LESSON 13

1. Aristotle’s Nichomachean Ethics:

Virtue Ethics
2. Thomas Aquinas: Natural Law and Happiness
 1. ARISTOTLE’S
NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS:
VIRTUE ETHICS
Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is all about focusing on being a good person rather than
following strict rules or just thinking about the outcomes of our actions.
Strands of Virtue Ethics

1. Eudaimonism: This is about finding happiness and living a good life

through wisdom and being virtuous in everyday life. It's not just
about feeling happy; it's about living in a way that's good for us in
the long run.

2. Care Ethics: This theory says that being moral is all about caring for
others and being kind. It sees morality as something that's tied to
relationships and being considerate of others' feelings.
Strands of Virtue Ethics

3. Agent-based Approach: This looks at virtues like kindness and

compassion, and says they come from looking up to people we
admire. It focuses on our inner feelings and motives when judging
whether something is right or wrong.

Virtue ethics is about being a good person by developing good

habits and caring about others, rather than just following rules or
thinking about what will happen as a result of our actions.
Aristotle

Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and scientist, born in 384 B.C. in Stagira,

North Greece, was trained in medicine and educated in philosophy.
He moved to Athens at 17, studied at Plato's Academy, and later
founded his own school, the Lyceum. Aristotle tutored Alexander the
Great and wrote around 150 philosophical works, including
"Nichomachean Ethics" and "Metaphysics," showing the influence of
Plato.
Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics

In Aristotle's book "Nicomachean Ethics," the name Nicomachus

means "victor in battle." It's interesting because the first virtue Aristotle
talks about is courage in battle, which fits with this name. Some
people think the book is named after Aristotle's son, but it could also
be named after his father.
What is Good?

Aristotle talks about what "good" means. He says it's the goal or
purpose of something. Like, the goal of medicine is to make people
healthy, and the goal of education is to make people successful. So,
good medicine makes you healthy, and good education helps you
succeed.
Kinds of Good

There are two kinds of good things. One is instrumental good, which
you only want because it helps you get something else good. Like,
money is good because it helps you buy food and medicine. The
other kind is intrinsic good, which is good just by itself. Aristotle says
happiness is the only thing that's good just because it's happiness.
Happiness: The Ultimate Purpose of
Human Existence
What's the main reason people are alive? What's the big goal they
should aim for in everything they do? Some might think it's about
having fun, getting rich, or being famous. But Aristotle, an old thinker,
says it's something deeper: happiness.
Happiness: The Ultimate Purpose of
Human Existence
To be the ultimate goal, something has to be enough by itself and
not just a step to something else. Aristotle says happiness fits this.
Everything we do is to try to be happy. In Greek, happiness is called
"eudaimonia." It's more than just feeling good for a little while; it's
about living a good life overall. Aristotle says it's like how one warm
day doesn't mean it's spring, and one happy moment doesn't mean
you're truly happy.
Virtue: The Path to Happiness
To be truly happy, Aristotle says you should develop something called "virtue."
Aristotle’s concept of “virtue” is closely related to the concept of “excellence of
any kind”. Aristotle defines it as what makes the essential function of a thing. For
example, a knife's virtue is cutting, a door's virtue is being an entrance, and a
book's virtue is being read.

Humans are different from animals because we can think and reason. So, our
virtue is living according to our reason. When we use our brains to act in good
ways, we become better as humans.
Kinds of Virtue
There are two kinds of virtue:

1. Intellectual virtue: This is about being really good at something through

learning and experience. It takes time to get good at it.

2. Moral virtue: This comes from practicing good habits. We're not born with it;
we learn it by doing good things over and over again.

Aristotle said that if you practice good habits, you'll become virtuous. But if you
practice bad habits, you'll become less virtuous. Virtue isn't just something you
do naturally; it's something you have to think about and work on.
Theory of the Golden Mean

Aristotle also talked about the "Theory of the Golden Mean." This
means finding the right balance between doing too much and doing
too little. Being virtuous is like being in the middle, not too extreme in
any direction. It's about making good decisions based on reason, like
a healthy person whose temperature is just right. A virtuous person
knows how to balance things and make the right choices.
2. THOMAS AQUINAS:
NATURAL LAW AND
HAPPINESS
Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas was born in the 13th century to a noble family in the small town
of Roccasecca, near Aquino, Italy, in what was then the Kingdom of Sicily.
Thomas of Aquin or Aquino was a Dominican priest who was considered as a
great philosopher and classical proponent of natural theology during the period
of Scholasticism. Aquinas philosophy greatly influenced the foundations of
Christian theology in particular and Western philosophy in general. His most
important and enduring works are the Summa Theologica and Summa Contra
Gentiles (addressed to non-Christians).
Meaning and Nature of Law

Law is an ordinance of reason for the common good made to

regulate the actions of the community. According to Aquinas, law is
"a certain rule and measure of acts whereby man is induced to act or
is restrained from acting."
Main Functions of Law

1. It is directed towards specific ends.

2. It induces man to act in a certain way.

3. It restrains man from acting in certain ways.

Basic Elements of Law
1. A law is an order of practical reason. It binds or obligates a person to a particular
behavior. It is based on an intelligent judgment of what is right and wrong.

2. The law is meant to further the interests of the entire community, and not just of a few
individuals.

3. The people can enact their laws, or laws can be made through a genuine
representative who works on behalf of the common good.

4. The people are expected to be properly oriented and informed about the law. The
law must be communicated clearly, publicized, or made publicly known.
Kinds of Law

1. Eternal Law: This is the fundamental law that stems from divine
providence, according to St. Thomas Aquinas. It's the underlying
principle governing the entire universe, established by God.

2. Natural Law: Derived from eternal law, natural law is the inherent
sense of right and wrong that humans possess. It's considered
universal and is believed to be discernible through reason. It's
often summarized as "do good; avoid evil."
Kinds of Law

3. Divine Law: This type of law is revealed to humans, often through

religious texts or divine communication. It's considered a derivation of
eternal law, tailored for human understanding and guidance.

4. Human Law: Enacted and enforced by human societies, human law is

created to promote virtue and ensure the common good. It serves as a
means of regulating behavior within communities and is often enforced
through legal systems and institutions.
Natural Law Ethics
Natural Law Ethics posits that moral principles are rooted in the nature of the
world and humanity. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, since humans cannot
directly know the eternal law, they participate in it through natural law. While
humans share sense appetites with animals, it's their rational appetites that
distinguish them. Aquinas asserts that actions contrary to reason are contrary to
human order. The primary directive of natural law is to pursue good and avoid
evil, with good and evil determined by human reason and considered objective
and universal. Human nature drives individuals to seek what is deemed good,
whether in the short or long term.
Three Ends of Human Beings

The three ends of human beings are: to preserve life, to reproduce,

and to belong in society. These come from our natural instincts. We
make rules based on these instincts, choosing the ones that help us
be the best we can be. We think about and refine these rules through
the use of reason. When we follow what feels right and what makes
sense, that's when we're doing good.
Three Ends of Human Beings

Aquinas, akin to Aristotle, asserts an act's goodness or evilness depends on

its contribution to or hindrance of ultimate happiness or perfection.
Achieving this goal demands consistent use of intellectual and moral virtues.

Humans, according to Aquinas, naturally seek perfection, utilizing reason to

fulfill their existence. Moral development hinges on exercising natural
capabilities for good. Action morality relates to alignment or contradiction
with one's rational nature.
Virtue as the Source of Moral Strength

Virtue is the means to perfect human activity for Aquinas—it's

developed through practice and shapes how we think, feel, and act.
Good habits help us use our abilities to reach our goals, ultimately
leading to happiness.
Three Main Categories of Virtue

1. Intellectual virtues: These perfect our thinking. Understanding helps

us figure out what's right or wrong, while wisdom deepens our
understanding of morality.

2. Moral virtues: These make us good people. They give us the

strength to always choose what's right. There are four main ones:
prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude, which are like the
hinges of a door—they're crucial for leading a good life.
Three Main Categories of Virtue

3. Theological virtues: These come from God's grace and help us

connect with Him. Faith helps us see things from God's
perspective, hope gives us strength in tough times, and charity
helps us love others like God does.
The Ultimate End: Happiness in God
According to Aquinas, true happiness is found in God. While we all seek
happiness, it's not something we can fully achieve on our own. Only by
uniting with God can we find lasting fulfillment.

Aquinas teaches that our actions are guided by our desire for what's good.
But not everyone has the same idea of what will make them truly happy.
However, Aquinas believes that everything starts and ends with God. Our
ultimate goal is to find happiness in Him, as only God can truly satisfy our
deepest longings.
 LESSON 14
1. Immanuel Kant and Ethics
2. Hedonism and Utilitarianism
1. IMMANUEL KANT
AND ETHICS
Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was a pivotal German philosopher from the Age
of Enlightenment. His work significantly shaped Western thought, particularly
through his development of Kantianism, which inspired German idealism. His
key works, Critique of Pure Reason and Critique of Practical Reason, focus
on epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics, influencing both rationalism and
empiricism. Kantian philosophy remains a significant area of scholarly study
and continues to impact contemporary continental philosophy.
Theory of Deontology

Kantian ethics is typically deontological, emphasizing the inherent rightness

or wrongness of actions, regardless of their outcomes (contrary to
consequentialism) or the actor's character (contrary to virtue ethics). The
term "deontology" comes from the Greek words "deon" (duty) and "logos"
(study), reflecting its focus on duty-based ethics. Deontologists believe that
ethical rules impose obligations, and an action's moral worth is determined
by its adherence to these rules, prioritizing the right over the good.
Theory of Good Will

Kant's concept of "good will" refers to actions that are intrinsically good,
independent of their outcomes. "Will" involves the motivation and intention
behind actions, which can be controlled, unlike their results. According to
Kant, good will is inherently good and cannot be used for evil purposes.
Even if an action fails to achieve its goal due to misfortune, the goodness of
the will behind it remains untainted. Human qualities, though potentially
misused, are fundamentally good when directed by good will.
Theory of Categorical Imperative

Kant's concept of the categorical imperative builds on the idea of

good will and provides a method for evaluating the motivations
behind actions. The categorical imperative has four formulations, but
the primary focus here is on the first one: the Formula of Universality
and the Law of Nature.
Formula of Universality and the Law of
Nature
This formulation states:
"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will
that it should become a universal law."
According to this principle, an action is morally right if it can be universally
applied without contradiction. For instance, if everyone cheated on exams,
the purpose of education would be undermined. Similarly, if killing were
universally accepted, society would collapse into chaos. Therefore, actions
must be considered in terms of their universal applicability.
Other Formulations

1. The Formula of Humanity

“Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own
person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an
end, but always at the same time as an end.”

This formulation emphasizes respecting individuals as ends in

themselves and not merely as tools for achieving other goals.
Other Formulations

2. The Formula of Autonomy

“The third practical principle follows from the first two as the ultimate
condition of their harmony with practical reason: the idea of the will
of every rational being as a universally legislating will.”

This principle highlights the importance of individuals acting

according to laws they prescribe to themselves, embodying true
autonomy.
Other Formulations

3. The Kingdom of Ends Formulation

“Act according to the maxims of a universally legislating member of

a merely possible kingdom of ends.”

This formulation envisions a society where all individuals act

according to principles that could be universally legislated, creating
a harmonious community.
These formulations led Kant to advocate for rights and principles that
were revolutionary in his time, such as the rejection of discrimination
based on race and gender, which have since become integral to
modern ethical and legal standards.
2. HEDONISM AND
UTILITARIANISM
Jeremy Bentham

Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was an influential English philosopher,

political radical, and reformer, renowned for founding utilitarianism.
He believed that this principle should underpin legal and social
reforms. Although his ideas gained more traction posthumously, they
significantly influenced later thinkers like John Stuart Mill.
 Utilitarianism

In his seminal work, The Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham

articulated utilitarianism, an ethical theory that evaluates actions
based on their consequences, particularly the overall happiness or
pleasure they produce for those affected. Bentham's empiricist
perspective posited that happiness is the experience of pleasure
without pain.
Felicific Calculus
Bentham introduced the felicific calculus, also known as the utility, hedonic, or
hedonistic calculus, as a method to quantify pleasure resulting from actions. The
calculus considers several variables:
1. Intensity: The strength of the pleasure.
2. Duration: How long the pleasure lasts.
3. Certainty or Uncertainty: The likelihood of the pleasure occurring.
4. Propinquity or Remoteness: How soon the pleasure will occur.
5. Fecundity: The probability that the pleasure will lead to more pleasures.
6. Purity: The probability that the pleasure will not be followed by pain.
7. Extent: The number of people affected.
John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was a prominent English philosopher,

political economist, and parliamentarian, renowned as the leading
English-speaking philosopher of the 19th century. His contributions
significantly shaped ethics and political philosophy, particularly
through his work in utilitarianism, which he popularized following the
teachings of his mentor, Jeremy Bentham.
Utilitarianism

Mill is best known for advancing and elaborating on Bentham's

utilitarianism, becoming its most prominent advocate. In his book
Utilitarianism, Mill defined the principle that "actions are right in
proportion as they tend to promote happiness, and wrong as they
tend to produce the reverse of happiness." He argued that
happiness, understood as pleasure and the absence of pain, is the
foundation of moral actions.
Utilitarianism

Unlike Bentham, who viewed all pleasures as quantitatively equal, Mill

introduced a qualitative distinction between higher and lower
pleasures. Higher pleasures, associated with intellectual and moral
faculties, are inherently superior to lower, more base pleasures. This
qualitative aspect underscores the complexity of human happiness,
which cannot be fully captured by simple quantification.
Political and Social Contributions
Mill's influence extended beyond philosophy into practical politics and
social reform. He played a crucial role in advocating for several progressive
causes, such as:
- Abolition of the Slave Trade: Actively campaigning against slavery.
- Universal Suffrage: Supporting voting rights for all adults, including women.
- Labor Unions and Farm Cooperatives: Promoting the organization of
workers and cooperative farming as means to improve social and
economic conditions.
Political and Social Contributions

Mill also contributed to the development of political ideologies like

socialism, libertarianism, and feminism, emphasizing individual liberty,
social justice, and equality.
Natural Sentiments and Human Rights

Mill believed that utilitarianism, when adopted in societal and

political contexts, would lead people to internalize its principles as
morally binding. He posited that the natural social tendencies of
humans make happiness the ultimate aim and basis of morality. Mill
argued that human rights are grounded in the necessity for human
happiness, with individual and collective goals serving as means to
achieve this ultimate end.
Theories of Hedonism and Utilitarianism

Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges the morality of

actions based on their outcomes. An action is considered right if it
produces beneficial effects and wrong if it produces harmful effects.
The morality is determined by the actual consequences, not the
intention or goal behind the action.
Hedonism

Hedonism posits that pleasure and happiness are the primary aims of life
and the highest intrinsic goods. It encourages maximizing net pleasure
(pleasure minus pain) and suggests that individuals have the right and
obligation to pursue what brings them the most pleasure. Hedonism is often
seen as egoistic, focusing on individual pleasure without necessarily
considering others' well-being. Epicurus, a notable hedonist, emphasized
happiness and tranquility through friendship, freedom, and thoughtful living.
Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism, articulated by philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and John

Stuart Mill, judges actions by their ability to produce the greatest happiness
for the greatest number of people. Unlike hedonism, it considers the
happiness of others and aims to maximize overall human welfare. The
famous utilitarian dictum is "the greatest happiness of the greatest number."
Utilitarianism is often linked to social reform movements, prioritizing collective
well-being as the standard of right and wrong.
Both hedonism and utilitarianism are forms of consequentialism, but
while hedonism focuses on individual pleasure, utilitarianism seeks to
maximize collective happiness.
 LESSON 15
1. The Virtue of Justice
2. The Role of Faith and Religion in
Ethics
1. THE VIRTUE OF JUSTICE
Justice
The term "justice" originates from the Latin word jus, meaning "right." It signifies
giving each person their due, depicted by the symbol of Lady Justice, who is
blindfolded, holding scales and a sword, representing authority, fairness,
equality, and impartiality.

Justice involves adherence to the law and divine precepts, embodying the will
to provide each person what they deserve. In the Roman Catholic tradition,
justice balances selfishness and selflessness, promoting respect for others' rights
and harmonious relationships for the common good. The just person is
characterized by right thinking and upright conduct toward others.
Characteristics and Theories of Justice

Characteristics

1. Social Norm: Guides human interactions.

2. Approbative: Approves just actions.

3. Obligatory: Requires similar actions in similar situations.

Characteristics and Theories of Justice

Theories

1. Positive Law Theory: Justice as conformity to law, but transcends

legality.

2. Social Good Theory: Justice promotes social good.

3. Natural Right Theory: Justice based on inherent human rights from

nature.
Properties of Justice

1. Enforceability: Justice demands are enforceable.

2. Definiteness: Justice demands are specific and determinable.

3. Restitution: Violated justice claims require restitution or

compensation.
Classification of Justice
1. Attributive Justice: Ensures individuals receive what they rightfully
deserve, including rights to personal integrity, property, honor, and
qualifications.
2. Procedural Justice: Focuses on fair decision-making processes, ensuring
rules are neutrally and consistently applied to produce impartial
decisions.
3. Proportional Justice: Provides individuals what they are due by right,
including remuneration, compensation, or communal burdens.
Classification of Justice

4. Social Justice: Demands equitable distribution of economic

benefits among social groups, regions, and society, ensuring fair
wealth distribution.

5. Retributive Justice: Involves imposing just punishments and

penalties on wrongdoers, ensuring indemnification of victims.

6. Compensatory Justice: Concerns fairly compensating individuals

for losses suffered due to wrongful actions.
Classification of Justice
7. Commutative (Contractual) Justice: Ensures the fair exchange of goods and
services based on equal value.

8. Contributive Justice: Requires individuals to contribute to the common good

or community welfare.

9. Restorative Justice: Holds offenders accountable, focusing on making

reparations for the harm caused.

10. Distributive Justice: Concerns the just distribution of benefits (rights and
socio-economic goods) and burdens according to proportional equality.
John Rawls' Concept of Justice
as Fairness
Justice as Fairness

◦ Liberty Principle: Everyone has equal claim to basic liberties and rights, with
the maximum liberty compatible with similar liberty for others.

◦ Equality Principle: Encompasses two parts:

◦ Fair Equality of Opportunity – Ensures equal educational and economic
opportunities for all, regardless of socio-economic background.
◦ Difference Principle – Permits inequalities in wealth and income if they benefit
everyone, particularly the least advantaged.
John Rawls' Concept of Justice
as Fairness
Distributive Justice

◦ Primary Social Goods: Liberty, opportunity, income, wealth, and self-

respect should be distributed equally unless unequal distribution
benefits the least favored.

◦ Fairness in Distribution: Limits the influence of luck and ensures fair

processes, fostering societal stability by addressing perceptions of
injustice and preventing social unrest.
2. THE ROLE OF FAITH AND
RELIGION IN ETHICS
Faith

Faith, as described in the Bible and affirmed by the Catholic Church,

is a profound belief and trust in God's unseen promises. It is both a gift
from God and a personal choice, allowing believers to understand
divine truths and seek deeper spiritual understanding. Faith is essential
for salvation and requires perseverance, as it is the foundation of
eternal life despite life's challenges.
Religion
Religion serves as a cultural system connecting individuals to the
supernatural and spiritual realms. It encompasses beliefs, rituals, and
practices that bind communities together. Emile Durkheim viewed religion
as a unified set of beliefs and practices that create moral communities.
Religion addresses human needs for meaning, comfort, and understanding
in times of uncertainty and distress. It plays a crucial role in shaping
individuals' worldview and moral behavior while providing social cohesion
and emotional support. Despite variations in content, religion is universally
recognized as a fundamental aspect of human society.
Elements of Religion
Religion comprises three essential elements: beliefs, practices, and a moral
community. Beliefs encompass faith in the sacred or divine, such as God or
the supernatural. Practices involve ritualistic activities like prayers and
sacrifices, serving as expressions of faith. A moral community is formed by
individuals who share a common faith and participate in religious rituals,
often led by religious leaders like priests or ministers. This community
reinforces shared beliefs and values, fostering a sense of belonging and
unity among its members.
Types of Religious Organizations
Religious organizations can be categorized into four main types:
1. Church: These organizations have a bureaucratic structure and are
often closely tied to the state. They serve as guardians of religious
traditions within society.
2. Denominations: Similar to churches, denominations are integrated into
society but are not formally part of the state. They coexist with other
denominations, sharing many characteristics while differing on minor
theological points.
Types of Religious Organizations
3. Sects: Smaller and less organized than churches or denominations, sects
emerge in opposition to larger religious groups. They often break away
from larger denominations to uphold specific beliefs that diverge from
mainstream teachings.

4. Cults: The most transient and informal of religious groups, cults provide
refuge for individuals who reject societal norms. They typically originate
outside mainstream traditions and are centered around a charismatic
leader who attracts like-minded followers.
Major Religions in the World

Major religions in the world encompass diverse beliefs, rituals, and practices,
all originating from societal needs.

1. Judaism: A monotheistic faith centered on obedience to God's

commandments as outlined in the Torah, with Israel as the sacred land.

2. Christianity: Belief in the trinity of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, emphasizing
love for God and humanity, with Jesus as the central figure who
sacrificed himself for humanity's salvation.
Major Religions in the World

3. Islam: Monotheistic belief in Allah as the only true God, with Muhammad
as His Prophet, and adherence to the Quran as the sacred text.

4. Hinduism: Belief in reincarnation and karma, with multiple deities

representing the one God and adherence to dharma as the moral law.

5. Buddhism: Focused on enlightenment through understanding the

impermanence of life and the consequences of actions, following the
teachings of Gautama Buddha.