Binalonan, Pangasinan

First Semester | A.Y. 2022-23

Course Title: Ethics

Course Code: GE 8

Name: ___________________________________
Course and Year: __________________________

Introduction
For virtue ethics, a good person is somebody who is grounded on wisdom and virtue. For Aristotle, he
speaks of Golden Mean which is pleasure in moderation. Virtuous people will enjoy themselves in the right way, at
the right time, and just the right amount. It is from being virtuous as shown in his actions that a person can be said to
be a morally good person. Aquinas, using Aristotle’s philosophy, said that happiness is also an end. This kind of
happiness will be achieved if we seek knowledge from God and have a personal relationship with Him.

I. Objectives:
In this module, you will be able to:
1. Recognize the meaning of natural law and its relation to ethics.
2. Explain how natural law as an imprint of the Divine Will on the free person.
3. Perceive happiness as constitutive of moral and cardinal virtues.

II. Lecture and Discussions of the lesson/s

Thomas Aquinas / Tomas de Aquino (1225-1274)

● Greatly influenced by Aristotle

● “Universal Doctor of the Church”
● Birth:1225, Roccasecca, Italy
● Death: March 7, 1274, Fossanova Abbey, Italy
● Studied at Benedictine house in Naples
● His parents were Landulf (count of Aquino), nephew of the
Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and Theodora Rossi (countess of
Teano), a descendent from the Norman baron.

www.stitcher.com
He is an Italian Catholic priest, philosopher and the “Angelic Doctor.” He was hailed as the father of the Thomistic
school of theology and defender of the Catholic faith because of his two books. Summa Theologica and Summa
Contra Gentiles. He was the most influential Western medieval legal scholar and theologian that developed
several concepts in modern philosophy.

Natural Law and Its Tenets

Natural law theory is the simplest ethical framework that recognizes the deep connection between nature
and morality. All things in nature or the world have their own purposes which are part of an all-encompassing law, the
natural law. Natural law is morality built into the nature of people which is rationality. Thus, anything that is
natural-rational is basically moral and vice versa.
With great influence from Aristotle, the father of natural law, Thomas Aquinas is said to have Christianized
Aristotelian philosophy. Aquinas needed first to establish that humans were created by God and are meant to achieve
their ultimate happiness in heaven or in God. He added that the natural law comes from and ends in God. Anything
that goes against it is considered unnatural and thus immoral.
Aquinas believes in a God (efficient cause) who created the natural world in order and with purpose as a
reflection of his will. People’s human nature was a special reflection (final cause) or growth in relationship with God,
the supreme good, in order to discover his plan and purpose or nature.

Aquinas’ Natural Law Theory has the following tenets:

Basic Tenets: (Principle, especially one of the main principles of a religion or philosophy.)
1. Eternal law of God is revealed through the Natural Law.
2. Natural Law is revealed to all people through human reason.
3. Natural law has flexibility in its application.
4. The natural laws are universal and unchangeable bases to judge individual cultures and societies.
5. Everything in the world has its own nature or purpose (natural law) of being.
6. Humanity has an essential rational nature.
7. Human person can know, through reason, what is in accord with his own nature, which is good.
Aquinas defines law as a dictate of reason. This dictate of reason is primarily from the ruler to ensure the
order and proper functioning of everything in a community. By the same reason, he discovers different laws: eternal,
natural, human and divine.
Eternal law is the ideal order of the universe that exists in the mind of God. It could be known by reason as it
discovers the natural law. Everything in the universe then is just a reflection of the eternal law that exist in God’s
mind. This justifies why human life has infinite value. Human life is a precious gift from God. Nothing in the world can
outweigh it because it is part of God’s eternal law.

Life Principle: Human life is inviolable.

Natural law as a participation in the eternal law is revealed in nature especially human nature. This is the
moral law (Moral law is a system of guidelines for behavior.), to which people are naturally inclined to
act or do well and avoid evil.

Action Principle: Do well and avoid evil.

It is basically the nature of human persons to survive, to reproduce, to socialize and to know the truth and
God. These are true to all regardless of race, age, gender, status and culture. These enable people to do well, and
choose those that please their God.

Survival Principle: Self-preservation is basic to all beings.

All beings naturally preserve themselves by all means. Every being normally takes care of its own life, and
transmit it to the next generation. Thus, to commit suicide is unnatural and immoral.

Propagation Principle: All species propagate for self-preservation.

All living species including humans are naturally sexual. This enables them to propagate their own species
and preserve life. They rear and care for their own offspring.

Morality Principle: There is built-in natural law that governs the morality of human thinking and behaviour.
Human law refers to the positive laws (including civil and criminal laws) that provide precise guidance and
rules of behaviour. It supports the natural law so that if they do not, they are unjust and could be disobeyed. This is a
necessary law in order to maintain peace and order because it promotes harmony and unity despite diversity.

Social Principle: Humans as social beings live in peace and harmony with others.
Divine law refers to the special revelation of God’s will in the Scripture of the Old and New Testaments. It
focuses on how people should become holy and attain salvation not only here and now but in the final end. Jesus is
said to be the truth and the light that whosoever come to him will have an everlasting life.

Truth Principle: Humans use their will and reason in seeking the truth which is found in God.

Happiness as Constitutive of Cardinal Virtues

Following Aristotle, Aquinas believes that human persons have rational appetite or will that guide all acts
achieve their ends or goods. All there ends or goods ultimately lead to happiness, which is not power, glory, fame,
wealth, honour and pleasure. Happiness is not found in material world and created things; it is only found in
God in who is the source of everything that is good and perfect.
Happiness in God should be contemplated upon by the human person so that he may counter his desires
and avoid unhappiness. The intellect should seek for the essence of things. It should not just seek God’s existence
but also His very essence.
The ultimate happiness in God is a moral principle that dictates every behavior. The closer the behavior is to
happiness or God, the better it is and the farther it is to happiness, the worse it is.
But happiness in God is not possible in this imperfect life. Perfect happiness is only possible in the afterlife.
Humans are incapable of seeing God in this life. Nothing in this world can really and fully make humans happy. This
drives them even more to work hard for that final happiness.
Contemplation of God’s essence or goodness can help people focus their behaviors to Him and the eternal
happiness as final reward for their good behaviors. Aquinas, like Aristotle believes that through moral virtues,
humans will be able to achieve such happiness closet to God or most heavenly happiness. Happiness is and will be
through the moral virtues because there is no happiness without virtue and no virtue without self-struggle.
Aquinas, following Aristotle, holds that there are basic virtues that need to be developed first as the
foundation of other moral virtues. Their perfection leads to the strength of one’s character.

These are the four cardinal virtues (Latin: cardo – hinge or source):
1. Prudence (controls the intellect in making choices)
2. Courage (controls emotions in facing danger)
3. Justice (controls the will in relating with others)
4. Temperance (controls desires and passions).

Prudence Principle Prudence is the “right reason in action.”

1. Prudence (kahinahonan, pag iingat, timpi) or practical wisdom as the “mother or measure of all the virtues
and emotional health” is the ability to cautiously choose appropriate actions that best corresponds to
circumstance of given situation. It is being circumspect or able to account all relevant circumstances. It is the
proper disposition that controls, rectifies and directs emotions and desires, and knows necessary information in
order to do the right and good actions. It is called the “mother of beautiful character” and the secret to
becoming beautiful.
Being prudent includes understanding the first principles or (natural) goods in life such as truth, life, religion,
and family. It is also means having practical memory, that is, the ability to recall and learn from facts, experiences
and mistakes. Furthermore, prudence is open-mindedness that recognizes and accepts limitations. It also entails
smartness in assessing situation, getting clues, adjusting appropriately or being subtle, discreet and highly
intuitive.
Prudence essentially applies the principle of proportionality.

Proportionality Principle: It is the right action for the right reason and result, at the right situation, time and
place, and with the right weight and right person or virtue.
● Proportionality is the process of understanding and assessing the nature and effects of possible action in
order to choose the most appropriate action, control its application, effects and situation, and be responsible
with the persons involved. In Roman Catholic moral theology, proportionality is the reasonable balance
between human activity and consequences. It is the proportionate reason to tolerate evil or an attack.
Proportionate virtue is doing as much good as possible and as little harm or bad as necessary while
paying attention to all values and disvalues involved. Honesty must be executed proportionately such as
when a soldier is being interrogated by the enemies. To spare the lives of his comrades, he may tell lies.

Courage Principle Courage is “perseverance in adversity.”

2. Moral Courage is being cautious but certain in front of danger and risk. It is the strength and endurance to
control emotions and to bear suffering, fear, uncertainty, anxiety and pressure. It is humbly swallowing pride and
using failures or limitations as advantages. Moral dilemmas and choices can be very detrimental. Situations can
be dangerous. But moral courage enables one to survive, resist temptations and vices, and constantly pursue
what is right and good at all cost – martyrdom, or giving up of one’s precious life.
Moral courage is supported by good reasons or moral principles such as integrity, honesty, common
good and justice which may be greater than life in some situations. People sometimes ought to die for
principles to be happy so that courage is greatly necessary. Moral courage is not recklessness, fearlessness,
passion, excessive anger, and suppressed fear. It is not even valor or heroism which may involve official
declaration and award, social affirmation and immortalization through monuments, shrines, laws and medals. It is
greater than all of these; it is a spiritual and intellectual virtue that priorities principles and ideals are more than
anything else.

Justice Principle Justice is giving what fairly belongs to others and to God.
3. Justice is fairness that consists in giving to God and neighbour what is due to each of them. It is giving them
what rightly belongs to them as part of a good and just society and being a social being. This disposition enables
people to respect others and their rights so that they can live harmoniously, peacefully and prosperously.

Being just is to constantly being conscious of one’s behaviour as it may affect others. It is important to
carefully evaluate every situation so that behaviour and decisions may be proper to others also. One does not
live alone so that whatever one does will always have a direct and indirect effect on others and worship to God.

Temperance Principle Temperance is the practice of self-control, abstention and moderation.

4. Temperance is self-restraint, self-control, self-regulation and moderation towards attraction to pleasure and
created goods. It is the disposition of reason to balance and control desires, passions or appetites. Every
 self-restrain or self-regulation ultimately leads to a sound reason. Passions can be very destructive if they are not
tempered as they may cloud and bring disorder to reason. The recurring problem on intemperance in the use of
drugs, sex, money, environmental destruction are only proofs that the absence of temperance can destroy the
person, family, society and the whole world. Others call temperance as “moderation in all things.”

Temperance is best practiced by many people through abstinence in food and drink, sexual pleasures.
Others are also good at having proper diet and exercise, being thrifty. Highly well-tempered people are chaste,
charitable, diligent, patient, kind and humble.

Self-control in the simple aspects of life reflects not only a strong character but also a happy life. This
reveals that what really bring real happiness are not sensual or material things but ideas or principles such as
self-discipline, moderation, contentment.

Self-indulgence and sensuality are forms of intemperance that may drive people towards enslaving and
additive sins or vices: gluttony, greed, sloth, lust, drunkenness, wrath, mediocrity, envy, pride, maltreatment,
bullying, drug addiction, lying, stealing.

Nevertheless, all these four cardinal virtues for Aquinas will fail and could not reach the highest happiness
without the theological virtues of faith, hope and love. These heavenly virtues will relate human persons to God
and each other because they provide true knowledge and desire for Him and His will.

Faith is disposes to recognize, believe and trust in God. Hope disposes people to always long or wish for
Him and to be always with Him because he is the only true happiness. Love finally disposes people to desire
Him, to serve Him and to worship Him. These Christian virtues truly reflect the virtues of Jesus which could be
hard to comprehend and far different from Aristotle’s means. To exercise these virtues, people should
contemplate on the God’s will and not according to the will of people and the human reason.

Anything opposes these virtues are called sins. The sins: against faith are unbelief, skepticism,
agnosticism, apostasy and heresy; against love are envy, bitterness, greed, hate, animosity, sedition and
treason.

What is good or right is anything done out of virtue because it brings happiness
Thomistic Principle
with God.

III. Activity/Application

Activity 9: Essay

1. Research and enumerate at least five (5) criticisms or problems with Natural Law by Thomas Aquinas.
a. ______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

b. ______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
 c. ______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

d. ______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

e. ______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Discuss Natural Law and its relevance to you as a free person.

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

IV. Assessment

● Happiness is and will be through the moral virtues because there is no happiness without virtue and no
virtue without self-struggle. Aquinas, following Aristotle, holds that there are basic virtues that need to be
developed first as the foundation of other moral virtues. Their perfection leads to the strength of one’s
character.

a. There are four cardinal virtues that leads to the strength of one’s character. In application, choose among these
four cardinal virtues (prudence, courage, justice, temperance) you think should be exercised and developed by
the following professions?

1. Nurse: _______________________________________________________________________________
Reason: ______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. Lawyer: ______________________________________________________________________________
Reason: ______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3. Doctor: _______________________________________________________________________________
Reason: ______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

4. Engineer: _____________________________________________________________________________
Reason: ______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

5. Teacher: _____________________________________________________________________________
Reason: ______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

V. Other References
1. Makie, Gleemoore C., Ethics: Flourishing Life, Research, Statistics, Business Consultancy and Publishing
Company, 2020
2. Pasco M. O., Suàrez V. F., Rodriguez A. G., “Ethics” C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018
3. Bulaong O., Calano M., Lagliva A., Mariano M., Principe J., “Ethics: Foundation of Moral Valuation”, 1st
edition, REX Book Store, 2018
4. Ramos, Carmela, “Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person”, (1st edition), REX Book Store,
2016