CE-121 Engineering Materials

DR. KHAN SHAHZADA

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering UET Peshawar
 Week-11
Topics
“Wood”
• Structure of tree
• General characteristics
• Types of wood
• Seasoning of wood
• Preservation of wood
• Lamination of wood.
 Wood
Introduction:
• Wood is a hard and fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and
branches of a tree.
• It can also be defined as a natural polymeric material which practically does not age.
Wood as a building material falls in two major classes
1. Natural
2. Man-made
With the advances in science and technology, wood in its natural form as timber,
lumber, etc.
 Structure of Tree
Structure:
 Structure of Tree

• A tree can be divided into three portions, crown(composed of branches and leaves),
trunk, and roots.
• The trunk accounts for about 80% of the total bulk of wood.
Structure:
 Structure of Tree
Figure shows the structure of well grown timber from trunk of the exogenous tree.
Two types of structure:
I. Macro structure
II. Micro structure
• Macro Structure: The structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a small magnification
is called macro structure.
• Micro Structure: The structure that apparent only at great magnifications, is called the
micro structure.
 Structure of Tree
Macro structure of the timber can be studied by cutting the trunk in three directions (Fig.
4.1 (a)). In the cross-sectional and radial ducts, the following main parts of a tree:
• Bark
• Bast
• Cambium
• Sap wood
• Heart wood
• Pith
• Annual Rings
These parts become readily apparent and each of the component/parts has its own specific
function.(Fig 4.1(b)).
 Structure of Tree
Bark: The bark protects the wood against mechanical damage.
Bast: Bast is the inner layer of the tree which conveys nutrients from the crown downwards and
stores them. It is also called inner bark.
Cambium: The function of cambium is to grow wood cells on the inside and smaller bast cells
on the outside.
Sapwood: The sapwood assists in the life process of tree by storing up starch and conducting
sap. The cells in the sap wood are active.
• It is outer annual rings between heartwood and cambium layer.
• Outer part of the wood
Medullary Rays: the thin radio fibres extending from pith to cambium
layer are known as medullary rays.
 Structure of Tree

Heartwood: The heart wood gives a strong and firm support to the tree.
With the growth of tree, the cells in the inner older portion of trunk gradually become inactive
and lifeless, but do not decay. This portion of the trunk is called heart wood.
• It is inner part of the wood.
Pith: At the centre of the cross-section is the pith, a small area occupied by friable tissues
consisting of thin walled, loosely connected cells called pith.
• In a felled tree, it easily crumbles and rots. In the cross-sectional direction, nutrients pass
from bast to the heart through groups of cells running at right angles to the cambium layers
and are referred to as medullary rays.
• It store and transport nutrients throughout the plant.
Annual Rings:
• Every year tree form new cells which are arranged in concentric circles are called annual
rings or annual growth rings.
 General Characteristics of Timber

The principal characteristics of timber of concern are strength, durability and

finished appearance.
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength.
2. Compact medullary rays.
3. Dark colour.
4. Uniform texture.
5. Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
7. Free from the defects in timber.
8. Heavy weight.
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface.
10. It has higher modulus of elasticity and good fire resistant.
 Types of Wood

General types of wood used for furniture and other purposes are:

1. Soft Wood
2. Hard Wood
3. Hard and Soft Wood
4. Ply Wood
5. Medium Density Fiber Board (MDF)
Note:
Types of wood depends upon the type of tree. Its not the case that hardwood is hard and
soft wood is soft. If the tree is angiosperm then it is hard word and if the tree is
gymnosperm then it is soft wood.
 Types of Wood

1. Soft Wood:
• The term „softwood‟ refers to wood that comes from evergreen or coniferous
trees(needle-shaped or scale like leaves).
• This type of wood grows in cool climates, and are predominantly found in countries
such as Canada, Scandinavia and Russia and Hilly areas of Pakistan(Murree, Kashmir,
Hazara, Dir etc.)
• These trees grow faster than hardwood trees, hence the wood is cheaper.
• This wood can be light, soft and easy to work with when compared to hardwoods.
• Softwood trees generally have needles and cones like shape and leaves do not shed.
• Common examples of softwood trees are pine, spruce, cedar and redwood. Today,
most furniture is made using softwood.
• Softwoods are often used for making inconspicuous parts of furniture (such as the
insides of drawers or the backs of cabinets) that is otherwise crafted from higher
quality woods.
 Types of Wood

1. Soft Wood: (Pine Tree)

 Types of Wood

2. Hard Wood:
• Hard wood come from deciduous trees( trees that shed their leaves during season).
• The hard wood tree have generally leaves.
• The growth of hard wood is much slower, which results in denser wood and high
durability of wood.
• Items made from hardwoods are likely to withstand years of wear and tear and retain
their gorgeous look and feel throughout time. But expensive
• Due to their natural resistance and beautiful grains, hardwoods are typically used for
solid, high end furniture pieces.
• They are more expensive and higher rated than softwoods.
• These woods are stronger and have better texture, color and grain patterns.
• Most hardwoods are dark in color and very hard, this is not always the case.
 Types of Wood

2. Hard Wood:
• These woods are increasingly becoming difficult to find because these trees are being
harvested at the cost of the environment.
• Because these woods are strong and more durable than softwood, they are used for
flooring, doors and windows and heavy furniture.
• These woods do not bloat or absorb water easily, so the woods are also used as veneer
on manufactured sheets.
• Hard wood come from trees like, Deodar, oak, teak, birch ,walnut and mahogany
and others.
 Types of Wood
2. Hard Wood: (Oak Tree)
 Types of Wood
3. Hard and Soft Wood:
• The wood from the maple tree comes in two varieties, both hard and soft.
• Soft maple is relatively easy to work with, while hard maple is heavier and tough.
• Maple hardwood is easier to find than some others, because the woods are grown on
commercial farms.
• Both soft and hard maple are better and stronger than other types of softwoods, and
also less expensive than hardwoods, so the woods are a popular choice.
 Types of Wood
4. Ply wood:
• Ply wood is man made manufactured wood having sheet like structure.
• Plywood is made by pressing together various sheets of wood (either hard or soft).
• Ply wood is used in indoors, for making cabinets and cupboards etc.
Several Types of Plywood are:
Softwood Plywood
Hardwood Plywood
Commercial plywood
Water Proof Ply wood
Flexo Ply Wood
Tropical Plywood
Aircraft and Decorative Plywood.
 Types of Wood
5. Medium Density Fiberboards(MDF):
• Medium-density fiberboard, or MDF, is a manufactured (engineered) wood product
composed of wood fibers that are mixed with resin and wax and pressed into flat
panels under high temperature and pressure.
• It is used much like plywood as a building material in residential and commercial
construction.
• It dense and considerably heavier than Plywood.
• MDF is an excellent building material, as it accepts
glue bonds very well and joins securely with nails
and screws with minimal chances of fracturing.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
• Timber cut from freshly felled trees is too wet for normal use and is dimensionally
unsuitable.
Definition:
Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture content (drying) of timber in order to
prevent the timber from possible fermentation and making it suitable for use.
OR
It can also be defined as “the process of drying the wood to a moisture content
approximately equal to the average humidity of the surroundings, where it is to be
permanently fixed”.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
Objectives of Seasoning Wood:
Some of the objects of seasoning wood are as follows:

1. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in structure.

2. Increase strength, durability and workability.
3. Reduce its tendency to split and decay.
4. Make it suitable for painting.
5. Reduce its weight.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
Methods of Seasoning are:

1) Natural or Air Seasoning

2) Artificial Seasoning
The prevalent methods of artificial seasoning are as follows:
i. Water Seasoning
ii. Boiling
iii. Kiln Seasoning
iv. Chemical or Salt Seasoning
v. Electric Seasoning.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
1) Natural or Air Seasoning
• In this type of seasoning, the wood is subjected to open atmosphere, air, sun and wind.
• The log of wood is sawn into planks of convenient sizes and stacked under a covered
shed in cross-wise direction in alternate layers (Fig. 4.2 (next slide)) so as to permit free
circulation of air.
• The duration for drying depends upon the type of wood and the size of planks.
• The rate of drying is however very slow and uniform.
• Air seasoning reduces the moisture content of the wood to 12–15%.
• It is used very extensively in drying ties and the large size structural timbers.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
1) Natural or Air Seasoning
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
2) Artificial Seasoning:
i. Water Seasoning:
• The logs of wood are kept completely immersed in running stream of water, with their
larger ends pointing upstream.
• If the logs are partially immersed in water, then it is harmful.
• Consequently the sap, sugar, and gum are leached out and are replaced by water.
• The logs are then kept out in air to dry.
• It is a cheap quick process but the elastic properties and strength of the wood are
reduced.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
2) Artificial Seasoning:
ii. Boiling:
• In this method of artificial seasoning, the timber is immersed in water and then water is
boiled.
• This is a very quick method.
• The timber is thus boiled with water for about 3-4 hours and dried slowly under a
shed.
• The period of seasoning and shrinkage is reduced by this method, but it effects the
elasticity and strength of wood.
• In place of boiling water, the timber may be exposed to the action of hot steam.
• This method proves to be costly.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
2) Artificial Seasoning: (Contd. .. )
ii) Kiln Seasoning:
Two types of kilns for this process, any of them can be used.
The Progressive Kiln
The Compartment Kiln.
• This method is adopted for rapid seasoning of timber on large scale to any moisture
content.
• The scantlings(timber of small cross section) are arranged for free circulation of heated
air with some moisture or superheated steam.
• The circulating air takes up moisture required from wood and seasons it.
• For most successful kiln-seasoning the timber should be brought to as high a
temperature as it will stand without injury before drying is begun, otherwise the
moisture in the hot outer fibers of the wood will tend to flow towards the cooler interior.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
2) Artificial Seasoning: (Contd. .. )
ii) Kiln Seasoning:
• With kiln drying there is a little loss in strength of timber, usually less than 10%. Also,
the wood is more thoroughly and evenly dried, thus reducing the hygroscopicity of the
wood. This is uneconomical method because initial and maintenance cost is high.
Note: Hygroscopicity is the property of wood to attract moisture from surrounding
atmosphere and to hold it in the form of liquid water or vapor.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
2) Artificial Seasoning: (Contd. .. )
iii) Chemical or Salt Seasoning:
• In this type of seasoning the chemical is added and reduces the water pressure and outer
surface of wood dries before the inner part.
• In this process, wood is stored in suitable salt solution for some period.
• The salt solution used has the tendency to absorb water from the wood.
• So, the moisture content is removed and then timber is allowed to drying.
• This is unequal process of seasoning in which cracks may produce.
 Seasoning of Wood/Timber
2) Artificial Seasoning: (Contd. .. )
iv) Electric Seasoning:
• In this process of seasoning, the logs are placed in such a way that their two ends touch
the electrodes.
• Current is passed through the setup, being a bad conductor, wood resists the flow of
current.
• Generating heat in the process, which results in its drying.
• In this process of seasoning the logs of split may split.
 Preservation of Wood
• A preservative may be defined as “a chemical compound that when used on or
injected into the wood makes the timber poisonous for insects and fungi without
effecting the structural properties of the wood”.
• Preservatives increase the resistance of wood to decay and increase the durability of
wood.
There are 3 main classes of preservatives

A. Oily substances insoluble in water (Oil Soluble Salts)

B. Water-soluble salts
C. Salts carried in volatile solvent other than water (Volatile Base Salts)
 Preservation of Wood
A. Oily substances insoluble in water (Oil Soluble Salts):
• Such compounds are soluble only in oils.
• The most commonly used wood preservatives are coal tar creosote oil, belongs to this
category. It is obtained by destructive distillation of coal.
Advantages:
• It has a high degree of permanence i.e. it stays within a cell for a quite long time.
• It penetrate easily and quickly to the wood tissue.
• It is highly destructive for fungi.
Disadvantages:
• It has unpleasant appearance.
• It has bad smell.
• It does not allow paint over it.
 Preservation of Wood
B. Water-soluble salts:
• Water soluble salts make easy solution with water.
• Among the water soluble salts are included, zinc chloride , cupper sulphate, sodium
fluorosilicates and compounds of arsenic.
• Its advantage is that it can easily dissolved and used.
• Its disadvantages is that it can easily be washed away it the wood happens to be in
moist condition.
C. Salts carried in volatile solvent other than water (Volatile Base Salts):
• These preservatives makes solution with substance like petroleum.
• The creosote petroleum blends are typical example of this category.

Methods of Applying Preservatives (Read it by Yourself)

 Lamination of Wood
• In lamination. Laminated board, for example, consists of thin layers of wood bonded
together.
• Wood laminating is the process of forming multiple sheets of veneer, chips or solid
timber using moulds and bonded together by very strong adhesives, to produce
rigid, lightweight structures.
• Solid wood bending is a cold press process generally limited to a single axis. Wood chip
techniques are often used to produce engineering timbers.
• Ply wood is example of wood lamination.
Quotes