XI PRINT (E) .Od

E PLUS KERALA IN YOUTUBE
1. CONSTITUTION : WHY AND HOW?

Constitution is a compact document that comprises a number of articles
about the state, specifying how the state is to be constituted and what norms it should follow.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION
1. CONSTITUTION ALLOWS COORDINATION AND ASSURANCE The first function of a
constitution is to provide a set of basic rules that allow minimal coordination and assurance
amongst members of a society. Constitution helps to overcome the problem of diversity and
enable the people to live peacefully. Constitution enforces same rules for all the members.
2. SPECIFICATION OF DECISION MAKING - The second function of a constitution is to specify
who has the power to make decisions in a society. A constitution is a fundamental body of
principles according to which a state is constituted or governed. Constitution Specifies the
basic allocation of power in a society. Powers of different organs of the government are clearly
defined in the constitution
3. LIMITATIONS ON THE POWERS OF THE GOVERNMENT- The Third function of the
constitution is to to set some limits on what a government can impose on its citizens.
Constitution restrict the powers of the government to protect the basic rights of
individual.
4. ASPIRATIONS AND GOALS OF A SOCIETY- The fourth function of the constitution is to
enable the government to fulfil the aspirations of a society and create conditions for just
society. Modern constitutions contains a number of positive measures to overcome forms of
inequality and to ensure the welfare of the society.
5. FUNDAMENTAL IDENTITY OF PEOPLE - Constitution expresses the fundamental identity
of a people. Constitution is helpful to sideline regional, linguistic and communal identities and
to create a national identity. The Constitution also helps in inculcating political and social
values among the citizens.
CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA
Idea of a separate constitution for India was first raised by M N Roy. Later Indian National
Congress and Jawaharlal Nehru also raised the same demand. Cabinet Mission recommended
and British government accepted the formation of a constituent assembly for India. The
Constituent Assembly had 389 members. 296 members were elected from the British Indian
provinces and 93 members were nominated by the princely states. Members were assigned to
each area in proportion to the population. The seats were allotted roughly in the ration of
1:10,000,000. Seats in each province were distributed among the three main communities
Muslims, general and Sikhs. Members of the Constituent Assembly represented different
communities in India. 26 members were from Scheduled Castes.
The first meeting of Constituent Assembly was presided by Dr. Sachchidananda
Sinha as he was the eldest member. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the President of the
Constituent Assembly. Dr. B R Ambedkar is known as the Father of the Constitution of India
and the Chief Architect of the Constitution. Dr. B R Ambedkar was the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee. Following the decision to partition British India, the membership of the
Constituent Assembly was reduced to 299. The first session of the Constituent Assembly
convened on December 9, 1946. The drafting of the Constitution was completed on November
26, 1949. However, the Constitution came into force on January 26, which was celebrated as
Purna Swaraj Day. India became a republic on January 26, 1950.
The Authority of a Constitution

(Authenticity of the Constitution of India)
Three factors play an important role in determining the authenticity of the
Constitution.
1. Mode of Promulgation - Makers of the constitutions is a very important factor in deciding
the authenticity of a constitution. Constitutions prepared by the people's representatives are

more acceptable. The constitutions of countries like India, South Africa and the United States
are examples of this. It is easy to create the impression among the people that constitutions
written by representatives of the people are for the welfare of the people. In some countries,
referendums are held to verify the validity of the constitution.
The Constitution of India is recognized as authoritative as it is written by the people's
representatives. The authenticity of the Constitution is also strengthened by the fact that
decisions are taken after careful discussions in the Constituent Assembly. Most members of
Indian Constituent Assembly were indirectly elected. Different communities were given due
importance in the Constituent Assembly
2. Provisions of the Constitution - It is more acceptable to have constitutions that contain
provisions that are acceptable to all sections of society. The Constitution should include
provisions favourable to the minorities in the society. Constitutions that protect the rights of
only a particular group of people will not be acceptable to other sections of the population.
The Constitution of India contains provisions that satisfy all sections of the people in the
society. Giving special rights to backward classes and minorities makes the Constitution of India
more authoritative.
3. Balanced Institutional Design - The best constitutions are those in which the powers are
precisely divided into different organs of the government. Such constitutions can precisely
check dictatorial tendencies. True constitutions are those that accurately reflect the values
that exist in society. The inclusion of provisions for constitutional amendments is another
hallmark of a better constitution.
The Constitution of India clearly divide the powers to the Legislature, the Executive and
the Judiciary. Accurate division of power makes the Constitution of India more authoritative.
Objective Resolution by Nehru
On December 13 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the Objective Resolution in the
Constituent Assembly. The resolution, adopted by the Constituent Assembly, became the basis
of the Indian political system and guided the constitution-making process. Below are the main
ideas put forward in the objective resolution.
- India is an independent and sovereign republic.
- India shall be a union of states.
- All the power of independent India flow from the people.
- Social, economic and political justice will be guaranteed to all the people of India.
- The minorities, backward classes, tribal people and other disadvantaged people shall
be provided adequate safeguards.
- The territorial integrity of the republic and its sovereign rights on land, sea and air
shall be maintained in accordance to justice and law of the civilized nations.
- The land would make full and willing contribution to the promotion of world peace.
Provisions Borrowed from Other Constitutions
British Constitution Parliamentary system, FPTP system, Rule of law, Institution and
powers of speaker, Law making procedure.
American Constitution Fundamental rights, Judicial review, Independence of the judiciary.
Irish Constitution - Directive Principles of State Policy
French Constitution - Principles of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
Canadian Constitution - Semi-federal system, Residual powers

2. Rights in the Indian Constitution
The special rights granted and protected by the government are enshrined in the constitutions
of democracies. These special rights are called fundamental rights. The demand for
fundamental rights for Indians was strongly raised during the freedom struggle. The Motilal
Nehru Committee of 1928 strongly supported this demand. There was no two opinions on
inclusion of fundamental rights should in the Constitution during the drafting of the
Constitution.
Differences between Fundamental Rights and Ordinary Rights
Fundamental Rights Ordinary Rights
Protected by the Constitution. Protected by the ordinary law.
It can only be changed by amending the It can be changed through ordinary
Constitution. legislation.
Fundamental Rights in the Constitution of India
Part 3 contained seven fundamental rights in the original constitution . In
1978, the number of fundamental rights redused to six.
1. The Right to Equality
In order to eliminate the social inequality that existed in India, the Constitution enshrined the
right to equality before the law, equal protection of the law, protection from discrimination on
the basis of gender, religion, region, language and gender, abolition of untouchability, equal
educational and employment opportunities.
2. The Right to Freedom
The right to life and liberty are included in the list of fundamental
rights. The Constitution guarantees freedom of expression, freedom of assembly, freedom of
association, freedom of movement, freedom of residence and freedom of employment. The
Constitution sets out the procedures to be followed at the time of arrest and the rights of the
accused. The government has the power to detain potential criminals in preventive detention.
Those who are likely to engage in anti-social and anti-national activities can be detained for up
to 3 months without trial.
3. The Right against Exploitation
The right against exploitation is enshrined in the Constitution to protect the weaker
sections of the society. This right helps to prevent slavery, human trafficking, begar or forced
labour, child labour and the exploitation of women.
4. The Right to Freedom of Religion
In a secular country like India, all citizens have freedom of religion.
Citizens have the right to profess, follow and propagate their religion. The Constitution also
allows a citizen to live without believing in any religion. But religious practices that affect law
and order, morality and public health are not allowed in India. The practice of reserving
government posts for any particular religion does not exist in India. The Constitution also
prohibits the provision of religious education in government institutions.
5. Cultural and Educational Rights of Minorities
The fifth fundamental right is the protection of the cultural and
educational rights of minorities in India. Cultural and linguistic minorities in India have the
right to preserve their language, script and culture.
6. Rights to Constitutional Remedies
The sixth fundamental right is the right of the citizen to approach the
Supreme Court or the High Court in case of denial of fundamental rights. Dr B R Ambedkar
described the right to constitutional remedies as the ‘soul and heart of the Indian
Constitution’. Orders issued by a court for the restoration of fundamental rights are known as
writs. Five writs are mentioned in the Constitution of India.
1. Habeas corpus - The habeas corpus is an order issued to release a citizen from illegal
detention. Habeas corpus literally means "produce the body".

2. Mandamus - The word mandamus means ‘we command’. Mandamus is court order to any
government office, subordinate court or public authority to do some specific act which that
body is obliged under law to do.
3. Prohibition - This is an order issued to the lower courts preventing them from interfering
in matters outside their jurisdiction.
4. Quo Warranto - Quo Warranto means ‘by what authority’. Quo Warranto is a court order
issued to restrict a government official from holding a position he is not entitled to hold.
Certiorari – Certiorari means ‘to be informed’. It is an order to transfer a case from the lower
court to the upper court.
Right to Property
Right to property was removed from the list of fundamental rights by the 44th
Amendment in 1978 and converted to an ordinary right.
Directive Principles of State Policy
Part IV of the Constitution of India contains the Directive Principles of
State Policy which are the guidelines for the Government. The main principles embodied in
the Directive Principles are listed below.
The goals of the society
Ensure the welfare of the people, Raise the living standards of the people,
Equitable distribution of resources ,Promotion of International Peace.
Non – justicible rights
Adequate livelihood, Equal pay for equal work, Right against economic
exploitation, Right to work and education.
Policies to be adopted by the Government
Uniform Civil Code, Prohibition of liquor, Promotion of cottage industries, prevention
of slaughter of useful cattle, Promotion of village panchayats.
Implementation of Directive Principles
Citizens have no right to approach the courts for enforcement of the Directive
Principles. However, efforts are being made by the Central and State Governments to
implement the ideas in the Directive Principles. The following are the major steps taken by
various governments to implement the Directive Principles.
It include Legislation to end zamindari system, bank nationalisation , enacting various
factory rules ,fixing minimum wages, promotion of small scale industries implementing
reservation policy, formation of Panchayat Raj Institutions and introduction of Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.
Differences between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles
Fundamental Rights Directive Principles
Citizens can approach the court if Can not approach the court if Directive
Fundamental Rights are violated Principles are violated.
Restrain the government from doing Exhort the government to do something.
something.
Protect the rights of the individuals. Ensure the well - being of entire society.
Fundamental Duties
The 42nd Amendment to the Constitution, enacted in 1976, added 10
fundamental duties. Respect the Constitution, defend our country, maintain social harmony
and protect the nature etc are included in fundamental duties.
The National Human Rights Commission
National Human Rights Commission was established in 1993 to protect
the rights of the poor, illiterate and backward sections of Indian society. National Human
Rights Commission works under the chairmanship of a former Supreme Court justice. The
National Human Rights Commission is chaired by a retired Supreme Court judge . NHRC
inquires human rights violation in its own initiative or on a petition.

3. Election and Representation
Direct democracy
Direct democracy is the democratic process in which citizens are directly
involved in the activities of government. The city-states of ancient Greece and the gram sabhas
of the panchayath system in India are examples of direct democracy. Direct democracy is not
practical in modern nations with large territories and huge populations.
Indirect democracy
In an indirect democracy, decisions are made and governed by the people's
representatives. Adult voters of the country elect representatives through the electoral
process.
Election System in India
First Past the Post System (FPTP System)
Representatives of the Lok Sabha and the Legislative Assembly of India are
elected through the FPTP system. The FPTP system is also known as plurality system.
Features of the FPTP system
- Country is divided into smaller constituencies.
- Every elects one representative.
- Voters votes for a candidate.
- A Party may get more seats than votes tin the legislature.
- Majority of votes is not needed to win the election.
Proportional Representation
The Rajya Sabha MPs, the President and the Vice President are elected through a
system of proportional representation.
Single Transferable Vote system
Members of the Rajya Sabha are elected through a Single Transferable
Vote system, a variant of the proportional representation system. To win the Rajya Sabha
elections, each candidate must get a certain number of votes. Each voter must record his or
her preference for the candidates on the ballot paper. If required number of representatives
cannot be elected after the first preference votes have been counted, the candidate with the
lowest number of votes is eliminated from the contest and the votes received by him are
transferred to the second preferred candidate on those ballot papers. This process continues
until a fixed number of delegates are elected.
Features of the Proportional Representation system
- Divides the country into a single constituency or a few large constituencies.
- More than one representative may be elected from one constituency.
- Voters votes for the party.
- Every party gets seats in the legislature in proportion to the percentage of votes that
it gets.
- Candidates who wins the elections gets majority of votes.
Reasons for adopting FPTP system in India
1. The FPTP system is simple enough to be understood even by the common people
of the country.
2. Voters cast their votes to the candidates. So that the personality of the candidate
also can be analysed during election.
3. The FPTP system is consistent with parliamentary democracy as it ensures the
stability of governments.
4. Different sections of the society work together to win the elections in FPTP
system. It strengthen unity in the society.

Reservation of Constituencies
The reservation in election is provided to ensure the representation of the backward
sections of the Indian society in the Parliament and state legislative assemblies. During
colonial period, British government had introduced ‘separate electorates’.
In this system, members of a particular community was elected by the voters who
belonged to that community. However, the framers of the Indian Constitution, who believed
that this practice would lead to racial segregation, implemented the concept of reservation of
constituencies in independent India. In the reserved constituencies, only a person belonging
to a particular caste can be a candidate. But voters from all castes in that constituency vote in
the election. At present, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are reserved in Parliament
and in the State Legislative Assemblies.
Delimitation Commission
The Delimitation Commission is appointed by the President. The
delimitation of constituencies and the determination of reserved constituencies are done by
the Delimitation Commission. Constituencies with more Scheduled Tribes will be reserved for
Scheduled Tribes. When deciding the Scheduled Caste constituencies, the Commission will
take care to allot these constituencies in different parts of the State with higher proportion of
Scheduled Caste population.
Free and Fair Elections
Universal Franchise
Adult suffrage refers to the right to vote for all adult citizens of a country. Until 1989,
voting rights in India were restricted to those over 21 years of age. But the 61st Amendment
to the Constitution lowered the age limit to 18 years. Universal suffrage is based on the ideas
of equality and non-discrimination.
The Right to Contest
All citizens over a certain age have the right to contest elections. The age limit for
contesting to Lok Sabha and Legislative Assemblies is 25 years and the age limit for the Rajya
Sabha is 30 years.
Independent Election Commission
An Election Commission has been set up to conduct free and fair elections. Sukumar
Sen was India's first Election Commissioner. The Election Commission, which was a single
member commission until 1989, is now a three-member committee.
Functions of the Election Commission
- Prepare and up-to-date voters’ list.
- Determine the election schedule.
- Develop a model code of conduct.
- Postpone the election in case of emergency.
- Take necessary precautions in problematic areas.
- Cancel the election in a particular polling booth or constituency. -
Order re – poll where irregularities have taken place during election time.
- Order recount if dispute arises.
- Accord recognition to political parties and allots symbols to political parties.
Electoral Reforms - India has one of the best electoral systems in the world. But the Indian
electoral system is also not perfect. Below are some suggestions that can be taken to improve
the Indian electoral system.
1. Change the electoral system in India to proportional representation.
2. Implement women reservation.
3. Strict provisions to control the role of money in elections.
4. Bar candidates with criminal background.
5. Complete ban on caste and religious appeals in the election campaigns.
6. Make laws to ensure the functioning of political parties is transparent and
democratic. .

4. EXECUTIVE
The powers of the government are divided into three organs: the Executive, the
Legislature and the Judiciary.
Executive
The main responsibility of the executive is to implement policies and laws
approved by the legislature.
Different types of executives
The major categories of executives are parliamentary executive and presidential
executive.
PARLIAMENTARY EXECUTIVE PRESIDENTIAL EXECUTIVE

Collective responsibility No collective responsibility
Monarch or president is the head of the state. Prime President is the head of the state and government
minister is the head of the government.
President is elected by the parliament. President is directly elected by the people.
Prime minister is responsible to the parliament. President is not responsible to the parliament.
Head of the government ,Prime minister, is a member Head of the government, President, is not a
of parliament. member of parliament
Head of the state is only a nominal head. Head of the state is the real head.
Eg: India, UK, Japan, Italy, Portugal, Germany, Canada. Eg: USA, Brazil
Semi Presidential Executive – In a semi presidential system, president is the head of state
and the prime minister is the head of government . The president may possess important
powers in a semi presidential system. Eg: Sri Lanka, France.
PARLIAMENTARY EXECUTIVE IN INDIA The Constitution of India prescribes a
system of parliamentary executive at Center and State level. The Central Executive comprises
the President, the Vice President, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the Bureaucracy. The
State Executive comprises the Governor, the Chief Minister, ministers and government officials.
Reasons to adopt Parliamentary system
1. Familiar System - During the British period, there was a form of parliamentary system
existed in India.
2. Responsible Government - The parliamentary system is more responsible to the people and
the parliament.
3. Prevents Despotism - There is less chance of personal worship and dictatorship in the
parliamentarysystem.
The President
The President is the Head of the Indian State . He is also known as India's first citizen.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first President of India. The current President of India is Ram
Nath Kovind.
Election of the President - The President is elected by an Electoral College which consists of
elected Members of Parliament and State Legislatures. President is elected for a term of 5
years.
Impeachment - The President can be removed from office only through impeachment. The
President can be released only if there is a special majority in Parliament. The President can
only be impeached if he violates the Constitution.
Powers of the President – President has major powers in a parliamentary system. These
powers are in reality used by the president only on the advise given by the Cabinet . The
following are the major powers that the President can exercise in accordance with the
decision of the ruling party:
- Appointment of Prime Minister and other ministers.

- Summons the Parliament.
- Nominates 12 members to Rajya Sabha and 2 members to Lok Sabha.
- Appoints judges of Supreme Court and High Courts.
- Acts as Commander – in- Chief of the Indian Armed Forces.
Discretionary Powers of the President The power of the President of India to take
independent decisions in certain circumstances is known as discretionary powers. The
President can exercise his discretion in three different situations.
1. The advice given by the Cabinet may be returned for reconsideration. The President is
obliged to accept the Cabinet decision if it returns again without modification.
2. The bills passed by Parliament may be returned for reconsideration. He can also
withhold the bill. President's possession of a without giving assent is known as pocket
veto. The President is obliged to sign the bill if it is submitted to the President's again
with or without change.
3. If no political party has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha elections, the President
may use his discretionary power to select the Prime Minister.
The Vice President - The Vice President of India has very limited powers. The Vice President
acts as Head of State in the absence of the President. The Vice-President is the Ex-Officio
chairman of Rajya Sabha. Vice President is elected by the Electoral College composed of
members of both Houses of Parliament. The term of Vice President is five years.
The Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the head of the government and cabinet . Prime Minister is
appointed by the President. The Leader of a majority party in the Lok Sabha is appointed as
Prime Minister. If no political party has a clear majority in the Lok Sabha elections, the
President can use his discretionary power to choose the Prime Minister. The major powers of
the prime minister is given below :
1. Advise the President
2. Select the Ministers
3. Allocate the rank and portfolio of ministers
4. Act as a link between the President and the Cabinet.
5. Decide the policies of the government.
6. Represent the country in international platforms.
Collective Responsibility -
The Prime Minister and Ministers are responsible to the Lok Sabha. All Ministers are
bound to accept and implement the decisions taken by the Cabinet. Ministers who refuse to
accept Cabinet decisions should resign from the Cabinet. All ministers, including the prime
minister, must resign if a motion of no-confidence is passed against any minister.
Coalition Government
When no political party gets a clear majority in the Lok Sabha elections, multiple
political parties form a coalition government. Between 1989 and 2014, several coalition
ministries came to power in India. The following are the major changes that the coalition
ministries have made in Indian politics.
1. The power of the Prime Minister has diminished.
2. The President's discretion increased.
3. The Prime Minister's power to select ministers has diminished.
4. Negotiations with allies are inevitable in government policy making.
5. Many coalition ministries failed to complete a five-year term.
6. Regional political parties have become increasingly important in national
politics.
Size of the Cabinet - According to the Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution, the
number of ministers has been reduced to 15% of the total number of Members of Parliament /
State Legislatures. This provision was made to prevent ministers from buying into the
government.

Bureaucracy The
bureaucracy is a bureaucracy that helps ministers to formulate and implement policies.
Government officials should not take active political action. The following are some of the key
differences between a political executive and a permanent executive.
Political executive Permanent executive

Elected by the people Selected on the basis of merit
No specific educational qualifications Specific educational qualifications are needed
Non permanent. Elected for a term of five Permanent. Remain in office till their retirement
years
Not trained Trained
Types of Civil Services The Indian Civil Service is divided into three categories.
All India Service - The All India Service is comprised of personnel working under the
Central Government and the State Governments. The existing three all-India services are the
Indian Administrative Service, the Indian Police Service and the Indian Forest Service.
Central Service - Officers who work only under the Central Government are part of the
Central Service. Indian Foreign Service, Indian Railways and Indian Revenue Service are
examples of central service.
State Service - Officers working only under the State Government, State Sales Tax
Officers and State Civil Service are part of the State Service. The Union Public Service
Commission elects the officers of the All India Service and the Central Service. The officers of
the State Service are also appointed by the Public Service Commission of the State.
Criticisms against Bureaucracy
- The public is unable to approach many government officials.
- Many government officials are not interested in public issues.
- The needs of the public are often not met on time.
- There are corrupt people in the bureaucracy.
- There are situations where officials cannot function independently due to
political interference.
5.LEGISLATURE
Legislature is the law making body of the government. Legislature
is the centre of all the democratic process.
Legislature in India
Parliament is the national legislature of India. Indian parliament has two
houses. Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha are the two houses of Indian Parliament. India adopted
bicameral legislature for the following reasons.
1. All sections of the country will be represented.
2. Re -consideration of every matter is possible.
The states of Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh have bicameral
legislatures. In other states, unicameral legislatures exist.
Difference between Lok Sabha and Rajya sabha
Rajya sabha Lok Sabha
Upper house Lower house
Represents the states. Represents the people.
Indirectly elected. Directly elected.
Elected by MLAs Elected by the people.
Permanent house. Not permanent.
Term is six years. Term is five years.

Minimum age for membership is 30 Minimum age of membership is 25.
Maximum strength is 250. At present, the strength of the House is 545.
President nominates 12 persons who have made President nominates 2 Ango - Indian
their mark in arts, sports, science, social service etc. representatives.
Functions of the Parliament
1. Legislative Function - The Parliament enacts rules for the country.
Bureaucracy assists parliament in legislation.
2. Control over the executive - Parliament has the power to evaluate and criticize
the actions of the Government. Parliamentarians have the power to ask questions to the
ministers regarding the functioning of various departments.
3. Financial control - The Parliament approves the budget, which is the annual statement of
income and expenditure of the government. Parliament controls the taxation.
4. Representation -Members of Parliament are representatives of various sections of the
country.
5. Debating Function - Parliament is the highest forum of debate in the country.
Various national and international matters are discussed in the Parliament.
6. Constituent Function - Parliament is also given the power to make necessary changes to
the Constitution of India.
7. Electoral Functions -The President of India and the Vice President of India are elected by
the Parliament.
8. Judicial Functions -Parliament has the power to remove the President of India, Vice
President and judges of High Court and Supreme Court.
Special Powers of the Lok Sabha
1. Money bills are first introduced in the Lok Sabha. Only Lok Sabha has the power
to reject the money bills.
2. No-confidence motion against the central government can be introduced only in the
Lok Sabha. So only Lok Sabha has the power to overthrow the central government.
Special Powers of the Rajya Sabha
The approval of Rajya Sabha is required to shift an item from State list to the Union
List or to the Concurrent List.
Law Making in the Indian Parliament
Law making is the basic function of the Parliament. Preparation of bill is the
initial stage of law making. Bill is a draft of the proposed law.
Types of Bills
1. Government Bill - Government bill is introduced by the minister. Usually the bill is
prepared by the concerned ministry.
2. Private Members Bill -Private member’s bill is introduced by a non minister. Opposition
parties initiates the preparation and introduction of private members bill.
Stages of Law Making
1. Debate on the need of new legislation _Political parties, interest groups, media and
citizens’ forums discuss about the need of new legislation
2. Preparation of the Bill _Government bill is prepared by the concerned ministry.
Bureaucrats play an active role in the preparation of bills.
3. First Reading - Bill is introduced either in Lok Sabha and or in Rajya Sabha by a member.
No discussion takes place after the first reading.
3. Committee Stage - Bill is forwarded to the committee for detailed study. Committee can
make needed changes in the bill.
5. Second Reading - Bill, after the modifications done by the committee , is read in the
Parliament.
6. General Discussion -Every provision of the Bill is debated and voted on in Parliament.
7. Third Reading -The final version of the bill is presented in the House. At this stage, no
changes take place.

8. Bill in the Other House – If a bill is passed by one house , it is sent to the other House
where it goes through exactly the same procedure. 9. Assent of the President -
When a bill is passed by both Houses, it is sent to the President for his assent. The assent of
the President results in the enactment of a bill into a law.
Joint Sitting of the Parliament – If there is a disagreement between the two Houses on the
proposed bill, attempt is made to resolve it through Joint Session of both houses of the
Parliament.
Parliamentary control over the Executive
Following are the main tools used by the Parliament to control the
executive.
1. Deliberation and Discussion - Parliamentarians get enough chances to evaluate and
crticise the functioning of government. Question hour, zero hour, half an hour discussion
adjournment motion etc are the important instruments of exercising control. Members can
collect information on various social issues by asking questions. It force the ministers to
perform their duties in a more responsible manner.
2. Approval and ratification of laws - A bill can become law only with the approval of the
Parliament. A government with a clear majority has no difficulty to get the approval of the
Parliament in law making. But a coalition government or government which is minority in
Rajya Sabha will be forced to make compromises and concessions during law making.
3. Financial Control - Parliament has the power to approve and reject the budget. Parliament
can control the executive by discussing the reasons for which the government requires money.
Parliament can enquire the misuse of government fund. Government policies are also
discussed during budget session.
4. No confidence Motion - No confidence motion is the most powerful instrument of
parliamentary control over the executive. Opposition parties get a good chance to discuss the
performance of the ruling party. Cabinet has to resign if the no confidence motion is supported
by the majority of Lok Sabha members.
Parliamentary Committees
Parliament has very limited time at its disposal. So Parliament forms various
committees to perform its duties. More than twenty standing committees are constituted to
supervise the functioning of various departments. Joint Parliamentary committees are formed
to discuss a particular bill. The committee system has reduced the burden on the Parliament.
Parliamentary control over the members
The Constitution has made certain provisions to retain the dignity of the
Parliament.
1. Presiding officer is the final authority in regulating the functioning of the legislature.
Presiding officer controls the behavior of the members.
2. 52nd amendment (anti defection amendment) made it clear that a defected member
may lose his membership. Changing the political party after the election victory is
termed as defection.
6. JUDICIARY
Judiciary is the third organ of government. Main duty of the judiciary is
to resolve disputes and enforce justice.
Indian Judiciary
Judicial system in India consists of the Supreme Court at the top and the
25 High Courts below the Supreme Court and many District Courts and other lower Courts at
the bottom level. The Supreme Court of India was inaugurated on the 26th of January,1950.
Independence of the Judiciary
The Constitution of India provides the following provisions for the judiciary to
function independently without the influence of Parliament or the Cabinet.
1. The President appoints judges of Supreme court and High Courts.

2. Judges can stay in office until retirement age. Judges can only be dismissed
through a difficult process called impeachment on grounds of violation of
constitution or proved misbehavior.
3. Reduce the possibility of corruption among the judges by providing better pay and
other financial incentives.
4. Neither Parliament nor the public has the right to criticize the actions and
verdicts of judges. It helps the judges to work without fearing the criticism.
5. Retired judges are not allowed to practice as lawyers.
Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
1. Original Jurisdiction -The Supreme Court directly deals with cases between the Central
Government and the State Government and between the State Governments. Such cases are
considered as the Original Jurisdiction because these cases are originated in the Supreme
Court.
2. Appeliate Jurisdiction -Individuals and institutions can appeal to the Supreme Court
against the High Court ruling in civil and criminal cases.
3. Writ Jurisdiction - Individuals can approach the Supreme Court for the restoration of their
fundamental rights. The Supreme Court has the power to issue five different types of orders,
writs , to protect the fundamental rights.
4. Advisory Jurisdiction - The President can seek legal advice from the Supreme Court on
matters relating to the state. The President is not obliged to accept the legal advice from the
Supreme Court.
Judicial activism - The Indian judiciary has become more active since 1979 when public
interest litigation was allowed. A third party can approach the courts to protect the rights of
the poor, illiterate and backward classes of the society by filing Public Interest Litigation.
Environmental issues and other social issues also can be resolved through PIL.
Importance of Public Interest Litigation
1. Judiciary has expanded the idea of rights. clean air, unpolluted water, decent living etc
are now considered as rights
2. Judiciary became approachable to the poor section of the Indian society. Public spirited
citizens and social organisations can file cases on behalf the needy and deprived.
3. It has forced executive accountability
4. It also attempted to make electoral system more free and fair.
Demerits of Public Interest Litigation
1. It overburdened the courts
2. It has blurred the distinction between the executive and legislature on the one hand the
judiciary on the other.
Judiciary and Rights
Two ways in which supreme court can resist the violation of rights
1. Courts can restore the rights by issuing orders. Supreme court act as the
protector of fundamental rights
2. Supreme court can declare a law unconstitutional if it is against the basic rights of the
citizens. Supreme court act as the interpreter of the constitution.
Judicial Review - Supreme court has the power to examine the constitutionality of any law. If
a law is found to inconsistent with the provisions of the constitution, the court can declare
such law as unconstitutional. This special power of supreme court and high courts is known as
judicial review. Judiciary can resist the implementation of laws passed by the parliament
which are against the rights of the citizens or interest of the nation.
Judiciary and Parliament - Judiciary and parliament is related in two different aspects.
1. Court gives directions to CBI to initiate investigations against politicians and
bureaucrats
2. Delicate principle of limited separation of power in the Indian constitution leads to
conflict between judiciary and other organs of government.

7. FEDERALISM
India adopted federal system of government. Indian federal system
consists of one central government and several state governments.
Key Features of Indian Federalism
1. Two sets of Polities/Governments – Two types of governments exist in India - a
Central Government and 28 State Governments.
2. Two sets of Identities - Indian citizens have a national identity as an Indian as
well as a regional identity.
3. Written Constitution - There is a written constitution in India that clearly defines
the powers of the central government and the state government.
4. Independent Judiciary - An independent judiciary exists to resolve disputes between
the Center and the States.
Reasons for adopting federalism in India
1. Large territory and huge population.
2. Diversity in Indian society.
The Division of Powers
The powers of the Central Government and the State Governments are
very clearly described in the Constitution of India. Economic powers and other major powers
are vested with the central government. The powers of the government are divided into three
lists: the Union List consisting of 99 subjects under the authority of the Central Government,
the State List containing the 61 subjects under the authority of the State Government, and the
Concurrent List containing the 52 subjects under the authority of both the Central
Government and the State Government. Decisions on the subjects in the Concurrent List can
be taken by the Central Government and the State Government. But if there is a disagreement
between the central and state governments, the decision of the central government will
remain.
UNION LIST STATE LIST CONCURRENT LIST
Defense Agriculture Education
Atomic energy Police Forests
Foreign affairs Prison Trade unions
War and Peace Local governments Adulteration
Banking Public health Adoption and succession
Railways Livestock and Animal Transfer of property other than
husbandry agricultural land
Post and Telegraph Liquor
Airways Trade and Commerce
Ports Land
Foreign trade State public service
Currency and Coinage
The Central Government has been given residual powers which are not
included in all three lists. Example – Cyber Laws.
Federalism with a Strong Central Government
The Indian federal system gives more powers to the central government . The reasons for
giving the central government more power are as follows.
1. To maintain the unity of India.
2. To ensure the socio - economic development of the country.
The major provisions that strengthen the central government are give below.
1. The central government has the power to create new states and to change the

boundaries and names of the states.
2. The central government has the power to declare an emergency.
3. The Central Government can dissolve the State Government and directly control the
States by imposing presidential rule.
4. The central government has the authority over financial matters. It is the central
government that passes the budget and decides the financial allocation of the states.
5. The Governor who is the representative of the Central Government has the right to
interfere in the activities of the State Government.
6. The major powers of the Government are included in the Union List which is under the
jurisdiction of the Central Government.
7. The Rajya Sabha is empowered to change a subject from the State List to the Union List.
8. If there is a disagreement between the central and state governments, the decision of
the central government will remain.
9. All Indian Services are regulated by the Central Government.
Three Stages in Center-State Relationship
1. Since the Congress Party ruled the Union and the states in the 1950s and 60s, the
Center-State relations were friendly.
2. By the mid-1960s, the Congress had lost power in many states and Congress
retained power at center. During this period there were many conflicts between the
Congress ruled central government and the non- Congress governments.
3. After 1989, coalition governments with the support of regional parties
have been formed at the Center. Subsequently, the influence of local parties increased.
The central government could not ignore the state governments ruled by the local parties.
The Demands for Autonomy
The different local interests and needs were strong among different sections of India.
1. States such as Tamil Nadu, Punjab and West Bengal have called for more powers to be
delegated to the state governments.
2. Some other states want more economic powers and more control over officials.
3. The anti -hindi agitation was strong in some southern states like Tamil Nadu.
Role of the Governor - The governor acts as the representative of the central government.
The governor's interventions create more controversy when the center and the state are
governed by different parties. The Governor has the power to make a recommendation to
dissolve the State Government and to impose Presidential Rule in the state. Presidential rule
is recommended only when administrators failed to exercise power properly. But many times
the central government misused Article 356 for political gain.
Interstate Conflicts - There are disputes between different states of India. There are two
main reasons for disputes between states .
1. Boundary Disputes - States of India are formed on the basis of language. There are people
who speak different languages at the border. It leads to border disputes. Examples include the
dispute between Maharashtra and Karnataka for the city of Balgam and the dispute between
Punjab and Haryana for the city of Chandigarh.
2. River Water Disputes - There are disputes between the states regarding the sharing of
river water for drinking and irrigation. Examples include the Narmada river dispute involving
the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh and the Cauvery water dispute
betweem Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Special Status for Jammu and Kashmir - Jammu and Kashmir was given special status under
Article 370 of the Constitution. Laws framed by Parliament on Union List can only be implemented in
Kashmir with the approval of the State Legislature. J&K had its own constitution and national flag. To
declare a state of emergency in the state, permission of the state legislature was required. Central
government had no power to declare economic emergency in Jammu and Kashmir. Article 370 was
repealed in August 2019 and the State of Jammu and Kashmir became two Union Territories of Jammu
and Kashmir and Ladakh on 31st October 2019.

8. LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
Local government systems, including sabhas, samitis and panchayats, existed in ancient
India. In modern India, local boards were created by Lord Ripon. Government of India Act
1919 and 1935 made reference to the importance of local governments. Village panchayaths
were established in a number of provinces after Government of India Acts. The Congress
Party and Mahatma Gandhi had played an important role in the growth of local governments
in India. The local governments are mentioned in comparatively unimportant part of the
constitution -Directive Principles of State Policy. Makers of the constitution feared that
extreme localism may endanger the unity of the country and also felt that the caste ridden
nature of rural society would affect the functioning of local governments.
The Communal Development Program of 1952 was the first activity in independent
India in relation to the formation of local governments. By the 1960s, some states had formed
panchayats, but lack of power and financial constraints made local governments ineffective.
In 1989, the PK Thungon Committee recommended constitutional recommendation to
local government bodies. Committee also suggested uniform structure, periodic election and
more powers to the local government. On the basis of this recommendation, the Indian
Parliament passed 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments.
73rd Amendment to the Constitution
The 73rd Amendment refers to local governments in rural areas or Panchayati Raj Institutions.
The following are the major changes brought by 73rd Amendment.
1. Three Tier Structure -A three-tier panchayat system consisting of Gram Panchayat, Block
Panchayat and District Panchayat should be implemented in all states. It also proposed
the formation of a Gram Sabha consists of all adult members registered as voters in
the Panchayath area.
2. The election - The panchayat members are directly elected by the people. The
term of panchayats is five years.
3. Reservation – 50% of Seats in panchayat institutions are reserved for women.
Reservation for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes are also provided.
4 .Transfer of Subjects -29 subjects under the jurisdiction of the state government were
transferred to the local governments.
5. State Election Commissioner - Elections to Panchayati Raj institutions are conducted
by the State Election Commission.
6. State Finance Commission - The State Government is required to appoint a Finance
Commission every five years to check the financial position of the Local Governments and to
transfer necessary funds.
74th Constitutional Amendment
The 74th Constitutional Amendment refers to local governments in urban areas
or Nagarapalikas. The municipal corporation and municipality are the local governments in
urban areas. The 74th Constitutional Amendment repealed the rules relating to the election,
reservation, election commission, finance commission and transfer of matters referred to in
the 73rd Amendment.
Importance of 73rd and 74th Amendments
(Importance of Local Governments)
1. Local governments give emphasis on solving the problems of the common
people.
2. The number of representatives has increased from five thousand to 32 lakhs
after the implementation of 73 and 74 amendments.
rd th
3. Local knowledge and energy can be used in the development process.

4. Local governments help to promote democratic awareness among people.
4. Women reservation paved the way for women empowerment.
5. Representatives are approachable to the common people also.
6. The work load of the Central and State Governments has been reduced.

Limitations of Local Governments
1. The powers of local governments are limited. Many state governments are reluctant
to transfer power to local governments.
2. Local governments are not financially self-sufficient. Local Governments
function with the financial support of Central and State Governments.
3. Many women representatives are controlled by the male members in the family or
party.
9. CONSTITUTION AS A LIVING DOCUMENT
The laws need to be changed according to the changing circumstances.
Countries such as the Soviet Union and France have changed the entire constitution many
times to meet the changing needs. It is a matter of pride that the Constitution of India, which
came into existence on January 26, 1950, remains in existence for over 70 years. The
Constitution of India continues to be a valid document after 70 years, through periodic
renewal and judicial interpretation.
Constitutional Amendments - Parliament has the power to change the Constitution of India.
The Constitution of India can be changed in three different ways.
1. Amendments with simple majority.
Some of the provisions of the Constitution can be changed with the support of the
majority of members who vote in the Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha. The provisions related to
the renaming of the states, the formation of the state, and the matters of citizenship etc
can be amended with simple majority.
2. Amendments with special majority
Some of the provisions of the Constitution require a special majority of Parliament. The
special majority means of the support of two-thirds of those who vote in the House and the
majority of members of the House. It is in this way that fundamental rights and instructional
principles are altered.
3. Amendments requiring the a special majority of the parliament and ratification of
half of the states
Some of the provisions can be changed with the special majority of the
parliament and the ratification of half the states are in place
The contents of the amendments made so far
1. Amendments of technical or administrative nature
These include constitutional amendments that clarify, explain, make minor
modifications to the original provisions. Such amendments made no substantial differences
to the provisions. Eg: Amendment to increase the salaries of Supreme Court judges, to extend
the reservation of ScheduledTribes and Scheduled Tribes.
2. Different interpretations
These are the amendments that aim to resolve the clash between Supreme Court and
the Parliament. Parliament try to override the interpretations made by the judiciary by
altering the constitution. Most of the amendments made during the 1970s and 75s fall into
this category.
3. Amendments passed through political consensus
Amendments also occur as a result of the unity of the various political parties for the
purpose of social and political upliftment. The Anti Defection Act, the Panchayati Raj
Amendment and the Right to Education Act are included in this category.
42nd Amendment -The 42nd Amendment is the most controversial amendment in the history
of Indian Constitution. The amendment was made also to avert the Supreme Court verdict in
the Keshavananda Bharti case. The following are the major changes to the constitution by the
42nd Amendment.
- The term of the Lok Sabha has been extented to six years.
- Fundamental duties were included.
- Restriction on judical review.

- The preamble to the Constitution was changed.
Many changes to the 42nd Amendment initiated by Indira Gandhi during the
Emergency period were later repealed by the Janata Government through 43 rd and 44th
amendments.
The basic structure and constitutional amendment - The concept of basic structure is not
mentioned anywhere in the Constitution. The concept of basic structure was first articulated
in the Supreme Court's judgment in the Keshavananda Bharati case. This judgment limited the
power of Parliament to amend the Constitution under Article 368. the judgment says that no
amendment can violate the basic structure of the constitution. The court did not clearly define
the basic structure doctrine in the judgment. The Supreme Court retained the power to define
the basic structure.
10. THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CONSTITUTION
Constitution is not merely a legal document. It also consists of values and
morality. The following are the key moral values that influenced the making of Indian
constitution.
1. Individual Freedom - The Constituent Assembly was very much concerned about
individual freedom. The right to freedom of expression, the right to life, the right to travel and
the right to work have been given due importance in the constitution.
2. Social Justice - The Constitution contains various policies to ensure social justice.
Reservation and other benefits provided to SCs and STs are important means of ensuring
social justice.
3. Respect for diversity and minority rights -The Constituent Assembly adopted a
policy of recognizing the diversity that exists in Indian society. Special rights are given to
minority groups.
4. Secularism -The Constituent Assembly adopted a secular outlook that protected the beliefs
of all religious groups. The Constitution does not permit excessive interference of the
government in religious matters.
5. Universal Franchise -Universal adult franchise is the highest recognition given to
every citizen of India. The Constitution has made it clear that all citizens have the right to
participate in the affairs of the country by giving voting right to women, illiterates, women and
all castes.
6. Federalism -The federal system comprises the Central and State Governments. The federal
system is ideal for India with huge population and large area.
Criticisms against the Indian Constitution
1. Unwieldly -The Constitution of India is the largest Constitution in the world. Some people
point it as a flaw. Its a baseless argument. There are more than one legal documents in
countries with smaller constitutions But all the major laws in India are included in the
Constitution. This is the main reason for the large size of the Constitution.
2. Unrepresentative -Most of the members of the Constituent Assembly were from the
upper castes upper classes. There were also allegations that representatives of the common
people were not included in the Assembly .Its not correct. Members raised matters not based
on their individual social concerns but based the interest of different sections of society.
3. Alien document – The final criticism is that the Indian constitution is an imported
document. The allegation is that the Constitution of India is made up of ideas borrowed from
western constitutions.Its not a true argument. The Constituent Assembly borrowed only good
ideas from the western Constitutions. These ideas were adapted to suit the Indian
conditions.
Limitations of Indian Constitution.
1. The Constitution of India has a centralised idea of unity.
2. The Constitution does not cover important matters like gender justice within the family.
3. Some of the prominent social and economic rights are not included in the list of
Fundamental Rights.

11. Political Theory – An Intoduction
Political Science is a branch of social science that studies the state
and the government. The word politics is derived from the Greek word ‘polis’ which means city
state. The Greek philosopher Aristotle is known as the father of political science. Ideas like
freedom, equality and secularism also come into the scope of political science.
The Importance of the study of Political Theory
1. Relevant on many professions -
Political theory is relevant for many professions like politicians, lawyers, judges , journalists
etc to perform their duties more effectively.
2. Political Studies helps to learn the functions of the government –
Political science helps the students to learn about the functions of the various organs of the
government. Study of Political Science helps to create awareness about the legal system of the
country.
3. Awareness of Human Rights and noble ideals -
The Importance of Human Rights and Prevention of Human Rights Violations also come under
the subject matter of Political Science. Study of political theory also helps to create an
awareness about various ideals like freedom, equality, justice, secularism etc.
4. Systematic Thinking on Social issues - Political theory exposes us to systematic thinking
on justice or equality so that we can polish our opinions and argue in an informed manner and
for the sake of common interests.
12. FREEDOM
In a simple sense freedom is the absence of constraints. In a broader
sense freedom is about to expanding the abilities of the people. Social constrains are justified
in every civilised society.
The Sources of Constraints
1 .Government - Governments restrict the individual freedom. Only necessary regulations
are imposed by the democratic governments. But military rulers and dictators impose
restrictions even on the basic rights of the citizens.
2. Society - There are also social interactions over individual freedom. Caste system, political
rivalry, male domination and economic inequality etc hinder the individual freedom.
The need for social control
1. In order to reduce tensions and inequalities in the society.
2. To uphold the dignity of all sections of the society.
3. In order to reduce the possibility of the domination of a particular section of the
society.
The Harm Principle
Harm principle is introduced by J S Mill in his famous book ‘On Liberty’. According to J S
Mill, human actions are categorized as self regarding actions and other regarding actions.
Self regarding actions - If the consequences of one's actions only affect him / her, such
activities are classified as self-regarding actions. There is no need of the involvement of society
or government to deal these type of actions.
Other regarding actions - If the consequences of one's actions are affecting others, then such
actions are considered other regarding actions. Such activities should be regulated by the
intervention of society and the nation. There is no need for legal action if one person's actions
create only minor difficulties for others. Such problems can be solved through social criticism
and rejection. Legal action must be taken if a person's actions cause serious social problems.
Negative Liberty and Positive Liberty
Negative Liberty - Negative liberty is the absence of external controls. It is the freedom to do
whatever one wants to do. All the human beings need a ‘minimum area of non – interference’.
Bigger the area of non interference the more the freedom. Negative liberty discusses the idea
of ‘freedom from’

Positive Liberty - Positive liberty ensures the proper condition for the individuals to develop
his or abilities. It is the duty of the government and the community to provide the right
situation. Negative liberty discusses the idea of ‘freedom to’
Freedom of Expression
A person has the freedom to express his own ideas and opinions . Writing books
and articles, directing drama and cinema, performing other forms of art are commonly used to
communicate one’s ideas to others. It comes under the concept of freedom of expression.
However, many societies impose restrictions on freedom of expression. Many countries have
banned artworks that are against national interests. There is also a tendency for organizations
and social groups to ban books, cinemas, dramas etc that are against the common interest of
society. Sometimes the selfish interests and the conservative mentality of the ruling elite or
certain sections of society may hinder freedom of expression. The most appropriate way is to
impose the necessary restrictions through proper censorship instead of total control. Water
(Cinema -Directed by Deepa Mehta), Satanic Verses (Novel - Salman Rushdie) and Ramayana
Retold (Novel - Aubrey Menon)were banned after protest from some sections of society.
Major Books and Authors on Freedom

Republic – Plato
On Liberty – J S Mill
Long Walk to Freedom – Nelson Mandela
Freedom from Fear -- Aung San Suu Kyi
13. EQUALITY
Equality is the idea that all human beings are equal and that all should
receive equal respect and consideration. Equality is an idea that opposes discrimination on the
basis of religion, caste, color, race, wealth, gender and language. The French Revolution and
the struggles against colonial rule were struggles for freedom as well as equality. In a world
where inequality exists more than equality, the study of equality is of paramount importance.
Natural and Social Inequalities
Natural Inequality - Natural inequality is the result of the different capabilities and talents
with which people are born. Physically and mentally challenged people face different types of
difficulties in their lives. With the help of modern technology and medical care, many physical
and mental challenges and difficulties can be overcome to some great extent. The government
and the society have the special responsibility to help individuals who are physically and
mentally challenged.
Social Inequality - Social inequality is created by the exploitation of some group in the
society by others and denying the opportunities for growth. Discrimination in the name of
caste, religion, colour and gender are major causes of social inequality. Social inequality can be
overcome through legislation and social reform.
Three Dimensions of Equality
1. Political Equality - The democratic societies guarantee equal rights to all its citizens.
Political equality includes the right to vote, the right to contest in elections, freedom of
expression etc. Political equality guarantees the participation of all citizens in the democratic
process.
2. Social Equality - Society should guarantee minimum condition of life to all the members of
the society. It includes health care, education, minimum wage empowerment of women ,
reservation for the backward classes etc. All sections of people should be respected in the
society.
3. Economic Equality - Differences in property and income creates economic inequality. Even
if absolute economic equality is not possible, the government can take measures to reduce
inequality between the people. Democratic societies try to reduce the gap between rich and
poor by providing equal opportunity to all.

Ways to Promote Equality
1. Establishing formal equality - All unnecessary restrictions on political, social and
economic rights and special privilages to certain sections of the society should be brought to
an end. Most of the modern constitutions contains provisions against discrimination on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
2. Equality through different treatment - Formal equality or equality before law is
necessary but not sufficient to realise the principle of equality. Sometimes it is necessary to
treat people differently in order to ensure that they can enjoy equal rights. Weaker sections
need special consideration to overcome inequality. Special consideration given to handicapped
prople and women are examples in this regard.
3. Affirmative action - Affirmative action is based on the idea that it is not sufficient to
establish formal equality by law. Affirmative actions are the positive measures taken to
minimise and eliminate the existing forms of social inequalities. Scholarship and hostel facility
to the weaker section and reservation system are examples of affirmative actions.
Marxism - Karl marx argued that the root cause of inequality was private ownership of
property. Private ownership make the owners wealthy and politically powerful. It also leads to
social inequality. Marx advocated that public control over property is essential to tackle all
types of inequality in society.
Liberalism - Liberals uphold competition as the most efficient way of distributing resources
and rewards in society. State should try to ensure a minimum standard of living and equal
opportunities for all. People should get equal opportunities in all spheres of life.
Socialism - Socialism is a response to the inequalities present in the industrial capitalist
economy. Socialism tries to minimise existing inequality and distribute resources justly.
Socialists are not against market, they favour government control in certain key areas. The
great Indian Thinker Rammanohar Lohia identified five kinds of inequalities that need to be
fought against simultaneously: inequality between men and women, inequality based on skin
colour, caste based inequality, colonial rule of some countries over others and economic
inequality. He added two more revolutions to this list : revolution for civil liberties against
unjust encroachments on private life and revolution for non-violence, for renunciation of
weapons in favour of Satyagraha. These were the seven revolutions or Sapta Kranti
Feminism - A political doctrine for equal rights for women and men. Feminists believe that
gender inequality is neither natural nor necessary and can be altered. According to feminists,
inequality between men and women in society is the result of patriarchy. Feminists show us
that much of the inequality between men and women is produced by society and not by
nature. Feminists argue that all forms of gender inequalities can and should be eliminated.
14. Social Justice

According to Immanuel Kant, a German thinker, social justice is a
condition whereby all people of a society can live with dignity and well-being.
The Three Principles of Justice
Equal Treatment for Equals - All people have equal importance and equal rights in society.
The right to life, the right to freedom and the right to property etc are granted to all citizens.
The concept of justice states that individuals should be judged not on the basis of their race,
creed or color, but on their actions.
Proportional Justice - It is not practical to treat everyone equally in all situations. It is just to
rewarding people in proportion to effort required, skills required, the possible dangers
involved and social relevance of each person's work.
Recognition of Special Needs - Particular attention is given to those who are physically and
mentally challenged, the elderly and the socially disadvantaged. It is only through such
protection that many of these groups are able to gain the rights and social status they deserve.
The caste reservation inserted in the Constitution of India and the government's different

economic schemes to the poorer sections is part of the efforts by the state to bring social
justice to the common masses.
Just Distribution
The society and the state have the responsibility to ensure the basic living conditions of all the
individuals. If there is serious economic inequality in the society, the major resources of that
society must be redistributed among all the citizens. Land reforms and caste reservation
implemented by the Government of India are examples of just distribution.
John Rawls's Theory of Justice
John Rawls presents his theory of justice based on a hypothetical situation in which
individuals are ignorant of their future. The theory of justice is based on some of the
possibilities that may arise if law making group, for the creation of a just society, are not aware
of their own situation in the future. The law makers would try to make laws that are beneficial
to all sections of society because they have also the chances to be the poorest or the dominant
class in the future. John Rawls called the ignorance of the future a ‘veil of ignorance’. John
Rawls suggested that if the rulers were to administer within the veil of ignorance, laws would
be made in favor of the common and the weak sections also. Theory of Justice states that the
rulers must have a broad vision and should consider the problems of all sections of society as
their own.
Free Market versus Nation Intervention
Supporters of free market, Individuals should be free to own
private property and to compete with each other to make a profit. Achieving gains in a free
market without the intervention of the nation would be favorable to the competent and
capable people. Some of the supporters of the free market agreed with government
regulations. Private sector services in education and health care must be promoted and the
people should be able to get the benefits.
The intervention of the government is necessary to ensure healthy
competition in the market. A large section of private entrepreneurs are socially irresponsible
and profit minded. Private firms are usually not interested less profitable trades. The services
offered by the private sector are likely to be costly to the general public. There is also a strong
argument that government intervention is necessary to ensure the service of the private
sector to the all sections of general public.
15. Rights
Rights are essential elements for a decent life. Rights are
recognised and enforced by society. All human beings are entitled to fundamental rights such
as the right to life, liberty, equality and the right to property.
Rights and Society
The primary responsibility for the protection of rights lies with
the nation and society. Modern constitutional laws include laws to protect human rights. This
is an example of the fundamental rights enshrined in Part III of the Constitution of India.
Different Types of Rights
1. Political Rights - The right to vote, the right to contest elections and the right to form
political parties are the main political rights. Political rights force the government to act
according to the interests of the individual.
2. Civil Rights - The right to free and fair trial, freedom of expression and freedom to form
organizations are examples of civil rights. Democracy is based on a combination of political
and civil liberties.
3. Economic Rights -The main economic rights are the right to basic amenities such as food,
shelter and health, the right to work, the right to rest, and the right to a reasonable wage. Only
a person whose basic economic needs are met can enjoy political and other civil rights.
Rights and Responsibilities
Along with rights, individuals have responsibilities. The main responsibilities of individuals
are as follows.

1. Work for the common good- Environmental protection, forestry and protection from
the public are all responsible for the welfare of society.
2. Respect the rights of others. -Everyone has equal rights. Everyone should enjoy his
or her own rights without interfering with the rights of others.
3. Control over their own rights- There are certain restrictions on rights for the
good of the nation and society. Everyone is obliged to respect the restrictions imposed
by the government for the common good.
Human Rights Day
Universal Declaration of Human Rights was held on 10 December 1948. December 10 is
celebrated as Human Rights Day.
16. CITIZENSHIP
Citizenship guarantees protection and right to the individuals . There
have been many struggles to secure civil rights. The French Revolution, the independent
struggles in Asia and Africa, and the fight against apartheid are examples for such movements.
Full and equal membership.
The idea of full and equal membership is to give all citizens the opportunity to
live and enjoy civil rights in all parts of the country. But many people are not ready to accept
people from other parts of the country. The sentiments outsiders and insiders are very strong
in many societies. Skilled workers and professionals often do not face major objections. But
many societies refuse to accept poor workers from other parts of the country. They are not
willing to share limited resources and employment opportunities with the late comers.
Ways to Earn Indian Citizenship
1. Citizenship by birth.
2. Citizenship by descent.
3. Citizenship through Registration.
4. Citizenship by naturalisation.
5. Citizenship by incorporation of territories.
Universal Citizenship
Universal Citizenship is a vision of giving citizenship to all who wish to gain
membership in a country. Due to war, ethnic violence, natural disasters, and famine, billions of
people are fleeing to other countries. The countries refuse to grant citizenship to all the
refugees. Governments are keen on citizenship laws, fearing that unauthorized access to
refugees could adversely affect the country's security and economy.
Global Citizenship
Global Citizenship is a broad view that every human being is a member of a
global community rather than citizen of a particular country. Contemporary challenges such
as terrorism, epidemics, natural disasters and the refugee problem cannot be solved by any
country alone. Such problems can only be solved through the collective effort of the humanity.
Globalization and the advancement in transport and communication have helped to create
greater closeness among the people.
17. NATIONALISM
A nation is different from other groups or communities. It is different
from the family which is based on face-to-face relationships with each member. It is also
different from tribes and clans and other kinship groups in which ties of marriage and descent
link members to each other. . But as a member of a nation we may never come face to face with
most of our fellow nationals nor need we share ties of descent with them.
Nationalism is a form of patriotism based upon the identification of a
group of individuals with a nation. Creative nationalism unites people and makes them
prosperous. But destructive nationalism has led to the disintegration of many countries.

The factors contribute to the growth of nationalism.
A nation is to a great extent an ‘imagined’ community, held together by the
collective beliefs, aspirations and imaginations of its members. It is based on certain
assumptions which people make about the collective whole with which they identify. Let us
identify and understand some of the assumptions which people make about the nation
1. Shared Beliefs
The nation is only strengthened when citizens believe that they are all members of the same
community. Citizens must have a common belief in unity, national identity and national
development.
2. History
Having a proud historical background will strengthen nationalism. Collective memories,
legends, great events, and great personalities can help to create patriotism in the citizens.
3. Territory
Living together in a particular territory develops a feeling of oneness. Giving various
descriptions such as holy land, fatherland and motherland indicates closeness of citizens to
the territory of their state.
4. Shared Political Ideals
General political beliefs are another important factor which strengthen nationalism. Belief in
different ideologies, such as democracy, secularism and liberalism inspires the people to stand
together.
5. Common Political Identity
Common cultural background such as common language, same religion, observing same
celebrations and rituals etc enrich nationalism. But the excessive emphasis on language and
religion has led to the rise of separatist activities in many countries.
National Self Determination
Communities with a common culture, living together in a particular area,
strongly advocate for the right to make their own decisions. The idea of one nation - one
culture was strong in European countries in the nineteenth century. A number of small, newly
independent states were formed. It is impossible to satisfy all the demands for self
determination. Movements against colonialism in Asia and Africa also demanded the right to
self-determination. The formation of new nations to satisfy the different groups is a false
tendency. The more acceptable way is to give the different peoples living in a country a decent
representation in national affairs.
Nationalism and Pluralism
In many countries, people of different cultures and faiths live together. Such countries take
steps to address the interests of all sections of the population. Special consideration is given to
certain minorities. In countries with different social groups, sectarianism is more likely to
grow. Governments should pay special attention to formulate policies that are satisfactory to
all sections of the people
18. SECULARISM
Secularism is the idea of equal respect and opportunity for all religions.
Importance of secularism is growing in the contemporary world.
Inter-religious Domination -
Inter religious domination means the domination of one religion over other religious groups.
In some societies, people belonging to the majority religious community deny the basic
religious rights of the minority groups.
Intra-religious Domination -
Intra religious domination is the practice of the dominance and discrimination within a
particular religion. Caste system and male domination that exist within religion are examples
of Intra religious domination.

Secular state - According to Nehru, a secular state is a nation which protects all religions and
does not support any religion at the expense of another religion and does not accept any
religion as the official religion of the nation. Below are the key features of a secular nation.
1. The secular state has no official religion
2. No relationship between Religion and nation.
3. State must not be governed by religious head.
4. No special consideration to any religion.
The Western Model of Secularism

Following are the main ideas that the Western model of secularism proposes.
1. Mutual exclusion of state and religion.
2. State can not financially aid any religious institutions.
3. Religion is a private matter.
4. State supported religious reform is not encouraged.
5. Individual freedom and equality are important.
6. Community rights and minority rights are not important.
The Indian Model of Secularism
Indian secularism is different from the western model of secularism. The following are some
of the main ideas related to Indian secularism.
1. Importance is given to inter religious equality.
2. Equality within the religion is also important.
3. Encourages nation-sponsored religious reforms.
4. The rights of minority groups are important.
Major criticisms of Indian secularism
1. Anti – religious - Critics say Indian secularism is against religions. But Indian secularism
only opposes acts that promote communalism and communalism
2. Western import -There has been criticism that the Western idea of secularism is not suited
to Indian conditions. Just because the concept is western ,it need not be discarded at the very
out set. Indian secularism is different from western secularism.
3. Minoritism- Another criticism of Indian secularism is that it gives special attention to
minorities. Its a baseless argument. Indian secularism only ensures the basic rights of the
minorities.
4. Interventionist - Another criticism is that Indian secularism interferes excessively with the
religious freedom of communities. Indian secularism interfere in religious matters only to
make needed reforms.
5. Vote bank politics -Another criticism is that Indian secularism promotes vote bank
politics.
Vote bank politics is part of democracy. Vote bank politics is dangerous only when it creates
communal issues.
6. Impossible Project -Some have argued that secularism is irrelevant in a society where
religious consciousness is deeply rooted. This argument is absolutely false. Most sections of
Indian society are secular.
19. PEACE
Peace is generally defined as the absence of war. But in the broadest
sense, peace is the absence of war, rebellion, massacre, and murder and all other types of
violence .
Forms of Structural Violence
Violence made on the basis of caste, religion, class, colour, gender etc are termed as
structural violence.
1. Traditional caste system - There are a large number of people in India who have been

excluded from society on the basis of traditional caste system and subjected to various forms
of abuse and violence. An example for caste related brutality is the untouchability of dalits.
2. Class conflict – Class division creates inequality and oppression in the society. Under class
is subjected to exploitation in different parts of the world.
3.Racism and communalism - Racial abuse and exploitation exist in many parts of the world.
Many people were denied their basic rights because they were born into a particular race.
Examples of racism include slavery in the US, apartheid in South Africa, massacre of Jews in
Germany by Hitler.
4.Patriarchy - In patriarchal societies, women are subjected to various forms of violence.
Female foeticide, child marriage, dowry related torture, sexual harassment and domestic
violence are very common in many societies.
5 Colonialism - Colonial rule means the political and economic domination of one country
over another. European countries ruled Asian and African countries for many centuries. The
colonial masters ignored even the basic rights of the Asian - African people .
Eliminating Violence
Spiritual principles and practices, modern healing techniques like
psychoanalysis etc are helpful to construct peace in human mind. Elimination of structural
violence is also important in peace making efforts. It is argued that force can be used to
remove tyrants and oppressors. Once deployed, it tends to spin out of control. So it's better to
use love and truth to retain peace.. State tends to protect the interest of their citizens.
Sometimes it may be harmful to other nations. Military dictators may misuse the forces.
Democratisation is the solution to such problems. Democratic approach is helpful to retain
peace for a long term.
Different approaches to the pursuit of peace
1. Centrality to states- Each sate respects the sovereignty of other states and accepts
competition among them as a fact of life. Arrangements like ‘balance of power’ are used to
maintain world peace.
2. Social and economic cooperation – Interdependence among the modern states is an
effective tool to bring world peace. international understanding and cooperation will lead to
better prospects of life.
3. Fostering of a global community – Creating a global community is considered as a surest
guarantee of peace. Multinational corporations and people’s movements strongly support the
concept of international brotherhood.
Contemporary Challenges
Military alliances – The military alliances formed by the world powers are threat to world
peace. NATO, SEATO, CENTO are the examples of military alliances.
The rise of terrorism – Terrorist organisations pose a great threat to peace through the use
of modern weapons and modern technology. They use biological/chemical/nuclear weapons
mercilessly. They apply gurrilla tactics to cause destruction.
Genocide -Systematic massacre of an entire group of people is called genocide. This became
particularly evident in Rwanda where nearly half a million people were killed in the ethnic
conflict.
Positive signs
Peace movements are active after second world war. All types of people participate in it. Peace
movements work together with women and environmental movements. Peace studies – a new
branch of knowledge is developed. New means of communication are helpful to spread the
message of peace easily.
20. DEVELOPMENT
In the narrow sense, development is defined as economic growth.
In the broadest sense, development is the concept of well-being, progress, prosperity and the
desire for a better life.

Criticisms of the Development Model
1. The Social Costs of Development - Many people are forced to evacuate for the
construction of large dams, airports and factories. Mining, road construction and railway
construction also leads to the eviction. Forced evictions may destroy traditional skills and
jobs. This creates poverty and increases crimes. Displacement also contributes to the decline
of local cultures. Mass movements against eviction are taking place all over the world.
Narmada Bachao Andolan, led by Medha Patkar, is an example of such protests.
2. Environmental Costs of Development - Environmental exploitation for development
causes major disasters. Lack of proper developmental planning leads to environmental
problems such as air pollution, water pollution, erosion and climate change.
Assessing Development - In many countries the benefits of economic growth are enjoyed
mainly by the upper classes of society. Many countries develop economically. But there are
many citizens who have to live in poverty. Therefore development cannot be regarded as mere
economic development. Real development is the process of raising the standard of living of all
classes of people.
The United Nations releases the Human Development Report every year for the purpose of
assessing development. It determines the level of development of countries in terms of
literacy, education level, life expectancy and maternal mortality rate. This criterion used to
classify countries is called the Human Development Index.
Alternative Conceptions of Development
The world today is following a deficient development model. The main accusation of modern
development models is environmental and social costs. Another drawback is the lack of public
participation. Discussions about a better development model are lively. The following are the
main ideas involved in the alternative concept of development.
Right Claims -People who are adversely affected by development projects have the right to be
protected. It is generally assumed that tribals and indigenous peoples are entitled to special
rights.
Democratic Participation -It is hoped that the development activities will be strengthened
by ensuring the participation of the people in the adoption and implementation of
development goals. Gram Panchayats and Municipalities have an important role to play in
development activities.
Development and Lifestyle- Development can not be measured in terms of the luxurious
lifestyle of a section of society. The real development is to meet the basic needs of all sections
of the population. A developmental project which supports conservation and renewal of
natural resources is more acceptable.
Mathew Joseph / HSST Political Science / GHSS Kozhichal
9656924894

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E PLUS KERALA IN YOUTUBE

1. CONSTITUTION : WHY AND HOW?

The Authority of a Constitution

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PARLIAMENTARY EXECUTIVE PRESIDENTIAL EXECUTIVE

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Political executive Permanent executive

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3. Local knowledge and energy can be used in the development process.

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Major Books and Authors on Freedom

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14. Social Justice

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The Western Model of Secularism

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