Ethics

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Aristotle on Virtue

Module 9 Aristotle on Virtue, The Philosophy of

Immanuel Kant, and Right

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Apply Aristotle’s understanding of virtue
2. Describe Telos philosophy of Aristotle
3. Explain happiness in Aristotle’s point of view
4. Explain Immanuel Kant’s philosophy of Good Will
5. Discuss about Kant’s Categorical Imperative
6. Cite examples of the Kingdom of Ends
7. Define and cite examples of Rights as well as the types of rights
8. Differentiate rights from privilege
9. Discern moral rights from legal rights

Virtue according to Aristotle

Aristotle believed that virtue (arête) is a trait of mind or character that helps us achieve a
good life guided by reason. Virtues may be intellectual and moral. The first deals with qualities of
mind and character that promote critical thinking, and the pursuit of truth. Moral virtues talks
about behaving in the right manner that differentiate need from avarice that lead to vice. Aristotle
mentioned that anything that is passion, a faculty or a state (trait) of character is part of the soul
(the mind) that regulates vice and virtue. Virtues are part of the soul, they must be in union with
the following:
1. Passions: By ‘passions’ we mean our bodily needs and stimuli (examples are the need for
food, drink, sex, etc.), our emotions, and any feelings that accompany either pleasure or pain. We
must keep in mind though that these cannot be virtues per se because. a. passions cannot exactly
define a goodness or character of a person. b. We can never choose our passions because it is
inherent in person, however virtues are related to the choices we make. we cannot will what we
want for passions come to man it is only his decision in relation to that passion that create virtues.
c. Virtues center only on our responses; they are not desires that actually motivate us.
2. Faculties: are stimuli that we get from our senses. They are not actually virtues but these
perceptions can guide us in the creation of virtues.
3. Virtues must be states of character. Aristotle defines it as ‘the things in virtue of which
we stand well or badly with reference to the passions’. Character is formed, by means of a person’s
decisions in relation to what they feel, how they think, how they react, the choices they make, as
well as their reaction based in a given situation. For example someone is short-tempered often to
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feel angry at the slightest provocation; quick-witted people can think and decide in an instant and
so on. Character traits last much longer and change less easily than many ‘states of mind’, such as
moods and desires. But as what everybody believes character changes as well.
Aristotle’s Telos Philosophy
Aristotle widely known as the ancient Greek father of western philosophy, believed that
there is purpose in life, and he called that purpose as telos. The word might be interchanges with
‘purpose,’ ‘intent,’ ‘end,’ or ‘goal,’. Aristotle for his part, termed it as the inherent purpose of each
thing. He refers it as the ultimate reason for each thing being the way it is, regardless as to
whether it was man-made or created by nature.

Man-made objects
Take for example a coffee mug. A simple definition is that it is metal, plastic or ceramic-
handled object that can carry hot liquid; but the mug reveals other purpose. You can’t use your
coffee mug to contain petrol or book cover. Describing the color, texture or height of the object
might be useful; but doing so would miss the most important thing about it, it’s very reason for
existing – it’s telos. The coffee mug was created by humans to drink of coffee with, and every
human artifact is made for a specific purpose—chairs for sitting, cars for driving, television shows
for entertaining.
Natural Objects
What about natural objects? Do they have inherent purposes? Can we make a definition of
them sans any reference to religious beliefs? Aristotle said that the telos of a plant or animal is
also ‘what it was made for’ that we can be observe. For example, the trees’ purpose is to grow,
develop branches, produce fruit, nuts, or flowers, provide shade, and reproduce. The telos of a tree
is something that can make use of its full potential –the very purpose why it was created. Some
observers include the telos of a tree is it’s eventually decaying and death, and perhaps that is part
of it, but Aristotle could disagree by saying that the telos of a thing is that which it does when it
fulfills its full potential.
Humans
Humans according to Aristotle, has happiness as the telos for human beings. The Greeks
termed it as or eudemonia that also means something more like “fulfillment.” By what Fulfillment
is he speaking of? Man of all beings has the potential for excellence, or “virtues” in English
translations of Aristotle. Aristotle defined “virtue” as referring to artistic, scientific, athletic, or any
other kind of excellence. When man performed a chore such as painting a masterpiece, winning an
athletic event or aspiring for scholastic honors happiness can be achieved once one aims for
perfection.
Aristotle’s definition of Happiness
"Happiness depends on ourselves." More than anybody else, Aristotle enshrines happiness
as a central purpose of human life and a goal in itself. As a result, he devotes more time in pursuing
happiness than any other topic to think about in the modern era. Living during the same period as
Mencius, but on the other side of the world, he draws some similar conclusions. Aristotle was
convinced that in order to attain a completely happy life requires the fulfillment of a broad range
of conditions, including physical as well as mental well-being. Essentially, Aristotle argues that
virtue is achieved by maintaining the Mean, which is the balance of the mind to a state of
equilibrium.
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Aristotle on Virtue

Man and Duty

Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher that believed in the dignity of human reason,
duty, goodwill and the ends of human actions. But first, let us begin with duty – it simply means
that it is anything that has to be done or omitted. Others believe that it is a moral obligation one
has to do but within the framework of human freedom. There are four kinds of duty namely:
1. Natural Duty – These are moral duty of citizens to obey the laws of their state and God
in relation to the Eternal Law. Examples are the duty to worship God or the duty to
value human life
2. Positive Duty – An obligation to do an act, on the part of the person on whom it is
imposed. Examples are the duty to hear mass, pay taxes and tuition fees
3. Affirmative Duty – these are things that adhere to moral obligation. Examples are the
inherent law of doing good and avoiding evil, helping the poor, aid the needy and the
likes.
4. Negative Duty – Moral obligation to avoid or refrain from doing something. Examples
are prohibitions of “no smoking”, “no littering” or “loitering” as well as legal decisions.
Kant’s philosophy revolved around the dignity of Human Reason. Man has gift or reason
and free will and the master of his destiny. Man is the only creature who can create his own
destiny and is the end not the means of God’s creation. Man having a free will should never exploit
his fellow men that slavery, bribery and any form of human exploitation degrades men into beasts
which is morally wrong. God created all things as means and Man is an end being an instrument of
God’s Divine Plan. Man’s primary duty is to make sure that God’s Divine Plan of being like Him is
implemented but in accordance with his free will.
Kant’s Philosophy of Good Will
Contrary to the Aristotelian and Thomistic philosophies that mentioned Moral Law came
from God and was made undisputed by Man through his conscience for conscience came from
Him. Kant believed that reason made all laws and makes everyone obey all laws at the same time
this is called the “Autonomy of reason”. Reason is endowed in men that laws are created because
there is reason for it and that is to reach a reasonable end. Man is the only being capable of
grasping the truth, according to Kant it can only be seen through sense experience (sensation felt
by the senses). We can only grasp the tangible and phenomenon never the noumenon
(unexplainable events). Man cannot know the very essence of the thing itself for man cannot know
everything. Man will never know what is right from wrong since there is no certainty in this world.
So what is Good Will then, Kant means to act out of a sense of moral obligation or "duty".
The German Scholar believed that the Eternal Law “do good and avoid evil” is inherent in man,
meaning that there is goodness in every man that no matter how evil they are, the tendency to do
good or wanting something good is innate in man. The will is his ability to pursue his good with
help of human reason but then again the goodness or badness of an act lies in the purpose why
had he done it. Not all good acts are good in itself such as a politician doling out goods to typhoon
victims or an adversary delivering a eulogy to a fallen opponent. Good Will is the reason why he
made such action and the ends he wanted to achieve upon doing it.

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Kant’s Categorical Imperative
This philosophy of Immanuel Kant is a derivation of The Golden Rule mentioned in the
Chinese Classics “Do not do unto to others what you do not want others to do unto you”. In his
case he “Act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that
it become a universal law”. To sum it up that is a command or an imperative. There are two kinds
of imperatives hypothetical and categorical, let us differentiate. The former are commands that are
dependent on the goals to be fulfilled. These are commands that apply only in particular
circumstances, for particular people who happen to have these desires, these goals. Examples are
brushing your teeth to avoid bad breath, go to school to fulfill your scholastic needs and the likes.
Categorical Imperatives are commands that are universal and impartial. It encompasses every
reasonable being regardless of their origin, culture or social standing and at the same time they
have to perform these in respect for the dignity of everyone which devoid of their bias or
inclinations. Universal Love is an example of Categorical Imperative, World Peace is another.
The Kingdom of Ends
Immanuel Kant believed in the dignity of human reason but also of the free will. As
mentioned in past modules man is endowed with free will and human reason to decide but if they
are coerced then their freedom of choice is hampered making them less of a human being. Dignity
of man should not be compromised. The Kingdom of ends is the idea of a state equal to Sir
Thomas More’s Utopia. Kant defines it as, "a systematic union of different rational beings through
common laws". But is it attainable? He believed it is because as long as men think the same way
which he deemed as “categorical imperative” it is attainable. The Kingdom of ends has three
ingredients: the members, the sovereign, and the private ends which the members have. The
members refer to reasonable free-willed persons, who obey universal laws. They are ends in
themselves and are willing to spread their ideals to others absent of personal biases. The
sovereign is perceived to be God for he is not subject to any law but has no “power” to break the
law itself he is a role-model that the members will subscribe to. The private ends of the members
are the goals they wanted to achieve that will benefit everyone that might refer to categorical
imperatives. In this kingdom, human degradation, slavery and exploitation for the private ends
they wanted to attain are for everyone’s benefit.

What are Rights?

Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement. Rights are part of
modern civilizations, and are regarded as established pillars of society and culture. Conflicts in
history such as war, for example, began and end with rights. Democracy protected the rights of
individuals, property and privileges that is a thing men can never do without. Human
rights are moral principles that describe standards of human behavior protected by law. They are
considered as inalienable and fundamental, which means they can be given and taken away once
abused and is a necessity for human existence. Human rights are inherent among human beings
because that is part of their existence regardless of their race, color or creed. It must be noted that
human rights may be protected by law but if abused, as mentioned will be taken away but with
due process. The “aggrieved” party may lose his fundamental rights backed up by a court litigation
and at the same time mete punishment for his mistake.
Types of Human Rights:
1. Civil and Political Rights - “civil-political” rights center on political liberties dealing with
politics. They are strongly individualistic and negatively constructed to protect the
individual from the state. These rights got their origin from Thomas Paine’s “Rights of
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Aristotle on Virtue

Man” that is part of the democratic process. Civil rights include the security of peoples'
well-being, the protection from discrimination, and the exercise of freedoms of speech,
freedom, press and assembly. By Political Rights we mean natural justice such as the
right of the accused to fair trial, redress of grievances and legal remedies.
2. Socio-Economic and Cultural Rights – are human rights guarantee equal conditions and
treatment of necessities provided by the State. These include the human right
employment, the right to a high quality of life, including the basic needs of food,
clothing, and shelter and the right to social security, healthy environment, and
education. These rights are part of the body of human rights that resulted after World
War II.
3. Collective-Developmental Rights – the right of peoples and groups to development in
relation to states’ rights to public assembly. This is for the protection of associations
and groups with the help of the state in its well-being.

Rights versus Privileges

A privilege is an entitlement to immunity granted by the state or another authority to a
restricted group on a conditional basis. On the other hand a right is an inherent, irrevocable
entitlement held by all citizens or all human beings from the moment of birth. What is the
difference, privilege refers to special powers or immunities held as a consequence of political
power, social status, or wealth. Any local citizen has the right to elect a public official but having a
driver’s license is a privilege for it cannot be demanded. Such government ID needed exams to
pass and laws to follow. Privileges elevate a person, that granted them status and power that not
everybody can claim. Both of them however can be taken away once abused.
Moral Right versus Legal Right
As explained in the past modules not everything moral as legal and vice versa but we will
give an in-depth analysis of that in this module. Moral rights are rights accorded under some
system of ethics. Moral rights adhere to the idea that men are to be respected because they are
rational people. This includes the right to fair treatment and right to privacy. That is, if Pedro has
the right to these things Juan also being a human being must also be given the same privileges.
Legal rights are people’s rights under some legal system, granted by the government or any
duly-constituted authority. Everyone has the right to know the veracity of a news item that the
State may upheld the right to information but cannot force the people to believe in it.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Montemayor, Felix; Ethics the Philippines; Navotas Metro Manila; National Book Store
2. Babor, Eddie R.; Ethics – The Philosophical Discipline of Action; Manile, Rex Book
Store
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Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. Aristotle on Virtue; http://documents.routledge-
interactive.s3.amazonaws.com/9781138793934/A22014/ethical_theories/Aristotle
%20on%20virtue.pdf;
2. Philosophy of Terms; http://philosophyterms.com/telos/
3. The Pursuit of Happiness; http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/history-of-
happiness/aristotle/
4. Ethical Traditions;
www.qcc.cuny.edu/SocialSciences/ppecorino/MEDICAL_ETHICS_TEXT/Chapter_2_Et
hical_Traditions/Categorical_Imperatives.htm; 2002
5. The Kingdom of Ends; https://limnk.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-010-
3099-1_26;
6. How to tell the difference between the right and a privilege?;
https://voicesofliberty.com/2015/04/22/how-to-tell-the-difference-between-a-
right-and-a-privilege/; April 22, 2015
7. What is difference between moral rights and legal rights?;
https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-moral-rights-and-legal-
rights; January 9, 2017
8. Three Generations of Human Rights; http://www.globalization101.org/three-
generations-of-rights/; 1991
9. What are Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; http://www.cesr.org/what-are-
economic-social-and-cultural-rights;