatanypoi
nti
nti
meast
hisl
eadst
ocr
acki
[Link]
his
happenst
hecementi
ssai
dtobeunsoundandt
hisi
snor
mal
lycausedbyt
hepr
esenceof
excessGypsum,Li
meorMagnesi
um i
nahar
denedpast
[Link]
eri
alst
endt
ocont
inue
t
hei
rhydr
ati
onevenaf
terset
ti
[Link]
comebyaer
ati
on(
spr
eadi
nthe
pr
esenceofai
rtodr
yit
).Thi
sisusual
lyappl
iedaf
tert
het
est
sforsoundnesshavef
ail
[Link]
s
i
s done by spr
eadi
ng outt
he cementand al
lowi
ng i
tto meetwi
th ai
[Link]
oxi
de and
car
bonat
esar
ethenf
ormed

23
 vi
. St
rengt
hofcement
:

Thest
rengt
hofcementi
sassessedbyt
wodi
ff
erentt
est
s,namel
ycompr
ehensi
veandt
ensi
le
st
rengt
htest
.

Tensi
lest
rengt
htesti
srar
[Link]
essi
vest
rengt
hgi
vest
heover
allst
rengt
hof
cement
.Thecompr
essi
vest
rengt
hist
hest
rengt
hofcementunderi
mposedl
[Link]
eisa
machi
nef
ordet
ermi
ningt
hest
rengt
hofcementf
orapar
ti
cul
arspeci
fi
cat
ion.

Mor
tarcubesofsi
ze150mm canbeusedt
ocar
ryoutt
hecompr
essi
vest
rengt
htest
.Loadsof
di
ff
erentwei
gthsar
eappl
iedati
nter
val
sont
hecubet
odet
ermi
net
hest
rengt
h.

vi
i. Col
our
:

Cementi
susual
lyagr
eypowderbef
orebei
ngmi
xedwi
thot
hermat
eri
alsandwat
[Link]
teor
col
our
edcementar
eavai
labl
efordecor
ati
vepur
poses.

Set
ti
ngandHar
deni
ngpr
ocessOfCement
:

Set
ti
ng:

Whenwat
eri
smi
xedwi
thPor
tl
andcement
,thepr
oductset
sinaf
ewhour
sandhar
densovera
per
[Link]
art
stosetwhenmi
xedwi
thwat
erbywayofacompl
exser
iesof
hydr
ati
on chemi
calr
eact
[Link] const
it
uent
s sl
owl
yhydr
ate and t
he mi
ner
alhydr
ates
sol
idi
fy;t
hei
nter
locki
ngoft
hehydr
atesgi
vescementi
tsst
rengt
[Link]
ocessescanvar
y
wi
del
ydependi
ngupont
hemi
xusedandt
hecondi
ti
onsofcur
ingoft
hepr
oduct
,butat
ypi
cal
concr
eteset
sinabout6 
hour
sanddevel
opsacompr
essi
vest
rengt m2 i
hof8N/ n24 
hour
s.
Thest
rengt
hri
sest m2 i
o15N/ n3  m2 i
days,23N/ n1  m2 i
week,35N/ n4  m2 i
weeksand41N/ n
3 
mont
hs.I
npr
inci
ple,t
hest
rengt
hcont
inuest
ori
sesl
owl
yasl
ongaswat
eri
savai
labl
efor
cont
inuedhydr
ati
on.

Af
tert
hei
nit
ialset
ti
ng,i
mmer
sioni
nwar
m wat
erwi
llspeedupset
ti
[Link] i
saddedt
o
cementdur
ingmanuf
act
ureasani
nhi
bit
ort
opr
eventf
lashset
ti
ng.

Cur
ingofcement

Thi
sist
hepr
ocessofmai
ntai
ningt
heappr
opr
iat
emoi
stur
econt
entdur
ingt
hedr
yingpr
ocess.

24
Cont
rar
ytopopul
arper
cept
ions,hydr
aul
iccement
sdonotsetbydr
yingout
;pr
opercur
ingi
s
r
equi
redandt
hisi
sachi
evedbymai
ntai
ningt
heappr
opr
iat
emoi
stur
econt
entdur
ingt
he
dr
yingpr
ocess.I
fhydr
aul
iccement
sdr
youtdur
ingcur
ing,t
her
esul
ti
ngpr
oductcanbe
si
gni
fi
cant
[Link]
lowi
ng Concr
etet
o dr
youtaf
teraf
ew weekscausesst
rengt
h
gr
owt
htost
op.

Met
hodsThatCanBeUsedI
nCur
ingConcr
ete:
i
. Wat
ercur
ing
i
i. St
eam cur
ing
i
ii
. Cur
ingbyi
nfr
a-r
edRadi
ati
on.
i
v. El
ect
ri
cal
cur
ing
v. Chemi
calcur
ing

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFCEMENT:

Cement
susedi
nconst
ruct
ioncanbecl
assi
fi
edasbei
ngei
therhydr
aul
icornon-
hydr
aul
ic,
dependi
ngupont
heabi
li
tyoft
hecementt
oseti
nthepr
esenceofwat
erornot
.

Non-
hydr
aul
iccementwi
llnotseti
nwetcondi
ti
onsorunder
wat
er;r
ather
,itset
sasi
tdr
iesand
r
eact
swi
thcar
bondi
oxi
dei
ntheai
r.I
tcanbeat
tackedbysomeaggr
essi
vechemi
cal
saf
ter
set
ti
ng.

Hydr
aul
iccement
sseti
nwetcondi
ti
onorunderwat
[Link]
veduet
o
achemi
calr
eact
ionbet
weent
hedr
yingr
edi
ent
sofcementandwat
[Link]
calr
eact
ion
r
esul
tsi
nami
ner
alhydr
atest
hatar
enotver
ywat
er-
sol
ubl
eandsoar
equi
tedur
abl
einwat
er
and saf
efr
om chemi
calat
[Link]
n cementar
e mai
nlyhydr
aul
ic cement
.A t
ypi
cal
exampl
eofhydr
aul
iccementi
sPor
tl
andCement

TypesofPor
tl
andCement

Ther
ear
evar
ioust
ypesofPor
tl
andcement
:

1. Or
dinar
yPor
tl
andcement(
OPC)

2. Rapi
dhar
deni
ngPor
tl
andcement

3. Por
tl
andbl
astf
urnacesl
agcement

25
 4. LowheatPor
tl
andcement

5. Ul
tr
ahi
ghear
lyst
rengt
hPor
tl
andcement

6. Whi
tePor
tl
andcement

7. Col
our
edPor
tl
andCement

8. Sul
phat
eresi
sti
ngPor
tl
andCement

9. Speci
alpur
poseCement

[Link]
NARYPORTLANDCEMENT:

Thi
sisobt
ainedbypr
oper
lypr
opor
ti
oni
ngami
xtur
eofar
gil
laceousandcal
cer
ousmat
eri
als
whi
char
ebur
ntathi
ght
emper
atur
einapr
ocesscal
ledcal
cinat
[Link]
emustbet
akeni
n
pr
opor
ti
oni
ngt
her
awmat
eri
alssot
hatt
hecl
inkerofpr
operconst
it
uti
onmaybeobt
ainedaf
ter
bur
ning.

Typi
calPor
tl
andcement
sar
emi
xtur
esoft
ri
cal
cium si
li
cat
e(3CaOSi
O2)
,tr
ical
cium al
umi
nat
e
(
3CaO .Al
2O3)
,invar
yingpr
opor
ti
ons,t
oget
herwi
thsmal
lamountofmagnesi
um andi
ron
[Link] i
sof
tenaddedt
osl
owt
hehar
deni
ngpr
ocess.

Per
cent
ageComposi
ti
onoft
heMaj
orConst
it
uent
sofOr
dinar
yPor
tl
andCement

Ther
ehavebeenchangesi
nthechemi
calcomposi
ti
onofOPCovert
heyear
s,mai
nlyr
efl
ect
ed
i
nthei
ncr
easeofl
imecont
entandsl
ightdecr
easei
nsi
li
cacont
ent
.Ani
ncr
easei
nli
me
cont
enti
nOPC beyondcer
tai
nval
uemakesi
tdi
ff
icul
ttocombi
necompl
etel
ywi
thot
her
[Link]
ncr
easei
nSi
li
cacont
entatt
heexpenseofAl
umi
naandFer
ri
cOxi
demakes
t
hecementdi
ff
icul
ttof
useandf
orm cl
inker
.So,
allf
ourcompoundar
eimpor
tant
.

Theappr
oxi
mat
eli
mitofchemi
calcomposi
ti
onoft
hef
ourbasi
ccompoundsofor
dinar
y
Por
tl
andcementar
ether
efor
easf
oll
ows:

S/
Nr COMPONENTS %COMPOSI
TION

i Cal
cium car
bonat
e(CaCO3) 60-65%

i
i Si
li
ca(
SiO2) 17-25%

26
 i
ii Al
umi
na(
Al2O3) 3-10%

i
v Fer
ri
cOxi
de(
Fe2O3) 0.
5-6%

NOTE:Weal
sohaveSodaandPot
ash(
Na2O&K2O)
,Magnesi
um Oxi
deandSul
phurt
ri
oxi
de
(
MgoandSO3)i
nmi
norquant
it
iesi
nthePor
tl
andcementasear
li
erl
ist
edabove

i
. Cal
cium Car
bonat
e(CaCO3)asasour
ceofl
ime(
CaO)

Li
me(
CaO)
:

Li
mei
sobt
ainedbyheat
ingcal
cium car
bonat
e(CaCO3)athi
ght
emper
atur
ewi
tht
her
eleaseof
car
bondi
oxi
de.

Whenl
imei
spr
esenti
nlar
gequant
it
ies,i
tpr
olongst
heset
ti
ngt
imeofcement
.Whent
he
quant
it
yofl
imei
sli
tt
lei
ncement
,itr
esul
tsi
nqui
ckset
ti
ngoft
hecementi
fnotpr
oper
lybur
nt.

Excessi
vel
imei
snotdesi
rabl
east
hismayl
ead t
o compl
etedi
sint
egr
ati
on ofconcr
ete
(
unsoundness)

i
i. Si
li
ca(
SiO2)
:

Whensi
li
cai
sinhi
ghcont
ent
,it

[Link]
olongsset
ti
ngt
imeandgi
vescementhi
ghdensi
ty.

2. I
tal
sogi
vest
hecementhi
ghr
esi
stancet
ochemi
calat
tack

i
ii
. Al
lumi
na(
Al2O3)
:

Whenal
umi
nai
sinhi
ghcont
ent
,itr
esul
tsi
nlowset
ti
ngt
imeandl
essr
esi
stancet
ochemi
cal
at
tack.I
tcont
ri
but
est
othegr
eycol
ourofcementandusual
lyver
ysmal
lincont
entabout1–4
%.

Not
e:Wi
thhi
ghcont
entofsi
li
ca,
ther
eshoul
dbeacor
respondi
ngl
owcont
entofal
umi
na.

i
v. Fer
ri
cOxi
de(
Fe2O3)

27
Thi
s compound i
s among t
he f
ir
stf
ourmaj
orcomponentofPor
tl
and cement
.Ital
so
cont
ri
but
est
othegr
eycol
ourofcement
.

Ot
hercompoundspr
esenti
nmi
norquant
it
iesar
e:

v. Soda

vi
. Pot
ash:

vi
i. Magnesi
um Oxi
deand

vi
ii
. Sul
phurTr
ioxi
de;

Pr
oduct
ionofOr
dinar
yPor
tl
andCement
:

Or
dinar
yPor
tl
andCementi
sbyf
art
hemostcommont
ypeofcementi
ngener
alusear
ound
t
hewor
[Link]
scementi
smadebyheat
ingl
imest
one(
cal
cium car
bonat
e)wi
thot
hermat
eri
als
(
suchascl
ay)t
oat
emper
atur
eofabout1450 
°Ci
naki
ln,apr
ocessknownascal
cinat
ion.A
mol
ecul
eofcar
bondi
oxi
dei
sli
ber
atedf
rom t
hecal
cium car
bonat
etof
orm cal
cium oxi
de,or
qui
ckl
ime,
whi
chi
sthenbl
endedwi
tht
heot
hermat
eri
alst
hathavebeeni
ncl
udedi
nthemi
xto
f
orm cal
cium si
li
cat
esandot
hercement
it
iouscompounds.

Ther
esul
ti
nghar
dsubst
ance,cal
led'
cl
inker
',i
sthengr
oundwi
thasmal
lamountofgypsum
i
ntoapowdert
omake'
Ordi
nar
yPor
tl
andCement
',t
hemostcommonl
yusedt
ypeofcement
(
oft
enr
efer
redt
oasOPC)
.Por
tl
andcementmaybegr
ey,
whi
teorcol
our
ed.

Por
tl
andCementCl
inker
:Thi
sisahar
dsubst
anceobt
ainedbyheat
ingt
her
aw mat
eri
alsof
cementt
oat
emper
atur
eofabout1450°
C,whi
chi
sgr
oundwi
thasmal
lamountofgypsum
i
ntoapowdert
omake'
Ordi
nar
yPor
tl
andCement
',

Typi
calConst
it
uent
sofPor
tl
andCl
inkerwi
tht
hei
rNomencl
atur
e(CCN)

28
S/
N NAMEOFCONSTI
TUENT Nomencl
atur
e MASS%

1 Tr
ical
cium si
li
cat
e(CaO)
3·Si
O2 C3S 45–75%

2 Di
cal
cium si
li
cat
e(CaO)
2·Si
O2 C2S 7-
32%

3 Tr
ical
cium al
umi
nat
e(CaO)
3·Al
2O3 C3A 0–13%

4 Tet
racal
cium al
umi
nof
err
it
e (
CaO)
4 C4AF 0–18%
·Al
2O3·Fe2O3

Thef
oll
owi
ngcomponent
sofPor
tl
andcl
inkercombi
nei
nami
xasshownt
ofor
m Por
tl
and
cement
:C3SC2SC3AC4AF;

C3S t
ri
cal
cium si
li
cat
e 45-
75%

C2S di
cal
cium si
li
cat
e 7-
32%

C3A t
ri
cal
cium al
lumi
nat
e 0-
13%

C4AF t
etr
a-cal
cium al
lumi
nof
eri
te 0-
18%

Thesi
li
cat
es(
diandt
rical
cium si
li
cat
es)ar
eresponsi
blef
ort
hemechani
calpr
oper
ti
esoft
he
cement
,thet
ri
-cal
cium al
umi
nat
eandt
etr
a-cal
cium al
umi
nof
err
it
ear
eessent
ialt
oal
low t
he
f
ormat
ionoft
hel
iqui
dphasedur
ingt
hecal
cinat
ionpr
ocess(
bur
ning)
.Thechemi
str
yoft
he
abovel
ist
edr
eact
ionsi
snotcompl
etel
ycl
earandi
sst
il
ltheobj
ectofr
esear
ch.

C3SandC2Sf
orm about70–80% oft
het
otalcement
.Theyar
emor
est
abl
eandcont
ri
but
e
most
lyt
othest
rengt
handot
herchemi
calpr
oper
ti
essuchassoundnessandr
esi
stancet
o
chemi
calat
tack.

Al
lthef
ourcompoundscont
ri
but
etot
hepr
oper
ti
esofcementpr
oducedi
ndi
ff
erentways:

C3Shydr
atesr
api
dlyandgener
atesal
otofheat
.Iti
sal
sor
esponsi
blef
ort
heear
lyst
rengt
hof
cementwi
thi
nthef
ir
st14days.

C2S– Thi
shydr
atesmuchmor
esl
owl
ythanC3Sandsot
heheatevol
vedi
sver
yli
tt
le.I
t
cont
ri
but
est
ost
rengt
hasf
rom 14dayst
oaboutoneyear
.Ital
sogi
vest
hecementahi
gh

29
r
esi
stancet
ochemi
calat
tacksandal
owdr
yingshr
inkage.

C3A–Thi
sisacompoundt
hathydr
atesmostr
api
dly.I
tcont
ri
but
esver
yli
tt
let
othest
rengt
h
usual
lyf
ort
hef
ir
st24hour
[Link]
hisi
tisl
essr
esi
stantt
ochemi
calat
tack.I
tisl
ikel
y
t
ocauseunsoundnessduet
ovol
umechanger
esul
ti
ngf
rom heatevol
uti
on.

C4AF–Thi
sisar
elat
ivel
yinact
ivecompoundandi
tcont
ri
but
esver
yli
tt
let
othest
rengt
hatany
st
age.I
tenhancest
hef
ormat
ionoft
hel
iqui
dphasedur
ingt
hecal
cinat
ionspr
ocess.I
tdoes
notcont
ri
but
emucht
otheheatofhydr
ati
on

NOTE:Ani
ncr
easei
nSi
li
cacont
entatt
heexpenseofAl
umi
naandFer
ri
cOxi
demakest
he
cementdi
ff
icul
ttof
useandf
orm cl
inker
.

UseofOr
dinar
yPor
tl
andCement
:

I
tist
hecheapestandmostwi
del
yusedt
ypeofcement
.About90% ofconst
ruct
ionwor
kis
donei
[Link]
ether
eist
endencyofsul
phat
eat
tack,
iti
srar
elyused.

ThemostcommonusesofPor
tl
andcementar
e:

i
. I
nthePr
oduct
ionofconcr
ete:

Concr
etei
sacomposi
temat
eri
alconsi
sti
ngofaggr
egat
e(gr
avelandsand)
,cement
,and
wat
[Link]
ruct
ionmat
eri
al,concr
etecanbecasti
ntoal
mostanyshapedesi
red,and
oncehar
dened,canbecomeast
ruct
ural(
loadbear
ing)el
ement
.Concr
etecanbeusedi
nthe
const
ruct
ion ofst
ruct
uralel
ement
sli
ke panel
s,beams,st
reetf
urni
tur
e,orf
orbui
ldi
ng
super
str
uct
uresl
iker
oadsanddams.

i
i. I
nthePr
oduct
ionofmor
tar
s(cementwi
thsandandwat
eronl
y)f
orpl
ast
ersand
scr
eeds,
andf
ormasonr
y

i
ii
. I
n maki
ng gr
out
s(cement
/wat
ermi
xes)squeezed i
nto gaps t
o consol
idat
e
f
oundat
ions,

r
oad-
beds,l
ayi
ngt
il
eset
c.

i
v. I
nmaki
ngbl
ocksf
ormasonr
yconst
ruct
ion

30
 [Link]
dHar
deni
ngPor
tl
andCement
.

Thi
shashi
gherl
i
mecont
entt
hanOPC,obt
ainedbyi
ncr
easi
ngt
ri
cal
cium si
li
cat
e(C3S)mor
e
t
hant
hatofOPC.I
thydr
atesf
ast
ert
hanOPCbecausei
thasmor
eofC3Sandt
hecl
inkeri
s
gr
oundf
inert
[Link]
esenceofhi
ghC3Sandt
hef
inergr
indi
ngcausest
her
api
d
hydr
ati
[Link]
rengt
hdevel
opedi
nthr
eedaysi
sequi
val
entt
othatacqui
redbyOPCi
n7days.

USES:

i
. Sui
tabl
eforcoolweat
hercl
imat
e

i
i. Sui
tabl
eforr
epai
rofr
oadsandbr
idges,
wher
eear
lyhar
deni
ngi
srequi
red asl
oadi
sto
beappl
iedwi
thi
nashor
tper
iodoft
ime

i
ii
. Usedf
orpr
ecastconcr
etest
ruct
ures.

However
,thi
stypeofPor
tl
andcementi
snotsui
tabl
eformassi
veconst
ruct
ionl
ikedamset
c.
Thi
sisbecauset
heheatevol
vedi
ssogr
eatt
hati
tcausesexpansi
on.

[Link]
tr
aHi
ghEar
lySt
rengt
hPor
tl
andCement
:

Thi
sisobt
ainedbymaki
ngt
hepar
ti
clesf
inert
hant
hatofr
api
dhar
deni
ngPor
tl
andcement
.
Somet
imes,
anaccel
erat
orsuchascal
cium chl
ori
de(
CaCl
2)i
[Link]
hreedaysst
rengt
h
oft
her
api
dhar
deni
ngwi
llbeobt
ainedi
n16hour
sbyul
tr
ahi
ghear
lyst
rengt
hcement
.

USES:

Thi
stypeofcementi
snor
mal
lyusedwher
eext
remespeedorhi
ghear
lyst
rengt
hisr
equi
red.
Egr
oadconst
ruct
ion,
under
wat
erconst
ruct
ionsuchasbr
idges,
etc.

[Link]
tl
andCement
:

Thi
scont
ainsmor
eofC2Swhi
chmakest
hecementhavel
ow heatevol
uti
onpr
oper
ti
esand
C3Awhi
chmaket
hecementof
fer
sli
tt
leornor
esi
stancet
osul
phat
eat
tack.I
thar
denssl
owl
y
t
husal
l
owi
ngt
hel
argepoi
ntoft
hewor
ktobedonebef
oreset
ti
ngorhar
deni
ngoccur
[Link]
sis
becauset
heheatevol
vedi
ssmal
[Link]
ncr
easedcont
entofC2Si
sachi
evedbyt
hei
ncr
easeof

31
t
hesi
li
cat
eandr
educt
ionofcal
cium i
nther
awmat
eri
als.

USES

i
. I
tsui
tabl
eforhotweat
hercl
imat
e

i
i. I
tisusedf
ormassi
vest
ruct
uresl
ikedamsasi
thar
denssl
owl
y.

i
ii
. Notusedwher
esul
phat
eat
tacki
ssuspect
ed.

[Link]
tl
andBl
astFur
naceSl
agCement
:

I
tisobt
ainedbyaddi
ng30% ofbl
astf
urnacesl
agt
othePor
tl
andcementcl
inkerbef
ore
gr
indi
ng.I
tgai
nsst
rengt
hver
ysl
owl
[Link]
smakesi
tweakeri
near
lyst
rengt
hbut
l
ateront
hest
rengt
hwi
llequal
izeorevenbegr
eat
ert
hant
hatofOPC.

USES:

i
. I
thasmor
eresi
stancet
osul
phat
eoraci
dicwat
erandsocanbeusedwher
esul
phat
e
at
tacki
ssuspect
ed.

i
i. Thesl
owr
ateofhar
deni
nggi
vesr
iset
olowheatevol
uti
on.I
tcant
her
efor
ebeusedf
or
massi
veconst
ruct
ionsuchasdamsandi
nhotweat
her
.

[Link]
phat
eResi
sti
ngPor
tl
andCement
:

Thi
sisPor
tl
andcementt
hati
sgr
oundf
inert
hanOPCandhasver
ylowcont
[Link]
he
namei
mpl
ies,i
tismeantf
orr
esi
sti
ngsul
phat
eat
tackandsohasver
ylow cont
entofC3A
whi
chhasweakornor
esi
stancet
osul
phat
eat
tack.

Thesul
phat
eat
tackcanar
isei
ntwoways:

[Link]
cium-
all
umi
nat
e(C3A)de-
hydr
atesandr
eact
swi
thsul
phat
einwat
erorsoi
ltof
orm
cal
cium sul
phur
-al
lumi
nat
ewhi
chhasexpansi
vepr
oper
ti
[Link]
scausesdi
sint
egr
ati
onand

32
cr
acki
ngoft
heconcr
etest
ruct
ure.

[Link]
ypeofsul
phat
eat
tacki
scausedbycal
cium hydr
oxi
de(
Ca(
OH)
2 whi
chr
eact
s
wi
thsul
phat
est
ofor
m Gypsumswhi
chhydr
atessl
owl
yandr
esul
tsi
nvol
umechange.

Thephysi
calpr
oper
ti
esar
ethesamewi
tht
hatofOPCexceptt
hati
tisgr
oundf
inert
hanOPC.

USES:

I
tismai
nlyusedwher
ether
eisanexcessi
vesul
phat
eact
ivi
ti
ese.g mar
inewor
ks,dr
ainage
st
ruct
uresandsewaget
ankswhi
char
eexpect
edt
ocar
rywat
erofhi
ghsul
phat
econt
ent
s.

[Link]
tePor
tl
andCement
:

Thi
sisaver
yexpensi
vepr
oductduet
ohi
ghpr
oduct
ioncost
.Chi
nacl
ayi
snor
mal
lyusedwi
th
ot
hercar
eful
l
ysel
ect
edmat
eri
alsi
nst
eadofor
dinar
ycl
ay.I
ronoxi
dei
sreducedt
oabout10%
soast
oel
imi
nat
ethegr
eycol
our
.Thechi
nacl
aygi
vest
heshi
nywhi
tecol
our
.

USES:

I
tisusedf
orar
chi
tect
uralpur
poses.I
tisal
sousedf
ort
err
azzof
loor
s.I
tissuf
fi
cient
lyst
rong
butnotasst
rongasOPC.

[Link]
our
edPor
tl
andCement
:

Di
ff
erentpi
gment
sar
eaddedt
oOPCt
ogi
vet
het
ypeofcol
ourdesi
[Link]
gment
sar
e
nor
mal
lyaddedt
othecl
inkeratpr
oduct
[Link]
oper
ti
esar
ethesameasOPC.

USES: I
tisal
sousedf
ordecor
ati
vepur
posesandf
ort
err
azzof
loor
s

[Link]
ALPURPOSECEMENT;Thesear
ebl
endsofPor
tl
andcementmanuf
act
uredf
or
speci
fi
cpur
poses

i
. Mansonr
yCement
:

I
tisobt
ainedbygr
indi
ngOPCcl
inkerwi
thl
imest
oneandgypsum wi
thanaddi
ti
vecal
led

33
 ai
rent
rai
ningagent
.Iti
sfi
nert
hanul
tr
ahi
ghear
lyst
rengt
hcement
.Thepr
esenceof
l
imest
oneandaddi
ti
vegi
vest
hecementhi
ghpl
ast
ici
tyandwor
kabi
li
tyhencei
tismost
ly
usedasmor
tarf
ormasonr
ywor
k.I
thasgr
eat
erwat
err
etent
ionandcohesi
venessbecause
ofi
tsf
[Link]
rengt
hisgr
eat
ert
hant
hatofOPCandhasal
owdr
yingshr
inkage.

i
. Wat
erRepel
lentCement
:

I
tisOPCt
owhi
chwat
erpr
oof
ingagenthasbeenaddedandgr
ound.I
trepel
swat
eratt
he
i
nit
ialst
ageofl
ayi
ngorpl
aci
[Link]
senabl
esi
ttosetnor
mal
lywi
thoutbei
ngaf
fect
edbywat
er
af
terl
ayi
ng.

i
i. Hydr
ophobi
cCement
:

Thi
sal
soi
sanOPCwi
thcer
tai
naddi
ti
vesadded.I
trepel
swat
ert
owhi
chi
thasnotbeenmi
xed.
Wheni
tisexposedt
odampweat
her
,af
il
misf
ormedr
oundt
hepar
ti
clesbutwhenmi
xedwi
th
wat
er,t
hef
il
misbr
[Link]
oper
ti
esar
esi
mil
art
oOPCandnor
epel
li
ngef
fecti
nthef
ini
shed
pr
oduct
.Ithashi
ghear
lyst
rengt
hatear
lyst
ages.

i
ii
.Pozzol
oni
cCement
:

I
tisobt
ainedbygr
indi
ng60%-80%OPC,15%-
40%pozzol
oni
cmat
eri
als(
nat
uralorar
ti
fi
cial
)
whi
chcont
ainsi
li
cai
nit
sreact
ivegr
oundf
orm [Link]
cani
cashandpumi
cewhi
char
enat
ural
.
Thear
ti
fi
cialonesar
epul
ver
izedsl
agash,
bur
ntcl
ayandshal
es.

I
tsst
rengt
hdevel
opmenti
smuchl
owert
hanOPC.I
thashi
ghr
esi
stancet
ochemi
calat
tack,
l
owhydr
ati
on,
lowheatevol
uti
onandcheapert
hanOPC.

CEMENTOTHERTHANPORTLANDCEMENT:

i
. Hi
ghal
umi
nacement

i
i. Super
sul
fat
ecement

i
ii
. Pozzol
an-
LimeCement
:

34
 i
v. Sl
ag-
LimeCement
s:

v. Cal
cium Sul
foal
umi
nat
eCement
s:

vi
. Nat
uralCement
s

vi
i. Geopol
ymerCement
s:

1. Hi
ghAl
lumi
naCementOrCal
cium Al
umi
nat
eCement

Thi
siscementt
hatcont
ainshi
ghcont
entofal
umi
nabecausei
tismadef
rom bauxi
teand
l
imest
one.I
toccur
sint
hef
orm ofmonocal
cium al
lumi
nat
e(CA)whi
chi
sthecompound
r
esponsi
blef
ort
her
api
dhar
deni
ngofcement
.

Pr
oper
ti
es:

i
. I
tis char
act
eri
zed byhavi
ng dar
kgr
eycol
ourand r
api
d hydr
ati
on wi
th ear
ly
st
rengt
handhi
ghheatofhydr
ati
on

i
i. I
tcont
ainsnof
reehydr
atedl
ime,
thusi
slessl
ikel
ytoexpandt
hanOPC.

i
ii
. I
nit
ialseti
swi
thi
n2-
6hr
s

i
v. Fi
nalsett
akespl
ace2hr
saf
tert
heear
lyset

v. I
tgi
ves80% ofi
tsst
rengt
hwi
thi
n24hr
s,t
hest
rengt
hisequi
val
entt
o20days
st
rengt
hof O.P.C.

Composi
ti
onofHi
ghAl
umi
naCement
:

Hi
gh Al
umi
na Cement(
HAC,somet
imes known as cal
cium al
umi
nat
e cement(
CAC)or
al
umi
nous cement
)is composed pr
edomi
nant
ly ofhydr
aul
ic cal
cium al
umi
nat
es,unl
ike
Por
tl
andcementwhi
chi
scomposedmai
nlyofcal
cium si
l
icat
es.

Typi
calChemi
calcomposi
ti
onofHi
ghAl
umi
naCement(
HAC)

35
s/
nr Compound %Composi
ti
on

1 Al
203 73.
0% mi
n.

2 Fe203 0.
3% max.

3 Ca0% 25.
0%

4 Fr
eeLi
me% 0.
2%

Pr
obl
em OrLi
mit
ati
onOfHi
ghAl
umi
naCement

Hi
ghAl
umi
naCementwaspr
onet
oacr
yst
all
iner
e-ar
rangement(
or‘
conver
sioni
e,becomi
ng
mor
epor
ousaf
terset
ti
ng’
),whi
chcoul
dresul
tinr
educedst
rengt
handal
sovul
ner
abi
li
tyt
o
chemi
calat
tackwhenexposedt
owat
erf
orl
ongper
[Link]
sionhasr
esul
tedi
na5hi
gh-
pr
ofi
lest
ruct
uralf
ail
uresofr
oofbeams(
wher
ethepr
esenceofwat
eri
smor
eli
kel
y)dur
ingt
he
1970’
sint
heUK.

UsesofHi
ghAl
umi
naCement
:

i
. I
twas wi
del
y used i
n st
ruct
uralconcr
ete such as pr
e-castbeams i
n bui
ldi
ngs
const
ruct
edi
nthe50’
sand60’
s.

Atpr
esenti
tsusei
srest
ri
ctedt
onon-
str
uct
uralpur
[Link]
sisbecausei
tbecomespor
ous
af
terset
ti
ngduet
oconver
sionl
eadi
ngt
oreducedst
rengt
handvul
ner
abi
li
tyt
ochemi
cal
at
tack.

i
i. Hi
ghal
umi
nacementcanwi
thst
andat
emper
at eofabout1300OCwhi
ur chenabl
eitt
o
beusedf
orf
luel
ini
ng,
rot
aryki
lnsandf
urnacesl
ini
ngs.

NOTE:Hi
ghAl
umi
naCementi
snol
ongerusedi
nst
ruct
uralconcr
etei
ntheUK,al
thoughi
tis
st
il
lpr
eval
enti
nbui
ldi
ngsconst
ruct
edi
nthe50’
sand60’
s,andcont
inuest
obeusedf
ornon-
st
ruct
uralpur
posesundert
henameCal
cium Al
umi
nat
eCement(
CAC)
.

2. Super
sul
phat
eCement
:

I
tismadef
rom 75–80%bl
astf
urnacesl
ag,10–15%Hydr
atedCal
cium Sul
phat
e(Gypsum)
and1–5%O.P.C.I
thasal
owheatofhydr
ati
[Link]
sisbecauset
hel
imecont
enti
ssmal
l

36
compar
ed t
o OPC.I
tisl
iabl
eto expand orshr
inkeasi
lydependi
ng on t
hecondi
ti
on of
exposur
e.I
tusual
lyr
equi
resar
ichermi
[Link]
xis1:3f
orOPCbut1:2f
orSSC.
I
thasr
esi
stancet
o chemi
calat
tacksuch asseawat
erorsul
phat
es.I
tisused f
ort
he
const
ruct
ionofdamsandot
hermassi
vest
ruct
uresbecauseofl
owheatevol
uti
on.

Commer
cialManuf
act
ureofPor
tl
andCement

Ther
ear
etwobasi
crawmat
eri
als–ar
gil
laceousandcal
car
eousmat
eri
[Link]
gil
laceous
mat
eri
alscompr
iseofcl
ayandshal
ewhi
let
hecal
car
eousconsi
stofcal
[Link]
n
pr
ocessi
sbymi
xing,
bur
ningandgr
indi
ngt
het
womat
eri
alsi
ntopowder
.

Ther
awmat
eri
alsar
efi
rstquar
ri
edt
obecomef
air
lyl
argepar
ti
cleandt
hencr
ushedt
obecome
powder
ypar
ti
clesbef
oremi
xingi
nthepr
opor
ti
onofonepar
tar
gil
laceousmat
eri
alst
othr
ee
par
tscal
car
eousmat
eri
[Link]
xtur
eist
hengr
oundt
ogetagoodmi
x.

Ther
ear
etwomet
hodsofpr
oduct
ion:(
a)t
hedr
ypr
ocessand(
b)t
hewetpr
ocess.

TheWetPr
ocess:I
nthewetpr
ocess,wat
eri
saddedt
othemi
xtur
eofcr
ushedmat
eri
alst
o
f
orm sl
urr
y,ami
xtur
eofcr
eamycont
ent
.Thesl
urr
yist
henpumpedi
ntost
oraget
ank(
sil
os)
f
rom wher
eiti
sfedi
ntoar
otar
yki
lnf
orbur
[Link]
otar
yki
lni
sast
eelt
ubel
inedi
nsi
dewi
th
l
imebr
icks200m l
ongand6m i
ndi
amet
[Link]
lni
smount
edonr
oll
ersatagr
adi
entofone
i
ntwent
y-f
ive(
1in25)t
o1i
n30andcompl
eteoner
otat
ioni
never
ymi
nut
[Link]
urr
yisf
ed
f
rom t
hehi
gherendoft
hei
ncl
inedki
lnandheatf
rom abl
astofai
randcoali
sappl
iedatt
he
l
owerendoft
heki
ln.I
ntheki
ln,
wat
eri
sdr
ivenof
fatt
heear
lyst
ageandt
hesl
urr
yisgr
adual
ly
t
ransf
ormedi
ntosmal
llumpornodul
esast
het
emper
atur
eincr
[Link]
emper
atur
eof
about1450oC t
o1650oC,t
henodul
eschanget
ocl
inker
.Thecl
inkeri
sthenai
rcool
edi
n
anot
hert
ubesi
mil
art
otheki
lnaf
terwhi
chi
tisgr
oundi
nlar
gemi
ll
sthatar
ekeptcol
dby
spr
ayi
ngwat
erf
rom out
sidewhi
legr
indi
ng.About3% t
o4% ofgypsum (
CaSO4)i
saddedt
o
cont
rolset
ti
ngt
imeofcement
.Ther
esul
ti
ngf
inel
ydi
videdcementi
sst
oredi
nsi
losr
eadyf
or
packagi
ng.

TheDr
yPr
ocess:Thedr
ypr
ocessi
snotmuchdi
ff
erentf
rom t
hewetpr
ocessexceptt
hati
n
t
hewetpr
ocess,
wat
eri
sadded.I
nthedr
ypr
ocess,
themat
eri
alsar
egr
oundsepar
atel
y,mi
xed
anddr
iedupt
oobt
ainr
aw meal
.Ther
aw meal(
drypowder
)ist
henpumpedi
ntoabl
endi
ng
si
lo.I
nthesi
los,compr
essedai
risusedt
obl
endt
hemi
xtur
epr
oper
[Link]
endedmeali
s

37
t
hent
akeni
ntoar
otat
ingdi
scknownasagr
anul
ator
.Her
ebakedpel
let
sar
efor
medwhi
char
e
ver
yhar
[Link]
let
sar
etakent
other
otar
yki
[Link]
lni
smount
edonr
oll
ersatagr
adi
entof
onei
ntwent
y-f
ive(
1in25)t
o1i
n30andcompl
eteoner
otat
ioni
never
ymi
nut
[Link]
let
s
ar
efedf
rom t
hehi
gherendoft
hei
ncl
inedki
lnandheatf
rom abl
astofai
randcoali
sappl
ied
att
hel
owerendoft
heki
[Link]
emper
at eofabout1450oCt
ur o1650oC,
thenodul
eschanget
o
cl
inker
.Thecl
inkeri
sthenai
rcool
edi
nanot
hert
ubesi
mil
art
otheki
lnaf
terwhi
chi
tisgr
ound
i
nlar
gemi
l
lst
hatar
ekeptcol
dbyspr
ayi
ngwat
erf
rom out
sidewhi
legr
indi
ng.About3%t
o4%
ofgypsum (
CaSO4)i
saddedt
ocont
rolset
ti
ngt
imeoft
hecement
.Ther
esul
ti
ngf
inel
ydi
vided
cementi
sst
oredi
nsi
losr
eadyf
orpackagi
ng.

St
orageofCement
:Becauseoft
hehi
ghhygr
oscopi
cnat
ureofcement
,itshoul
dnotbest
ored
onabar
efl
oor(
ground)evenaf
terbei
ngpackagedi
nthepr
operbags.

I
tisusual
lypr
act
icedt
her
efor
etost
orecementonr
aisedpl
atf
ormt
oavoi
ddi
rectcont
actwi
th
t
hegr
oundandal
sot
oal
low f
orf
reemovementofai
rinor
dert
oavoi
dthepossi
bil
it
yof
[Link]
aisedpl
atf
orm shoul
dbemadeofei
thert
imberorst
eelandbear
rangedt
o
per
mitcementt
hechar
act
eri
sti
cpowert
obi
ndbecausei
tsetwi
thi
nshor
tti
meknownas
hydr
ogenat
[Link]
scal
lsf
orf
reeai
rmovement
.Thef
loorshoul
dbeatl
east½ met
erabove
t
he gr
ound cementshoul
d notbe st
ored f
ormor
ethan 6 mont
hs usage especi
all
yin
moder
atedcl
imat
ewher
ether
elat
ivehumi
dit
yisusual
lyver
yhi
[Link]
sisbecausecement
coul
dabsor
bthemoi
stur
efr
om t
heenvi
ronmentandhydr
atet
ofor
mlumps.

Saf
etyI
ssues:

Bagsofcementr
out
inel
yhaveheal
thandsaf
etywar
ningspr
int
edont
hem becausenotonl
yis
cementhi
ghl
yal
kal
ine,butt
heset
ti
ngpr
ocessi
sexot
her
[Link]
esul
t,wetcementi
s
st
rongl
ycaust
ic(
wat
erpH =13.
5)andcaneasi
lycausesever
eski
nbur
nsi
fnotpr
ompt
ly
washedof
fwi
thwat
[Link]
mil
arl
y,dr
ycementpowderi
ncont
actwi
thmucousmembr
anescan
causesever
eeyeorr
espi
rat
oryi
rr
it
ati
[Link]
raceel
ement
s,suchaschr
omi
um,f
rom
i
mpur
it
iesnat
ural
lypr
esenti
nther
aw mat
eri
alsusedt
opr
oducecementmaycauseal
ler
gic
der
mat
it
[Link]
ngagent
ssuchasf
err
oussul
fat
e(FeSO4)ar
eof
tenaddedt
ocementt
o

38
 O42-)i 3+
conver
tthecar
cinogeni
chexaval
entchr
omat
e(Cr ntot
ri
val
entchr
omi
um (
Cr ),al
ess
t
oxi
c chemi
calspeci
[Link]
sther
efor
e need t
o wearappr
opr
iat
e gl
oves and
pr
otect
ivecl
othi
ng

WHATI
SANAGGREGATE?

Aggr
egat
esar
egr
anul
armat
eri
alsorpar
ti
cles,suchassand,gr
avel
,cr
ushedst
one,cr
ushed
hydr
aul
ic-
cementconcr
ete,
ori
ronbl
ast
-f
urnacesl
ag,
whi
char
eusedasf
il
ler
swi
thahydr
aul
ic
cement
ingorbi
ndi
ngmedi
um t
opr
oduceei
therconcr
eteormor
tar
.Aggr
egat
esar
eimpor
tant
const
it
uent
sofconcr
etewhi
chgi
vesbodyt
otheconcr
eteandal
sor
educeshr
inkageoft
he
concr
[Link]
egat
esoccupy70–80%oft
otalvol
umeofconcr
[Link]
egat
esar
ethemost
mi
nedmat
eri
alsi
nthewor
ld.

Hi
stor
yofAggr
egat
es:

Peopl
e have used sand and st
one f
orf
oundat
ions f
ort
housands ofyear
[Link]
gni
fi
cant
r
efi
nementoft
hepr
oduct
ionanduseofaggr
egat
eoccur
reddur
ingt
heRomanEmpi
re,whi
ch
usedaggr
egat
etobui
ldi
tsvastnet
wor
kofr
oadsandaqueduct
[Link]
nvent
ionofconcr
ete,
whi
chwasessent
ialt
oar
chi
tect
ureut
il
izi
ngar
ches,
creat
edani
mmedi
ate,
per
manentdemand
f
orconst
ruct
ionaggr
egat
es.

Economydenot
est
hepr
opermanagementofmat
eri
alsand ofsi
te,aswel
lasat
hri
ft
y
bal
anci
ngofcostandcommonsensei
ntheconst
ruct
ionofwor
[Link]
swi
llbeobser
vedi
f,i
n
t
hef
ir
stpl
ace,t
hear
chi
tectdoesnotdemandt
hingswhi
chcannotbef
oundormader
eady
wi
thoutgr
[Link]
e:i
tisnotever
ywher
ethatt
her
eispl
ent
yofpi
t-
sand,
rubbl
e,
f
ir
,cl
earf
ir
,andmar
ble.
..Wher
ether
eisnopi
tsand,wemustuset
heki
ndswashedupby
r
iver
sorbyt
hesea.
..andot
herpr
obl
emswemustsol
vei
nsi
mil
arways.

Geol
ogi
calf
ormat
ion

Lar
gegr
aveldeposi
tsar
eacommongeol
ogi
calf
eat
ure,bei
ngf
ormedasar
esul
toft
he
weat
her
ingander
osi
onofr
[Link]
ionofr
iver
sandwavest
endst
opi
leupgr
aveli
n
l
argeaccumul
ati
[Link]
scansomet
imesr
esul
tingr
avelbecomi
ngcompact
edandconcr
eted
i
ntot
hesedi
ment
aryr
ockcal
ledcongl
omer
[Link]
enat
uralgr
aveldeposi
tsar
einsuf
fi
cient
f
orhumanpur
poses,
graveli
sof
tenpr
oducedbyquar
ryi
ngandcr
ushi
nghar
d-wear
ingr
ocks,

39
suchassandst
one,l
imest
one,orbasal
[Link]
ri
eswher
egr
aveli
sext
ract
edar
eknownas
gr
avelpi
[Link]
her
nEngl
andpossessespar
ti
cul
arl
ylar
geconcent
rat
ionsoft
hem duet
othe
wi
despr
eaddeposi
ti
onofgr
aveli
nther
egi
ondur
ingt
heI
CEAGES.

Moder
npr
oduct
ion:

Quar
ryi
ngi
sthepr
ocessofbl
ast
ingorbr
eaki
ngl
arger
ockdeposi
ttoobt
ainconst
ruct
ion
aggr
egat
esi
ndi
ff
erentgr
adesorsi
[Link]
nbl
ast
ingmet
hodsenabl
edt
he
devel
opmentofquar
ri
es,whi
char
enow usedt
hroughoutt
hewor
ld,wher
evercompet
ent
bedr
ockdeposi
tsofaggr
egat
equal
it
yexi
st.I
nmanypl
aces,
goodl
imest
one,
grani
te,
mar
bleor
ot
herqual
it
yst
onebedr
ockdeposi
tsdonotexi
st.I
nthesear
eas,nat
uralsandandgr
avelar
e
mi
ned f
oruse as aggr
egat
[Link]
e nei
therst
one,norsand and gr
avel
,ar
e avai
labl
e,
const
ruct
iondemandi
susual
lysat
isf
iedbyshi
ppi
ngi
naggr
egat
ebyr
ail
,bar
geort
ruck.
Addi
ti
onal
ly,demandf
oraggr
egat
escanbepar
ti
all
ysat
isf
iedt
hrought
heuseofsl
agand
r
ecycl
edconcr
[Link]
,theavai
labl
etonnagesandl
esserqual
it
yoft
hesemat
eri
als
pr
eventt
hem f
rom bei
ngavi
abl
erepl
acementf
ormi
nedaggr
egat
esonal
argescal
e.

Pur
poseofusi
ngaggr
egat
es:

i
. Aggr
egat
eincr
easest
hevol
umeofconcr
ete,
thusr
educest
hecost

i
i. Aggr
egat
epr
ovi
desdi
mensi
onal
stabi
li
tyofst
ruct
ures

i
ii
. Aggr
egat
es i
nfl
uence har
dness,abr
asi
on r
esi
stance,el
ast
ic modul
us and ot
her
pr
oper
ti
esofconcr
etet
omakei
tmor
edur
abl
e,st
rongandcheap.

UsesofAggr
egat
esi
nvar
iousar
easofconst
ruct
ion:

Aggr
egat
esser
veasr
einf
orcementt
oaddst
rengt
htot
heover
allcomposi
temat
eri
[Link]
o
t
her
elat
ivel
yhi
ghhydr
aul
icconduct
ivi
tyval
ueascompar
edt
omostsoi
ls,aggr
egat
esar
e
wi
del
yusedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
eas:

i
. I
nDr
ainageAppl
icat
ions;suchasf
oundat
ionandFr
enchdr
ains,sept
icdr
ainf
iel
ds,
r
etai
ningwal
ldr
ains,
andr
oadsi
deedgedr
ains.

i
i
. AsaBaseMat
eri
al;underf
oundat
ionsofbui
ldi
ngs,r
oads,andr
ail
roads.I
not
her
wor
ds,aggr
egat
esar
eusedasast
abl
efoundat
ionf
orbui
ldi
ngs,r
oad/
rai
lbasewi
th
pr
edi
ctabl
e,uni
for
m pr
oper
ti
es(
e.g.t
ohel
ppr
eventdi
ff
erent
ialset
tl
ingundert
her
oad
orbui
ldi
ng)and

40
 i
ii
. AsaLow-
CostExt
ender
;thatbi
ndswi
thmor
eexpensi
vecementorasphal
ttof
orm
concr
ete.

Sour
cesOfAggr
egat
es:

Sour
cesf
ort
hesebasi
cmat
eri
alscanbegr
oupedi
ntot
hreemai
nar
eas:

 Mi
ningofmi
ner
alaggr
egat
edeposi
ts,
incl
udi
ngsand,
gravel
,andst
one;

 useofwast
esl
agf
rom t
hemanuf
act
ureofi
ronandst
eel
;and

 r
ecycl
ingofconcr
ete,
whi
chi
sit
sel
fchi
efl
ymanuf
act
uredf
rom mi
ner
alaggr
egat
es.

 I
naddi
ti
on,t
her
ear
esome(
minor
)mat
eri
alst
hatar
eusedasspeci
alt
yli
ght
wei
ght
aggr
egat
es,
suchascl
ay,
pumi
ce,
per
li
te,
andver
micul
it
e.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFAGGREGATES:

Aggr
egat
escanbecl
assi
fi
edbasedonshapeandsi
zeoft
heaggr
egat
es:

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofAggr
egat
esBasedOnThei
rShapes.

Aggr
egat
eisder
ivedf
rom nat
ural
lyoccur
ri
ngr
ocksbybl
ast
ingorcr
ushi
ng,
etc,
soi
tis
di
ff
icul
ttoat
tai
nrequi
redshapeofaggr
egat
[Link]
,theshapeofaggr
egat
eisi
mpor
tant
becausei
twi
llaf
fectt
hewor
kabi
l
ityofconcr
eteandt
hest
rengt
hoft
hebond.

Aggr
egat
esar
ecl
assi
fi
edaccor
dingt
oshapei
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ng:

[Link]
egat
es

b.I
rr
egul
arorpar
tl
yroundedaggr
egat
es

c. Angul
araggr
egat
es

41
 [Link]
akyaggr
egat
es

e. El
ongat
edaggr
egat
es

f
. Fl
akyandel
ongat
edaggr
egat
es

[Link]
egat
es:

Ther
oundedaggr
egat
esar
ecompl
etel
yshapedbyat
tri
ti
on(
wear
ingaway)andavai
labl
ein

42
t
hef
orm ofseashor
egr
avel
.Roundedaggr
egat
esr
esul
tsi
nmi
nimum per
cent
agevoi
dof32–
33%,hencegi
vesmor
ewor
kabi
li
[Link]
equi
rel
esseramountofwat
er-cementr
ati
[Link]
ar
enotconsi
der
edf
orhi
ghst
rengt
hconcr
etebecauseofpoori
nter
locki
ngbehavi
orandweak
bondst
rengt
h.

b.I
rregul
arAggr
egat
es:

Thei
rr
egul
arorpar
tl
yrounded aggr
egat
esar
epar
tl
yshaped byat
tr
it
ion and t
hesear
e
avai
labl
eint
hef
orm ofpi
tsandsandgr
avel
.Ir
regul
araggr
egat
esmayr
esul
tin35–37%voi
d

43
whenusedi
nconcr
[Link]
vel
esserwor
kabi
li
tywhencompar
edt
oroundedaggr
egat
es.
Thebondst
rengt
hissl
ight
lyhi
ghert
hanr
oundedaggr
egat
esbutnotasr
equi
redf
orhi
gh
st
rengt
hconcr
ete.

c. Angul
arAggr
egat
e:

Theangul
araggr
egat
esar
eaggr
egat
eswi
thwel
ldef
inededgesf
ormedatt
hei
nter
sect
ionof
r
oughl
ypl
anarsur
[Link]
eobt
ainedbycr
ushi
ngt
her
[Link]
araggr
egat
esr
esul
ts
i
nmaxi
mum per
cent
agevoi
dof38-
45%,hencegi
vesl
esswor
kabi
li
tyand10– 20% mor
e
compr
essi
ve st
rengt
h due t
o devel
opmentofst
rongeraggr
egat
e-mor
[Link]
e
t
her
efor
eusef
uli
nhi
ghst
rengt
hconcr
etemanuf
act
uri
ng.

[Link]
akyAggr
egat
es:

Whent
heaggr
egat
ethi
cknessi
ssmal
lcompar
edwi
tht
hewi
dthandl
engt
hoft
hataggr
egat
e,
i
tissai
dtobef
lakyaggr
egat
e.

44
 e. El
ongat
edAggr
egat
es:

Whent
hel
engt
hofaggr
egat
eisl
argert
hant
heot
hert
wodi
mensi
ons,
thei
tiscal
ledel
onget
ed
aggr
egat
[Link]
engt
hisi
sver
yconspi
cuouscompar
edt
otheot
hert
wodi
mensi
ons

f
. Fl
akyandEl
ongat
edAggr
egat
es:

Whent
heaggr
egat
elengt
hisl
argert
hani
tswi
dthandi
tswi
dthi
slar
gert
hani
tst
hickness,
t
heni
tissai
dtobef
lakyandel
ongat
edaggr
egat
es.

45
Not
e:Thel
astt
hreet
ypesofaggr
egat
esabovear
enotsui
tabl
eforconcr
etemi
xingbecause
t
heyar
egener
all
yobt
ainedf
rom poor
lycr
ushedr
ocks.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofAggr
egat
esBasedonSi
ze

Aggr
egat
esar
eavai
labl
einnat
urei
ndi
ff
erentsi
[Link]
zeofaggr
egat
esusedmaybe
r
elat
edt
othemi
xpr
opor
ti
ons,
typeofwor
k,et
[Link]
zedi
str
ibut
ionofaggr
egat
esi
scal
led
gr
adi
ngofaggr
egat
es.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethecl
assi
fi
cat
ionofaggr
egat
esbasedonsi
ze:

i
. Fi
neaggr
egat
es

i
i. Coar
seaggr
egat
es

i
ii
. Al
l
-inAggr
egat
es

Fi
neaggr
egat
es:Whenasampl
eofaggr
egat
esi
ssi
evedt
hrougha4.
75mm si
eve(
No4si
eve)
,
t
heaggr
egat
est
hatpasst
hroughi
tar
ecal
ledf
ineaggr
egat
[Link]
eaggr
egat
est
hatpass
t
hrought
he4.
75mm (
No4)si
eve,
almostent
ir
elyandpr
edomi
nant
lyr
etai
nedont
he75µm (
No.
200)Si
eve.

[Link]
esar
e:

i
. Coar
sesand

i
i. Medi
um sand

46
 i
ii
. Fi
nesand

i
v. Si
lt

v. Cl
ay

Thesof
tdeposi
tconsi
sti
ngofsand,
sil
tandcl
ayi
scal
ledl
oam.

Thepur
poseofusi
ngf
ineaggr
egat
esi
nconcr
etei
stof
il
lthevoi
dsi
nthecoar
seaggr
egat
es
andt
oactasawor
kabi
li
tyagent
.

Thesi
zer
angeofvar
iousf
ineaggr
egat
esi
sgi
venbel
ow:

Fi
neaggr
egat
e Si
zevar
iat
ion

Coar
seSand 2.
0mm –0.
5mm

Medi
um sand 0.
5mm –0.
25mm

Fi
nesand 0.
25mm –0.
06mm

Si
lt 0.
06mm –0.
002mm

Cl
ay <0.
002mm

47
 [Link]
seAggr
egat
es:

Whenasampl
eofaggr
egat
esi
ssi
evedt
hrougha4.
75mm si
eve(
NO4si
eve)
,theaggr
egat
es
t
hatar
eret
ained(
coul
dnotpasst
hrough)ar
ecal
ledcoar
seaggr
egat
es.I
not
herwor
ds,
they
ar
eaggr
egat
est
hatar
epr
edomi
nant
lyr
etai
nedont
he4.
75mm (
No.4)si
[Link]
e
obt
ainedei
therbynat
uraldi
sint
egr
ati
onorbycr
ushi
ngst
[Link]
mum si
zeof
aggr
egat
[Link]
zei
sgover
nedbyt
het
hicknessofsect
ion,
spaci
ngof
r
einf
orcementet
c.I
ngener
al,
40mm si
zeaggr
egat
esar
eusedf
ornor
malst
rengt
hand20mm
si
zei
susedf
orhi
ghst
rengt
hconcr
ete.

Exampl
esar
e:

i
. Fi
negr
avel

i
i. Medi
um gr
avel

i
ii
. Coar
segr
avel

i
v. Cobbl
e

v. Boul
der

48
Thesi
zer
angeofvar
iouscoar
seaggr
egat
esi
sgi
venbel
ow:

Coar
seaggr
egat
e Si
ze

Fi
negr
avel 4mm –8mm

Medi
um gr
avel 8mm –16mm

Coar
segr
avel 16mm –64mm

Cobbl
es 64mm –256mm

Boul
der
s >256mm

[Link]
l-
inaggr
egat
e

Thesear
eaggr
egat
est
akendi
rect
lyf
rom nat
uraldeposi
ts;cont
aini
ngbot
hlar
geandsmal
l
st
[Link]
enat
ural
lyavai
labl
eaggr
egat
esofdi
ff
erentf
ract
ionsoff
ineand coar
se
aggr
egat
[Link]
enotr
ecommendedf
orqual
it
yconcr
ete.

49
CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFAGGREGATESBASEDONUNI
TWEI
GHT

i
. Nor
malWei
ghtAggr
egat
e

i
i. Li
ght
wei
ghtaggr
egat
es:
i
ii
. Heavywei
ghtaggr
egat
es

i
. Nor
malWei
ghtAggr
egat
es:

Thesear
eaggr
egat
eswi
thuni
twei
ghtofabout23- m3 andbul
26KN/ kdensi
tyr
angi
ng
f
rom 1520- m3.
1680kg/

Exampl
esofnor
malwei
ghtaggr
egat
esar
e:

 Sand

 Gr
avel

 Sandst
oneand

 Li
mest
one.

USES:Nor
malwei
ghtaggr
egat
esar
eusedgener
all
yint
hepr
oduct
ionofconcr
eteand
mor
tar
. 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

i
i. Li
ght
wei
ghtaggr
egat
es:

Thesear
eaggr
egat
eswi
thuni
twei m3 andbul
ghtofabout12KN/ kdensi
tyofl
esst
han
m3andupt
1100kg/ o50%l
ight
ert
hannor
malwei
ghtaggr
egat
[Link]
ight
wei
ghti
sduet
o
t
hecel
lul
arorhi
ghi
nter
nalpor
ousmi
crost
ruct
ure,whi
chgi
vest
hist
ypeofaggr
egat
ea
l
ow bul
kspeci
fi
cgr
avi
[Link]
mpor
tantaspectofl
ight
wei
ghtaggr
egat
eist
he
por
osi
[Link] have hi
gh absor
pti
on val
ues,whi
ch r
equi
re a modi
fi
ed appr
oach t
o
concr
etepr
opor
ti
oni
ng.

50
Exampl
esofLi
ght
wei
ghtAggr
egat
esar
e:

 Expandedcl
ay,
 shal
eand
 sl
ate

Theabovear
ethemostcommonmat
eri
alsf
oundi
nli
ght
wei
ghtaggr
egat
esusedi
n
st
ruct
uralconcr
ete.

Useofl
ightwei
ghtaggr
egat
es

Appl
icat
ionswher
eli
ght
wei
ghtaggr
egat
esar
eusedi
ncl
ude:

 l
ight
wei
ghtconcr
etemasonr
y

 st
ruct
urall
ight
wei
ghtandsemi
-l
ight
wei
ghtcast
-i
n-pl
aceconcr
ete

 l
ow-
densi
typr
ecastconcr
eteuni
ts

 l
ow-
densi
tymor
tar
sforr
adi
antheatf
loorandr
efr
act
ori
es

 geot
echni
call
ow-
densi
tyengi
neer
edf
il
l

 i
nsul
ati
ngconcr
etef
il
l

 concr
eter
oof
ingt
il
eandbal
last

 gr
oundcoverandsoi
l
-lessmi
xes

i
ii
. Heavywei
ghtaggr
egat
es:

Thesear
enat
uralorsynt
het
icaggr
egat
eswhi
cht
ypi
cal
lywei
ghmor
ethan2, m3
080kg/

51
andcanr
angeupt
o4, m3.
485kg/

Exampl
esofheavywei
ghtaggr
egat
esar
e:magnet
it
eandscr
api
ron

Useofheavywei
ghtaggr
egat
es:

Heavywei
ghtaggr
egat
eiscommonl
yusedf
ormaki
ngheavywei
ghtconcr
etesuchas
r
adi
ati
onshi
eldi
ngconcr
ete,
count
erwei
ght
sandot
herappl
icat
ionswher
eahi
ghmass-
to-
vol
umer
ati
oisdesi
red.

Gr
avel(
Anor
mal
wei
ghtaggr
egat
e)

Gr
aveli
s an i
mpor
tantcommer
cialpr
oduct
,wi
th a numberofappl
icat
[Link]
r
oadwaysar
esur
facedwi
thgr
avel
,especi
all
yinr
uralar
easwher
ether
eisl
it
tl
etr
aff
ic.
Gl
obal
ly,f
armor
eroadsar
esur
facedwi
thgr
avelt
hanwi
thconcr
eteort
armac;Russi
a
al
onehasover400,
000km (
250,
000 
mi)ofgr
avelr
[Link]
hsandandsmal
lgr
avelar
e
al
soi
mpor
tantf
ort
hemanuf
act
ureofconcr
ete

Gr
avel(
lar
gestf
ragmenti
nthi
sphot
oisabout4cm)

52
Agr
avelr
oadi
nTer
reHaut
e,I
ndi
ana

Gr
avelbei
ngunl
oadedf
rom abar
ge

53
Test
ingofAggr
egat
es:Par
ti
cleSi
zeDi
str
ibut
ionTest(si
evet
est
)

Si
evet
esti
scar
ri
edouti
nor
dert
odet
ermi
net
hedi
ff
erentt
ypesofaggr
egat
es(
fi
ne,
coar
se,
andal
l-
inaggr
egat
es)
.Int
hist
ypeoft
est
,anet
wor
kofsi
evesofdi
ver
sesi
zesar
e
ar
rangedwi
tht
hel
argestsi
zeont
opandt
heot
hersi
zesf
oll
owi
ngi
ndescendi
ngor
der
.A
sampl
eofaggr
egat
eispour
edi
ntot
hel
argestsi
eveandt
hesi
evesar
eshaken(
vibr
ated)
vi
gor
ousl
yfort
womi
nut
esunt
ilt
heaggr
egat
esset
tl
eont
hevar
ioussi
evesaccor
dingt
o
t
hei
rsi
[Link]
rangementofsi
evesf
ordi
ff
erentt
ypesofaggr
egat
esi
sasf
oll
ows:

Fi
neaggr
egat
es Coar
seaggr
egat
es Al
l-
inaggr
egat
es

10mm 40mm 80mm

4.
75mm 20mm 63mm

2.
36mm 16mm 40mm

1.
18mm 10mm 20mm

600mi
cromm 4.
75mm 16mm

300mi
cromm 2.
36mm 10mm

150mi
cromm 4.
75mm

2.
36mm

1.
18mm

600mi
cromm

300mi
cromm

150mi
cromm

54
Concr
ete:

Thi
sisanar
ti
fi
cialmat
eri
alf
ormedbybi
ndi
ngt
oget
herpar
ti
clesofnat
uralandar
ti
fi
cial
st
one,
bri
cksorot
heraggr
egat
eswi
thcement
.Fur
ther
mor
e,concr
etecanbedef
inedasa
composi
temat
eri
al,
acomposi
ti
onofman-
mademat
eri
alsconsi
sti
ngofr
ati
onal
lychosen
mi
xtur
e ofbi
ndi
ng mat
eri
als such as l
ime orcement
,wel
lgr
aded f
ine and coar
se
aggr
egat
es,wat
er,andadmi
xtur
e.I
naconcr
etemi
xtur
e,cementandwat
erf
orm apast
e
ormat
ri
xwhi
chf
il
lthevoi
dsoft
hef
ineandcoar
seaggr
egat
esandadher
est
othesur
face
oft
hef
ineandcoar
seaggr
egat
esandbi
ndst
hem t
oget
her
.

Fr
eshl
ymi
xedconcr
etebef
oreset
ti
ngi
sknownaswetorgr
eenconcr
etewher
easaf
ter
set
ti
ngandhar
deni
ng,
iti
sknownassetorhar
denedconcr
ete.I
tist
hemostwi
del
yused
mat
eri
ali
ntheconst
ruct
ioni
ndust
ry.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofConcr
ete:

Concr
etesar
ecl
assi
fi
edas

a. l
imeconcr
ete,

[Link] concr
eteand

c. cementconcr
ete.

Themaj
orf
ormsr
esponsi
blef
orwi
deusagei
scementconcr
ete.

Cementconcr
etear
ewi
del
yusedbecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
oper
ti
esi
texhi
bit
s.

[Link]
dabi
li
ty

[Link]
lyhar
deni
ng

[Link]
opmentofdesi
red pr
oper
ti
es wi
th admi
xtur
es t
o be used i
n adver
se
si
tuat
ions

[Link]
meabi
li
tyand

[Link]
abi
li
ty

Oneoft
hei
mpor
tantpr
oper
ti
esofconcr
etei
stheeasewi
thwhi
chi
tcanbemoul
dedi
nto
anyshapebef
orehar
deni
ngoccur
s.

55
DenseConcr
ete:Concr
etemadewi
thnor
maldensi
tyf
ineandcoar
seaggr
egat
es,
cement
andwat
eri
scl
assi
fi
edasdenseconcr
ete.

Theconst
it
uent
sofor
dinar
ydenseconcr
etear
e:

i
. Cement

i
i. Fi
neaggr
egat
es

i
ii
. Coar
seaggr
egat
es

i
v. Wat
er

Wat
erCont
entandwor
kabi
li
tyofconcr
ete:

Theamountofwat
ernecessar
yfort
hecompl
etehydr
ati
onof1kgor
dinar
yPor
tl
and
cementi
sroughl
y0.
25kg,
buti
fthi
samountofcementandwat
erar
emi
xedt
oget
her
,the
r
esul
ti
ngcementpast
eisbar
elywor
kabl
[Link]
dent
ly,i
fanyaggr
egat
ewer
eaddedt
othi
s
mi
x,addi
ti
onalwat
erwoul
dbeneededt
omakei
twor
kabl
[Link]
sext
rawat
er,abovet
hat
neededf
orhydr
ati
on,act
sasanext
enderoft
hecementpast
e,al
lowi
ngi
ttocoatt
he
sur
faceofal
lpar
ti
clesoft
heaggr
egat
eandt
her
ebyt
ofunct
ionasal
ubr
icantpr
ovi
ding
t
hewor
kabi
li
tynecessar
yforhandl
ingandpl
aci
ngt
hemi
[Link]
ort
unat
ely,t
heef
fectof
t
his‘
excess’wat
erf
orwor
kabi
li
tyi
stof
orm voi
ds,orpor
es,i
nthehar
denedmor
taror
concr
eteast
hemat
eri
alsdr
iesout
,Thesepor
es(
wat
ervoi
ds)causear
educt
ioni
n
densi
ty,st
rengt
handdur
abi
li
tyofconcr
ete.I
tfol
lowst
hatwat
ercont
entofmi
xesshoul
d
nor
mal
lybekeptasl
ow aspossi
ble,consi
stentwi
thpr
ovi
dingadequat
ewor
kabi
li
tyt
o
al
lowpl
aci
ngandf
ullcompact
ion.

Compr
essi
onofConcr
ete:

Compr
essi
onent
ail
sther
emovalofai
rfr
om concr
etebyvi
brat
ionbecauseai
rvoi
dswi
ll
equal
lyr
educet
hest
rengt
hofconcr
[Link]
,asagui
de,t
hatever
y1%ofavoi
ds
l
efti
ntheconcr
etewhet
herwat
ervoi
dsorai
rvoi
dsr
esul
tsi
nast
rengt
hlossofabout5%.
Forexampl
e,4%ofvoi
dswoul
dcauseast
rengt
hlossof20%.Anot
herdr
awbackt
ohi
gh
wat
ercont
enti
sthati
tleadst
oincr
easeddr
yingshr
inkage.

Wat
er-
cementr
ati
o:

Thi
sist
her
ati
oofwat
erusedt
othequant
um ofcementi
nthemi
xtur
ebywei
ght
.

56
Wat
er:cementr
ati
o= wei
ghtofwat
eri
nmi
x
Wei
ghtofcementi
nmi
x

0.
25kg = 25
1kg 100

Exampl
e:
Fi
ndt
het
otalwei
ghtofwat
err
equi
redi
naconcr
etemi
xspeci
fi
edt
ocont
ain100kgof
cementwi
thwat
er:cementr
ati
oof0.
50
Re-
arr
angi
ngt
hewat
er:cementr
ati
ofor
mul
a:
Wei
ghtofwat
eri
nthemi
x=wat
er/
cementr
ati
oxwei
ghtofcement
=0.
50x100
=50kg(
0.50L)

Aggr
egat
e:CementRat
io:

Thepr
esenceoft
hecoar
seaggr
egat
einconcr
eter
esul
tsi
nahar
denedmat
eri
alwhi
chi
s
f
arst
rongert
hancanbeobt
ainedusi
ngamor
tarmi
xoft
hesamecementcont
ent
.Thi
sis
becausel
esswat
eri
sneededt
opr
oduceawor
kabl
emi
xwhencoar
seaggr
egat
eisadded.

Aggr
egat
e:CementRat
ioi
sgi
venbyt
hef
ormul
ar,
wei
ghtofaggregat
einthemi
x
Wei
ghtofcementinthemix

Usi
ngami
xcont
aini
ng100kgofcementwi
thwat
er:cementr
ati
o0.
50,
consi
dert
heef
fect
ofaddi
ngdi
ff
erentamount
sofanaggr
egat
esay100kg,200kg,[Link]
s
woul
dber
efer
redt
oasusi
ngaggr
egat
ecementr
ati
osof1,
2,
3respect
ivel
y.

Wor
kabi
li
tyofConcr
ete:

Wor
kabi
li
tyofconcr
etei
stheeasewi
thwhi
chconcr
etecanbepl
acedandcompact
ed.I
t
i
sthepr
oper
tyofconcr
etewhi
chdet
ermi
nest
heamountofusef
ulcompact
iont
obe
appl
[Link]
kabi
li
tyofagi
venconcr
etei
ncr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easei
ntheamountof
wat
[Link]
erl
ubr
icat
est
heconcr
etewhi
chcant
henbecompact
edwi
thl
esser

57
ef
for
t.

Wor
kabi
li
tyTest
s:

Sl
umpt
est
:
Themostcommonl
yusedsi
temet
hodofassessi
ngwor
kabi
li
tyi
sthesl
umpt
est
.Thet
est
ent
ail
sfi
ll
inganopen-
endedconi
calmoul
dwi
thconcr
eteandmeasur
ingt
hesl
umpor
dr
opi
nleveloft
heconcr
etewhent
hemoul
disl
if
tedcl
ear
.Si
ncet
hewor
kabi
li
tyofagi
ven
concr
etei
ncr
easeswi
tht
heamountofwat
eradded,
thesl
umpt
estal
sopr
ovi
desameans
ofcont
rol
li
ngt
hewat
ercont
entofsuccessi
vebat
chesoft
hesamemi
x,pr
ovi
dedt
her
eis
nosubst
ant
ialchangesi
ntheaggr
egat
egr
adi
[Link]
hatani
ncr
easei
nwat
er
cont
entt
oenhancewor
kabi
li
tycausesar
educt
ioni
nst
rengt
handdur
abi
li
ty,andso
wor
kabi
li
tyshoul
dbesuf
fi
cientonl
ytoal
lowf
ull
compact
ion.

Met
hod:

Themoul
disf
il
ledi
nfr
eshconcr
etei
nfourl
ayer
sorpl
aces,eachappr
oxi
mat
elyone-
quar
teroft
hehei
ghtoft
hecont
ainerandt
ampedwi
tht
went
y-f
ivest
rokesoft
her
ounded
endoft
het
amper
ingr
[Link]
rokesar
edi
str
ibut
edi
nuni
for
m mannerovert
hecr
oss-
sect
ionandf
ort
hesecondandsubsequentl
ayer
sshoul
dpenet
rat
eint
otheunder
lyi
ng
l
ayer
.Thebot
tom l
ayeri
stampedt
hroughouti
tsdept
[Link]
tert
het
opl
ayerhasbeen
t
amped,
theconcr
etei
sst
ruckof
flevelwi
that
rowelori
sremovedi
mmedi
atel
ybyr
aisi
ng
i
tsl
owl
yandcar
eful
lyi
naver
ti
caldi
rect
[Link]
sal
lowst
heconcr
etet
osubsi
deandt
he
sl
umpi
smeasur
edi
mmedi
atel
ybydet
ermi
ningt
hedi
ff
erencebet
weent
hehei
ghtoft
he
moul
dandt
hatoft
hehi
ghestpoi
ntoft
hespeci
menbei
ngt
est
[Link]
umpmeasur
edi
s
r
ecor
dedi
nter
msofsubsi
denceoft
hespeci
men.
Wat
er-
CementRat
ioAndWor
kabi
li
ty
Wat
ercementr
ati
oist
hequant
it
yofwat
erusedt
othequant
it
yofcementi
nthemi
xtur
e
bywei
ght
.Forpr
operwor
kabi
li
ty,
thewat
er-
cementr
ati
ovar
iesf
rom 0.
4–0.
[Link]
,
maxi
mum st
rengt
hisder
ivedatw/
crat
io=0.
4atwhi
chmi
nimum capi
ll
arycavi
ti
esar
e
expect
[Link]
ete hydr
ati
on ofcementundercont
rol
led condi
ti
ons,t
he wat
er
r
equi
rementi
sabout38%.Atawat
ercementr
ati
omor
ethan0.
6,t
hei
ncr
easei
nvol
ume

58
ofhydr
atedpr
oductwi
llnotbeabl
etooccupyt
hespaceal
readyf
il
ledwi
thwat
er,hence
t
hepor
osi
tyi
ncr
easesandst
rengt
hdecr
eases
Fact
orst
hatcanaf
fectwor
kabi
li
tyofconcr
ete:
Thef
act
orsar
e;
i
. Wat
ercont
ent
i
i. Mi
xpr
opor
ti
ons
i
ii
. Aggr
egat
esi
ze
i
v. Shapeofaggr
egat
e
v. Sur
facet
ext
ureofaggr
egat
e
vi
. Gr
adi
ngofaggr
egat
es
vi
i. Admi
xtur
es.

i
. Wat
erCont
ent
:

Thef
lui
dit
yofconcr
etei
ncr
easeswi
thwat
ercont
ent
.Att
hesi
te,
thenor
malpr
act
icei
sto
i
ncr
ease t
he wat
ercont
entt
o make t
he concr
ete have mor
e wor
kabi
li
tywi
thl
ower
st
rengt
[Link]
,ifmor
ewat
eri
saddedduet
oanyr
eason,
thecementcont
entshoul
d
bepr
opor
ti
onal
lyaddedt
omai
ntai
nthest
rengt
h.

i
i. Mi
xedPr
opor
ti
ons:

Aggr
egat
ecementr
ati
oincr
easest
hewor
kabi
li
tyoft
heconcr
[Link]
ghert
hemi
xrat
io,
t
hehi
ghert
hewor
kabi
li
ty.

i
ii
. Aggr
egat
eSi
ze:

Fora gi
ven wat
ercont
ent
,bi
g si
zeaggr
egat
esgi
veshi
gh wor
kabi
li
[Link]
g si
ze
aggr
egat
es,t
het
otalsur
facear
eat
obepast
edi
slessandal
sot
hepast
erequi
redf
or
l
ubr
icat
ingt
hesur
facet
oreducei
nter
nal
fri
cti
on.

i
v. ShapeofAggr
egat
e:

Foragi
venwat
ercont
ent
,roundcubi
calshapedaggr
egat
esar
emor
ewor
kabl
ethan
r
oughangul
araggr
egat
esbecauset
hef
ormerr
equi
resl
esscementpast
eforl
ubr
icat
ion
as t
hese have l
ess sur
face ar
ea and l
ess voi
[Link]
ound aggr
egat
es,f
ri
cti
onal
r
esi
stancei
slessandsol
essl
ubr
icat
[Link]
hisr
eason,
sandandgr
avelpr
ovi
degr
eat
er
wor
kabi
li
tyt
hancr
ushedaggr
egat
es.

59
 v. Sur
faceText
ure:

Ar
ough sur
face aggr
egat
e has mor
e sur
face ar
ea t
han a smoot
hround t
ext
ured
aggr
egat
es,
hence,
thel
att
erwi
llbemor
ewor
kabl
e

PLASTI
CS:

60
Pl
ast
icsar
esubst
ancesf
ormedasar
esul
tofpol
ymer
izat
ionofor
gani
[Link]
n
el
ementt
hatconst
it
uteor
gani
ccompoundi
scar
[Link]
boni
suni
quei
nachemi
calsense.I
t
i
satt
hecent
reoft
hef
ir
stf
ourel
ement
soft
heper
iodi
ctabl
eandcont
ainsf
ourel
ect
ronsi
nthe
out
ershel
l
.Fur
ther
mor
e,car
bonat
omsf
orm chai
ns(
somet
imesofver
ygr
eatl
engt
h)andr
ings.
Somet
imesbot
hchai
nsandr
ingsar
eincl
udedi
nthesamemol
ecul
e.I
naddi
ti
on,car
boncan
f
orm mul
ti
pleofbonds,
thati
s,doubl
eort
ri
plebonds.

Pl
ast
icsManuf
act
uri
ng:Pl
ast
icsar
emanuf
act
uredbyapr
ocesscal
ledpol
ymer
izat
ion.

Pol
ymer
izat
ion:Thi
sist
hef
ormat
ionofver
ylar
gemol
ecul
esbyr
epeat
edcombi
nat
ionof
si
mpl
emol
ecul
[Link]
bonat
omshaveauni
quepr
oper
tyofr
epeat
edcombi
nat
ionofsi
mpl
e
mol
ecul
est
ofor
m chai
nsofmol
ecul
es.

Auni
toft
hesi
mpl
emol
ecul
eisknownasamonomerandt
hel
argemol
ecul
efor
medi
scal
led
apol
ymer
.

ACopol
ymeri
sfor
medwhent
woormor
etypesofmonomer
scombi
net
ofor
m ver
ylar
ge
mol
ecul
es.

Resi
ns:

I
npol
ymerchemi
str
yandmat
eri
alssci
ence,r
esi
nisa"
sol
idorhi
ghl
yvi
scoussubst
ance,
"
whi
char
etypi
cal
lyconver
ti
blei
ntopol
ymer
[Link]
scoussubst
ancescanbepl
ant
-der
ivedor
synt
het
ici
nor
igi
[Link]
eof
tenmi
xtur
esofor
gani
[Link]
ant
s,par
ti
cul
arl
y
woodypl
ant
spr
oducer
esi
ninr
esponset
oinj
[Link]
esi
nact
sasabandagepr
otect
ingt
he
pl
antf
rom i
nvadi
ngi
nsect
sandpat
hogens

Ther
mopl
ast
icResi
ns:

Thesear
emat
eri
alst
hatar
evi
sco-
elast
icati
nter
medi
atet
emper
atur
esandf
lui
dathi
gher
t
emper
atur
[Link]
eusedt
omakemat
eri
alscal
ledt
her
mopl
ast
ics

Ar
ti
clesmade f
rom t
her
mopl
ast
icr
esi
ns can be shaped bymechani
cal
lydef
ormi
ng t
he
mat
eri
alsabovet
hef
lowt
emper
atur
eandcool
ingbef
orer
emovaloft
her
est
rai
ningf
orces.

Ther
moset
ti
ngPl
ast
icResi
ns:

61
Thesear
emat
eri
alswhi
chwhencompl
etel
ypol
ymer
ized,suchmat
eri
alswi
llnotunder
goany
r
ever
sibl
epl
ast
icdef
ormat
ion,evenathi
ght
emper
atur
esandwi
llf
ract
ureonl
yinabr
it
tl
e
manner
.Theycanbeusedathi
ghert
emper
atur
ethanmostt
her
mopl
ast
icr
esi
[Link]
ti
clesof
t
hoser
esi
nsar
eusual
lymanuf
act
uredf
rom par
ti
all
ypol
ymer
izedmat
eri
alswhi
char
epr
essed
i
ntomoul
dsandheat
edt
ocompl
etepol
ymer
izat
ion.

Typesofpl
ast
ic:
i
. Ther
mopl
ast
ics
i
i. Ther
moset
ti
ngpl
ast
icsort
her
moset
s

Ther
mopl
ast
ics:

Thesear
evar
iet
iesofpl
ast
icst
hatsof
ten on heat
ing and har
denson cool
ing,i
.et
hei
r
har
dnessi
sat
empor
arypr
oper
tywhi
chchangeswi
thr
iseorf
alloft
emper
atur
eandsocanbe
br
oughtagai
ntopl
ast
icst
ageonheat
[Link]
efor
medbyaddi
ti
onpol
ymer
izat
ionand
havel
ongchai
nmol
ecul
arst
ruct
[Link]
e-moul
dedf
oruseasmanyt
imesas
r
equi
[Link]
mopl
ast
ics can be sof
tened any numberoft
imes by heatand pr
essur
e.
Ther
mopl
ast
icscanbej
oinedbywel
dingi
.eheat
ingt
hecont
actar
eaandt
henmechani
cal
ly
pr
essi
ngt
hepar
tst
oget
her
.

Ther
moset
ti
ngpl
ast
icsorTher
moset
s:

Thesear
epl
ast
icst
hatcannotber
[Link]
equi
regr
eatpr
essur
eandmoment
aryheat
dur
ingmoul
dingandf
inal
lygethar
denedoncool
[Link]
calr
eact
ioni
nthi
spr
ocess
cannotber
ever
[Link]
idi
fi
ed,t
heycannotbesof
[Link]
her
moset
ti
ngpl
ast
ics
acqui
ret
hree-
dimensi
onalcr
oss-
li
nkedst
ruct
ureswi
thpr
edomi
nant
lyst
rongcoval
entbonds
dur
ingpol
ymer
izat
ion,r
etai
ningst
rengt
hevenonheat
[Link]
moset
ti
ngpl
ast
icscanbe
sof
tenedt
hef
ir
stt
ime,
butt
heheatandpr
essur
esont
hem pr
oducechemi
calchangeandt
he
r
esul
ti
nghar
dmasscannotber
e-sof
tened.

Usesofpl
ast
icsi
nbui
ldi
ngs:
i
. Dr
ainage/
sewagepi
pes
i
i. Wat
erpr
oof
ingmembr
anes
i
ii
. Sani
tar
yappl
iances/
fit
ti
ngseg,
airventcover
s,wcseat
s,
i
v. Fl
oorf
ini
shes
v. Wal
lfaci
ngt
il
es

62
 vi
. El
ect
ri
cal
fit
ti
ngs
vi
i. doorf
urni
tur
e

Br
icksandBl
ocks:

Br
icksar
emaj
orl
ymadeofcl
ayandar
eusedf
orconst
ruct
ionanddecor
ati
vef
[Link]
icks
maybedr
iedi
nthesunorar
ebakedi
naki
[Link]
elat
ivel
yli
tt
le,r
esi
stdampnessand
heatandcanl
astl
ongert
hanbl
[Link]
ourvar
iesaccor
dingt
othecl
ayusedandi
n
pr
opor
ti
onaccor
dingt
othear
chi
tect
uralt
radi
ti
[Link]
icksar
emadeofspeci
almat
eri
als
f
orusei
nfi
repl
acesorovensegl
imebr
[Link]
her
smaybemadeofgl
assort
heymaybe
t
ext
uredorgl
[Link]
icksmaybear
rangedi
nvar
iouspat
ter
nscal
ledbondsaccor
dingt
othe
wayt
hel
ongf
ace(
str
etcher
)orshor
tface(
header
)ar
epl
[Link]
icksandconcr
etebl
ocksar
e
commonbui
ldi
ngmat
eri
[Link]
icksar
elayedt
oget
hert
ocr
eat
ewal
l
sandot
herst
ruct
[Link]
i
ndi
vidualbr
icksar
ehel
dinpl
acebymor
tar
.Br
ickscanbel
ayedi
nvar
iouspat
ter
nscal
led
bondsandeachbondi
smadeupofi
ndi
vidualr
ow ofbr
ickscal
ledcour
[Link]
ter
nat
ingor
r
epeat
ingvar
iouscour
ses,
dif
fer
entbondsar
ecr
eat
[Link]
ocksar
eal
sol
ayedi
nbonds.

TypesofBr
ick:

i
. Cl
ayBr
ick:

Thesear
echi
efl
ymadef
rom cl
ayorshal
emoul
dedbyei
therhandormachi
ner
[Link]
inci
pal
el
ementofcl
aysui
tabl
eforbr
ickmaki
ngar
eAl
umi
naandsi
li
[Link]
ickcl
aysal
socont
ain
var
iouspr
opor
ti
onsofl
imest
one,
iron,
magnesi
um andsal
ts.

Manuf
act
uri
ngPr
ocessofCl
ayBr
icks:

Br
icksar
emadebyget
ti
ngt
hecl
ayf
rom t
hegr
[Link]
limpur
it
iesar
eremovedbef
oret
hecl
ay
i
smi
xedwi
thwat
[Link]
icksar
eof
tenpr
oducedei
thermanual
lyormechani
cal
ly(
useof
machi
ne)
.Theyar
ethenputi
ntoaki
l
nandsubj
ect
edt
oheatt
ohar
denorst
rengt
hen.

i
i. Cal
cium Si
li
cat
eBr
icks:

Thesear
egener
all
yknownasl
imebr
[Link]
emadef
rom acar
eful
lycont
rol
ledmi
xtur
e
ofcl
eansandandhydr
atedl
imewhi
char
emi
xedt
oget
herwi
thwat
erandmoul
dedt
obr
ick

63
shapesandpl
acedi
nast
eam [Link]
esul
ti
ng br
icksar
ever
yuni
for
minshapeandcol
our
andar
enor
mal
lydul
lwhi
te.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofBr
icks:

Br
icksar
eoft
womaj
orchar
act
eri
sti
cs,
namel
y

[Link]
icks:Thesear
ethor
oughl
ybur
ntbr
ickswhi
char
ehar
danddur
abl
[Link]
d
r
ingi
ngsoundshoul
dbeemi
tt
edwhent
wogoodbr
icksar
est
ruckt
oget
heri
ndi
cat
ing
t
hatt
heyhavebeenbur
ntsat
isf
act
ori
ly.

[Link]
icks:I
nfer
iororbadbr
icksar
egener
all
yunder
-bur
ntandasaconsequencear
e
easi
lybr
okenandar
ever
ypor
[Link]
enei
therhar
dnordur
abl
eandar
eincapabl
e
ofwi
thst
andi
ngheavyl
oads.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofBr
icks:

Thet
hreemaj
orcl
assesofbr
icksar
e:

[Link]
icks

[Link]
ngBr
icks

[Link]
neer
ingBr
icks.

[Link]
icks:Thesear
eusedf
orgener
albui
ldi
ngwor
kswher
eappear
ancei
snot
vi
tal
.

[Link]
ngBr
icks:Thesear
eusedf
ort
hei
rappear
ance,dur
abi
li
tyandcapabi
li
tyt
oresi
st
t
heef
fectofr
ain,
windandf
rostwi
thoutbr
eaki
ngup.

[Link]
neer
ing Br
icks:
:ar
e st
rong i
mper
meabl
e,smoot
h,t
abl
e-moul
ded,har
d and
conf
ormt
odef
inedl
imi
tofabsor
pti
onandst
rengt
[Link]
eusedf
orposi
ti
onsi
n
bui
ldi
ngswher
est
rengt
hisr
equi
redordamppenet
rat
ioni
stober
esi
sted.I
not
her
wor
ds,
Engi
neer
ingbr
icksar
eat
ypeofbr
ickusedwher
est
rengt
h,l
owwat
erpor
osi
tyor
aci
d(f
luegas)r
esi
stancear
[Link]
neer
ingbr
ickscanbeusedf
ordamp-
proof
cour
sest
[Link]
eusedf
oral
lload-
bear
ingst
ruct
ures.

64
BLOCKS:

Thesear
emadeupofcement
,sandandwat
[Link]
ockscanbecl
assi
fi
edassol
id,cel
lul
aror
hol
lowbl
ocks.

i
. Sol
idBl
ocks:Thet
hinnert
het
hicknessoft
hebl
ock,
thebet
terf
ori
ttobesol
id.

i
i. Hol
low orCel
lul
arBl
ocks:The t
hickert
he bl
ock ,t
he bet
terf
ori
tto be
manuf
act
uredashol
loworcel
lul
art
oreducet
hewei
ghtoft
hebl
ocks.

Nat
uralAsphal
t:Thi
sisnat
ural
lyoccur
ri
ngbi
tumenwhi
chi
sacombi
nat
ionofani
nor
gani
c
mi
ner
almat
terei
thercal
car
eous orsi
li
ceous and an or
gani
c compound ofcar
bon and
hydr
ogen.

Mast
icAsphal
t:Thi
sismanuf
act
uredbyaddi
ngpul
ver
izednat
uralr
ockgr
adual
lyt
omol
ten
r
efi
nedbi
tumen,
agi
tat
ingt
hemi
xtur
eforabout5hour
sandpl
aci
ngi
tint
omoul
dsf
orcool
ing.
Themassconsol
idat
esi
nto har
d el
ast
icbl
ockswhi
ch can ber
e-mel
ted when used f
or
pavement
s.I
tist
ough,
dur
abl
e,non-
absor
bent
,damppr
oof
,non-
inf
lammabl
eandnoi
sel
ess.

Bi
tumen:Bi
tumen ar
e mai
nly composed ofa mi
xtur
e ofhi
gh mol
ecul
arhydr
ocar
bons,
met
hane,hexaneandot
herar
omat
icser
iesandt
hei
roxygenandsul
phurder
ivat
ives.I
tisa
non-cr
yst
all
inesol
idorvi
scousmat
eri
alder
ivedf
rom pet
rol
eum bynat
uralorr
efi
ningpr
ocess
andsubst
ant
ial
lysol
ubl
eincar
bondi
sul
phi
de.

Usesofbi
tumen:
[Link]
act
ureofr
oof
inganddamppr
oof
ingf
elt
s.
[Link]
nsul
ati
onmat
eri
als
c. Usedf
ordamppr
oof
ingbasement
s.
[Link]
oofcour
semat
eri
al
e. Usedf
orpai
nti
ngt
imberandst
eel
wor
ks

Tar
:Tar
sar
ebi
tumi
nouscondensat
esobt
ainedi
nthepr
ocessofdest
ruct
ivedi
sti
ll
ati
onof
coal
,pet
rol
eum,woodandot
heror
gani
cmat
eri
alsathi
ght
emper
atur
ewi
thoutaccessofai
r.

65
Theyar
ecomposedofhydr
ocar
bonsandt
hei
rsul
phur
ous,
nit
rousandoxygender
ivat
ives
Gypsum:
Gypsum i
sacommonmi
ner
alconsi
sti
ngofhydr
atedcal
cium sul
fat
e(CaSO4.2H2O)
.Iti
sa
wi
del
ydi
str
ibut
edf
orm ofsedi
ment
aryr
ock,
for
medbyt
hepr
eci
pit
ati
onofcal
cium sul
fat
e
f
rom seawat
er,
andi
sfr
equent
lyassoci
atedwi
thot
herSal
inedeposi
ts,
suchashal
it
eand
anhydr
it
e,aswel
laswi
thl
imest
oneandshal
[Link] i
spr
oducedi
nvol
cani
cregi
onsbyt
he
act
ionofsul
fur
icaci
doncal
cium –cont
aini
ngmi
ner
als;i
tisal
sof
oundi
nmostcl
aysasa
pr
oductoft
heact
ionofsul
fur
icaci
donl
imest
one.I
toccur
sinal
lpar
tsoft
hewor
ld;someof
t
hebestnot
abl
edeposi
tsar
einFr
ance,
Swi
tzer
land,
andMexi
co,
aswel
lasi
nCal
if
orni
a,Ohi
o,
Mi
chi
gan,
andUt
ahi
ntheUni
tedSt
[Link]
abast
er,
Sel
eni
te,
andsat
insparar
evar
iet
iesof
nat
uralgypsum.
Ar
ti
fi
cialgypsum i
sobt
ained asaby-
producti
n an ol
d met
hod f
ort
hemanuf
act
ureof
phosphor
icaci
[Link]
erock,
theessent
ialconst
it
uentofwhi
chi
str
ical
cium phosphat
e,i
s
t
reat
edwi
thsul
fur
icaci
d,pr
oduci
ngphosphor
icaci
[Link] i
scompact
ed
i
ntobl
ocksandusedf
ort
heconst
ruct
ionofnon-
suppor
ti
ngwal
lsi
nbui
ldi
[Link]
oper
ly
cont
rol
li
ngt
heconcent
rat
ionandt
emper
atur
eofsul
fur
icaci
daddedt
ophosphat
erock,a
mi
xtur
eofmono-
cal
cium phosphat
e,di
-cal
cium phosphat
e,andgypsum maybeobt
ained.
Thi
smi
xtur
eisaval
uabl
efer
ti
li
zer
,(super
phosphat
e).

Gypsum cr
yst
all
izesi
nthemonocl
ini
csyst
em i
n whi
teorcol
orl
esscr
yst
als,massi
veor
f
oli
atedi
nfor
mat
[Link]
mensar
ecol
oredgr
een,yel
low,orbl
ackbyi
mpur
it
ies.I
tis
sof
tenought
oscr
atchwi
thaf
inger
nai
landhasaspeci
fi
cgr
avi
tyof2.
3.

Cl
assesofGypsum:

Cl
assA Gypsum:I
sar
ockconsi
sti
ngofhydr
atedcal
cium sul
phat
e(CASO4.
2H2O)
.Iti
s
gr
oundandheat
edi
naki
lnwhi
chdr
ivesof
fmostoft
hemoi
stur
[Link] i
sheat
ed,
wat
eri
sexpel
ledandawhi
tegr
eyorpi
nkpowderi
nobt
[Link] i
sknownas
pl
ast
erofPar
is(
POP)
.

CLASSB,
CLASSCAND D:Ar
ebasedonchemi
cal
lyanhydr
ouscal
cium sul
phat
e(CASO4)
obt
ainedasaby-
productorbyheat
ingt
hegypsum t
ohi
ghert
emper
atur
ethanf
orgr
oupone.

Pl
ast
erOfPar
is,Caso4.½H2O.
(POP)
.Thi
sis obt
ained by heat
ing gypsum t
o a hi
gh
t
emper
atur
[Link] o128oC(
edt 4oF)
262. ,gypsum l
osespar
tofi
tswat
erofhydr
ati
onand
i
sconver
tedi
ntopl
ast
erofPar
is,
CaSO4.½H2O.

66
UsesofGypsum:

[Link]
ast
erofPar
is:

Because ofi
ts swel
li
ng and f
il
li
ng al
lint
erst
ices upon dr
ying,pl
ast
erofPar
isi
s used
ext
ensi
vel
yinmaki
ngcast
sforst
atuar
y,cer
ami
cs,
dent
alpl
ates,
finemet
alpar
tsf
orpr
eci
sion
i
nst
rument
s,andsur
gicalspl
int
[Link]-
cal
cinedgypsum i
susedasaf
ert
il
izeri
nthef
orm ofl
and
pl
ast
erf
orar
id,
alkal
inesoi
l.I
tisal
sousedasabedf
orpol
ishi
ngpl
ategl
assandasabasi
sfor
pai
ntpi
gment
s.

[Link]
ort
heconst
ruct
ionofnon-
suppor
ti
ngwal
lsi
nbui
ldi
ngs.

[Link]
arder
:Lar
geamountofgypsum i
susedasar
etar
deri
nPor
tl
andcement
,to
del
ayt
heset
ti
ngt
imeofcement
.

[Link]
nmaki
ngval
uabl
esuper
phosphat
efer
ti
li
zer
.

METALS:

Met
alscanbedi
videdi
ntof
err
ousmet
alandnonf
err
ousmet
als

67
Fer
rousmet
als:pr
oper
ti
es-

1)Cont
aini
ron

2)Theyar
emagnet
ic

3)Goodt
her
malconduct
ors

Exampl
e;-st
eelandi
ron

Non-
fer
rousmet
als;-pr
oper
ti
es

1)Donotcont
aini
ron.

2)Theyar
enotmagnet
ic.

3)Poorconduct
ors.

Exampl
e;-al
umi
nium,

STEEL:
ASt
rongal
loyofi
ronandcar
bon:ast
rongal
loyofi
roncont
aini
ngupt
o1.
5per
centcar
bon
al
ongwi
thsmal
lamount
sofot
herel
ement
ssuchasmanganese,
chr
omi
um,
andni
ckel

Appr
oxi
mat
ePer
cent
ageConst
it
uent
sofSt
eel

1)Lowcar
bonmi
ldst
eel0.
04–0.
3C+0.
8Mn

2)Medi
um car
bonst
eel 0.
3–0.
7C+0.
8Mn

3)Hi
ghcar
bonst
eel 0.
7–1.
7C+0.
8Mn

4)Lowal
loyst
eel 0.
2C+0.
8mn+1.
0Cr+2.
0Ni

68
 5)Hi
ghal
loyst
eel(
stai
nlessst
eel
) 0.
1C+0.
5Mn+18.
0Cr+8.
0Ni

6)Casti
ron 1.
8-4C+0.
9Mn+2.
0Ni

Al
loys:

Anal
loyi
sacombi
nat
ionoft
woormor
emet
als,
orofmet
alsandanon-
met
alsuchascar
bon,
si
li
con,
nit
rogenorphosphor
us,
tof
orm whati
sof
tenr
efer
redt
oasasol
idsol
uti
[Link]
loysar
e
gener
all
ypr
epar
edbymel
ti
ngt
ocool
.

For
mat
ionofal
loysi
spossi
blebecausemet
alshaveacr
yst
alsst
ruct
urewi
thi
nter
sti
cesor
voi
dswhi
chcanbef
il
ledwi
thdi
ff
erentmet
all
icat
oms,
thenumberoft
heseat
omspr
esentand
t
hecondi
ti
onsunderwhi
chal
loyi
ngoccur
s([Link]
entofheatt
reat
ment
).

Exampl
esofal
loys:

1)St
eel
:consi
stsofi
ronandbet
ween0.
1–1.
5%car
bon,pl
ussmal
lamountofsul
phur
andphosphor
us.

2)Al
umi
nium al
loysi
ncl
ude

a)Dur
alumi
n(Al
umi
nium,
magngesi
um,
copperandmanganese)

b)Magnal
um (
cont
ainsal
umi
nium andmagnesi
um)

c) Al
umi
nium br
onze(
cont
ainsal
umi
nium andcopper
)

Theseal
umi
nium al
loysar
enot
edf
ort
hei
rhi
ght
ensi
lest
rengt
h,ext
remel
ight
ness

Andr
esi
stancet
ocor
rosi
on,
andhavebeenusedext
ensi
vel
yinai
rcr
aftconst
ruct
ion.

Appl
icat
ionoft
heVar
ioust
ypesofSt
eel

Mol
tenpi
gir
oni
spour
edi
ntoabasi
coxygenf
urnace(
BOF)f
orconver
siont
ost
eel
.St
eeli
sa
f
orm ofi
ronpr
oducedf
rom i
ronor
e,coke,
andl
i
mest
onei
nabl
astf
[Link]
bonand
ot
heri
mpur
it
iesar
eremovedt
omakeast
rongst
eel
.

[Link]
bonmi
ldst
eel
-Lowst
ressconst
ruct
ionalst
eelsui
tabl
eforwel
ding

2. Medi
um car
bonst
eel
–Medi
um st
ressuses,
machi
ner
yet
c

[Link]
ghcar
bonst
eel–Hi
ghst
ressuses,
spr
ings,
cut
ti
ngt
ool
s

69
 [Link]
loyst
eel-Hi
ghst
ressuses,
pressur
evessel
s,ai
rcr
aftpar
ts

[Link]
ghal
loyst
eel
-Hi
ght
emper
atur
eorant
i-cor
rosi
onuse

[Link]
ron-Lowst
ressuses,
cyl
inderbl
ocks,
rai
npi
pes

CORROSI
ON OFMETALS

Def
ini
ti
onofCor
rosi
on

Cor
rosi
oni
sthedest
ruct
ionofamat
eri
albychemi
calat
tackr
esul
ti
ngf
rom i
tsenvi
ronment
.It
i
sther
esul
tofachemi
calorel
ect
rochemi
calr
eact
ionbet
weenamet
alandi
tsenvi
ronment
,
whi
chpr
oducesadet
eri
orat
ionoft
hemet
alandi
t’
spr
oper
ti
es.I
tinvol
vesagr
adualr
ever
salof
t
hemet
alt
othemor
est
abl
est
atesuchast
heoxi
de,
sul
phi
deandcar
bonat
e.

Cor
rosi
onMechani
sm

1)Di
rectChemi
calCombi
nat
ion:Met
alcombi
nedi
rect
lywi
thgasessuchasoxygen,
chl
ori
ne,
sul
phur
icgases,car
bon-
dioxi
deet
ctof
orm asur
facef
il
mtof
orm chl
ori
ne,sul
phi
des,
car
bonat
eset
[Link]
stypeofcor
rosi
oni
smostser
iousi
nhi
ghl
ypol
lut
edat
mospher
e,
al
thoughi
naf
ew casest
hecor
rosi
oncanbesel
fsuppr
essedbyt
hef
ormat
ionofat
hin
pr
otect
ivel
ayerofsur
facef
il
m(e.
g.i
nal
umi
num andchr
omi
um)

2)El
ect
rochemi
calCor
rosi
on:Thi
sist
he cor
rosi
on i
n aqueous envi
ronment
s such as
el
ect
rochemi
calr
eact
ioni
nwhi
chwat
eract
sasaconduct
ingl
iqui
d(el
ect
rol
yte)
.

Fact
orsI
nfl
uenci
ngCor
rosi
on:

Oxygen and moi

stur
e(wat
er)ar
e essent
ialf
orcor
rosi
on t
o occur
,butundercer
tai
n
ci
rcumst
ancescor
rosi
oncant
akepl
acei
ntheabsenceofoxygen(
anaer
obi
ccor
rosi
on)
.

Rust
ing:

Rust
ingi
stheoxi
dat
ionofi
ronatt
hesur
face.I
ron,i
nthepr
esenceofwat
er,combi
neswi
th
at
mospher
icoxygent
ofor
m ahydr
atedi
ronoxi
de,commonl
ycal
ledr
ust
.Thi
spr
ocessi
s
act
ivat
edbyt
hepr
esenceofmoi
stur
[Link]
dat
ion,i
nit
ial
lyi
ronchangest
o
f
err
ous-
bicar
bonat
e,t
hent
ofer
ri
c-bi
car
bonat
eandf
inal
lyt
ohydr
atedf
err
icoxi
de.

70
At
mospher
icpol
lut
iont
ooaccel
erat
esr
ustf
ormat
[Link]
rosi
oni
ssl
ow butst
eady,eat
ing
awayt
hemet
alandi
saconsequenceofr
ust
ing.

Pr
otect
ionofMet
alsagai
nstCor
rosi
on

Wayst
opr
otectmet
alagai
nstcor
rosi
on:

i
.tar
ri
ng

i
[Link]
nti
ng

i
ii
.enamel
li
ng

i
[Link]
vani
zing

[Link]
aldi
sing

vi
.ti
npl
ati
ng

vi
[Link]
esct
ropl
ati
ng

i
. Tar
ri
ng:

Thi
sisapr
ocessi
nwhi
chi
roni
sdi
ppedi
nhotcoalt
arsot
hataf
il
m ofi
tst
ickst
othesur
face
whi
chpr
otect
sthesur
facef
rom r
ust
ingandcor
rosi
on.

i
i. Pai
nti
ng:

Pai
nts,usual
lyt
hel
eadpai
ntsar
eappl
iedont
hesur
facet
obepr
otect
[Link]
al
sur
facesasi
nthecaseofr
ooft
russesandbr
idgest
ruct
uresar
egi
vent
hist
reat
mentwhi
ch
hast
obei
nvar
iabl
yrepeat
edaf
terr
egul
ari
nter
val
oft
ime.

i
ii
. Enamel
ing:

Thi
sist
hepr
ocessofappl
yingenamel
swhi
chconsi
stofhi
ghgr
adebasesl
ikezi
ncoxi
deor

71
l
eadoxi
desgr
oundi
noi
lorvani
sht
osur
[Link]
str
eat
menti
sgi
venonl
ytosmal
ler
sur
faces.I
tdr
iessl
owl
yleavi
ngahar
d,t
oughandel
ast
icf
il
m whi
chi
ssmoot
handdur
abl
e.
Enamelpai
ntedsur
facesar
ewashabl
eandar
enotaf
fect
edbyaci
ds,al
kal
is,gasesorst
eam.
Enamelpr
ovi
desbet
terandl
ongl
ast
ingpr
otect
ionascompar
edt
opai
nti
ng.

i
v. Gal
vani
zing:

Deposi
ti
ngaf
inef
il
m ofzi
ncont
hei
ron/
steelsur
facei
ster
medgal
vani
[Link]
facet
obe
gal
vani
zedi
sfi
rstcl
ear
edofal
lfor
eignmat
terbygi
vingi
tanaci
dwasht
obef
oll
owedbya
washofcl
eanwat
[Link]
facei
sthendr
iedanddi
ppedi
nmol
tenzi
[Link]
inef
il
m ofzi
nc
t
hatget
sdeposi
ted pr
otect
sthesur
facef
rom cont
actwi
th at
mospher
eand consequent
oxi
dat
[Link]
hezi
ncf
il
m causedbywearorscr
atchescanexposet
hesur
facet
o
r
ustandcor
rossi
on.

v. Sher
adi
sing:

Thi
sisapr
ocesswher
ebymol
tenzi
nci
sspr
eadovert
hewhol
esur
facet
obepr
otect
edwhi
ch
oncool
ingf
ormt
hinpr
otect
ivel
ayer
.TheSur
facet
obet
reat
edi
scl
eanedofal
lfor
eign
deposi
tsbywashi
ngi
twi
thaci
dsol
uti
onandcl
eanwat
[Link]
adi
singgi
vesbet
terpr
otect
ion
t
hangal
vani
zing.

vi
. Ti
nPl
ati
ng:

Thi
sisapr
otect
ivecover
ingoft
inl
ayeronamet
alsur
[Link]
sisdonebycl
eani
ngt
he
sur
facewi
thaci
dwashf
oll
owedbywashi
ngwi
thpl
ainwat
eranddr
yingi
tandt
hendi
ppi
ngi
t
i
ntoabat
hofmol
tent
in.

vi
i. El
ect
ropl
ati
ng:

Thi
sisapr
ocessofdeposi
ti
ngat
hinf
il
m ofmet
alsuchasni
ckel
,chr
omi
um,
cadmi
um,
copper
orzi
ncont
hesur
facet
obepr
otect
[Link]
facet
obepr
otect
edi
smadet
hecat
hodeand
t
hemet
alt
obedeposi
tedmadet
heanode.

Cor
rosi
onPr
ocess:

Cor
rosi
oni
sther
esul
tofachemi
calorel
ect
rochemi
calr
eact
ionbet
weenamet
alandi
ts
envi
ronment
,whi
chpr
oducesadet
eri
orat
ionoft
hemet
alandi
t’
spr
oper
ti
[Link]
dent
it
yofa
met
ali
s det
ermi
ned by i
ts cor
rosi
on pot
ent
ialand i
s measur
ed i
n mi
ll
i-
vol
[Link]
s

72
measur
ementmayvar
yfr
om onezonet
oanot
herdependi
ngont
hesur
roundi
ngmedi
um.

Thezonewher
ethecor
rosi
onpr
ocessmaybei
nit
iat
edi
sknownast
heanodi
[Link]
anodi
czonei
sdef
inedbyt
hemostnegat
ivepot
ent
ial
.

Thecor
rosi
onofmet
ali
sanoxi
dizat
ionpr
ocesscal
ledananodi
creact
[Link]
hodi
czone
cr
eat
esasecondar
ypr
ocessknownast
hecat
hodi
creact
[Link]
sisar
educt
ionpr
ocessby
whi
cht
heel
ect
roncr
eat
edbyt
heanodi
creact
ioni
sconsumed,
resul
ti
ngi
nthet
wopr
ocesses
bal
anci
ngt
hei
rchar
ges:

Fe Fe2++2e–

I
nor
derf
ort
hecor
rosi
onpr
ocesst
ooccur
,ther
emustbeananodi
czoneandacat
hodi
czone.
Dependi
ngont
heci
rcumst
ances,t
heset
wozonescanbeposi
ti
onedt
oget
heronamet
al’
s
sur
face,
orf
arapar
[Link]
wozonesco-
exi
stcr
eat
inganel
ect
rochemi
calpr
ocessi
nwhi
cht
he
sur
roundi
ngmedi
um act
sasat
ranspor
tsyst
em f
ori
[Link]
spat
hwayi
sdef
inedast
he
el
ect
rol
yte.

Fur
ther
mor
e,soi
ls wi
tht
he f
oll
owi
ng par
amet
ers may al
so i
nfl
uence t
he l
ocat
ion and
f
ormat
ionoft
heanodi
czone:

i
. Lowoxygenat
edsoi
l

i
i. Gr
oundofl
owr
esi
sti
vit
y

i
ii
.Pr
esenceofsul
phat
e-r
educi
ngbact
eri
a

i
[Link]
gani
ccont
ami
nat
ion(
composi
te,
ref
use,
etc)

v. Cont
actwi
thhi
ghl
yconduct
ivemat
eri
als(
ashes,
coal
,sal
ts,
etc)

vi
.Di
ssi
mil
armat
eri
als.

Ef
fectofCor
rosi
ononMet
al

Oneoft
hekeyel
ement
sfort
hecor
rosi
onpr
ocessi
sthesoi
lsur
roundi
ngt
hemet
alsur
face.I
n
addi
ti
ont
othesoi
lbei
nganel
ect
rol
yte,t
hepr
oper
ti
esoft
hesoi
lmayi
nhi
bitorenhancet
he
cor
rosi
[Link]
ocessesi
ncl
udi
ngsoi
lresi
sti
vit
y(vel
oci
tyoft
hecur
rentt
ravel
ingt
hrough

73
t
hegr
ound)
,di
rect
lyaf
fectt
hef
ormat
ion,
rat
eandpl
acementofcor
rosi
onont
hemet
alsur
face.
Al
essr
esi
sti
vesoi
l,
resul
tsi
nanaccel
erat
edcor
rosi
onr
eact
ion.

Onamet
alst
ruct
urepl
acedi
nasoi
lenvi
ronment
,local
izedcor
rosi
onat
tacksar
eapar
ti
cul
ar
concer
[Link]
alst
ruct
uremaygot
hroughnumer
ousl
ayer
sofsoi
[Link]
thi
never
ylayer
,ther
e
i
sat
ransi
ti
oni
nsoi
lcomposi
ti
on,shi
ft
ingaggr
essi
venesswi
thvar
yingl
ayer
sofr
esi
sti
vit
y.
Theser
esi
sti
ver
egi
ons(
bot
hanodi
candcat
hodi
c)t
ypi
cal
lydecr
easewi
thi
ncr
ement
aldept
h;
howevert
hecor
rosi
onpr
ocesswi
l
lbeampl
if
iedont
hemet
alst
ruct
urewher
ethevar
ious
l
ayer
sofsoi
lint
ersect
.

Thepl
acementandr
ateofcor
rosi
ononamet
alst
ruct
ureaf
fect
snotonl
ythemet
ali
nter
nal
ly
butt
hel
if
espanst
ruct
ural
l
y.

74