Module 2

Tree Growth

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Tree Growth
Two classification of mode of Growth of a Tree
1. Exogenous are those outward growing trees most preferred for lumbering. The
trunk growth happens under the cambium. Hence, these trees are those who
exhibit growth rings. Examples are coniferous and deciduous trees
2. Endogenous are those inside growing trees. This kind of tree is less preferred for
lumbering because the center core of the log is soft and brittle in character.
Examples are canes and bamboo trees.

Mature trees of whatever type are the source of structural timber and it is important that
users of timber should have a knowledge of the nature and growth patterns of trees in
order to understand its behavior under a variety of circumstances. Basically, a tree has
three subsystems: roots, trunk, and crown. Each subsystem has a role to play in the
growth pattern of the tree.

1. Roots, by spreading through the soil as well as acting as a foundation, enable the
growing tree to withstand wind forces. They absorb moisture containing minerals
from the soil and transfer it via the trunk to the crown.

2. Trunk provides rigidity, mechanical strength, and height to maintain the crown,
also transports moisture and minerals up to the crown and sap down from the
crown.

3. Crown provides as large as possible a catchment area covered by leaves. These

produce chemical reactions that form sugar and cellulose which cause the growth
of the tree

As engineers we are mainly concerned with the trunk of the tree. Consider a cross-section
of a trunk as shown in Fig. 1.1

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Parts of a Tree Trunk

Outer Bark refers to the outer dead part of which is a dry layer serves as a protective
covering of the trunk

Inner Bark refers to the inner living part of which carry and store the food for the tree.

Cambium refers to a very thin layer of cells underside the inner bark, is the growth center
of the tree. New wood cells are formed on the inside of the cambium (over the old wood)
and new bark cells are formed on the outside and as such increasing the diameter of the
trunk.

Rays (or Medullary Rays) refers to ribbonlike bundles of cells arranged in a radial
direction in the tree. That is, they are perpendicular to the annual rings, running from the
center (pith) toward the bark. The rays connect various layers from the pith to the bark for
storage and transfer of food. These serve a useful structural function: They brace the
longitudinal cells so that their buckling strength is higher. Tensile strength perpendicular
to the annual rings may be benefited a little, but tangentially (in a direction parallel to the
rings and perpendicular to the rays) tensile strength may actually be reduced by the rays.

Annual Rings (or Growth Rings) refers to a band of earlywood and then a band of
latewood are added to the tree every year.

Sapwood refer to the annular band of the cross-section nearest to the bark. It is lighter
in color compared to heartwood and is 25–170 mm wide depending on the species. It
contains both living and dead cells and acts as a medium for transportation of sap from
the roots to the leaves.

Heartwood refers to the central core of the wood, which is inside the sapwood. It consists
of inactive cells, functions mainly to give mechanical support or stiffness to the trunk.

Earlywood (or Springwood) refers to the newly created cells have relatively large cell
openings (cavities) and thin walls grow rapidly during springtime. It is an inner layer made
up of relatively large hollow cells.

Latewood (or Summerwood) refers to the new cells created later in the year, when less
moisture is available, have smaller cavities and thicker walls. It contains more cellulose
per unit of cross-sectional area than earlywood; consequently, latewood is stronger than
earlywood. It is an outer layer of thick walls and small cavities (due to a slower growth).

Juvenile Wood refers to a tree grows faster in its early years of life than in later years,
and wood produced during those early years has a larger-than-normal percentage of
earlywood. The specific gravity and strength of juvenile wood are less and the longitudinal
shrinkage more than for wood grown by the mature tree. Just how much of the tree's

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interior is juvenile wood depends on the species and other factors, but usually ranges
between 5 and 20 annual rings.

Pith refers to the very center of the trunk is the thin dark band that once was a twig or a
shoot.

Pores refers to a structural difference between hardwoods and softwoods is that

hardwoods have vessels or pores, while softwoods do not. These are structures whose
only function is to carry water.

Classification of Trees
Trees and commercial timbers are divided into two types: softwoods and hardwoods. This
two broad categories of plants known commercially as hardwoods (angiosperms,
deciduous trees) and soft woods (gymnosperms, conifers), this terminology refers to the
botanical origin of timber and has no direct bearing on the actual softness or hardness of
the wood as it is possible to have some physically softer hardwoods.

Hardwood Softwood

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 Hardwood Softwood

Hardwoods
Hardwoods are generally broad-leaved (deciduous) trees, which often lose their leaves
at the end of each growing season. The cell structure of hardwoods is more complex than
that of softwoods with thick-walled cells, called fibers, providing the structural support and
thin-walled cells, called vessels, providing the medium for food conduction. Due to the
necessity to grow new leaves every year the demand for sap is high and in some
instances larger vessels may be formed in the springwood, these are referred to as ‘ring-
porous’ woods such as in oak and ash. When there is no definite growing period the pores
tend to be more evenly distributed, resulting in ‘diffuse-porous’ woods such as in poplar
and beech. The rays of hardwood are procumbent and upright in direction.

Hardwood characteristics
Hardwoods grow at a slower rate than softwoods, which generally results in a timber of
high density and strength, which takes time to mature, over 100 years in some instances.
There is less dependence on preservatives for durability qualities. Due to the time taken
to mature and the transportation costs of hardwoods, as most are tropical, they tend to
be expensive in comparison with softwoods.

Softwoods
Softwoods, characterized by having naked seeds or as cone-bearing trees, are generally
evergreen with needle-like leaves (such as conifers) comprising single cells called
tracheids, which are like straws in plan, and they fulfil the functions of conduction and
support. Rays, present in softwoods, run in a radial direction perpendicular to the growth
rings. Their function is to store food and allow the convection of liquids to where they are
needed.

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Softwood characteristics
Quick growth rate (trees can be felled after 30 years) resulting in low-density timber with
relatively low strength. Generally poor durability qualities, unless treated with
preservatives. Due to the speed of felling they are readily available and comparatively
cheaper.

Hardwood VS Softwood
No. Category Hardwood Softwood
1 Structure Deciduous Coniferous
2 Leaves Broad Leaves Needle like Leaves
3 Seed Angiosperms Gymnosperms
4 Shed Provide Shed Does not Provide Shed
5 Cells Structure Complex Single cell
6 Ray Direction Upright and Procumbent Radial Direction
7 Vessel With Large Vessel No Vessel
8 Growth Slower Faster
9 Preservatives’ Dependence Less More
10 Price Expensive Cheaper

Self-Assessment Questionnaire No.2 (SAQ2):

1. What are the different types of tree growth? Which is good for lumbering?
2. What are the subsystems of a tree?
3. What are the parts of the tree trunk?
4. What are the classifications of tree?
5. What are the differences between the classifications?

References:
1. Breyer, Donald E., Fridley, Kenneth J., Cobeen, Kelly E., Pollock, David G.,
Design of Wood Structures - ASD/LRFD, 6th Ed. 2007, Published by McGraw-
Hill Co.Inc.
2. Porteous, Jack, Kermani, Abdy Structural Timber Design to Eurocode 5, 2007
Publish by Blackwell Publishing.
3. Kermani, Abdy, Structural Timber Design, 1998, Published by Wiley Blackwell
4. Judith J. Stalnaker, Ernest C. Harris, Structural Design in Wood 1997, Published
by Springer US

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