Lecture 4

The English syllable

Presented by Duong Minh Hoang

1. Definitions
 A syllable is a unit larger than the phoneme but smaller than the word (Collins et al., 2019).

 A syllable consists of a movement from a constricted or silent state to a vowel-like state and then
back to constricted or silent (Roach, 2011).
 2. The sonority scale
 The sonority of a sound is its relative loudness compared to other sounds, everything else being
equal (Giegerich, 2005).

 The sonority scale:

Oral stops Fricatives Vowels

Nasals Liquids Semivowels
Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced Close Mid Open
p b f v m
j iː ɛ æ
t d θ ð n l r
w uː ɜː ɑː
k g s z ŋ

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sonority values (Yavas, 2016)
 The Sonority Sequencing Generalisation (SSG): in a given syllable, the sound with the highest
sonority values constitutes the peak (or nucleus) of the syllable, with sonority decreasing gradually
towards the margins except /s/.

[p ʌ b l ɪ k s ɪ t i] [k ɒ n d ə m n eɪ ʃ ə n]

Illustrations by Yavas (2016) and McMahon (2020)

3. The structure of the English syllable

The structure of the syllable /strændz/ strands (Collins et al., 2019)

3.1. The onset
 Not all English syllables have an onset.

E.g.

▪ tin /tɪn/, trim /trɪm/, stream /striːm/ → maximum 3 consonants (consonant clusters)

▪ in /ɪn/, on /ɒn/, if /ɪf/

 /ŋ/ never occurs in the onset.

3.1.1. Single onsets

 Possible onsets: /p b t d k g f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ h m n l r w j/

E.g. pay, bay, tan, dip, keep, get, fine, vibe, thick, this, sin, zoo, shoe, usually, chick, job, hat, make, no, loud,

right, way, you

▪ /ŋ/ is not allowed.

▪ /ʒ/ hardly ever occurs at the beginning of a word (exception: genre).

▪ /ð/ in word-initial position is found only in function words (the, this, that, they, etc.)
3.1.2 Double onsets
3.1.2.1. Double onsets that follow the SSG
 Double onsets that follow the SSG take the form: 1 obstruent + 1 sonorant (not all combinations are possible).

 There are two kinds of gaps:

▪ Systematic gaps: combinations that are not allowed to exist in the language;

▪ Accidental gaps: combinations that do not violate any phonotactic constraints but do not exist in the language.

 Phonotactic constraints of the English onset:

▪ No geminates (double consonants) are allowed;

▪ No voiced fricatives can serve as C1. Only /v/ can be a C1, and it can only combine with /j/;

▪ /s/ and /ʃ/ are complementary: /s/ does not occur before /r/; /ʃ/ occurs only before /r/;

▪ Bilabials do not cluster with bilabials → /*pw *bw *mw *pm *bm/;

etc.
 p (1) b t d k g
f (2)
v
θ
ð
s
z
ʃ
ʒ
h
tʃ
dʒ
m
n
l /pl/ play /bl/ blue /kl/ clock /gl/ glow
r /pr/ price /br/ brick /tr/ try /dr/ drive /kr/ cry /gr/ grow
j /pj/ pure /bj/ beauty /tj/ tune /dj/ duty /kj/ cute
w /tw/ twice /dw/ dwell /kw/ quick /gw/ linguistics
 f (1) v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
m (2) /sm/ smoke
n /sn/ snail
l /fl/ fly /sl/ slip
r /fr/ fry /θr/ throw /ʃr/shrink
j /fj/ few /vj/view /sj/ assume /hj/ hue
w /θw/ thwart /sw/ swim

tʃ (1) dʒ m n
l (2)
r
j /mj/ mute /nj/ new
w
3.1.2.2. Double onsets that violate the SSG
 Double onsets that violate the SSG:

/sp/ /st/ /sk/

speak stay sky

 /s/ is sometimes referred to as the appendix.

3.1.3. Triple onsets
 In a triple onset, C1 is always /s/.

 Triple onsets violate the SSG.

p (2) t k
j (3) /spj/ spew /stj/ stew /skj/ skew
s (1) w /skw/ square
r /spr/ spray /str/ street /skr/ screen
l /spl/ splash

Illustration by McMahon (2020)

3.2. The coda

 Not all English syllables have a coda.

E.g.

▪ tan /tæn/, tank /tæŋk/, tanks /tæŋks/, glimpsed /glɪmpst/ → maximum 4 consonants

▪ see /siː/, saw /sɔː/, true /truː/

 /h r j w/ never occur in GB codas.

3.2.1. Single codas

 Possible codas: /p b t d k g f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ tʃ dʒ m n ŋ l/

E.g. top, lob, pot, dad, kick, gig, half, have, path, with, miss, is, ash, garage, match, judge, him, in, sing, pill

▪ /h/ never occurs in GB codas.

▪ /ʒ/ is less solid than other consonants, and some speakers use /dʒ/ instead.

▪ /r/ occurs in the syllable codas of rhotic accents only.

 3.2.2. Double codas
3.2.2.1. Double codas that follow the SSG

p (2) t d k θ s z
p (1) /pt/ hoped
b /bd/ robbed
k /kt/ picked
g /gd/ hugged
f /ft/ lift /fθ/ fifth /fs/ roofs
v /vd/ lived /vz/ lives
θ /θt/ frothed /θs/ maths
ð /ðd/ loathed /ðz/ loathes
s /sp/ wasp /st/ list /sk/ mask
z /zd/ grazed
ʃ /ʃt/ washed
ʒ
 p (2) b t d k f v θ s z tʃ dʒ m
tʃ /tʃt/
(1) lift
/dʒd/
dʒ
lived
/mp/ /md/ /mf/ /mθ/ /mz/
m
lump timed limph warmth times

/nt/ /nθ/ /ns/ /nz/ /ntʃ/ /ndʒ/

n /nd/ sand
hint tenth once hens lunch sponge

/ŋd/ /ŋθ/ /ŋz/

ŋ /ŋk/ ink
winged length sings

/lp/ /lb/ /lv/ /lθ/ /ls/ /lz/ /ltʃ/ /ldʒ/ /lm/

l /lt/ tilt /ld/ cold /lk/ milk /lf/ golf
gulp bulb solve health false pills belch bulge film
3.2.2.1. Double codas that violate the SSG
 Form: oral stop + fricative

θ (2) s z
p (1) /ps/ hips
b /bz/ robs

t /tθ/ eighth /ts/ hits

d /dz/ dads
k /ks/ picks

g /gz/ hugs
3.2.3. Triple codas
3.2.3.1. Triple codas that follow the SSG

/spt/ /skt/
grasped tasked

/lpt/ /lkt/ /lfs/ /lfθ/ /lvd/ /lvz/ /ldʒd/ /lmz/ /lmd/ /lst/

helped milked gulfs twelfth solved solves indulged films filmed whilst

/mpt/ /mfs/ /ntʃt/ /ndʒd/ /nzd/ /nθs/ /ŋst/ /ŋkt/

prompt nymphs wrenched lunged cleansed tenths amongst inked

3.2.3.1. Triple codas that violate the SSG

/pts/ /pst/ /pθs/ /tθs/ /kts/ /kst/ /ksθ/ /fts/ /fθs/ /dst/ /dθs/

accepts lapsed depths eights rejects text sixth lifts fifths amidst widths

/sps/ /sts/ /sks/

gasps fists risks

/lps/ /lbz/ /ldz/ /lks/

helps bulbs holds milks

/mps/ /nts/ /ndz/ /ndθ/ /ŋks/

glimpse hunts hands thousandth banks

 3.2.4. Quadruple codas
 Four-consonant codas are rare in English.

 All quadruple codas violate the SSG.

/mpts/ /ndθs/ /ŋkts/ /ŋkst/ /lpts/ /lfθs/ /ksts/ /ksθs/

prompts thoundsandths instincts jinxed sculpts twelfths texts sixths

3.3. The nucleus/peak
3.3.1. A vowel as the nucleus

With coda Without coda

(Closed syllable) (Open syllable)

any vowel but /ə/ tense vowels & diphthongs

Stressed but, sing, pot, seen, long, see, who, saw, car, fear, bear, cry,
farm, goose, tried, boys boy

/ə ɪ/ /ə ɪ ʊ i u/
Unstressed computer, complain, wanted, ago, possibility, regular, happy,
pocket strenuous
3.3.2. A consonant as the nucleus (syllabic consonant)
 A syllabic consonant is a consonant that functions as the nucleus in a syllable.

 Consonants: /n m l/ (and /r/ in rhotic accents)

E.g.

▪ /n/: button /bʌtn̩/, bitten /bɪtn̩/

▪ /m/: bottom /bɒtm̩/, rhythm /ˈrɪðm̩/

▪ /l/: bottle /ˈbɒtl̩/, subtle /ˈsʌtl̩/

▪ /r/ (in rhotic accents): hiker /ˈhaikr̩/

 Syllabic /n/ and /l/ occur in unstressed syllables immediately following the alveolar consonants /t d s z d n/.

E.g. cotton, cattle, listen, whistle, risen, drizzle, garden, muddle, tunnel (but not in London or Hampton)
 Overview of the English syllable
awe /ɔː/ V
saw /sɔː/ CV
ought /ɔːt/ VC
lawn /lɔːn/ CVC
lawns /lɔːnz/ CVCC
hands /hændz/ CVCCC
texts /tɛksts/ CVCCCC
draw /drɔː/ CCV
drawn /drɔːn/ CCVC
(C0-3) V (C0-4)
trims /trɪmz/ CCVCC
glimpse /glɪmps/ CCVCCC
glimpsed /glɪmpst/ CCVCCCC
straw /strɔː/ CCCV
strip /strɪp/ CCCVC
strand /strænd/ CCCVCC
strands /strændz/ CCCVCCC
strengths /stræŋkθs/ CCCVCCCC
4. Syllabification
 Maximal Onset Principle: Where there is a choice, always assign as many consonants as possible to
the onset, and as few as possible to coda (in accordance with the phonotactic constraints of the
language).

E.g.

▪ appraise → /ə.preɪz/ (*/əp.reɪz/: onset not maximal)

▪ replace → /rɪ.pleɪs/ (*/rɪp.leɪs/: onset not maximal)

▪ better → /bɛt.ə/ (*/bɛ.tə/: violating phonotactic constraint)

▪ responsibility → /rɪ.spɒn.sɪ.bɪl.ɪ.ti/
 Evidence to support the Maximal Onset Principle:

▪ Infants utter CV-type syllables when learning to speak (e.g. [ba], [ma], etc.);

▪ Post-stroke patients utter CV-type syllables before VC-type ones when recovering;

▪ Languages having both onset and coda consonants allow for a wider range of
consonants to occur in onset position than in coda position;

▪ Coda consonants are more likely to undergo loss of articulation (e.g. /r/ in GB, /l/-
vocalisation, etc.);

▪ No known languages have VC-type syllables but lack CV-type syllables, but some
languages have only CV-type syllables (e.g. Japanese);

→ CV-type syllables are basic in human language.

 Ambisyllabicity: a consonant is ambisyllabic if it is (part of) a permissible onset (cluster) and if it
immediately follows a stressed lax vowel (Giegerich, 2005).

• bottle:

Sy Sy

Rh Rh

On P Co On

/b ɒ t l̩/

• apple, meter, butter, better, petrol, pedestal, letter, Africa, etc.

 5. Vowels and consonants revisited
 Vowel: A sound that constitutes the nucleus/peak of a syllable. → [+syllabic]

 Consonant: A sound that constitutes the margin (onset or coda) of a syllable → [–syllabic]

[±consonantal]
[±syllabic]
(produced with a major obstruction in Notes
(forming the nucleus of a syllable?)
the vocal tract?)

- Vowels (phonetically)
/h, j, w/ [–consonantal] [–syllabic]
- Consonants (phonologically)

[–syllabic] in ten, mix, late, etc. - Consonants (phonetically)

- Either consonants or vowels
/n, m, l/ [+consonantal] [+syllabic] in garden, bottom, (phonologically), depending on
bottle, etc. context
 References
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