GINEERING MATERIALS & METALLURGY

UNIT V MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTING

IMPACT TESTS
Impact tests provide information on the resistance of a material to sudden fracture where a sharp stress riser or flaw is present. In addition to providing information not available from any other simple mechanical test, these tests are quick and inexpensive. The data obtained from such impact tests is frequently employed for engineering purposes. Various standard impact tests are widely employed in which notched specimens are broken by a swinging pendulum. The most common tests of this type are the Charpy V-notch test and the Izod test which are described in ASTM E23, Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials. . v Many materials, including metals, exhibit marked changes in impact energy with temperature. v It is known that there tends to be a region of temperatures over which the impact energy increases rapidly from a lower level that may be relatively constant to an upper level that may also be relatively constant. v Temperature-transition behavior is common for metal materials. v This temperature dependence for various steel alloys with the same hardness but different carbon contents is graphically shown in Figure 1. v This figure shows the impact energy obtained from Charpy V-notch impact specimens as a function of temperature. v The temperature-transition behavior is of engineering significance since it aids in comparing materials for use at various temperatures. v A material should not be severely loaded at temperatures where it has low impact energy. These types of impact tests have given way to testing methods that make use of fracture mechanics. Fracture mechanics methods allow more sophisticated analysis of materials containing cracks and sharp notches. The advantages of fracture mechanics are achieved at the sacrifice of simplicity and economy. Impact tests such as the Charpy, Izod, and tension impact have thus remained popular despite their shortcomings, as they serve a useful purpose in quickly comparing materials and obtaining general information on their behavior.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this experiment is to evaluate the energy absorbing characteristics of metal materials at room temperature using the Charpy, Izod, and tension impact methods. EQUIPMENT: 1. impact testing machine, a) Charpy, simple beam specimens b) Izod, cantilever specimens c) Tension Impact specimens 1. Charpy Impact Specimens, AISI O1 Tool Steel a) Un-Heat Treated (~ 6 HRC) b) Heat Treated to ~ 60 HRC 2. Charpy Impact Specimens, ASTM-A36 Structural Steel

SPECIMENS:

The specimen geometry for the Izod, Charpy, and Tension Impact are shown in Figure 2. PROCEDURE: A. Safety 1. Safety glasses shall be worn by all participants. 2. Prior to performing any operations, such as changing striking bits or placement of specimens, pull the pendulum arm back and engage the safety latch, prohibiting movement of the pendulum arm. 3. Avoid placing fingers in pinch areas. 4. All participants shall remain behind the caution tape during the actual test. 5. Make sure the safety latch is in the clear when raising the pendulum arm into the test position. 6. The test operator shall apply brake upon breakage of the test specimen. All other participants shall remain clear until the brake has brought the pendulum to a complete stop. The impact tester is dangerous with the potential for bodily injury. Pay attention at all times and observe these safety considerations. B. Charpy Impact Test 1. Set the latching mechanism in the upper position (264 foot-pound range). 2. Rotate the pendulum and secure with the safety latching mechanism.

3. Select the Charpy striking bit in the Change-O-Matic head; make sure this position is firmly tightened in place. 4. Place the Charpy specimen horizontally across supports with the notch away from the hammer. Make sure the specimen is centered within the anvil jaws (see Figure 3). 5. Slide the indicator pointer to the left until it indicates the maximum energy range on the upper Charpy-Tension scale. 6. Raise the pendulum arm to the right until it is firmly supported by the latching mechanism. Caution: Make sure the safety latch is in the clear when raising the pendulum arm into this test position. 7. Ensure all participants are clear and behind the caution stripe. The test conductor shall then release the pendulum by pushing up on the release knob. The hammer will drop and attain a striking velocity of 16.8 ft/s, striking the specimen, with a swing through dependent on the amount of energy absorbed by the test specimen. The indicator will move and stop when peak swing through is registered, providing a direct reading of the energy absorbed by the specimen. Read the indicated value from the Charpy scale and record. 8. Apply the brake until the pendulum has returned to its stable hanging vertical position. 9. Remove the specimen from the testing area and observe the failure surface. Leave pendulum in the down hanging vertical position until another test is to be performed. REQUIRED: 1. Report impact energy for all specimens tested and ambient temperature conditions. 2. Calculate an average impact energy value for each specimen type evaluated. Report this value to the nearest 1ftlb. 3. Calculate the standard deviation for each specimen type evaluated. Report this value to the nearest 1ftlb. 4. Calculate the coefficient of variation for each specimen type evaluated. Report to the nearest 1%. 5. Compare your results to known values and discuss. 6. Discuss the ductile nature of A36 steel in the context of its relative value compared to other impact specimens evaluated. Also, discuss its ductile behavior relative to ductility measurements obtained from previously performed tension tests.

Figure 1. Temperature Dependence of Charpy V-Notch Impact Resistance for Different Alloys Hardened to HRC 34

Figure 2. Izod, Charpy and Impact Specimens (Tinius Olsen).

Figure 3. Specimens and Loading Configurations for (a) Charpy V-Notch and (b) Izod Tests (per ASTM E 23).

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

BACKGROUND INFORMATION: Rockwell Hardness systems uses a direct readout machine determining the hardness number based upon the depth of penetration of either a diamond point or a steel ball. Deep penetration indicated a material having a low Rockwell Hardness number. However, a low penetration indicates a material having a high Rockwell Hardness number.

 The Rockwell Hardness number is based upon the difference in the depth to which a penetrator is driven by a definite light or minor load and a definite heavy or Major load. The ball penetrators are chucks that are made to hold 1/16 or 1/8 diameter hardened steel balls. Also available are and ball penetrators for the testing of softer materials. There are two types of anvils that are used on the Rockwell hardness testers. The flat faceplate models are used for flat specimens. The V type anvils hold round specimens firmly. Test blocks or calibration blocks are flat steel or brass blocks, which have been tested and marked with the scale and Rockwell number. They should be used to check the accuracy and calibration of the tester frequently. : APPLICATION: 1. Flat specimens should be clean, smooth and free from scale. The shape should be such that the specimen rests firmly on the anvil. 2. Cylindrical specimens should be clean, smooth and free from scale. One of the V type anvils should be used to support the specimen firmly. Use the correction chart for corrective addition to Rockwell numbers for cylindrical specimens. 3. Using the B Scale; a. Use a 1/16 diameter steel ball penetrator b. Major load: 100 Kg, Minor load: 10 Kg c. Use for copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys, and malleable iron. d. Do not use on hardened steel 4. Using the E Scale: a. Use a 1/8 diameter steel ball penetrator. b. Major load: 100 kg; Minor load: 10 kg. c. Use for cast iron, aluminum, magnesium alloys, and bearing materials. d. Do not use on hardened steel. OPERATION: 1. Calibration: a. Be sure that the scale indication pointer is on the desired scale. This is accomplished by turning the hand knob, located on the top rear of the body, so that the scale pointer is centered to the correct load zone. Turning clockwise will lower the Rockwell number. b. Be sure that the correct penetrator is properly in place. c. Be sure that the hand lever is in the start position. d. Select the test block, which corresponds to the scale being calibrated. e. Place the test block on the anvil beneath the penetrator. Care should be taken so that the test block is clean, smooth, and is properly supported by the anvil. f. With the cam handle in the forward or start position, rest the test block on the anvil, turn the handwheel clockwise to raise the anvil assembly. When

contact is made between the penetrator and the test block, the dial pointer will move in a clockwise direction. Continue turning the handwheel until the dial pointer makes two revolutions of the dial, comes to a rest at the twelve oclock position. Move the dial bezel so that the pointer reads absolute zero. The minor load has now been applied. g. Caution: If the pointer travels past the twelve oclock position and cant be compensated for by turning the dial bezel, repeat step f. Dont back up the pointer by turning the handwheel counterclockwise. h. Move the cam handle with a smooth, steady motion to its rear position (2-3 seconds). Do Not Snap! The dial pointer will move counterclockwise. Wait until the dial pointer stops (approximately 4-6 sec). Move the cam handle with a smooth, steady motion to its forward or start position (approximately 2-3 seconds). The pointer will move clockwise. i. The dial reading is now a direct Rockwell system hardness number. j. Read the Red numbers for the B and E scales. k. If readings are consistently higher than what is marked on the test block, minor adjustment is needed. With the cam handle in the forward or start position, turn the adjustment knob clockwise approximately turn to lower the reading 1-2 points. Turn counterclockwise to increase the readings. Continue the calibration procedure until the tester is reading within the limits of the test block. 2. Making a Test: a. b. When testing a specimen, follow the same procedure as for Calibration. Make sure that the test specimen is firmly supported by using a suitable anvil.

3.

Cautions: a. Always take two (2) or more readings with a test block before using the tester. b. Do not use both sides of the test block. c. Always take two (2) or more readings on each test specimen.

APPLICATION: 1. Flat specimens should be clean, smooth and free from scale. The shape should be such that the specimen rests firmly on the anvil. 2. Cylindrical specimens should be clean, smooth and free from scale. One of the V type anvils should always be used to support a round specimen firmly. Use the correction chart for corrective addition to Rockwell numbers for cylindrical specimens.

Operation: 1. Calibration: Follow the calibration procedure as detailed in Part I of this activity with the following addition: a. Read the black numbers for the C scale. 2. Making a test: a. When testing a specimen, follow the same procedure as for calibration. b. Make sure that the test specimen is firmly supported by using a suitable anvil. 3. Cautions: a. Always take two (2) or more readings with a test block before using the tester. b. Do not use both sides of the test block. c. Always take two (2) or more readings on each test specimen.

THE BRINELL HARDNESS TEST v The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. v For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. v The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. v The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. v The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.

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The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness. A well structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.

List of Standard Rock Mechanics Tests Test Type Unconfined strength test Parameters Measured Areas of Application Sand production, open hole stability, well bore stability, under-balanced drilling, casing and liner integrity, and calibration of log-derived elastic and strength properties Wellbore stability, sand production, casing and liner integrity, and calibration of logderived elastic and strength properties

compressive Unconfined compressive strength, Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio

Triaxial test (single and multiple Cohesion, internal friction angle, stage; and drained and Youngs modulus and Poissons undrained) ratio

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Thick-walled cylinder test Ko and uniaxial compaction test Hydrostatic compression test

TWC collapse strength

Sand production and openhole stability and and

Primary and secondary uniaxal Reservoir compaction compaction coefficients surface subsidence Bulk, pore and grain Reservoir management compressibilities, and poroelastic reservoir compaction parameters Fracture toughness Kic Indirect tensile strength Brinell hardness Hydraulic fracturing

Fracture toughness test Brazil tensile strength test Brinell hardness test Ultrasonic test Differential strain curve analysis

In-situ stress determination sand production Sand production selection of and bit

Compressional and shear wave Calibration velocities properties In-situ stress orientation and stress ratio

log-derived

In-situ stress determination

The operational applications for simulations of drilling fluid-rock interactions and mudcake properties and characteristics include
Shale stability -

shale activity membrane efficiency of drilling fluid-shale systems capacity of drilling fluids to reduce rate of mud pressure penetration volume change coefficients and hydrational stress of drilling fluid-shale systems elastic and strength properties of shale exposed to drilling fluid P- and S-wave velocities of shale exposed to drilling fluid

Mud selection and design -

membrane efficiency of drilling fluid-shale systems capacity of drilling fluids to reduce rate of mud pressure penetration optimized drilling fluid designs for maintaining time-dependent wellbore stability mudcake properties and characteristics under compressive, tensile, torsional and combined load return flow as a function of mud type and composition static, dynamic and HTHP static and dynamic fluid losses of muds

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spurt loss as a function of mud type and composition mudcake erosion coefficient

Differential sticking - embedment modulus and rigidity index of mudcakes - adhesion-cohesion bond strength and adhesion-cohesion modulus of mudcakes - maximum torque resistance of mudcakes

Formation damage

- return flow as a function of mud type and composition - static and dynamic fluid losses of muds - spurt loss as a function of mud type and composition - mudcake erosion coefficient

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS The Engineering Hardness Test

Depending on the type of hardness test, the hardness value can be defined as either load per area of impression, with units of pressure, such as GPa, kg/mm2, etc., or a unitless hardness 'number'. A variety of indentors are in use, such as Knoop (HK), Vickers (HV), Rockwell (HRA, HRB, HRC). The shapes of the impressions for various indentors on ceramics are illustrated in Fig. 2.5.13[F4]. Vickers Hardness HV: measures load/ true area of a 136 diamond pyramid impression: HV [GPa] = 1854.4.L/d2, or: HV[GPa] = 464.L/a2, or: HV[GPa] = 37.83.L/t2

where: a = half diagonal of impression [m]; d = average diagonal [m]; t = impression depth [ m]; L = load [N]

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HV test sample must be well polished to achieve good accuracy of measurements. The HV test can be used for the simultaneous measurement of the hardness and fracture toughness of ceramics (refer to the following section). Some typical HV values for ceramics: HV = 5 - 10 GPa (Glasses) 10 - 12 GPa (Softer Oxides/Nonoxides, ZrO2 , AlN) 15 - 20 GPa (Hard Oxides/Nonoxides, Al2 O3 , Si3 N4 ) 20 - 30 GPa (Carbides, Borides) 40 - 50 GPa CBN: cubic boron nitride 60 - 70 GPa Diamond

Rockwell Hardness HR: measures the penetration depth e of a diamond spherical indentor, at constant load L, which is characteristic to a given scale (HRN: 45 kg, HRC: 60 kg); HRN = 100 - e. The machine is usually calibrated in hardness units on the penetration depth scale. Load scale information is necessary. The sample does not need polishing (300 grit grind is sufficient).

Knoop Hardness HK. HK was originally designed for testing glasses, to avoid the cracking caused by Vickers indentations. HK is easier to measure than Vickers hardness, because the length of the long axis of indent is 2.5 x (that for the same load of Vickers indentation). HK measures load/projected area of impression. An HK sample must be well polished HK [GPa]= 14229.L/d2

where L = load [N], d = long diagonal length [m].

METAL PROPERTIES: STRENGTH AND HARDNESS o In fabricating objects from metals or alloys, artisans confront strength properties directly. Strength is a primary consideration in utilitarian metal products. o The attainment of appropriate physical properties is one indicator used in evaluating the skills and understanding that an artisan brought to the making of an artifact.

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o Because it is easily measured on small specimens and nearly non-destructive, investigators often use hardness as a proxy indicator of the strength properties of a material o Hardness is not a precisely defined property of materials, but is generally understood to mean an indication of their resistance to deformation. o Various indicators of hardness are used including resistance to scratching, resistance to penetration, or the rebound of a dropped object. o We will see some of the limitations of this usage in later laboratory experiments. We will demonstrate the standard laboratory method of measuring strength and ductility with a tensile test. DEMONSTRATION STRENGTH PROPERTIES. v Accurate determination of plastic and fracture properties of materials must be done on specimens that have been prepared to specific shapes so that the applied stresses can be computed v The material in the specimens should be homogeneous if the test results are to be representative of its properties. v Because it is rare that such specimens can be obtained from ancient and historic artifacts, archaeometallurgists often substitute a proxy measure of the mechanical properties, most commonly microhardness. v Definitions of the commonly used measures of the strength properties of materials are reviewed in the appendix. v We will do a standard tensile test on a specimen of brass or aluminum, and use the data to calculate the yield, tensile, and true strengths, and the ductility as measured by the elongation and reduction in area at fracture. HARDNESS MEASUREMENT v Several different types of hardness tests are in common use. Mineralogists use scratch tests: they arrange minerals in rank order of the basis of which mineral will scratch another. v Scratch hardness is a semi-quantitative indicator of a complex array of actual physical properties that is occasionally useful in dealing with metals, as in the file test for hardened steel. v Rebound hardness is measured by observing the height to which a weight dropped on the material under test rebounds. v It is a measure of the amount of energy that is dissipated in the impact, which in turn is related to amount of plastic deformation at the point of impact. v Rebound hardness measurements can be done rapidly, and can be used on objects too large to bring into the laboratory. v An additional advantage, important if one is working with valuable artifacts, is that there is virtually no visible trace left by the test.

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v The scleroscope is a rebound hardness tester that drops a rod tipped with a diamond from a fixed height on to the test specimen. v The specimen surface has to be flat and oriented perpendicular to the direction of fall at the point of impact to get reliable results. v The height of rebound is shown on a dial. Tests can be done rapidly, and it is relatively easy to take enough data to properly average. v Penetration hardness is measured by the size of the mark made by a standardized indenter pressed into the material under test by a specified applied force. v Either the depth of the indentation or its surface dimensions may be measured. v The indentation hardness depends on several physical properties of the material tested, principally its yield strength and rate of work hardening. v The commonly used Rockwell hardness tester indicates the depth to which an indenter is forced into a test specimen by a fixed load on an arbitrary scale. v The indentation will be deeper the softer the material. v Different Rockwell hardness scales are defined for different size indenters and applied loads. The test specimen should have flat, parallel surfaces and be thick enough that the supporting anvil does not influence the hardness. v The indentations from a Rockwell tester are large enough to be easily seen by eye alone. v We often use microhardness tests on archaeological materials. v These test have to be done on specimens prepared for the observation under a metallurgical microscope. v The principle is the same as with the Rockwell test, but the loads used are much smaller, 25 to 500 grams force rather than loads up to 150 kg force. v The resulting indentations have to be measured with the aid of a microscope. v A microhardness tester can be used to measure the hardness of individual constituents in the microstructure of a material.

HARDNESS
o We will use specimens of the metals and alloys listed in Table 1 below for hardness measurements. o Determine the Rockwell B hardness and the rebound hardness of each material. o You will need to make several repeat measurements, and from these determine how many tests on each sample you need to get a reliable average value of the hardness.

Materials for Hardness Measurements Material Copper Preparation Electrical bus bar, rolled strip Bus bar annealed Strip rolled full hard Rolled plate, machine shop stock

Brass

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Iron, wrought Bronze Zinc

Rolled plate annealed Bar rolled to full hard Bar from the site of the Keeseville, N.Y., forge and rolling mill Blacksmiths stock reported to be hot short Cast 7% tin bronze Cymbal made by Anedis Zildjian Cast bar, 99.999% pure

PRINCIPLES Application of a force to a material causes it to deform elastically. Application of additional force may cause either brittle fracture or plastic deformation followed by ductile fracture. In elastic deformation, the material returns to its original shape after the applied forces are removed. A material that resists elastic deformation is said to be stiff, one that is easily deformed is compliant. Plastic deformation is permanent; it is retained after the force applied to a material is removed. If the material can sustain a large amount of deformation before it breaks, it has a high ductility. The response of a material to applied force depends on the area over which the force acts. To allow for this dependence on size, the intensity of force is measured by stress. The resulting deformation depends on the size of the object subjected to the force. To allow for this dependence on size, the intensity of deformation is measured as strain:

DIFINITIONS STRESS is force per unit area. v Tensile or compressive stresses arise when the direction of the force is perpendicular to the area on which it acts. v Shear stress results from force acting parallel to the area to which it is applied. v In the SI system of units stress is measured in newtons per square meter (N/m2). v It may also be measured in pounds force per square inch (psi).

STRAIN Strain resulting from tensile stress is the change in length divided by the length of the object stressed. Strain resulting from shear stress is the displacement in the direction of the applied force divided by the size of the object measured perpendicular to the direction of the applied force. Since strain is always the ratio of two distances, it is dimensionless.

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The following quantities are used to describe the elastic and plastic properties of materials: Young's modulus, The ratio of tensile stress to elastic tensile strain in an object that is not subjected to lateral constraint. Proportional limit The greatest stress at which a material remains linearly elastic. ELASTIC LIMIT, The lowest stress at which plastic deformation is detected. YIELD STRENGTH, The stress required to produce a specified small amount of strain, usually 0.2 percent. RATE OF WORK HARDENING, The increase of stress per unit of strain required to sustain plastic deformation. REDUCTION IN AREA, The decrease in cross sectional area of a broken specimen at its point of fracture relative to the original area, expressed as percentage. ELONGATION, The ratio of the change of gauge length at failure to the initial gauge length, expressed as percentage. TENSILE STRENGTH, The maximum force sustained by the specimen divided by its initial cross sectional area. TRUE STRENGTH, The force applied to the specimen at the moment of fracture divided by the area of the fracture surface. HARDNESS, The resistance of the material to penetration by an indenter expressed on an arbitrary scale. It is not directly related to any of the above properties but is often used as a proxy indicator of strength. Deformation of Materials The various parts of the machine that you build will deform under applied forces and torques. Solids are made up of atoms whose relative positions are determined by the electronic bonds between them. But these bonds can be stretched, compressed, even bent. The bonds act very much like springs, whose lengths depend on the applied force:
Fappl = k ( L L0 )

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which is known as Hookes law. It can also be written as:

This linear relation only applies for small changes in the lengths of the springs, i.e. for

( L L0 ) << 1 L0
An analogous description can be made for a macroscopic solid, which after all is held together by many such bonds.

l0

Consider first for simplicity a cylinder or rectangular parallel piped, and image applying equal and opposite forces outward to two of the opposing faces. We imagine that the force is distributed over each of the two faces, whose area is A, and define the stress as the magnitude of the force divided by the cross sectional area of the cylinder or rectangular parallel piped:

F/A
In this case the outward nature of the applied forces results in a tensile stress, which causes an elongation of the object, which for small enough forces is again linear in the applied tensile force:

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 l l0 T = Y l 0

= Y

where the strain in this case is defined as the fractional change in the length of the object

l l0 l , 0
and Y is the elastic modulus, which for tensile stress is referred to as Young s modulus. Values of Youngs modulus for a number of common materials are given in Table 1 Properties of some common materials Young Shear Material Mod Yld Str Mod Density Hardness UTS (10^6 (10^3 (10^3 (10^6 lb/in^2) lb/in^2) lb/in^2) lb/in^2) (lb/in^3) (Brinell) Cast Iron Type 1015 (0.15% C) steel (hot finished) Type 1030 (0.30% C) steel (hot finished) Type 1050 (0.50% C) steel (hot finished) Type 304 stainless steel (annealed) Type 304 stainless steel (cold worked) Aluminum (99%) Aluminum 6061-T6 Aluminum 7075-T6 Copper Brass (annealed) Brass (cold worked) Polyethylene density) Polyethylene density) Plexiglas Nylon Polyvinyl (rigid) (low 0.025 (high 0.12 0.42 0.41 Chloride 0.35-0.6 6.0-8.0 3.0-8.0 4 8 11.8 0.034 4 BHN* 0.043 30 BHN* 0.04 9 BHN* 500 0.05 BHN* 2 0.033 13 29 29 29 28 28 10 10 10.4 17 15 15 25 27 37 50 35 75 5 40 73 10 14 60 30 50 68 90 85 110 13 45 83 32 46 74 5.2 11 11 11 10 10 4 4 4 6.5 6 6 0.253 200 BHN 0.284 100 BHN 0.284 137 BHN 0.284 180 BHN 0.286 150 BHN 0.286 240 BHN 0.1 23 BHN 0.1 95 BHN 0.1 150 BHN 0.323 44 BHN 0.306 0.306 150 BHN

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Softwood (Douglas fir, air dried) across grain Hardwood (white oak, air dried) across grain

1.4

9.5 0.4 10.2 0.8

0.011

2.3

0.026

* approximate values-converted from Rockwell Hardness

The linear stress-strain relation only holds for small strains, less than a per cent for most materials. Within this regime the individual bonds between atoms stretch under stress, but return to their original lengths when the applied stress is removed.

l0

If the applied forces on opposite faces of the object are reversed, and point towards each other the stress becomes compressive, and the length decreases, again with a linear dependence of a small range of strain. The elastic modulus in compression is nearly the same as is measured in tension, with a slight difference due to the asymmetry of the interatomic potential.

l0

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If the applied forces are opposite, but within the planes of the two faces, the stress is referred to as shear, and the strain is a distortion in the mutual angles between the faces and the sides of the object. The strain can be defined by

stress = tan( ) =

x . l0

Again, for small strains, a linear relation holds between the stress and the strain:

s = G

x = G s l0

where G is known as the shear modulus. As you can see from table 1, the shear modulus is typically approximately one third of the elastic or Youngs modulus. A special and important type of shear stress results from the application of equal and opposite torques to the end of a shaft, referred to as a torsion. In steady state the torque is uniform within the shaft, and the strain, or twist angle is given by:
= l , IG

where I is the moment of inertia, which for a solid shaft of diameter D is given by
4 D , 32

I=

so that the angular twist angle is

In this case, the stress varies linearly with radial position from the center of the shaft ,
= 32 r= r I D 4

The maximum stress under torsion occurs at the outer radius of the shaft, for r=D/2
max = 16 D 3

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This again leads to a linear relationship between maximum stress and strain, provided the strain is small:
max 16 3 D = D = G 32l l 4 D G

Yield If a certain stress, known as the yield stress is exceeded, then part of the deformation of the material becomes permanent. The stress-strain curve becomes non linear, and the strain begins to increase more rapidly with stress. This is referred to as plastic flow. Soft metals like aluminum and copper show this sort of behavior.

Stress strain curve showing initial linear behavior, then increasing strain beyond yield stress. In the case of crystalline solids, this occurs by the motion of planes of atoms past one another. In ductile materials, particularly metals, this proceeds by the

generation of linear defects known as dislocations. An edge dislocation marks an extra half plane of atoms, whose effective position propagates easily in the presence of a stress, analogous to the comparative ease with which a bump in a carpet can be moved along. Screw dislocations mark spiral like atom arrangements where a crystal has partially sheared. dislocations. Dislocations propagate most easily along certain planes within the individual crystalline grains known as slip planes. Dislocation loops contain both edge and screw type

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Geometrical generation of dislocations. (b) Edge dislocation. (b),(c) Screw dislocations. (e) Part of a dislocation loop, with both edge and screw characters

Motion of dislocations through a material due to glide along slip planes. A metal can be made more resistant to yield by creating obstacles which prevent the free motion of dislocations through it.

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Methods of strengthening metals against yield. Left, grain boundaries impede easy glide as the slip plane orientation changes. Middle, precipitates impeded motion of dislocations. Right. Existing dislocations interfere with the glide of new dislocations.

Stress strain curves for materials like steel which show a yield point, and drop in stress as dislocations begin to form and glide. By convention, the yield stress is generally taken to be the stress for which the permanent strain is 0.002 (i.e. 0.2%). At a higher applied stress even ductile materials begin to fail. In tensile tests, the cross sectional area begins to decrease markedly, and a neck is formed. The stress at which this happens is referred to as the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Beyond this the material fractures. For brittle materials yield is almost immediately by fracture.

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 Ultimate tensile strength and fracture A second quantity used to characterize the properties of materials is the toughness. It is equal to the amount of work per volume needed to fracture a material. The toughness is equal to the area under the stress-strain curve in tension. Strong materials are often brittle, meaning that they fracture rather than yielding.

Toughness determined from stress-strain curves.

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Nucleation of microcrack, which spreads leading to fracture of brittle materials. A third quantity used is the hardness of a material. While strength is measured in tension, hardness is measured in compression, using a hard stylus to apply a concentrated load. In the Brinell hardness test the stylus is a hard steel ball which is loaded against the surface of the material leading to a permanent indentation. The Brinell hardness

Hardness test. number is determined from the diameter of the indentation d, according to:

BHN =

M D D D2 d 2 2

where D is the diameter of the steel ball, usually 10 mm and M is the equivalent mass in kg which would be loaded onto the ball to achieve the applied load, measured in kg. (The units are thus kg/mm2.)
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 A second measure of hardness is the Rockwell test, in which the steady state depth of a stylus into the surface of a material is measured. The Rockwell number is the depth of penetration divided by 80 microinches. Different loads and styluses are used for different types of materials, leading to different Rockwell scales. For example the RA scale uses a diamond conical stylus with a 120 included angle, and a load equivalent to 60 kg of mass (589 N). The RB scale uses a hardened 1/16 inch diameter steel ball as a stylus and a load equivalent to 100 kg of mass (981 N). The RC scale also uses a conical diamond stylus, but a load equivalent to 150 kg of mass (14700 N). Hardness tests are difficult to interpret, as the result depends also on the mechanical properties of the material. Generally, it is relative values which are important. There is however a definite relation to the ultimate tensile strength, with hard materials also being strong. Many structures are fabricated not from simple single crystalline or polycrystalline materials but instead from amorphous solids. These can be broken up into two main categories, network materials, such as glass, and polymeric materials. Of the network materials the most familiar is silica glass. Within silica glass there is a random arrangement of tetrahedra, each with a silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen

Network type amorphous solid (glass). atoms. Deformation of network solids is by elastic or plastic strain. Plastic deformation occurs by the motion of atoms or molecules past each other. The stress-strain curves for these materials is temperature dependent. Above the so called glass point, the materials can be plastically deformed, while beneath this temperature they are brittle. Above the glass temperature, the application of a stress will produce a time dependent strain given by:

= , t
where is the viscosity of the material, which decreases exponentially with increasing temperature.

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Polymeric materials are made up of long chains of repeating units called monomers. The chains can be straight, or branched, and multiple chains can be cross linked by appropriate chemical treatment (such as the addition of sulfur atoms during the vulcanization of rubber). Cross linking tends to make the materials stiffer and increases the ultimate tensile strength.

Polymer chain showing vinyl link between monomers. Solid dot represents a chemical group, for example Cl for PVC.

Top: Branching of polymer chain (polyethylene). Bottom: Cross linking of polymer chains (by sulfer addition to rubber). v Polymeric materials also show glass transition temperatures, above which they behave in a rubbery manner, with elastic deformations which can be as large as several hundred percent. v The strain in this case involves rearrangement in the relative orientations of segments within the overall chain that forms the polymer.

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v Interestingly, many polymers show a modulus or stiffness which increases with increasing temperature. v The entropy associated with the many configurations associated with a more folded up chain favors a less stretched out shape at higher temperatures. v Plastic flow also occurs by the sliding of entire polymer chains past each other, and showing a time dependent strain

. Different configurations of a folded polymeric chain.

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(Top, stress strain curves for polymeric material. Bottom, elastic modulus vs. temperature showing glass region, rubbery region, with increasing value with temperature, and liquidlike region.) As for network solids above the glass point. Beneath the glass temperature polymers behave as glasses, showing small, time independent reversible elastic strain. At these lower temperatures they are typically brittle, yielding by fracture. In addition to the simple materials discussed above, many materials are combinations of more than one type, Composites are generally employed to achieve a combination of strength and flexibility. The most familiar example is wood which consists of fibers of cellulose within a matrix of lignin, a rubbery substance. In most manmade composites a ductile material transfers an applied load to a stiffer material. The mechanical properties of a composite are combinations of those of the individual components. The anisotropy of the composite generally leads to an anisotropy in the mechanical properties. To see this, consider two simple situations.

. Composite laminar material made up of layers of different types.

In the first equal and opposite forces are applied to the faces an object consisting of alternating layers of two different materials, with the layers perpendicular to the applied forces. In steady state the stress s within each material is the same, and the strain is given by:

total =

V1 + V2 , E1 E2

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where V1 and V2 are the volume fractions of the two components, so that V1+V2=1. Then the total strain is given by:

total =
and using the relation

V1 + (1 V1 ) , E1 E2

= Y perp total
yields the following expression for the elastic modulus of the composite perpendicular to the layers:

Y perp =

Y1Y2 . V1Y2 + (1 V1 )Y1

If the forces are applied along a direction parallel to the layers, then the strain is the same, while the total stress is divided by the two component materials according to: total = E1V1 + E2 V2 This gives a component of the elastic modulus parallel to the layers of:
Y par = = Y1V1 + Y2 (1 V1 ) .

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