CHAPTER 1

Wood Properties
Timber has always been one of the more plentiful natural resources available and
consequently is one of the oldest known materials used in construction. It is a material
that is used for a variety of structural forms such as beams, columns, trusses, girders
and is also used in building systems such as piles, deck members, railway foundations
and for temporary forms in concrete.
This chapter provides a brief description of the engineering properties of timber
that are of interest to design engineers or architects.

Learning Objectives
1. Identify the different properties of wood
2. List the factors affecting wood properties

1.1 Structures of Timber

1.2 Defects in Timber
1.3 Types of Timber
1.4 Physical Properties of Timber

Before we start to discuss wood properties, what do we mean when we say “timber”
instead of “wood” or instead of “lumber”?

Wood – the substance that trees are made of. It is the hard, fibrous structural tissue
that is commonly found in the stems and roots of the trees. In simple words, it is the
material we obtain from trees.

Timber – the wood that is still attached to the ground. It is the wood with its bark still
on. Timber still has to be cut and processed for it to be sold for construction
purposes. On the other hand, in U.S. and Canada, “timber” usually refers to felled
trees while in NSCP 2015, “Timbers” are square or nearly square sawn lumber that is
not less than 125 mm wide.

Lumber – ‘rough lumber’ is the raw material, which can be processed and then used
for a variety of functions. ‘Finished lumber’ on the other hand is the wood that has
already been processed and usually available in various sizes that can be immediately
used without requiring much cutting or shaping.

1.1 Structures of Timber

As engineers we are mainly concerned with the trunk of the tree. Consider a
cross-section of a trunk as shown in Fig. 1.1
Wood, in general, is composed of long thin tubular cells. The cell walls are made
up of cellulose and the cells are bound together by a substance known as lignin. Most
cells are oriented in the direction of the axis of the trunk, except for cells known as
rays which run radially across the trunk. Rays are present in all trees but are more
pronounced in some species, such as oak. In temperate countries, a tree produces a
new layer of wood just under the bark in the early part of every growing season. This
growth ceases at the end of the growing season or during winter months. This process
results in clearly visible concentric rings known as annular rings, annual rings or growth
rings. In tropical countries where trees grow throughout the year, a tree produces
wood cells that are essentially uniform. The age of a tree may be determined by
counting its growth rings.
The annular band of cross-section nearest to the bark is called sapwood. The
central core of the wood which is inside the sapwood is heartwood. The sapwood is
lighter in color compared to heartwood and is 25-170mm wide, depending on the
species. It acts as a medium of transportation for sap from the roots to the leaves,
while the heartwood functions mainly to give mechanical support or stiffness to the
trunk. In general, the moisture content, strength and weights of the two are nearly
Structural Design 3 (Timber Design)
equal. Sapwood has a lower natural resistance to attacks by fungi and insects and
accepts preservatives more easily than heartwood. In many trees, each annular ring
can be subdivided into two layers: an inner layer made up of relatively large cavities
called springwood, and an outer layer of thick walls and small cavities called
summerwood. Since summerwood is relatively heavy, the amount of summerwood in
any section is a measure of the density of the wood.

Fig. 1.1 Cross section of a trunk of a tree

1.2 Defects in Timber

Owing to the fact that wood is a material which is naturally occurring, there are
many defects which are introduced during the growing period and during the
conversion and seasoning process. Any of these defects can cause trouble in timber
in use either by reducing its strength or impairing its appearance.
Defects may be classified as: natural defects, chemical defects, conversion
defects and seasoning defects.
1. Natural Defects
a. Cracks and fissures - They may occur in various parts of the tree and
may even indicate the presence of decay or the beginnings of decay.
b. Knots - These are common features of the structure of wood. A knot is
a portion of a branch embedded by the natural growth of the tree,
normally originating at the center of the trunk or a branch.
c. Grain defects - Wood grain refers to the general direction of the
arrangement of fibers in wood. Grain defects can occur in the form of
twisted-grain, cross-grain, flat-grain and spiral-grain, all of which can
induce subsequent problems of distortion in use.
d. Fungal decay - This may occur in growing mature timber or even in
recently converted timber, and in general it is good practice to reject
such timber.
e. Annual ring width - This can be critical in respect of strength in that
excess width of such rings can reduce the density of the timber.

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Chapter 1

Fig. 1.2 Defects in Timber

2. Chemical Defects
These may occur in particular instances when timber is used in unsuitable
positions or in association with other materials. Timbers such as oak and
western red cedar contain tannic acid and other chemicals which corrode
metals. Gums and resins can inhibit the working properties of timber and
interfere with the ability to take adhesives
3. Conversion Defects
These are due basically to unsound practice in the use of milling techniques
or to undue economy in attempting to use every possible piece of timber
converted from the trunk. A wane is a good example of a conversion
defect.
4. Seasoning Defects
Seasoning defects are directly related to the movement that occurs in
timber due to changes in moisture content. Excessive or uneven drying,
exposure to wind and rain, and poor stacking and spacing during seasoning
can all produce defects or distortions in timber. Examples of seasoning
defects are illustrated in Fig. 12(b). All such defects have an effect on
structural strength as well as on fixing, stability, durability and finished
appearance.

1.3 Types of Timber

Trees and commercial timbers are divided into two groups: softwoods and
hardwoods. This terminology has no direct bearing on the actual softness or hardness
of the wood.
1.3.1 Softwoods

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Structural Design 3 (Timber Design)
Softwoods are generally evergreen with needle-like leaves comprising single
cells called tracheid, which are like straws in plan, and they fulfil the functions
of conduction and support. Rays, present in softwoods, run in a radial direction
perpendicular to the growth rings. Their function is to store food and allow the
convection of liquids to where they are needed.

Soft wood characteristics

 Quick growth rate; trees can be felled after 30 years, resulting in low
density timber with relatively low strength.
 Generally poor durability qualities, unless treated with preservatives.
 Due to speed of felling, they are readily available and comparatively
cheap.

1.3.2 Hardwoods
Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved (deciduous) trees that lose their
leaves at the end of each growing season. The cell structure of
hardwoods is more complex than that of softwoods, with thick walled
cells, called fibers, providing the structural support and thin walled cells,
called vessels, providing the medium for food conduction. Due to the
necessity to grow new leaves every year the demand for sap is high and,
in some instances, larger vessels may be formed int he springwood -
these are referred to as rig porous woods. When there is no definite
growing period the pores tend to be more evenly distributed, resulting
in diffuse porous woods.

Hard wood characteristics

 Hardwoods grow at a slower rate than softwoods. This generally results
in a timber of high density and strength which takes time to mature -
over 100 years in some instances.
 There is less dependency on preservatives for durability qualities.
 Due to time taken to mature and the transportation costs of hardwoods,
as most are tropical, they tend to be expensive in comparison to
softwoods.

1.4 Physical Properties of Timber

Due to the fact that timber is such a variable material, its strength is dependent
on many factors which can act independently or in conjunction with others,
adversely affecting the strength and the workability of the timber. Among many
physical properties that influence the strength characteristics of timber, the
following may be considered the most important ones.
1. Moisture Content
The strength of timber is dependent on its moisture content, as is the
resistance to decay.
2. Density
Density is the best single indicator of the properties of a timber and is a major
factor determining its strength. Specific gravity or relative density is a measure
of timber's solid substance.
3. Slope of Grain
Grain is the longitudinal direction of the main elements of timber, these main
elements being fibers or tracheids, and vessels in the case of hardwoods.
4. Timber Defects
As described earlier, defects in timber, whether natural or caused during
conversion or seasoning, will have an effect on structural strength as well as on
fixing, stability, durability and finished appearance of timber.

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Chapter 1

References:
1. Kermani, Abdy. (1999) Structural Timber Design, Blackwell Science Ltd.,
2. Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP). (2016)
Chapter 6, NSCP, 7th Edition, 2015, Volume 1, ASEP, Inc.

Learning Assessment
Instruction: Answer the following questions. Take a picture of your answers and submit
it as part of your assignment.

1. How is lumber different from timber and wood? Explain your answers.
2. It is usually around 25 mm-170 mm in wide, depending on the species of
wood.
3. What are the different Defects in Timber?
4. Give at least 3 natural defects.
5. What are the 2 different types of timber?
6. Define the different physical properties of timber.

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