MODULE 3

PERSONALITY
 PERSONALITY
▪ Attributes of an individual which make him/her different from others.
▪ It refers to ―a relatively stable pattern of behavior that characterize an individual‖
▪ Robbins defines personality as" the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with
others.
▪ Personality has both internal and external elements.
1. External elements are observable behavior such as sociability
2. Internal elements such as thoughts, values etc.
▪ Personality is inherited as well as shaped by the environment.
▪ Inherited characteristics are altered by life experiences.
 Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator(MBTI)
▪ The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-help assessment test which helps people gain insights about
how they work and learn. It is a framework for relationship-building, developing positivism, and achieving
excellence.
▪ The MBTI was developed by Katherine Briggs and is based on the typological theory of Carl Jung who had
proposed that there are four essential psychological functions by which we see this world.
▪ These functions are sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. The base of MBTI lies in identifying our
preferences which are driven through our interests, values, needs, and motivation
▪ MBTI Measures
–how we interact with other people (Extroversion vs Introversion)
–how we see the world and process information ( Sensing vs intuition)
–how we make decisions and cope with emotions ( Thinking vs Feeling)
–Approach to work, planning and Orient themselves to the other world( Judging vs Perceiving)
1. Extroversion vs Introversion (how we interact with other people)
Introverted individuals are quiet and shy and prefer solitary activities and get exhausted by social
interaction. Extraverted individuals are , outgoing, social, and assertive and prefer group activities and get
energized by social interaction.

2. Sensing vs intuition (how we see the world and process information)

Sensing type uses organized structure to acquire factual details Sensing types are practical and prefer routine
and order. .They focus on what is happening or has already happened. intuitive people collect information
non systematically , focus on hidden meanings and future possibilities.

3. Thinking vs Feeling (how we make decisions and cope with emotions)

Thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems. They’re unemotional and uninterested in people’s
feelings. Feeling type consider how the choices affect others.

4. Judging vs Perceiving (Approach to work, planning and Orient themselves to the other world)
Judging type enjoy control of decision making and want to resolve problems quickly. They value clarity,
predictability and closure, preferring structure and planning to spontaneity. Perceiving type are more flexible
and prefer keeping their options open. They’re curious, adaptable, and tolerant
 The Big Five personality Traits( Big Five Model)

▪ The Big Five (also called Five Factor) model of personality is the most widely accepted personality theory
in the scientific community. Although it is not as well understood among laypeople as systems like Myers-
Briggs personality typing, it is generally believed to be the most scientifically sound way of conceptualizing
the differences between people.
▪ The Big Five is so named because the model proposes that human personality can be measured along five
major dimensions, each of which is distinct and independent from the others. The Big Five model is also
sometimes called OCEAN or CANOE, both acronyms of the five traits.
▪ The Five Factor Model breaks personality down into five components: Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Openness, and neuroticism. Personality tests that are based on this model measure where an
individual lies on the spectrum of each of the five traits.
Self Esteem, Self monitoring - Proactiveness &
Resilience
 Self -esteem
- An individual’s degree of like or dislike for himself or herself
 Self- monitoring
- A personality trait that measures the ability to adjust behavior to external situational factors
 Proactive personality
- A personality trait that describes individuals who are more prone to take actions to influence their
environments.
 Resilience
- An individual’s ability to overcome challenges and turn them into opportunities
ATTITUDES
 ATTITUDE
▪ Attitudes are relatively stable clusters of beliefs, feelings and behavioral dispositions towards some object,
event or ideas.
▪ Attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object, event or an idea in a certain way.
▪ We have attitudes toward the food we eat, people we interact with, courses we take, and various other
things. At work, two particular job attitudes have the greatest potential to influence how we behave. These
are job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction refers to the feelings people have
toward their job. On there hand Organizational commitment is the emotional attachment people have
toward the company they work for.
▪ E.g. I like cricket, I like ice cream
 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY
▪ Put forward by Leon Festinger.
▪ Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a
feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the
discomfort and restore balance.
▪ Cognitive dissonance theory sought to explain the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
▪ Individuals always seek consistency in their attitude and behavior. Cognitive dissonance-It’s a state of
inconsistency between an individuals attitude and behavior.
 Individuals tries to reduce tension/ dissonance by
1. Changing the attitude
2. Changing the behavior
3. Rationalizing the thoughts
•Eg: people know the side effects of smoking, but still they smoke.
Emotions & Emotional
Intelligence
 Emotions
▪ In psychology, emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological
changes that influence thought and behavior.
▪ Emotion, a complex experience of consciousness, bodily sensation, and behavior that reflects the personal
significance of a thing, an event, or a state of affairs.
▪ Emotions shape an individual’s belief about the value of a job, a company, or a team. Emotions also affect
behaviors at work. Research shows that individuals within your own inner circle are better able to recognize
and understand your emotions (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002).
▪ Emotions are reactions to a person (seeing a friend at work may make you feel glad) or an event (dealing with
a rude client may make you feel frustrated). You show your emotions when you’re ―happy about something,
angry at someone, afraid of something.‖ Moods, in contrast, aren’t usually directed at a person or an event. But
emotions can turn into moods when you lose focus on the event or object that started the feeling
▪ Emotions in the workplace play a large role in how an entire organization communicates within itself and to
the outside world.
 What Is Emotional Intelligence Or EQ?

▪ Emotional intelligence (otherwise known as emotional quotient or EQ) is the ability to

understand, use, and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress,
communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges and defuse
conflict.
▪ Emotional intelligence helps you build stronger relationships, succeed at school and
work, and achieve your career and personal goals. It can also help you to connect with
your feelings, turn intention into action, and make informed decisions about what matters
most to you.
▪ People with a high degree of emotional intelligence know what they're feeling, what their
emotions mean, and how these emotions can affect other people. For leaders, having
emotional intelligence is essential for success.
Emotional intelligence is commonly defined by four attributes :

1.Self-management – You’re able to control impulsive feelings and behaviors, manage your emotions in
healthy ways, take initiative, follow through on commitments, and adapt to changing circumstances.
2.Self-awareness – You recognize your own emotions and how they affect your thoughts and behavior.
You know your strengths and weaknesses, and have self-confidence.
3.Social awareness – You have empathy. You can understand the emotions, needs, and concerns of other
people, pick up on emotional cues, feel comfortable socially, and recognize the power dynamics in a group
or organization.
4.Relationship management – You know how to develop and maintain good relationships, communicate
clearly, inspire and influence others, work well in a team, and manage conflict.

According to Daniel Goleman , an American psychologist who helped to popularize emotional

intelligence, there are five key elements to it:

•Self-awareness.
•Self-regulation.
•Motivation.
•Empathy.
•Social skills.
 Implications For Managers
▪ Personality tests when hiring.
▪ Personality–Job Fit
▪ People’s approach to problem solving, decision making, and job interactions vary
with personality.
▪ Can result in high-performing and more satisfied employees.
▪ Helps to fine-tune managers emotional reactions according to the situation.
Perception
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 PERCEPTION
▪ Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli to meaningful
information. It is the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our
mind and use it later to judge and give a verdict on a situation, person, group etc.
▪ Perception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting, organizing,
interpreting, checking and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.
▪ Perception involves deciding which information to notice, how to categorize the
information, and how to interpret it with in the framework of our existing knowledge
▪ According to Joseph Reitz; ―Perception includes all those processes by which an
individual receives information about his environment—seeing, hearing, feeling,
tasting and smelling.‖
EG :
Perceptual process
Factors Influencing Perception
Ambiguous Figures

An Ambiguous Figure
— a duck or a rabbit
EG:
 Perceptual Grouping
▪ The Law of Proximity is that closer objects are grouped together. The Law of Similarity is that objects that
are similar are grouped together. A person has the tendency to perceive a whole when none exist is known as
Closure.

Principle of Proximity Principle of Similarity Principle of Closure

 Attribution Theory
▪ Attribution theory is concerned with how ordinary people explain the causes of behavior and events.
▪ Attribution theory is important for organizations because it can help managers understand some of the
causes of employee behavior and can assist employees in understanding their thinking about their own
behaviors.
▪ According to the theory, you want to be able to understand the reason for the actions you take and
understand the reasons behind the actions other people take. You want to attribute causes to these behaviors,
which should give you some felling of control over your own behaviors and related situations.
▪ The behavior of others can be based on 3 factors such as Distinctiveness, Consistency, Consensus.
▪ For example, over the course of a typical day, you probably make numerous attributions about your own
behavior as well as that of the people around you. When you get a poor grade on a quiz, you might blame
the teacher for not adequately explaining the material, completely dismissing the fact that you didn't study.
 Types of Perceptual Errors
Fundamental attribution error
▪ The fundamental attribution error is a cognitive bias that causes people to underestimate the
influence of environment-based situational factors on people’s behavior, and to overestimate
the influence of personality-based dispositional factors.
Selective perception
▪ People selectively interpret what they want to see on the basis of their interest , background,
experience, and attitudes.
▪ Eg: A plastic surgeon is more likely to notice an imperfect nose than a plumber.
Self serving basis
▪ The tendency of the individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while
putting blame for failures on external factors
▪ Eg: feed back provided to the employee in the performance review will be predictably
distorted by the recipients depending on whether it is positive or negative
Stereotyping
▪ •When a perceiver judges some person based on his perception about the group to which
the person belongs, it is known as stereotyping. Stereotyping may attribute favorable or
unfavorable traits to the person being perceived. In organizations, stereotypes are based on
gender, race, ethnicity.

▪ •Eg: Japanese people are very hardworking

Halo effect
•Drawing general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristics
(mainly positive characteristics).

•Eg: performance evaluation, a professor giving more marks to a well liked student.

•Rusty halo/horn effect ( over emphasizing the negative characteristics)

Projection
The tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other people
 Importance Of Perception At Work Place

▪ Authentic Communication
▪ Empathy
▪ Positive Attitude
▪ Managers need to pay close attention to how employees perceive both their jobs and
management actions
Learning
 Meaning
▪ Learning is ―a process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and
increases the potential for improved performance and future learning.‖
▪ The process of learning is continuous which starts right from the time of birth of an
individual and continues till the death.
▪ The change in the learner may happen at the level of knowledge, attitude or behavior.
As a result of learning, learners come to see concepts, ideas, and/or the world
differently.
 Definition
▪ According to Stephen P. Robbins Learning is any relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
▪ Gales defined Learning as the behavioral modification which occurs as a
result of experience as well as training.
▪ H.J. Klausmeir described Learning as a process which leads to some
behavioral change as a result of some experience, training, observation,
activity, etc.
▪ E.A, Peel, Learning can be described as a change in the individual which
takes place as a result of the environmental change.
Learning Process
The Key Characteristics Of The Learning Process

▪ Learning is a Result of Experience

▪ Learning Involves Problems Solving.
▪ Learning is the Process of Acquiring Information.
▪ Learning is a Lifelong Process.
▪ Learning Occurs Randomly Throughout Life.
▪ Learning Requires Interaction.
▪ Learning is Multifaceted
▪ Learning is Purposeful
 Learning Styles
▪ Visual (Spatial)
▪ Aural (Auditory-Musical)
▪ Verbal (Linguistic)
▪ Physical (Kinesthetic)
▪ Social (Interpersonal)
▪ Solitary (Intrapersonal)
Important Factors That May Affect The Learning Process

 Intellectual factor : The term refers to the individual mental level. Psychology reveals to use that an
individual possess different kinds to intelligence. Intellectual ability also affects learning. For example,
some people have an easier time remembering information than others. Some students can readily
understand abstract concepts, while others need concrete examples. Everyone has different intellectual
strengths and weaknesses. Once you get to know your students, you can help them understand the
information you want to get across by teaching to their strengths.

 Motivation: All of the factors that can affect how people learn, motivation might be the most important.
Someone who is motivated to learn a particular task or bit of information generally succeeds, even if
she/he has to work long and hard to do so. For example, When teaching a concept, always consider how
the material is relevant to your students' lives, because when individuals see the reason for learning, their
motivation increases. Provide feedback on students' learning to help them maintain their motivation.
 Emotional and social factors: Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as
cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation. It is a recognized fact that
the various responses of the individual to various kinds of stimuli are determined by a wide variety of
tendencies.
 Attention Spans : Attention spans vary among both children and adults. Some people simply prefer to be on
the go and have difficulty attending to a lecture or task for any length of time. Since the most popular method of
teaching requires students to listen and read, often while sitting still, students who have a short attention span
might have difficulty learning. You can help these students by incorporating hands-on activities into your lesson
plans, allowing for frequent short breaks and breaking large blocks of information into smaller chunks. Keep in
mind that students who are experiencing upheaval in their lives may temporarily suffer from shortened attention
spans.
 Environmental factor: Physical conditions needed for learning is under environmental factor. One of the
factors that affect the efficiency of learning is the condition in which learning takes place. This includes the
family, friends, classrooms, textbooks, equipment and other instructional materials.
 Mental factors: Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of different elements. They play a
large part in the mental organization and general behavior of the individual. The efficiency of the work from day
to day and the rapidity with which it is achieved are influenced by the attitude of the learner. A favorable mental
attitude facilitates learning.
 Types of Attitude
▪ Positive Attitude: It means that keeping a positive mindset and thinking about
the greater good, no matter whatever the circumstances are. A positive attitude
has many benefits which affect out other kinds of behaviour in a good way. For
example, a person who has a positive attitude and mindset will look for the
good in other person’s no matter how bad they behave or how bad is their
attitude. It also include :
 Confidence
 Happiness
 Sincerity
 Determination
▪ Negative Attitude: A negative attitude is something that every person should avoid.
Generally, people will negative attitude ignore the good things in life and only think
about whether they will fail. They often find a way out of tough situations by
running away from it. They often compare themselves with other persons and find
the bad in them only. In short, he is exactly the opposite of the one with a positive
mindset. There are certain bad effects that a person with a negative mindset has to
face. It includes :
Anger
Doubt
Frustration
▪ Neutral Attitude : This is another type of attitude that is common. That mindset is a
neutral one. There is no doubt. Neither is there any kind of hope. The people generally
tend to ignore the problems in life. They wait for some other individual to take care of
their problems. They generally have a lazy life and they are often unemotional. It is as
if they don’t think about anything that much and doesn’t care for the same as well. They
never feel the need to change themselves as they can simply live with the way they are.
▪ Sikken Attitude : One of the most dangerous types of attitude and different is the
sikken attitude. The sikken attitude has the caliber to destroy every image that comes in
connection with a positive image. This type of attitude is more of a negative attitude
and is very destructive. It often reflects the mind’s negativity. It is necessary to let go
off this kind of attitude for the betterment of the self and the people around you. They
are often difficult to be mended because the attitude is deep-rooted within one’s
personality. However, with time, it nevertheless is possible to change the course of
direction of this attitude.
 Classical Conditioning Theory

▪ The Classical Conditioning Theory was proposed by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov.
According to this theory, behavior is learnt by a repetitive association between the response
and the stimulus.
▪ The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is developed
through the interactions with the environment. Also, the environment shapes the behavior
and internal mental state such as thoughts, feelings, emotions do not explain the human
behavior.
▪ Pavlov conducted an experiment on a dog and measured the amount of saliva secreted by a
dog, with a use of a surgical procedure, when it is exposed to different stimulus or object. At
first, when Pavlov presented a piece of meat Unconditioned Stimulus (US) to the dog, he
noticed a great amount of salivation Unconditioned Response (UR) whereas, in the second
time, when he just rang the bell, he observed there was no effect of a bell on the dog’s
salivation.
▪ After this, Pavlov rang the bell accompanied with meat and noticed the salivation of a dog. He
repeated this process several times, and finally, one day he just rang the bell without meat and
observed that dog still salivated to the bell alone which was originally a neutral stimulus.
 Operant Conditioning
▪ A look at operant conditioning as a process of learning, and how Skinner's box
experiments demonstrated the effect of reinforcements on behavior.
▪ Operant conditioning is a theory of learning in behavioral psychology which emphasizes
the role of reinforcement in conditioning. It emphasizes the effect that rewards and
punishments for specific behaviors can have on a person’s future actions. The theory was
developed by the American psychologist B. F. Skinner following experiments beginning
in the 1930s, which involved the use of an operant conditioning chamber. Operant and
classical conditioning remain important theories in our understanding of how humans and
other animals learn new forms of behavior.
▪ Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning. According to this principle,
behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior
followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
• Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect – Reinforcement. behavior which is reinforced tends to
be repeated (i.e., strengthened), behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e.,
weakened). Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior. It is also known
as Reinforcement Theory

1. Neutral operant: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behavior being repeated.

2. Reinforces: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforces can be either positive or negative.

3. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Punishment weakens behavior.

We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforces and punishers. As a child
you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences.
For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got
in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e.,
rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior.
If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents
became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely
to smoke now.
• Managers will often attempt to ―mold‖
individuals by giving their learning in
graduated step, through called ―Shaped
Behaviour‖. It includes Positive
reinforcement, Negative/Avoidance,
Extinction & Punishment

• A Skinner box, also known as an operant

conditioning chamber, is a device used to
objectively record an animal's behavior
in a compressed time frame. An animal
can be rewarded or punished for
engaging in certain behaviors, such as
lever pressing (for rats) etc.
 Social Learning Theory
▪ Social learning theory, proposed by Albert Bandura, emphasizes the importance of
observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors
interact to influence human learning and behavior.
▪ In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning
theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
▪ Social learning/ Observational / Vicarious learning theory emphasizes the ability of an
individual to learn by observing others.
▪ The individual acquires new knowledge by observing what happens to his/her model.
▪ The models may include parents, teachers, peers, TV artists etc.
 Cognitive Learning Theory
▪ Jean Piaget Development of the CLT is credited to Educational Psychologist, Jean Piaget, and is useful in the
analysis of the relationship between mental processes and factors, both internal and external.
▪ Cognitive theory is an approach to psychology that attempts to explain human behavior
by understanding your thought processes.
▪ Cognitive Learning Theory is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing mental processes and how
they are influenced by internal and external factors in order to produce learning in individuals. When
cognitive processes are working normally then acquisition and storage of knowledge works well, but when
these cognitive processes are ineffective, learning delays and difficulties can be seen.
▪ Cognition is the mental process of gaining knowledge and understanding through the senses, experience and
thought. Cognitive learning theory merges cognition and learning to explain the different processes involved
in learning effectively.
▪ The cognitive learning process aims to chart the learning process for optimal thinking, understanding and
retention of what we learn. When you master the fundamentals of cognitive learning, it becomes easy to
maintain a lifelong habit of continuous learning. Not only can these strategies make you a better learner, but
they can make you more likely to excel in your profession.
 Types Of Cognitive Learning
▪ Observation or imitation learning. When we model our behavior after someone else or
something we have seen.
▪ Emotional learning. Learning that involves a person’s development of emotional intelligence,
which we use to control and manage our emotions.
▪ Experiential learning. The kind of cognitive learning that is a direct result of our experiences.
It is incredibly subjective, as individuals experience events and phenomena differently.
▪ Habituation and sensitization: Non-associative learning. Is a primitive type of learning that
makes it possible for humans to adapt, which is something that we have to do in our day to day
lives. An example of habituation would be people living near a noisy highway. When they first
move in, they are aware of all of the vehicles that pass by their house, but as they live there for
an extended period, they become desensitized to the noise, and it rarely bothers them.
▪ Discovery learning. When you go out of your way to learn, and actively search for
knowledge, that’s discovery learning.
Process Of Cognitive Learning
 Shaping A Managerial Tool
▪ Managers will be concerned with teaching employees to behave in ways that most benefit the
organization. Learning takes place on the job as well as prior to it. When we attempt to mold
individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps, we are shaping behavior.
▪ Methods of Shaping Behavior
There are four ways in which to shape behavior through,
 Positive reinforcement,
 Negative reinforcement,
 Punishment,
 Extinction.