Literature Review

Introduction
A.K. Raja et. al. (2006) stated that thermal power plant is a plant where chemical energy of fuel
is converted into mechanical then into electric energy. Water is heated up to phase change (Water
to steam Conversion) then fed to steam turbine for electricity generation [1]. Lawrence F. Drbal
et. al. (1996) mentioned that thermal Power plant is mainly consisted of fuel feeding system,
boiler, steam turbine, condenser, cooling water system and ash handling system[2]. Paul Breeze
et. al. (2005) concludes that Steam turbine is mainly consist of rotor generator and condenser.
Steam is entered into casing of turbine, hit the turbine blades, and rotates the rotor, which causes
of Electromotive force in generator that produces electricity. After rotating the rotor steam losses
its latent heat and get converted into water again by cooling water circulation which is again fed
to boiler by using high-pressure pumps[3].

Boilers are used to generate steam and hot water for industrial and commercial purposes. Babcock
& Wilcox et. al. (2005) mentioned that energy stored in water or steam is use in different sectors
like electricity generation, heating ventilation and air conditioning system of buildings, laundry
and for kitchen purposes[4]. According to M.C. Barma et. al. (2017) boiler water absorb heat
energy of fuel released during combustion in combustion chamber by burning different kinds of
fossil fuels like coal, oil, gas and biomass etc. As fuel burns heat produced is supplied to water
inside boiler through radiation, conduction and convection [5].
 Figure 1: Schematic Diagram of Coal Fired Power Plant

Boiler Efficiency

Saidur R et. al. (2010) resulted that in a typical power plant not all heat can be absorbed in water
as there are too many factors, which occurs during combustion, and heat-conveying process, which
causes heat losses as a big amount of heat about 10% to 30% of total heat, is wasted through flue
gas leaving the plant between 1500C to 2500C [6]. Basu P. et. al. (2012), Janos M.beer et. al.
(2007) reported that by increasing air coefficient from 0.1 to 0.2, boiler exhaust temperature will
rise between 30C to 80C, which directly decrease boiler efficiency from 0.2% to 0.5% [7, 8].
Balaram Saha et. al. (2014) identified that other losses are also countable and never be neglected
as heat loss through boiler blowdown, radiation, fly and bottom ash loss on ignition, losses due to
moisture in fuel, air and production during combustion etc. [9]. To run the plant efficiently it is
necessary to kill the major energy loss factors present in plant.
 Figure 2: Typical heat balance for a boiler.

To run the plant is not major achievement but at those parameters where system gives, its
maximum efficiency. Gudimella Tirumala Srinivas et. al. (2017) declared that efficiency of the
boiler is the ratio between heat absorbed by the water to convert in steam and heat supplied through
fuel. It can be determined by subtracting heat losses from net heat supplied [10]. Engin Ozdemir
et. al. (2004) & Janos M.Beer et. al. (2007) resulted that to achieve maximum efficiency it is
necessary to minimize or reduce the losses by adjusting parameters of plant like excess air factor,
fuel quality, condenser pressure and Steam condition. Excess air factor represents the air supplied
to boiler for complete combustion and it must be according to calculation as its high amount causes
of high stack losses and oxidation of SO2 to SO3, with SO3 producing sulfuric acid formation in
the combustion products. On the other hand, low amount of excess air causes smoke due to
production of Carbon monoxide in the flue gas [8, 9].
 Figure 3: Effect of various measures for improving the efficiency of

Pulverized coal-fired power generating plant

Efficiency Calculation Methods

There are two main methods to find out boiler efficiency.
1. Direct Efficiency Method (Input, Output Method)
2. Indirect Efficiency Method
i. Heat loss Method
ii. Heat Balance Method
1. Direct Efficiency Method
Steam generator description and design by Annaratone & Donatello et. al (2008) mentioned
that efficiency is the ratio of heat supplied from fuel and heat gain from steam outlet. It is known
as heat input-output method due to having only two useful parameters of boiler [11].

Q×(H1−H2)
ƞ%= × 100
q×GCV of fuel

(1)
ƞ = Efficiency (%)
Q = Steam Flow Rate (Ton/hr.)
H1 = Steam Enthalpy (Kj/kg)
H2 = Feed Water Enthalpy (Kj/kg)
Q = Fuel Feeding Rate (Ton/hr.)
GCV = Gross Calorific Value (Kj/kg)
Merits of the Direct Method

Gudimella Tirumala Srinivas et. al. (2017) showed that it has some advantages like, easy and
quickly evaluation of boiler efficiency, less parameters requirement for evaluation and there is no
need to install high number of instrument [10].
Demerits of the Direct Method

Moni Kuntal Bora et. al. (2014) examined that it contains some disadvantages, as it does not
show where the loss of efficiency in plant is and steam generation ratio and efficiency may be out
if steam quality is not same as we required.[12]

2. Indirect Efficiency Method

Indirect efficiency method elaborates heat loss individually from each portion including fuel, air
supplied to boiler and flue gas leaving of steam generator. It is expressed in % by adding all type
of losses and then subtracted to 100.
i. Heat Loss Method
Energy Management Handbook by Wayne C. Turner & Steve Dotty et. al. (2007) found that
by heat loss method boiler efficiency is calculated by subtracting all types of losses whether
combustion loss, flue gas loss, moisture losses, loss on ignition loss, radiation losses and
blowdown losses etc. from 100. This method shows accurate results as compared to direct
efficiency method [13].

Ƞ = 100 – (Ldf + Lfh + Lam + Lrad + Lbd + Linc + Lmisc)

Lbd = Heat Loss due to In-combusted fuel (%)

Lrad = Heat Loss due to Radiation and convection (%)
Lfh = Heat Loss due to Fuel hydrogen (%)
Ldf = Heat Loss due to Dry flue gas (%)
Linc = Heat Loss due to Blowdown (%)
Lmisc = Miscellaneous heat losses (%)
Lam = Heat Loss due to Combustion air moisture (%)
ii. Heat balance Method
ASME PTC-4 et. al. (2014) elaborated about the heat balance method to find out boiler efficiency.
Document shows that energy input from atmosphere through air, heat due to moisture, and fuel
sensible heat added. All type of heat losses through flue gas, moisture formed during combustion,
air and fuel, heat loss due to Loss on ignition, heat loss due to carbon monoxide, and heat loss due
to pulverizers reject and heat loss due to radiation and convection are subtracted from formula to
get results related efficiency. [14]
ƞB = 100 – Heat Losses + Heat Credit

Losses in Boiler
As mentioned above many losses are produced during combustion and heat transferring process
as well. Loss of heat occurred to boiler blowdown, which is operated to control boiler water
chemistry, but it carries too much heat with it when it goes out from the boiler.
1. Loss of Heat Due To Flue Gas
Stack temperature are the temperature of combustion gases as they exit from boiler. As described
by Saidur R. et. al. (2010) 10% to 30% combustion heat is wasted through boiler leaving gasses
and water in it, so there must be use an appropriate value of excess air for combustion to avoid or
reduce such losses [6]. Ernst Worrell et, al (2011) stated that Use of more air to burn the fuel
causes more losses through flue gasses. Minute amount of excess air more than stoichiometric air
is necessary to burn the fuel proper [15]. Harry Taplin et. al. (1991) described that more excess
is not suitable as it enters to the system at ambient temperatures absorb too much heat in form of
flue gas and exits without doing work in boiler. On the other hand, little excess air is also not
suitable for boiler because it does not allow fuel to burn proper which ultimately decreases boiler
efficiency [16].

m×Cp×(Tf−Ta)
Loss % = × 100 (2)
GCV of fuel
2. Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel
Mrs. Nishadevi et. al. (2016) wrote that Coal contains moisture in it, which absorbs sensible and
latent heat during combustion and leaves through chimney exhaust, so loss due to moisture may
calculate under given formula [17].

[m×{(584+Cp)×(Tf−Ta)}]
Loss % = × 100 (3)
GCV of fuel
 3. Loss of heat due to combustion of Hydrogen in fuel
Zetao Wang et.al. (2015) mentioned that such kind of heat losses are due to water and Hydrogen
present in fuel reacts with oxygen and are converted into water that absorbs sensible and latent heat
during combustion [18]. Boilers and burners by Basu P. et. al. (2012) calculated that burning of
02 kg hydrogen produced 18 kg of water so heat loss due to hydrogen may calculated by following
formula [7].

[9×H2{(584+Cp)×(Tf−Ta)}]
Loss % = × 100 (4)
GCV of fuel

4. Loss of heat due to moisture in combustion air

Sh Indu Bhushan Mishra et. al. cited that moisture enters with fuel absorbs sensible and latent
heat from combustion system and get convert into steam which leaves the boiler with flue gases
having high temperature.21
[AAS×Humidity Factor×Cp×(Tf−Ta)]
Loss % = × 100 (5)
GCV of fuel

5. Loss of heat due to incomplete combustion

In solid fuel fired boiler, incomplete combustion losses can never neglected as it resulted loss of
big amount in form of fuel, asset and waste management as well. Zoran K. Morvay et. al. (2008)
stated that it depends on fuel quality, firing technology and operator skill as well but more or less
amount is always take form of waste due to incomplete combustion. Energy loss ensues in two
ways: ash leaving the system above 100 to 2500C and second one is in form of combustible
material remains in ash. Incomplete and poor combustion due to improper mixing of fuel, air fuel
ratio and insufficient air causes of CO, H2 and Cn Hm in the boiler leaving gasses [19].

[CO(ppm)×10−6 ×Mf×23746.8×28]
Loss % = × 100 (6)
GCV of Fuel

6. Loss of heat due to radiation and convection

Babcock & Wilcox et. al. mentioned it in Steam Generation and its use Ed.41 (2005) revealed
about radiation and convection losses that if the boiler’s outer surface is more warm than
atmosphere temperature than combustion inside the combustion chamber is losing the heat through
boiler body, ducts flues and casing [4].

Figure 4: Radiation Losses According to Boiler Capacity, Source: CIBO Energy Efficiency Handbook

Figure 5: Heat loss from wall surfaces (radiation + convection)

(Source – ASTM Standards, Part 13, 1969).

7. Loss of heat due to blowdown

CIBO energy efficiency handbook et. al. (1997) cited that blowdown also effects on boiler
efficiency as it is use to drain impurities from boiler water to maintain boiler chemistry. During
blowdown process these impurities goes out from boiler by absorbing heat, which ultimately
effects boiler efficiency [23].
 8. Loss of heat due in-combusted fuel
L. L. Faulkner et. al. (2004) stated that such kind of losses are occurred in all kind of boiler and
the reason of it is due to improper stoichiometry air fuel ratio. These losses have less effect on
boiler efficiency and often neglected [24]. ASME PTC-4 et. al. (2014) described it as Loss On
Igmition(LOI). [16].

GCV of Ash
Loss % = [Ash % in fuel × ] × 100 (7)
GCV of Coal

Steam Turbine Efficiency Calculation

S.C. Bhatia et.al. (2014) defined it as “Turbine efficiency is the ratio of actual work output of
the turbine to the net input energy supplied in the form of steam heat” [25].
Work Done
Efficiency = × 100 (8)
Input Kinetic Energy

Work Done = Power × 3600

IKE = (Inlet Steam Flow × Heat) – ((Extractions Flow × Heat) + (Condensate Flow × Heat))

Overall Plant Efficiency

Sinan Karakurt et. al. (2017) wrote that plant efficiency describes ratio of net work to heat
supplied. It does not depends only one equipment but relates to the working of all equipments
including Steam turbine, boiler, pumps and heat exchangers as well [26].

Power Produced ×3600

Overall plant ƞ = × 100 (9)
Coal Quantity×Coal GCV
Boiler Losses Analysis Tree

Boiler Losses

Radiation and
Moisture Losses Incomplete Combustion Dry Gas Losses
Convection Losses

CLASSIFIER VANES
Boiler Casing Air-in
Excessive Soot Blowing In correct fuel to air ratio IMPROPERLY
Leakage
ADJUSTED

Change In Ambient RING OR ROLLER

Burner Tipped Plugged Air pre Heater Leakage
Codition WEAR

Decrease in Mill LOSS OF ROLLER

Change in Coal Quality In-correct fuel to air ratio
Fineness TENSION

Increase in Coal Surface EXCEEDING MILL Improper Burner Damper

Burner Damper Setting setting
Moisture CAPACITY

CLASSIFIER VANE Fouled heat transfer

Tube Leak Change in Coal Quality
WEAR surface

Boiler Water Walls

Air preheater Economizer

Re-Heater Super Heater

Figure 6: Loss Analysis Tree

References
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