LOGICAL & ABSTRACT

REASONING

LOGICAL & ABSTRACT REASONING

LOGICAL REASONING
Logic is the study of the valid way of reasoning.
A statement is a declarative sentence. A Example:
proposition is a statement with a claim that may be Birds have feathers. A chicken is a bird. Therefore, a
true or false, but not both. It may be symbolized by chicken has feathers.
a small letter (e.g. 𝒑). STATEMENT 1 : Birds have feathers
An argument is a sequence of statements. The (PREMISE 1)
statements that are presumed true and are meant STATEMENT 2 : A chicken is a bird.
to support the last statement are each called a (PREMISE 2)
premise. The last statement is the conclusion.
STATEMENT 3 : Therefore, a chicken has feathers.
A syllogism is an argument containing two premises (CONCLUSION)
and a conclusion.
This argument is an example of a syllogism.
Logical reasoning refers to the use of logic to
validate a conclusion derived from a given premise.

Deductive arguments are meant to support the conclusion with absolute certainty.
An argument is deductively valid (or simply valid) Common examples of deductive arguments are:
if the conclusion cannot be false given that the
premises are true. An argument is deductively 1. Mathematical Arguments – conclusion depends
invalid if the conclusion can be false given that the on mathematical computation or measurement.
premises are true. Example: I have 5 books in my bag. I took out 3
books in my bag. Therefore, 2 books are still in
An argument is sound if it is deductively valid and my bag.
all its premises are true. An argument is unsound if
it is deductively invalid, has at least one false 2. Definition Arguments – conclusion depend
premise, or both. merely in the definition of a word or phrase.
Example: Javi is a No-maj and therefore does
Examples: Determine if the argument is valid or not have the ability to do magic. (A No-maj is a
invalid, and if it is sound or unsound. person who can’t do magic.)
a. An even number is divisible by 2. The number 3. Categorical Syllogisms – syllogism in which
200 is an even number. Therefore, 200 is divisible statements refer to conclusion based on whether
how one is a part of another. It usually has the
by 2. words “all”, “some” or “none”.
b. All stars are hot. I am a star. Thus, I am certainly Example: Some birds can fly. All birds have
hot. feathers. Thus, some of those that have feathers
c. Weasels are carnivores. Because cats are can fly.
carnivores, it follows that weasels are cats.
d. Duterte is a female president. Female presidents 4. Hypothetical Syllogisms – syllogism that have
are charismatic. Therefore, Duterte is conditional statements on any of its premises.
charismatic. Example: If I study well, I will pass the exam. I
e. Since some fruits are yellow, and some fruits are will study well. I will surely pass the exam.
mangoes, it follows that some fruits are yellow 5. Disjunctive Syllogisms – syllogism that have
mangoes. either (but not both or none) of the two premises
being true (mutually exclusive). It usually has
A fallacy is an error in logical reasoning. Formal the words “either – or”.
fallacies are errors which comes from the form and Example: He smiles either because he knows the
structure of the deductive argument. answer to the question, or he has lost his sanity.
He actually doesn’t know the answer to the
question. Therefore, he has lost his sanity.

In Deductive Logic, knowing the form of the statements helps in assessing the validity of the argument. It is also
important to know whether statements are true or false to determine the validity of the argument.
Logically equivalent statements say the same thing Example:
as far as logic is concerned. 1. All minerals are solid.
Statement 𝑝 is logically equivalent to statement 𝑞 2. No mineral is not solid.
provided 𝑝 implies 𝑞 and 𝑞 implies 𝑝. Since the two statements have the same implication,
they are logically equivalent.
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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
Truth tables show the truth value of an argument However, if the statement 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⊻𝒒
(all the possible outcomes if the premises are made specifically implies EITHER 𝑝
true or false). 𝑇 𝑇 𝑭
OR 𝑞 but not BOTH, the OR 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇
Statements that are logically equivalent have the
same truth value. statement used is called an 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
EXCLUSIVE OR. 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
Logical operators (or truth operators) refer to words
representing processes that affect the truth value of a
Example:
statement.
𝒑∨𝒒 : Boys are naughty. B are n & b.
A negation of proposition 𝒑 𝒑 ~𝒑
is done by adding NOT to the 𝒒∨𝒒 : Boys are bold.
𝑇 𝐹 𝒑∨𝒒 : Boys are naughty or bold.
predicate of the statement. It
may also use the phrase “it is 𝐹 𝑇
If the statement that “boys are naughty” is true,
not the case that”. and that “boys are bold” is also true:
The negation of proposition 𝒑 is represented a. The boys are
symbolically as ~𝒑. (The ~ is called a tilde). naughty or bold. TRUE FALSE
b. The boys are
Example: not naughty, or they are bold. TRUE FALSE
~𝒑 : He is handsome. c. The boys are
~𝒑 : He is not handsome. naughty or not bold. TRUE FALSE
d. The boys are
If it is true that he is handsome, not naughty or not bold. TRUE FALSE
then it is false that he is not handsome. e. The boys are
If it is not true that he is not handsome, either naughty or bold. TRUE FALSE
then he IS handsome. f. The boys are
either naughty or not bold. TRUE FALSE
A conjunction of proposition 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∧𝒒
𝒑 and 𝒒 is done by 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 EXERCISES
connecting the propositions
with the word AND or other 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 The following are known to be true:
words that refer to the two 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 The Almighty Alpaca is a benevolent ruler.
propositions occurring 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 The Almighty Alpaca is a ruthless enemy to those
together such as BUT, YET, who have no faith.
and WHILE.
Based on the above premises, determine whether the
The conjunction of proposition 𝒑 and 𝒒 is propositions below are TRUE or FALSE.
represented symbolically as 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 (or in some logic
books, 𝒑 & 𝒒 or 𝒑 ⦁ 𝒒). (The ∧ is called a wedge). 1. The Almighty Alpaca is not
a benevolent ruler. TRUE FALSE
Example: 2. The Almighty Alpaca is not
𝒑∧𝒒 : Dogs are loyal. a ruthless enemy to those
who have no faith, yet he is
𝒒∧𝒒 : Dogs are cute. a benevolent ruler. TRUE FALSE
𝒑∧𝒒 : Dogs are loyal and cute.
3. The Almighty Alpaca is a
If the statement that “dogs are loyal” is true, ruthless enemy to those who
and that “dogs are cute” is also true: have no faith or he is not a
benevolent ruler. TRUE FALSE
a. Dogs are loyal and cute. TRUE FALSE
4. The Almighty Alpaca is a
b. Dogs are not loyal but cute. TRUE FALSE ruthless enemy to those who
c. Dogs are loyal but not cute. TRUE FALSE have no faith and the
d. Dogs are not loyal and not cute. TRUE FALSE Almighty Alpaca is a
benevolent ruler. TRUE FALSE
A disjunction of propositions 𝒑 and 𝒒 is done by 5. The Almighty Alpaca is
connecting the propositions with the word OR. either a benevolent ruler or
a ruthless enemy to the
The disjunction of proposition 𝒑 and 𝒒 is faithless. TRUE FALSE
represented symbolically as 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒. (The ∨ is called
a vee).
A conditional of propositions 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑⊃𝒒
NOTE: The OR statement 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑∨𝒒
used with disjunction is called 𝒑 and 𝒒 is an argument 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
an INCLUSIVE OR (which is 𝑇 𝑇 𝑻 where 𝑝 is the antecedent 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
used to mean either or both). 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 and 𝑞 is the consequent. It 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 has the form “if 𝒑, then 𝒒” or 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 “𝒑 implies 𝒒”.
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 If Sim does not diet and exercise, then Sim will not lose weight
If Sim had not lost weight, then Sim had not gone on a diet. LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING

The conditional of propositions 𝒑 and 𝒒 is b. If it isn’t a fish, then it has no scales.

represented symbolically as 𝒑 ⊃ 𝒒 (or in some logic CV IV CP TRUE FALSE
books, 𝒑 ⇒ 𝒒). (The ⊃ is called a horseshoe). c. If it has no scales, then it is not a fish.
CV IV CP TRUE FALSE
Inverse Example:
If𝒑 Sim
⊃𝒒 :
dietsThe
& exercises,
candle is lit.
then Sim loses weight. If the Conditional and the 𝒑 𝒒 𝒑≡𝒒
Contrapositive 𝒒⊃𝒒 : The candle will melt. Converse are both true, then
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
they form a biconditional. It
𝒑⊃𝒒 : If the candle is lit, then it will melt. 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹
Direct Condi has the form “if and only if
If it is true that the candle is lit, and the candle did 𝒑, then 𝒒” or “𝒑 iff 𝒒”. 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹
Converse Ifmelt,
orSim
determine if the following conditionals are true
false.has lost weight, then Sim had gone on a diet. 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇
The biconditional of propositions 𝒑 and 𝒒 is
a. If the candle is lit, represented symbolically as 𝒑 ≡ 𝒒 (or in some
then it will not melt. TRUE FALSE logic books, 𝒑 ⇔ 𝒒). (The ≡ is called a triple-bar).
b. If the candle is not lit,
then it will not melt. TRUE FALSE Example:
c. If the candle is not lit, Given the statements “The sun rises. We will go
it will melt. TRUE FALSE home.” to be true,
(Why is this the case? Can the candle melt in other ways?) a. If and only if the sun rises,
If the C is lit,
Variations may be of the following forms for the the C will melt. then we will go home. TRUE FALSE
b. If and only if we will go home,
Direct Conditional 𝒑 ⊃ 𝒒: then the sun rises. TRUE FALSE
 The Converse isIf the C melted, then 𝒒 ⊃ 𝒑C was lit. c. If the sun does not rise,
 The Inverse If the
is C is not lit, then~𝒑 C ⊃will
~𝒒 not melt. we will not go home. TRUE FALSE
 The Contrapositive is ~𝒒 ⊃ ~𝒑 d. If we do not go home,
If the C was not melted, then C was not lit. then the sun has risen. TRUE FALSE
Example: e. If the sun does not rise,
Direct Conditional: If I were a boy, we will go home. TRUE FALSE
then I could understand.
Converse: If I could understand,
then I was a boy. EXERCISES
Inverse: If I were not a boy, Based on the premises given determine if each
then I could not understand. proposition below is True or False
Contrapositive: If I could not understand,
then I was not a boy. I broke the figurine. I have to buy the figurine.
1. If I break the figurine,
The truth value of the Direct Conditional (DC) is then I have to buy it. TRUE FALSE
the same as the Contrapositive (CP) (i.e. they are 2. If I don’t break the figurine,
logically equivalent). then I don’t have to buy it. TRUE FALSE
The truth value of the Inverse (IV) is the same as 3. If I had to buy the figurine,
the Converse (CP) (i.e. they are logically then I must have broken it. TRUE FALSE
equivalent). 4. If and only if I broke the figurine,
then I will have to buy it. TRUE FALSE
DC CV IV CP
𝒑 𝒒 ~𝒑 ~𝒒 𝒑⊃𝒒 𝒒⊃𝒑 ~𝒑 ⊃ ~𝒒 ~𝒒 ⊃ ~𝒑 I did not break the figurine. I have to buy the figurine.
𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 5. If I break the figurine,
I have to buy it. TRUE FALSE
𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹
6. If I did not have to buy the
𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝐹 𝑇 𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 figurine, then I have not broken it. TRUE FALSE
𝐹 𝐹 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 7. If I have to buy the figurine,
then I have broken it. TRUE FALSE
Example: 8. If and only if I broke the figurine
Given the statement will I have to buy the figurine. TRUE FALSE
“If it is a fish, then it has scales.” I broke the figurine. I don’t have to buy it.
If it is truly a fish, and it indeed has scales, determine 9. If I break the figurine,
the variation and whether it is true or false. I have to buy it. TRUE FALSE

a. If it has scales, then it is a fish. 10. If and only if I have to buy the
figurine then I broke the figurine. TRUE FALSE
CV IV CP TRUE FALSE

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
Hypothetical (Or Conditional) Syllogisms are forms of deductive arguments use conditional propositions.
Recall that conditional statements may be valid and Today is not Jimin’s birthday.
true even if the antecedent is false as long as the Therefore, there is no cake.
consequent is true. (𝐹 ⊃ 𝑇 is 𝑇)
To prove this statement’s invalidity, it must be
Example: If the gun is heavy, then it is loaded. broken down to its form:
If it is true that the gun is loaded even if the gun is Jimin ’s birthday today implies
NOT really heavy, the conditional statement is still there’s cake ~𝑩 ⊃ 𝑪
true. Jimin ’s birthday is not today ~𝑩
Modus Ponens (mode of There is no cake ∴ ~𝑪
~𝑷 ⊃ 𝑸
asserting) is a valid
argument in the form ~𝑷
The conclusion is that there is no cake. If there is
∴ ~𝑸 cake, then it is a false conclusion even if the premises
are true. Can there be cake even if today is not
Example: If it is raining, the ground is wet. Jimin’s birthday? Yes. A cake can be bought and
It is raining. there will be cake even if there is no occasion. Thus,
The ground, therefore, is wet. the argument is invalid.
“Asserting the consequent” ~𝑷 ⊃ 𝑸
is a formal fallacy with EXERCISES
argument in the form ~𝑸
∴ ~𝑷 Given the premise is true, determine whether the
arguments are Valid or Invalid and whether the
Example: If it is raining, the ground is wet. concluding proposition is TRUE, FALSE or UNSURE.
The ground is wet. Premise: If it is a snake with a diamond-shaped head, it
It is therefore raining. is venomous.
(FALLACY!)
1. That snake has a diamond-shaped head. It is
venomous.
Modus tollens (mode of ~𝑷 ⊃ 𝑸
denying) is a valid argument VALID INVALID TRUE FALSE UNSURE
~𝑸 2. That snake has a diamond-shaped head. It is not
in the form
∴ ~𝑷 venomous.
VALID INVALID TRUE FALSE UNSURE
Example: If it is raining, the ground is wet. 3. That snake is venomous. Therefore, it has a diamond-
The ground is not wet. shaped head.
Therefore, it is not raining.
VALID INVALID TRUE FALSE UNSURE

“Denying the antecedent” is 4. That snake is not venomous. Therefore, its head is
~𝑷 ⊃ 𝑸 not diamond-shaped.
a formal fallacy with
argument in the form ~𝑷 VALID INVALID TRUE FALSE UNSURE
∴ ~𝑸 5. This snake does not have a diamond-shaped head.
Thus, it’s not venomous.
Example: If it is raining, the ground is wet. VALID INVALID TRUE FALSE UNSURE
It is not raining.
Therefore, the ground is not wet. Determine whether the conclusion of the hypothetical
(FALLACY!) syllogism is TRUE, FALSE, or UNSURE.
1. If an animal stops eating, it will die. Goose, an
Transitivity of implication ~𝑷 ⊃ 𝑸 animal, stopped eating. Goose will therefore die.
(or chain rule) is a valid TRUE FALSE UNSURE
argument in the form ~𝑸 ⊃ 𝑹
2. If it is a rectangle, then it has 4 sides. Quadrilateral
∴ ~𝑷 ⊃ 𝑹 ABCD has 4 sides. Therefore, ABCD is a rectangle.
TRUE FALSE UNSURE
Example: If it is raining, the ground is wet.
If the ground is wet, the cat can’t go 3. If you inhale ground pepper, you will sneeze. You
outside. sneezed. You did not inhale ground pepper.
Thus, If it is raining, then the cat can’t go TRUE FALSE UNSURE
outside. 4. If Xavi installs Tiktok, then we all lose this war. We
are not losing this war. Thus, Xavi has not installed
A counterexample is an instance of the argument Tiktok. TRUE FALSE UNSURE
having true premises but false conclusion. If a 5. It is true that if you leave me then I will cry, and that
counterexample exists, then the argument is invalid. if I cry then it will be obvious that you left me.
Example: If today is Jimin’s birthday, then there is Therefore, if you leave me, then it will be obvious
cake. that you did. TRUE FALSE UNSURE

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 All = one group Jury (pl) eat lunch.
all girls(24) dancing. (sing) gives verdict. LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
none-few-some-many-all
Categorical Logic (or Class Logic) refers to argumentation by looking at relationships between categories of things.
Categorical syllogisms are forms of deductive arguments that make use of categories.
Universal statements refer to all members of the
set being described by the predicate. It usually uses
EXERCISES groups & attributes
part words such as ‘all’, ‘every’, and ‘each’. Filipinos are Asians. Asians are Humans.
Particular statements refer to only a subset being
described by the predicate. It usually uses words such
Some = 13/24, 15/24
as ‘some’, ‘many’, and ‘few’.
Many = 20/24, 23/24
Positive (Affirmative) statements refer to
Few = 2/24, 5/24 that describe exactly what the subject’s
predicates
quality is.
Negative statements refer to what they are NOT
(it does not necessarily mean the opposite
team - singular (acting as one)
Therefore:
1. Filipinos are Humans.
characteristics of the positive statement but rather
the absence of that quality).
plural (member
TRUE acting
FALSE separately
UNSURE
2. Humans are Filipinos.
Diagrams are helpful tools in testing the validity of an TRUE FALSE UNSURE
argument. Euler Diagrams represent how different
categories are actually related to each other. Venn 3. Some Humans are Filipinos.
diagrams show all possible relations of the categories TRUE FALSE UNSURE
even if these categories do not have elements in 4. Some Asians are not Filipinos.
Every/each
common.
individuallyTRUE FALSE UNSURE
Example: Represent the following statement using Euler 5. Some Humans who are not Asians are Filipinos.
Every/each girl of the 24 girls
and Venn diagrams: TRUE FALSE UNSURE
every girl putting on make up. ㅩ
Every good boy will receive gifts from Santa.
Recognizing the four forms of categorical
EULER VENN statements will help in checking the validity of an
argument. The four categorical statements are:
Universal Positive Statement (𝑼 +)
"𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑞. "

EULER VENN

In the Euler Diagram, it In the Venn diagram,

is obvious that all good the two categories (i.e.
boys must belong under “those who are good boys”
the category of those who and “those who will Example: If All lions are cats, then
will receive gifts from receive Santa’s gifts”) are
Santa. distinctly identified. a. All lions are not cats. ___________
b. Some lions are not cats. ___________
The category that The white region exists c. Some lions are cats. ___________
represents all good boys based on the premise (i.e.
who will not receive gifts all the good boys that will Universal Negative Statement (𝑼 −)
from Santa technically receive gifts from Santa). "𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑞. "
does NOT exist and The black region does
therefore does not appear NOT exist based on the
in this Euler diagram. EULER VENN
premise (i.e. there are no
However, there are good boys who will not
those who are not “good receive Santa’s gifts).
boys” specifically (e.g. bad
boys, good girls, etc.) who As with the Euler foxes cats
technically can still receive diagram, there is a gray
gifts from Santa. region whose existence
cannot be determined
The existence of this conclusively based on the
region (shown in gray) premise. Example: If foxes are not cats, then
cannot be determined a. Foxes are cats. ___________
conclusively based solely b. Some foxes are not cats. ___________
on the premise. c. Some foxes are cats. ___________
Mentorsplus College Entrance Tests Review 2022 Page 5 of 18
No fox is a cat.
 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
U+ = All birds are flappy. The following truth tables can also be used to
Particular Positive Statement (𝑷 +)
P- = Some birds are not flappy..
"𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑞. " validate the arguments based on the categorical
statements:
U- = Every whaleEULER
is not a fish. VENN
IF THE STATEMENT THEN THE STATEMENT BELOW IS
U+ = Every whale is a fish. BELOW IS TRUE
𝑼+ 𝑼− 𝑷+ 𝑷−
𝑼+ FALSE TRUE FALSE

U- = Every whale is not a fish. 𝑼− FALSE FALSE TRUE

P+ = Some whale is a fish. 𝑷+ UNSURE FALSE UNSURE

𝑷− FALSE UNSURE UNSURE

Note that the 𝑥 refers to a region that is sure to

exist. IF THE STATEMENT THEN THE STATEMENT BELOW IS
BELOW IS FALSE
Example: If some birds are flappy, then 𝑼+ 𝑼− 𝑷+ 𝑷−
a. All birds are flappy. ___________ 𝑼+ UNSURE UNSURE TRUE
b. All birds are not flappy. ___________ Text 𝑼− UNSURE TRUE UNSURE
c. Some birds are not flappy. ___________ 𝑷+ FALSE TRUE TRUE
U- = Every whale is not a fish. 𝑷− TRUE FALSE TRUE
P- = SomeParticular
whale isNegative Statement (𝑷−)
not a fish.
"𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑞. "

EULER VENN EXERCISES

Provided that each premise is true, determine whether
each conclusion is TRUE, FALSE, or UNSURE.
1. Every Filipino was born in the Philippines. Therefore,
some Filipinos were born in the Philippines.
TRUE FALSE UNSURE
2. Some girls are pretty. Therefore, some girls are not
pretty.
TRUE FALSE UNSURE
Example: If Some skunks are not stinky, then 3. A lot of the students are noisy. Therefore, all the
a. All skunks are stinky. ___________ students are not noisy.
b. All skunks are not stinky. ___________ TRUE FALSE UNSURE
c. Some skunks are stinky. ___________ 4. Some of the teachers are not hungry. All the
teachers, therefore, are not hungry.
U+ P- TRUE FALSE UNSURE
5. Pearly shells are from the ocean. Thus, some pearly
shells are not from the ocean.
TRUE FALSE UNSURE

A true statement can also be converted to a logically equivalent statement by switching the subject and
predicate by following these rules of conversion:
Universal Positive to Universal Negative to Particular Positive to
Particular Positive: Universal Negative: Particular Positive:
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝒑 𝑖𝑠 𝑞 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝒑 ⟹ 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝒑 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝑞 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝒑 ⟹ 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝒑 𝑖𝑠 𝑞

Example: Example: Example:

All children like Lego. Husbands do not like shopping. Some teens are pretty girls.
Therefore, some of those who Thus, those who like shopping Therefore, some pretty girls
like Lego are children. are not husbands. are teens.

Mentorsplus College Entrance Tests Review 2022 Page 6 of 18

 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
A statement can be converted to one with a Example:
negative subject, and vice versa, by following these Some ogres are not evil.
rules of negation: Hence, not all ogres are evil.
 Negation of Universal Positive:
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝒑 ⟺ 𝑁𝑜 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝒑
EXERCISES
Example: Determine whether the arguments are TRUE, FALSE, or
All wizards are awesome.
Therefore, no wizard is not awesome.
UNSURE. All q is p =
1. Any good student knows how to write a good essay.
 Negation of Universal Negative: Therefore, some of those who writes good essays are
𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝒑 ⟺ 𝑁𝑜 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝒑 students.
TRUE FALSE UNSURE
Example:
2. All mammals are warm-blooded animals.
All speedsters are not slow. Therefore, all warm-blooded animals are mammals.
Therefore, no speedster is slow. TRUE FALSE UNSURE
 Negation of Particular Positive: 3. Chocolate is not his favorite.
𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝒑 ⟺ 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝒑 Therefore, some of his favorites are not chocolate.
TRUE FALSE UNSURE
Example:
4. Some singers are dancers.
Some damsels are pretty. Therefore, not all singers are not dancers.
Hence, not all damsels are not pretty. TRUE FALSE UNSURE
 Negation of Particular Negative: 5. All her boyfriends are popular.
𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝒑 ⟺ 𝑁𝑂𝑇 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝒑 Thus, not all her boyfriends are not popular.
TRUE FALSE UNSURE

Inductive arguments are meant to support the conclusion with a strong probability.
An argument is inductively strong (or simply 4. People have been listening to rock music for over
strong) if its conclusion follows with high a millennium. People will probably still be listening
probability from the premises. to rock music a hundred years from now.
An argument is inductively weak if its conclusion STRONG WEAK COGENT UNCOGENT
does not follow probably from the premises, even 5. A 5-kg stone dropped from the top of a 100-m
when claimed. An argument is cogent if it is high building reached the ground in 3 seconds. A
inductively strong and all its premises are true. An 10-kg stone dropped from the same height
argument is uncogent if it is inductively weak, has reached the ground in 3 seconds as well. Clearly,
at least 1 false premise, or both. a stone weighing 50-kg will reach the ground in 10
seconds if dropped from the same height.
EXERCISES STRONG WEAK COGENT UNCOGENT

Determine if the argument is strong or weak, and if

it is cogent or uncogent. Inductive arguments can become stronger or
weaker when new information is known.
1. Paleontologist have found fossils of bones of
gigantic lizard-like animals which they called Example:
dinosaurs. Radiometric dating techniques reveal
that these fossilized bones are more than 50 Argument: I bought 2 mobile phones from
million years old. Therefore, dinosaurs probably Lazhapee and they both turned out to be
roamed the earth 50 million years ago. defective. This means phones bought from
Lazhapee are defective.
STRONG WEAK COGENT UNCOGENT
Lazhapee may be selling hundreds of phones and
2. Yesterday, our national hero Jose Rizal was 2 of them being defective might not be strong
arrested for theft. There were several eyewitnesses enough to conclude that all the phones they sell
who saw him stealing some flip-flops. He must be are defective. However, the more additional
guilty. phones you buy that turn out to be defective, the
STRONG WEAK COGENT UNCOGENT stronger your argument becomes.
3. The trash bin has the label 'biodegradable'. There
is some trash inside. The trash inside must be
biodegradable.
STRONG WEAK COGENT UNCOGENT

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
Common examples of inductive arguments are the following:
1. Argument to Authority – strength of the 4. Appeal to Typical Example – strength of the
argument is based on reliable authority. argument is based on a few examples that
should be enough to represent others that are
Example: According to several studies made similar or analogous to it.
by various scientists, the global temperature
has been increasing every year. I can
therefore definitely say that there is a yearly Cause Example: I didn’t like first durian I ever ate. I
will definitely not like any durian you’ll ask me
increase of global temperature. to eat.
2. Prediction – strength of the argument is 5. Causal Inference – strength of the argument
based on trends from past to future. is based on the idea that one event is caused
by another.
Example: The Laseneo Green Eagles has
beaten the Atesalle Blue Archers every year Example: People who eat raw meat that’s
since 1990. We can expect this year that thriving with bacteria gets sick. The bacteria
Laseneo will again win against Atesalle. are what is causing the people to get sick.
3. Argument Based on Signs – strength of the
argument is based on signs that suggest the United Nation’s Children’s Fund
truth of the proposition.
Example: The sign at the door says, “the The best way to judge a
doctor is out”. The doctor is most likely not
inside. person is through their history.
An informal fallacy is an inductive argument whose stated premises fail to support their proposed conclusion.
There are several informal fallacies that must be avoided. Some of the common ones are:
 misplaced
Ad Hominem (Against the assumptions
Person) –  Faulty Comparison – comparing two things
focusing on the person’s character. are not related to make one look bad, or the
other better.
Example: Donald argues that we should
reduce the amount of plastic we are Example: Brushing with Colgup toothpaste
consuming, but I don’t think we should believe kills 90% more bacteria than gargling. You
someone who lives alone with cats and smells need to get Colgup toothpaste!
weird.
 Slippery Slope (Absurd Extrapolation) –
 Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question) suggesting that an insignificant event will
– going back to where they started. ultimately lead to another significant event.
Example: McJo has the best food in the Example: We should not allow foreigners into
country. We know this because there are so our country. Now they are visiting our tourist
many branches of McJo in the country. Clearly, spots, next thing you know, they are taking
there are so many branches of McJo because over our jobs!
it has the best food.
 Genetic Fallacy – basing the truth of an
 Strawman Fallacy – distorting someone’s argument to the source of the premise.
argument into a weak argument so that they
can be attacked easily. Example: Peter keeps telling us to delete
Phasebook in our phones to avoid the invasion
Example: Daniel here says that he believes in of our privacy. But Peter said this because he
evolution. Clearly, he thinks that we came broke up with his girlfriend and he’s avoiding
from pond scum and are no different from the her in Phasebook. I say we should not delete
apes that he claims we came from! Phasebook in our phones.
 False Dilemma (All or Nothing fallacy /  Non-sequitur (Does not follow) – the
Black-or-White fallacy) – presenting only two conclusion does not follow from the premises.
extreme choices when there are possible
choices in between. Example: Manuel owns several cars and can
impersonate Michael Jackson. We should vote
Example: I thought you are a good person. for him as president.
Why aren’t you at church today? All good people go to church.
 Ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity) –
distracts from truth by using pity.
Example: I deserve to pass this subject. I went
to class even though my pet cat died.

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING

EXERCISES
Determine the fallacy in the following arguments.
1. If you cannot prove that Charles had an affair 7. The testimony of the defendant accused of
with his ex-girlfriend, then he has been faithful to manslaughter in this indictment should be
his wife. disallowed because she had been arrested for
shoplifting on many occasions.
a. False Dilemma
b. Slippery Slope a. Non-sequitur
c. Begging the Question b. Ad Hominem
c. Faulty Comparison
2. Animal rights activists believe that we shouldn’t
keep animals captive and make them do our will. 8. Look Mr. IRS examiner, of course I owe taxes – I
They would have abandoned your pet in the am not denying that. However, I was unable to file
wilderness. on time because my wife was sick, and my two
children need my attention. Surely, the IRS is not
a. Slippery Slope opposed to keeping the family together.
b. False Dilemma
c. Strawman Fallacy a. Genetic Fallacy
b. Strawman Fallacy
3. You forgot to pay your bills on time. Interests will c. Ad Misericordiam
pile up and banks will knock on your door and
seize your property. 9. It is easy to see that goodness is in the world and
not just in our minds, because as we look at the
a. Slippery Slope world, some things are obviously not evil in this
b. Strawman Fallacy world.
c. Non-sequitur
a. Circular Reasoning
4. Our product is so good, it was given away in b. False Dilemma
celebrity bags. c. Faulty Comparison
a. Faulty comparison 10. Mr. Watkins has clearly and concisely detailed his
b. Genetic Fallacy arguments concerning the relative safety of
c. Non-sequitur tobacco products for third world countries. But let
5. The Bible is the Word of God because it is said so me remind you that we could hardly expect him to
in the Bible. say anything else because he has worked in the
tobacco industry for the last twenty years.
a. Circular Reasoning
b. Non-sequitur a. Ad Hominem
c. False Dilemma b. Genetic Fallacy
c. Strawman Fallacy
6. Yes, your ideas seem good, but since you
developed those ideas while you were in the
privacy of your bathroom, I don’t think anyone can
accept those suggestions.
a.
b.
Slippery Slope
Genetic Fallacy
Hypothetical
c. Non-sequitur Disjunctive
Syllogisms are a common type of question in Logical Reasoning tests.
Conjunctive
Note that the test they may not reveal the kind of syllogism or argument given and there will be a need to pick
among the choices describing the truth, validity, or strength of the propositions. Thus, knowledge of both
deductive and inductive reasoning is important to pick the best answer.
Example: The diagram shows clearly that
Catriona belongs to the category
Cats are afraid of cucumbers. Catriona is a cat. “afraid of cucumbers”. The
Therefore, Catriona is afraid of cucumbers. conclusion of the argument is
a. Certainly true certainly true.
b. Most probably true
c. Most probably false Example:
d. Certainly false Cats are afraid of snakes. Cucumbers have a
The argument requires us to determine the truth strong resemblance to snakes. Cats then are
value of the conclusion with absolute certainty. afraid of cucumbers.
a. Certainly true
Deductive reasoning must therefore be used. An b. Most probably true
Euler diagram can be used to represent the c. Most probably false
argument. d. Certainly false
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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
The argument moves from the cat’s fear of snakes what makes a cat afraid of it, it can be guessed
to the resemblance to cucumbers. This information that probably something that looks like a snake
is not enough to certainly say that cats will be will have the same effect to a cat (Causal
afraid of cucumbers. However, the strength of the Inference). It will be a safe bet to say that the
argument can be inductively checked. If the argument is most probably true.
assumption is that the appearance of the snake is

EXERCISES
For items 1 and 2, refer to the passage below. 4. If anyone managed to pull the legendary hammer
sword out of the stone, he will be granted lightning
F= B commitment
+ “Fanaticism
to a
[is not] merely a strong
worldview, ideology or belief
powers. King ArThor pulled the legendary hammer
sword out of the stone. The conclusion, “King
system…. [It] is not the same as merely exhibiting ArThor will be granted lightning powers.” is
extreme enthusiasm either. Men and women of
principle are considered confident and not fanatic…. If a. Definitely True
someone has strong convictions, it does not mean that
s/he would think about her/himself as infallible. What
b.
c.
Most probably True
Most probably False
TP
does differentiate fanatics from people who are d. Definitely False g m
confident in a positive way is that they are absolutely
certain their understandings are absolutely correct.” – 5. No gossips are thought-provoking. Some
mysteries are thought-provoking. The conclusion,
L. Calhoun, An Anatomy of Fanaticsm “Some mysteries are not gossips.” is
1. The statement, “Some people who believe that a. Definitely True
their understandings are infallible do not have a b. Most probably True
strong commitment to an ideology.” is c. Most probably False
d. Definitely False
a. Definitely True
b. Most probably True 6. All things that fly require fuel to function. No birds
c. Most probably False require fuel to function. The conclusion, “Some
d. Definitely False C=R + E + … birds fly.” is
2. The statement, “Throughout history, conservatism a. Definitely True
is permeated with racism and extremism and
therefore, we can say that conservatism is a form
b.
c.
Most probably True
Most probably False B FF
of fanaticism.” Is d. Definitely False
a.
b.
Definitely True
Most probably True All-Many- Some-Few-None
c. Most probably False
d. Definitely False
3. If Emil possesses grit, he will be successful in life.
The conclusion, “Either Emil does not possess grit,
or he will be successful in life.” is
a. Definitely True
b. Most probably True
c. Most probably False
d. Definitely False

Other Logical Reasoning Problems may involve the following:

 Comparisons and Ordering are about logical
relationships involving order or differences in
magnitude. It may also require visualizing the
objects spatially or temporally.
Example:
If Erik eats faster than Brian, and Brian eats
slower than Reb, then Reb eats slower than Erik.
Solution: A simple illustration can be used to
compare the elements involved in each
statement. Though Erik and Reb both eat faster
than Brian, the comparison of Erik’s and Reb’s
eating rate cannot be conclusively determined.
Therefore, the conclusion is not necessarily true.
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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING

EXERCISES  Definition Types involve determining the type of

definition that a given statement false under.
Determine if TRUE, FALSE, or UNSURE: Aldo can
jump higher than Kem. Kem can jump higher than The types of definitions are as follows:
Marvin. Iyay can’t jump as high as Kem. Therefore,
Iyay is the lowest jumper among the four.  Lexical – definition is found in dictionary and
written in a way to reduce ambiguity by giving
a single established meaning of the term.
 Linguistics Problems involve finding logical
relationships in the formation of words or Example:
phrases in a language (real or artificial). This
relies on inductive reasoning. Light is the natural agent that stimulates sight
and makes everything visible.
Example:
ponisilo means shrimp net  Precising - definition is NOT found in
lansutok means fish crackers dictionary and applies only to the situation
lansusilo means fish net when it was used.
ponitok means shrimp crackers
___________ Example:
EXERCISES Light, in this study, refers to the whole
min - boy electromagnetic spectrum, whether visible or
mer -girl
The following phrases are translations from words of not.
an ‘ancient’ pseudo language. joi - happy  Stipulative – definition of new word when
A tall boy tasmin tas - tall invented, or an existing word given a new
tri - tree meaning.
A short girl ditasmer
A happy boy joimin
fes - pretty Example:
ditas - short To give the other team ‘something light’ means
A tall tree tastri to show them something awesome that will
di - not make us win.
A pretty tree festri
A sad pig dijoiboi  Persuasive – definition that has bias from
speaker/writer and aims to persuade
What do the following words mean? listener/reader.
1. tasmer tall girl
--------------------------- Example:
2. difesmer not pretty girl
--------------------------- Light is the thing that allows us to witness the
3. ditasboi short pig
---------------------------
wonders of God’s creation.
4. fesboi pretty pig
--------------------------- EXERCISES
5. joitri happy tree
--------------------------- Determine what type of definition is given.
6. fesmin pretty boy
---------------------------
1. ‘Late students’ refer to enrolled students who
come to class after 15 minutes from scheduled
 Deductive Inferencing involves deducing new start of class.
information from pre-given information.
LEXICAL PRECISING STIPULATIVE PERSUASIVE
Example:
JP is the half-brother of Javi. Javi has a grandson 2. Let us consider “human” to be any member of
named Mac. Who among the 3 is the only the species homo sapiens.
female? LEXICAL PRECISING STIPULATIVE PERSUASIVE
Male Female
JP (half bother) 3. Nowadays, everyone can easily make photos of
themselves using their phones; these are called
Javi selfies.
Mac (grandson) LEXICAL PRECISING STIPULATIVE PERSUASIVE

EXERCISES 4. A doe is a female deer.

In a certain company, we have the positions LEXICAL PRECISING STIPULATIVE PERSUASIVE
manager, treasurer, and secretary, held by Cunanan,
Lamanilao and Tacason, though not respectively. 5. An atheist is someone who just has not yet
Cunanan is the only female and Tacason is the only realized that God exists.
unmarried among the three. The manager is the
company owner’s daughter and is married to the LEXICAL PRECISING STIPULATIVE PERSUASIVE
secretary. Who is the manager, treasurer, and
secretary?

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING

ABSTRACT REASONING
Abstract Reasoning is a process by which concepts and patterns are obtained from the classification and use
of objects.
The most basic patterns revolve around numerical
sequences. A numerical sequence is an ordered list Alternating Pattern Sequence is a series composed
of numbers, but may also correspond to letters, of two or more distinct sub-series arranged
symbols or other objects with quantifiable level or alternately.
value. The following are the most common types of Example:
numerical sequences:
2 3 7 9 12 27 ? ?
Arithmetic Progression is a sequence that has
consecutive terms with a common difference. EXERCISES
Example: 1 3 5 ? 2 5 4 10 8 15 ?
Solution: 1 +2 = 3 +2 = 5 +2 = 7 5 4 10 4 15 ? ?

EXERCISES Alternating Factor Series is a series with two or

more common factors, differences, or powers
0.3 0.6 0.9 ?
alternately applied to the terms.
1 ? Example:
𝐴 𝐷 𝐺 ? 4 7 14 17 34 ? ?
EXERCISES
Geometric Progression is a sequence that has
consecutive terms with a common ratio or factor. 15 5 30 10 60 ? ?
Example: 3 9 27 ? 3 6 18 21 63 ? ?
Solution: 3 ×3= 9 ×3= 27 ×3 = 51 Fibonacci Progression is a special series wherein
EXERCISES the last two terms are added or multiplied together
to obtain the next term.
0.12 0.24 0.48 ?
Example:
𝐴 𝐵 𝐷 ?
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 ?
?
EXERCISES

Exponential Progression is a sequence that has 2 7 9 16 25 41 ?

consecutive terms whose pattern relies on a 1 2 2 4 8 32 ?
progression of a common exponent or base.
Example: 1 4 9 16 ? Other types of sequences follow patterns that
cannot be defined by a formula, but follow an order
Solution: 1 =1 4 =2 9 =3 16 =4 ∴5 = 25 based on general information or some other well-
known rule.
EXERCISES
Example:
1 16 49 100 ?
2 3 5 7 11 13 ?
1 4 16 64 ?
EXERCISES
Nested Sequence is a sequence that has terms 𝑀 𝑇 𝑊 𝑇 𝐹 ?
whose common difference, factor or ratio is also
governed by another underlying progression. 31 28 31 30 31 ?
Example: 1 5 10 16 ? TIP! To solve Numerical Sequence questions
Solution: 1 +𝑛 = 5 +𝑛 = 10 +𝑛 = 16 +𝑛 = … efficiently, first check the relationship between the
numbers themselves looking for some simple
EXERCISES arithmetic relationship or a common difference,
ratio, or power. Then look at the alternating terms
1 2 5 10 ? and see if there is a relationship there. If it is not
1 3 12 60 ? obvious, and particularly if there are more than 4
numbers visible, then there may be two number
sequences that alternate with each other.

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
Occasionally multiplication, division, or exponents alphabet for numbers. For example, 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 2
may be used in these sequences, but test designers etc. It may seem strange to consider these as
tend to avoid them as these operations soon lead to numerical reasoning questions, but they actually
large numbers which are difficult to work out without work in the same way once they are changed back
a calculator. into numbers.
Another type of sequences which appears in these
tests involves the substitution of letters of the

EXERCISES Choose the letter of the BEST answer.

1. 6 12 18 24 ? 16. 2 6 3 9 6 18 ?
a. 26 b. 30 c. 32 d. 36 a. 4 b. 6 c. 15 d. 21
2. 0.26 0.20 0.14 ? 17. 3 3 6 18 72 ?
a. 0.08 b. 0.06 c. 0.1 d. 0.12 a. 36 b. 96 c. 144 d. 360
3. 𝐽𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑃𝑅 𝐽𝑈𝐿 ? 18. 19𝕍 16ℝ 12𝕆 7𝕄 ?
a. 𝐴𝑈𝐺 b. 𝑆𝐸𝑃 c. 𝑂𝐶𝑇 d. 𝑁𝑂𝑉 a. 5𝕂 b. 3𝕁 c. 2ℍ d. 1𝕃
4. 3 9 5 15 11 ? 19. 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑖 ?
a. 6 b. 22 c. 21 d. 33 a. 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖 b. 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖 c. 𝑥𝑥𝑣 d. 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖
5. 121 100 81 ? 20. 1 −4 −20 80 ?
a. 80 b. 77 c. 60 d. 64
a. −320 b. 400 c. 320 d. −400
6. 1 25 81 169 ? 21. 3 4 3 6 3 8 ?
a. 289 b. 249 c. 350 d. 193
a. 3 b. 7 c. 9 d. 10
7. 5 9 12 14 ? 22. 𝑥 𝑡𝑟𝑝 𝑥 𝑛𝑙 𝑥 ?
a. 11 b. 13 c. 15 d. 18
a. 𝑗 b. 𝑘 c. ℎ𝑖𝑗 d. 𝑗𝑘
8. 3 7 11 15 ? 23. 34 18 10 6 ?
a. 16 b. 18 c. 19 d. 21
a. 3 b. 4 c. 5 d. 6
9. 3 2 6 4 9 6 ? 24. 2 ? 14 17 18
a. 6 b. 8 c. 9 d. 12
a. 6 b. 7 c. 9 d. 10
10. 19 23 29 31 37 ? 25. ?
a. 39 b. 41 c. 43 d. 47
a. b. c. d.
11. 4 6 9 13 18 ?
26. 3𝑥 + 𝑦 5𝑥 − 𝑦 ? 9𝑥 − 𝑦
a. 20 b. 23 c. 24 d. 26
a. 7𝑥 − 𝑦 b. 8𝑥 − 𝑦 c. 7𝑥 + 𝑦 d. 7𝑥 + 𝑦
12. 𝐴𝑏𝑏𝐶 𝑑𝐸𝐸𝑓 𝐺ℎℎ𝑙 ?
27. 𝑥 ? 20𝑥 60𝑥
a. 𝑗𝐾𝐾𝑙 b. 𝑙𝑀𝑀𝑛 c. 𝐽𝑘𝑘𝐿 d. 𝐾𝑙𝑙𝑚
a. 𝑥 b. 4𝑥 c. 5𝑥 d. 8𝑥
13. 𝐻 𝐽 𝑀 𝑂 𝑅 ?
28. 23 ? 45 56 67
a. 𝑆 b. 𝑇 c. 𝑈 d. 𝑉
a. 78 b. 43 c. 34 d. 27
14. 𝑋 𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝐿 𝐿𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝐶 ?
29. 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐻 𝐶𝐻 ?
a. 𝑋𝐿 b. 𝑋𝑆 c. 𝐶𝑋 d. 𝐶𝐶
a. 𝐶 𝐻 b. 𝐶 𝐻 c. 𝐶 𝐻 d. 𝐶 𝐻
15. 2 ?
30. 20 80 180 320 ?
a. b. c. d. a. 500 b. 320 c. 380 d. 600

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
Some abstract reasoning problems involve Figures. The challenge is to find the patterns to find the rule or to
choose the figure that fits what is being asked for. Usual patterns are as follows:
 Alternating – It is a series that alternates between two or more states, and involves elements like shape,
color, spatial orientation, size, etc.

 Number of Elements – It is a series that include geometric patterns with embedded numerical progression;
the problems involve counting sides, corners, spikes, etc.

 Rotation – It is a series where figures or group of figures are rotated with given increments and direction.

 Combination – It is a set of figures that can be combined to form the next figure in the set.

 Spatial relationships – It is a set of figures that involve movement or manipulation in relation to 3-

dimensional space.

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
Below are the common types of Abstract Reasoning questions:
 In Sequencing, choose the figure that will continue or complete the pattern of the given sequence of
figures.

 In Categorizing, choose the figure that belongs to a given set of figures.

 In Odd One Out problems, a set of figures contain one image that does not belong with the others or
violates the rule followed by others; the task is to identify that figure.

 In Figure Analogy, a given pair of figures are shown with implied relationship. The task is to identify the
figure that best pairs up with a given figure so that the same relationship will apply to them.

 In Counting problems, find the number of shapes or solids from a given

image where some parts are hidden from view.
In the figure on the right, how many cubes are touching the edges, faces
or corners of the dark cube? How many cubes are there in all?

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
 Ruling problems refer to problems that come as groups of sequences where underlying rule(s) is (are)
applied to the first figures to produce the missing figure.

EXERCISES Choose the letter of the BEST answer.

For items 1 to 9, choose the next figure from the choices in the series.
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
9.

For items 10 to 15, choose the figure that does not belong with the rest in the given set of figures.
10. 13.

11. 14.

12. 15.

For items 16 to 21, choose the figure that belongs with the given set of figures.
16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

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 LOGICAL & ABSTRACT
REASONING
For items 22 to 25, choose the figure that best fits the analogy.
22.

23.

24.

25.

For items 26 to 32, choose the figure that best completes 31.
the given set of figures.
26.

32.
27.

For items 33 to 35, refer to the figure representing a pile

28. of identical cubes on the right.
33. How many cubes are
touching the faces,
edges or corners of the
cube labeled A?
a. 8
29. b. 9
c. 10
d. 13
34. How many cubes are touching the faces, edges or
corners of the cube labeled B?
30.
a. 5 c. 7
b. 6 d. 8
35. How many cubes are in this pile?
a. 16 c. 29
b. 24 d. 30

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