ISSN: 2320-5407 Int. J. Adv. Res.

10(10), 24-30

Journal Homepage: -www.journalijar.com

Article DOI:10.21474/IJAR01/15456
DOI URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/15456

RESEARCH ARTICLE
PREDICTING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: THE ROLE OF
RELIGIOSITY AND INTOLERANCE OF UNCERTAINTY

Mohammad Saleem, Munaza Sajad and Touseef Rizvi

……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Manuscript Info Abstract
……………………. ………………………………………………………………
Manuscript History The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of Intolerance of
Received: 05 August 2022 uncertainty and religiosity on psychological distress among university
Final Accepted: 09 September 2022 students. Pre-established scales of Intolerance of uncertainty, religiosity
Published: October 2022 and psychological distress were adapted from existing literature with
slight modifications to fit into the context. A sample of 209 university
Keywords:-
Intolerance of Uncertainty, Religiosity, students (mean age 25.6) participated in the research study. The data
Psychological Distress, University collected were subjected to descriptive analysis and multiple regression
Students analysis using SPSS. The results revealed that Intolerance of
uncertainty has a significant positive effect on psychological distress.
In contrast,it was observed that religiosity exerts a significant negative
effect on psychological distress. Moreover, results indicateda
significant difference in psychological distress between male and
female students.

Copy Right, IJAR, 2022,. All rights reserved.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
Introduction:-
Academic environments have been identified as highly demanding and challenging for the individual (Barbayannis
et al., 2022; Eisenberg et al., 2009; Green et al., 2021). Aside from emphasising success and performance, attending
universities marks a significant departure from colleges, where everything is much more structured and stable
(Lawrence, n.d.). University students are expected to be more self-sufficient and independent, but they frequently
face financial difficulties, separation from their social network, and difficulties in forming new relationships
(Kurtovic, 2013; Liao & Wei, 2011; Yavuzaslan et al., 2016). Emerging adulthood is the stage of development that
encompasses both adolescence and young adulthood and lasts from the ages of 18 to 29. It is a time of numerous
psychological and psychosocial changes, which, when paired with the demands of college, exposes students toa
significant amount of pressure (Arnett et al., 2014).Students who do not adjust well to this new environment, such as
having unrealistic expectations and becoming preoccupied with their mistakes, are more likely to develop specific
mental health issues (Adlaf et al., 2001; Doruk et al., 2015; Kurtovic, 2013). It is important to note that many
psychological disorders manifest themselves by the age of 24, which coincides with the years spent in
universities(Kessler et al., 2007; Pirbaglou et al., 2013; Verger et al., 2009). Blanco et al.,(2008)report that nearly
half of college students met DSM-IV criteria for at least one mental disorder in the previous year, with nearly 12%
suffering from anxiety and 7% from depression. In addition, 95% of counselling centre directors reported a
significant increase in students with mental health issues(Di Fronso et al., 2019; Gallagher et al., 2016).A recent
study shows nearly one-third of university students exhibit anxiety and depression symptoms (Pirbaglou et al.,
2013). Even though consistent evidence of increased levels of psychological distress among students has been
reported in past research studies,minimal effort has been made to identify significant risk factors for developing
psychological distress. Identifying significant predictors of psychological distress will help clinicians and

Corresponding Author:- Mohammad Saleem 24

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researchers develop effective treatment techniques. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the effect of
Intolerance of uncertainty and religiosity on psychological distress among university students.

Intolerance of uncertainty and psychological distress

We live in a world of uncertainty where we are unsure of what is coming next. In most cases, uncertainty is
unpleasant, and people vary in levels of tolerating this uncertainty. Many people are likely to feel uneasy in this
state. Individuals who have difficulty tolerating uncertainty experience negative emotions(Anderson et al., 2019),
interpret uncertain situations negatively(Lin & Scott, 2012), and engage in differentbehaviours in an attempt to
control or avoid uncertainty (Freeston et al., 1994). Intolerance of Uncertainty plays an important role in the works
of Dugas, Gagnon, Ladouceur, and Freestone (Dugas et al., 2004). Intolerance of uncertainty is a cross-diagnostic
vulnerability factor underlying several psychopathologies, particularly anxiety disorders like GAD and health
anxiety (Boelen et al., 2010; N. R. Carleton et al., 2012; McEvoy et al., 2019; Shihata et al., 2016; Yook et al.,
2010). It is defined as an "individual's dispositional inability to endure the aversive response triggered by the
perceived absence of the salient, key, or sufficient information and sustained by the associated perception of
uncertainty.‖(R. N. Carleton, 2016) Uncertainty is expected and normal, and it exists at every stage and domain of
life. It is possible to be uncertain about one's career, romantic partners, and future goals while still feeling in control.
However, for some people, this can be highly overwhelming, leading to psychological distress.’ (del-Valle et al.,
2022; Graffeo et al., 2022; Liao & Wei, 2011) The American Psychological Association (APA) dictionary of
psychology defines psychological distress. (Kyes, 2012) as ―a set of painful mental and physical symptoms that are
associated with normal fluctuations of mood in most people. It is thought to be what is assessed by many putative
self-report measures of depression and anxiety.‖ (Harvey & Bray, 1991), and ―as symptoms of depression and
anxiety‖(Bhattacharyya et al., 2014). A similar definition was used by Arvidsdotter et al., (2015) referring to
Psychological distress as ―a state of emotional suffering associated with stressors and demands that are difficult to
cope with in daily life‖ (p. 687). Because academic environments are frequently unstable and uncertain, they can be
overwhelming and extremely stressful to some(Kurtovic, 2013; Yavuzaslan et al., 2016; You, 2010). It is obvious
that IU can be a risk factor for the development of mental health problems in this population.

Religiosity and psychological distress:

Religiosity has been defined as the level of a person carrying out his religious rituals, which can be seen from the
quality and quantity of what is commonly referred to as religiosity, which is one important variable that has a
negative relationship with psychological distress. Previous research has revealed there is a significant negative
relationship between religiosity and psychological distress. It is well established that Intolerance of uncertainty has a
significant positive relationship with psychological distress Individuals with a high level of religiosity tend to have
more mental peace and adequate resources(Dunbar, n.d.; Grenier et al., 2005). Individuals with a high level of
religiosity are more relaxed, do not feel lonely, and have a high level of psychological well-being(Ladouceur et al.,
2000; Shanza et al., 2021). Religiosity is the state of being religious, as measured by an individual's knowledge,
faith, beliefs, and devotion. It is a religious quality, piety, or devoutness. Furthermore, the term religiosity carries
varying degrees of emotional charge depending on historical associations and attitudes. It has a positive relationship
with life satisfaction, psychological well-being, and spirituality. Based on the above discussion and the results from
past research studies, three possible hypotheses are proposed.

H1: Intolerance of uncertainty has a significant positive effect on psychological distress

H2. Religiosity has a significant negative effect on psychological distress
H3. There is a significant difference in Intolerance of uncertainty,Religiosityand Psychological distress between
males and females.

Methods:-
Participants and procedure
The present study is based on a sample of 209 university students, which consisted of 84 males and 125 females
aged between 20-35. The participants were purposively recruited after obtaining informed consent from all
participants. Self-report measures were used that took between 10-15 minutes to complete.

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Measures used
Intolerance of uncertainty:
IUS 12, developed by (R. N. Carleton et al., 2007), were used. The scale consists of 12 items rated on 5 points
Likertscale rangingfrom not at all characteristic of me =1 to entirely characteristic of me =5. the Intolerance of
uncertainty scale-12 has strong reliability.

Religiosity:
The Ok-Religious Attitude Scale (Islam) developed (Ok, 2016) scale consists of 8 items with two negative items and
six positive items rated on 5 points Likert scale ranging from Not at all =1 to completely =5

Psychological distress:
Psychologicaldistress was measured using Kessler's psychological distress scale-10, which consists of 10 items rated
on 5 points Likert scale ranging from All of the time =5 to none of the time =1.

Data analysis:
A multistep approach was conducted to analyse the collected data. In order to establish reliability and validity,
Cronbach’s alpha values and inter-construct Correlationwere examined. The descriptive analyses, which include the
mean and Standard deviation of Intolerance of uncertainty, religiosity and psychological distress, were examined. To
analyse the mean differences in Intolerance of uncertainty, religiosity and psychological distress with respect to
gender, an independent t-test was conducted. Lastly, multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to examine
the role of Intolerance of uncertainty and religiosity in predicting psychological distress.

Means, Standard deviations and the intercorrelations among all the under-study variables are reported in table 1.

Results revealed that intolerance of uncertainty was significantly and positively related with (r = 0.466, p <0.01)
psychological distress and negatively related with (r = -0.168, p < 0.01) religiosity activities. Religiosity activity was
found to be significantly and negatively related with (r = -.316, p <0.01) psychological distress.

Table 1:- Reports the intercorrelation of under-study variables.

Variables Mean SD 1 2 3

1. Intolerance of uncertainty 3.84 0.68 1

2. Religious 4.76 1.26 -.168* 1

3. Psychological distress 2.93 0.75 .466** -.316**

1
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 2:- Mean differences in Intolerance of uncertainty, Religious activities and psychological distress with respect
to gender.

Variables Gender N Mean S.D df t-value Sig

Intolerance of uncertainty Male 84 3.79 0.73 207 - 0.876 .382
Female 125 3.87 0.65
Religion activities Male 84 4.79 1.38 207 0.323 .747
Female 125 4.74 1.17
Psychological distress Male 84 2.72 0.71 207 -3.355 .001
Female 125 3.07 0.75

The results of mean differences in Intolerance of uncertainty, religiosity and psychological distress with respect to
gender are represented in table 2. The results revealed no significant differences in Intolerance of uncertainty (t= -
0.876) and religiosity (t=0.323) with respect to gender. Indicating that males and females Do not differ in
Intolerance of uncertainty and religiosity. In contrast, results regarding the gender differences in psychological

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distress (t=-3.355) were found to be significant at a 0.001 level. Indicating that males and females differ in their
levels of psychological distress. Therefore, hypothesis H3: is partially accepted
Hypothesis Causal Path Beta coefficient SE t-value sig.
H2 .471 .067 7.059 <0.001**
IOU → PD

RB →PD -.147 .036 -4.066 <0.001**

H3

Note: SE= standard error, p<0.01;**,IOU: intolerance of uncertainty, RB: religious beliefs, PD: psychological
distress.
Adjusted R2, 0.268, F, 39.096; R2, 0.275.
Table 3:- Summary of multiple regressions for Intolerance of uncertainty, Religious activities and psychological
distress.

Table 3 reports the results of multiple regression analyses, with psychological distress as a dependent variable and
Intolerance of uncertainty and religiosity as predictors. The results revealed that Intolerance of uncertainty and
religiosity predicted psychological distress significantly and explained a total variance of 27% in psychological
distress (Adjusted R2 = 0.268, R2 = 0.275, F = 82.875, p < .01). Moreover, results indicated that IOU played a more
important significant role in psychological distress as compared to religiosity. Therefore, hypotheses H2 and H3 are
accepted.

Discussion:-
The present study examined the effect of Intolerance of uncertainty and religiosity on psychological distress among
university students. Results of the correlational analysis revealed that intoleranceof uncertainty is positively and
significantly related with psychological distress. In contrast, religiosity was inversely found to be related with
psychological distress. These results are in line with the previous research conducted by (Jansen et al., 2010). Past
research studies indicated that Uncertain events are a major cause for causing distress among individuals who are
not able to tolerate uncertainty. They evaluate the outcome as negative and perceive it as a threat and thus resulting
in anxiety, which reduces the psychological well-being of an individual and gives rise to psychological distress.
Individuals with active participation in their religious activities are consistently found to related with increased
levels of well-being. It indicates that students with increased participation in their religious activities experience
lower levels of psychological distress. For instance, a conducted by Frankel and Hewitt (1994) found that students
who participated in religious activities found to live a happier life on the university campus and were also found to
be better able to deal with distress and argue that one of the reasons for these findings could be because of the social
support they receive from their religious community.

One of the important findings from the present study was that Intolerance of uncertainty and religiosity was found to
be significant predictors of psychological distress. The proposed model explained a total variance of 27% in
psychological distress. Consistent with the previous research studies, increased levels of Intolerance of uncertainty
and lower levels of religiosity were associated with increased levels of psychological distress (Adeyemo &Adeleye,
2008; Dunbar, n.d.; Schieman et al., 2006)

With regard to gender differences. The present study revealed no significant differences in Intolerance of uncertainty
and religiosity. Indicating that males and females do not differ in the levels of Intolerance of uncertainty and
religiosity. In Contrast, results indicated significant gender differences in psychological distress. Moreover, results
indicated that females reflected higher levels of psychological distress as compared to males. These results are
consistent with past research studies. A study conducted by Matudetal.,(2015) revealed that females reported
increased levels of psychological distress as compared to males. The study argues that these differences might be
due to gender roles, as female students are usually restricted within their homes and have and have greater
responsibilities which include house chores and limited exertainment opportunities, as compared to male students.

Despite the significant contribution of the present.There are a few limitations that should be further taken into
consideration. The present study is cross-sectional in nature which limits the to infer a causal relationship.
Longitudinal studies are needed to better understand the relationship among these variables over time. The present

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study used self-report measures to collect the data from the participants. Even though all the measures were selected
after evaluating their reliability and validity, self-report measures are prone to social desirability bias. Therefore,
further researchers are recommended to use multiple measures to deal with the issue of social desirability.

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