15/10/2022 20:08 Guide to numerical modeling in geomechanics

Guide to numerical modeling in geomechanics

A quick guide to numerical modeling in geomechanics. It addresses some major issues about the general numerical approach, the choice of
material constitutive model and different modeling steps. It is clear that the information given here provides only a general guideline which should
be further adjusted for each specific problem

1. Numerical modeling in geomechanics – Benefits and Risks

Modeling of geo-engineering problems often involves complex issues related to several geomechanical variables and the corresponding coupling
effects. Compared to many engineering material, geomaterials exhibit a highly non-linear behavior. Often, there is no straightforward closed form
analytical solution for such problems.

Furthermore, in many cases, the analyses of geo-engineering problems have to be done with little or no information about the in-situ geotechnical
condition. This is often the case for tunneling or excavation projects where the design has to be verified or completed using the information from
the encountered geotechnical condition. It is therefore important to have numerical modeling as a fast, reliable and powerful tool for a systematic
analyses and design of the problem.

In general, numerical modeling in geomechanics MAY have the following main benefits:

Fast and systematic solution

Possibility of using more realistic non-linear material behavior
Solution of coupled phenomena
Fast parametric studies

The above mentioned features, among others, could in general result in cost reduction and optimization in geo-engineering problems.

On the other hand, however, blind using of numerical modeling could have catastrophic consequences. When running a code, it is always
tempting to play with the parameters and get nice contour map results; but – Garbage in, Garbage out. Computers will unquestioningly process
unintended wrong data and produce undesired wrong output. Here comes the important role of engineering judgment. Indeed, the engineering
judgment should run through the whole process including data preparation, modeling procedure, and verification of results. It is therefore
important to keep in mind that numerical modeling in geomechanics is more an Engineering Task rather than a Computer Operating Task.

2. General approach
In order to set up the model, three fundamental components should be defined by answering to the following 3W questions:

What do we know?  => Define the initial boundary value problem

What are we looking for? => Define the type of analyses
What are the materials ? => Define the constitutive models

2.1. Initial-Boundary value problems in geomechanics

Any geo-engineering problem can be converted into an initial-boundary problem for numerical modeling.  This can start by answering “what do we
know” in the project and drawing a global picture of the problem. Example for few engineering application are given in Table 1.

Table 1 . Examples of Initial boundary value problems in geomechanics

No.
Project concept:
Modeling concept:

Application
What do we know? Initial-Boundary value problem

1 Static analysis of double Double arch effects 3D analysis

arch concrete dam Seasonal water and air temperature Varying temperature
variation Imposed load
Water and sediment load

2 Dynamic analysis of Gravity dam with a given typical 2D plain strain analysis
section Varying temperature
fissured gravity
concrete dam Seasonal water and air temperature Imposed load
variation Imposed acceleration
Water and sediment load

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Earthquake load

Earth dam with typical cross section 2D plain strain analysis

3 Dynamic analysis of
earth dam Water and seepage load (thermal Imposed water pressure
effects neglected) Imposed acceleration
Earthquake load

Dual symmetrical shaft geometry  Axi-symetric analysis

4 Deep cylindrical shaft
excavation Dewatering Varying pore water pressure
Stage excavation Varying stress (unloading)

5 Large underground Large cavern with given geometry 2D/3D analysis(as per
Grouting, rock support and concrete geometry)
cavern excavation
lining Varying water pressure
High in-situ rock stresses Varying in-situ stresses
Underground water, rock loads & Imposed load
operational loads

2.2. Type of analysis

In general, initial-boundary value problems (IBV-problems) in geomechanics could be divided into two main groups: uncoupled and coupled
problems.

Uncoupled problems involve only one primary variable:

Mechanical                                variable: displacement

Seepage and hydraulic             variable:  pore water pressure
Heat transfer                             variable: temperature
Other, e.g. chemicals                variable: concentration, etc

Coupled problems involve more than two variables and their coupling effects:

Hydro-mechanical                    variables: displacement + pore water pressure

Thermo-mechanical                  Variables: displacement + temperature
Thermo-hydro-mechanical        Variables: displacement + pore pressure + temperature
Others, e.g. chemo-mechanical            Variables: displacement + concentration, etc

The answer to the question “What are we looking for?” helps in defining the required type of analysis. Table 2 gives some examples.

Table . Examples of analysis type in geomechanics

No.
Application Project concept:
Modeling concept:

What are we looking for? Type of analysis

Temperature in the dam body Coupled thermo-mechanical analysis

1 Static analysis of double
arch concrete dam Stress and displacement in dam and Output: stress, displacement, temperature
foundation

2 Dynamic analysis of Temperature in the dam body Coupled thermo-mechanical analysis

fissured gravity concrete Stress and displacement in dam and Output: stress, displacement ( acceleration),
dam foundation temperature

Stress and displacement in dam and Coupled hydro-mechanical analysis

3 Dynamic analysis of earth
dam foundation Output: stress, displacement ( acceleration), pore
Pore water pressure in the dam water pressure

Displacement of the shat and the Coupled hydro-mechanical analysis

4 Deep cylindrical shaft
diaphragm wall Output: stress, displacement ( acceleration), pore
excavation
Stress and strain state at the vicinity of the water pressure
shaft
Pore water pressure in the shaft area

Displacement of the vault, walls and bench Coupled hydro-mechanical analysis

5 Large underground cavern
excavation Stress and strain state at the vicinity of the Output: stress, displacement, structural loads, water
cavern pressure
Underground water pressure around the
cavern

2.3. Materials and constitutive models for geomaterials

An appropriate choice of the mechanical constitutive model for soils is the key issue for successful engineering modeling of geomechanical
problems. In general, geomaterials exhibit non-linear behavior in a wide range of stress; thus, a realistic prediction/simulation of their behavior can
be achieved by using constitutive models capable of addressing such non-linearity. However, the choice of constitutive model depends also on
the specific application and requirements of the problem. Table 3 gives a general guideline for the choice of constitutive model.

Table 3 . Constitutive models for geomechanics

Level of 
Model Examples General application
complexity

Linear Foundation design

Basic Linear elastic

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elasticity  small displacement
non-linear analysis
elasticity

Standard Elastic perfectly plastic Mohr- Stability analysis

Coloumb Basic displacement
Hoek-Brown analysis
(Rock)

Advanced Hardenning elasto- Cam-Clay Stress-displacement

Cap model analysis
plastic
Stress history effects

Swelling Cam- Specific applications,

Complex Combination with other
geomechanical factors: clay e.g, tunneling in
Small strain swelling rock, partially
time, saturation, soil
hardening saturated slopes
structure

In general, the answer to the question “What are the involved materials?” helps in defining the type of constitutive model. Some examples for the
previously mentioned engineering applications are given in Table 4.

Table 4 . Examples of constitutive models used in geomechanics

Project concept:
Modeling concept:

Application
No. What are the materials? Type of constitutive model

Homogenous concrete Linear elastic concrete

1 Static analysis of double
arch concrete dam Homogenous rock foundation Linear elastic rock

Homogenous concrete Linear elastic concrete

2 Dynamic analysis of
fissured gravity concrete Cracks in the concrete Elasto-plastic interface
dam Homogenous rock foundation Linear elastic rock

Soil in the eath dam Hardening elasto-plastic soil

3 Dynamic analysis of earth
dam Soil/rock on the foundation Elastic-perfectly plastic
foundation

4 Deep cylindrical shaft Different geological soil layers Hardening elasto-plastic soil
excavation Concrete diaphragm wall Elastic concrete wall

Different rock formation Elastoplastic rock

5 Large underground cavern
excavation Rock support (shotcrete and Linear elastic shotcrete and
anchors) concrete
Concrete lining Elastic structural anchors
Elasto-plastic interface

3. Numerical methods
Once the general approach defined, an appropriate numerical method should be selected for the modeling. Numerical methods can be in general
divided into two main groups:

Continuum methods:
Finite element method (FEM)
Finite Difference method (FDM)
Boundary element method (BEM)
Discontinuum methods:
Discrete element methods including:
Distinct element method (DEM)
Discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA)

The detailed description of these methods is beyond the scopes of the present document and can be found in the literature (also for few other
methods not mentioned above). All the methods provide a rigorous solution by reaching equilibrium (within the defined tolerance); the difference
lies only in the numerical method and algorithm employed to reach the equilibrium. Therefore, apart from some numerical preferences, the main
choice is between continuum and discontinuum approach. Some general guidelines are given in Table 5.

Table 5 . Choice of continuum versus discontinuum approach in geomechanics

Primary material /
Numerical method Example application
behavior

Continuum Soil slope stability, excavation, 

Soil
approach earthdam

Rock Dam foundation, overall

Homogenous Rock Continuum
displacement of underground
mass behavior approach
caverns

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Jointed rock behavior Discontinuum Jointed rock slope stability,
dominated by approach tunneling in fractured rock
discontinuities

4. Choice of numerical code

When dealing with numerical modeling, a significant time is usually spent on data preparation and post-processing. Therefore, apart from their
technical capabilities, the numerical codes with more user-friendly pre- and post-processing interfaces are better accepted by the geotechnical
engineers.

Among others, some of the most commonly commercial numerical codes can be listed (but not limited) as in Table 6. The choice of the numerical
codes, more than anything else, depends on the following issues:

Personal experience of the engineer in using the code

Company and institute policy in buying the code and training engineers
Some specific particular features of the code (e.g. large deformation interface, advance constitutive models, etc)

Table 6 . Some of numerical codes used in geomechanics

Approach
Code Method Developer

Continuum Plaxis 2D, 3D FEM Plaxis BV

Phase FEM RockScience

DIANA FEM TNO DIANA BV

EXAMINE FEM RockScience

ZSoil FEM Zace Ltd

FLAC, FLAC FDM Itasca cg

3D

ABAQUS FEM Hibbit, Karlson & Sorensen, Inc

Discontinuum EDEM DEM DEM Solutions

UDEC DEM Itasca cg

3DEC DEM Itasca cg

5. Problem solving and modeling procedure

The procedure and numerical modeling in geomechanics, regardless of method and code, can be simplified in 8 steps as follows

5.1. Define the problem and objective

At the onset, the engineer should define the main problem and objectives based on the defined general approach. At this step, it should be
decided if the modeling is used to predict or reproduce the soil/rock behavior. In many Often, the results are to be compared with monitoring data
and the main objective would be to reproduce and understand the behavior and mechanism of movements rather than its prediction.

5.2. Prepare the Engineering sketch

Once the objective defined, an overall engineering sketch of the problem should be prepared. At this stage, decision should be made about the
level of details which are to be included in the model. The critical assumptions and simplifications should be all addressed in this engineering
sketch.

5.3. Prepare, run and verify simple models

The first models are to be prepared without the details and based on an idealized form of the engineering sketch. The numerical performance and
results are to be verified. This can be done, for instance, by comparing the model results at given condition/points for which the analytical close
form solution can be obtained (e.g. effective stress at the lower limit, pore pressure at the different seepage directions).

5.4. Assign appropriate constitutive model and parameters

Once the simple model is verified, the model should be enhanced by assigning the appropriate constitutive model and material parameters. Some
hardening elastoplastic models need to be applied and verified at different steps to ensure a good numerical performance and predictions.

5.5. Fine-tuning the model

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The last step before running the final model is to add the necessary details and fine-tuning the model. Some required geometrical details, final
material properties, length of structural elements and etc are to be adjusted at this step. 

5.6. Run and verify the numerical performance of the model

The final model is to run and its numerical performance is to be verified by checking different numerical aspects of the model. A good numerical
performance is satisfied if a solution to equilibrium is achieved in a stable condition with reasonable numerical parameters (tolerance, stepping,
time increments, etc.). If needed different numerical algorithms can be tested to ensure about the stability of the results within acceptable
tolerance.

5.7. Get the numerical results

Once the performance of the model verified, the results can be taken for further analysis and problem solving. Based on the general approach
and objectives previously defined, the results of main interest can be extracted in the post-processor (or from the log files) and presented for
interpretation.

5.8. Interpret the results with engineering judgment

The final step in modeling is interpretation of the results in combination with engineering judgment. The issue of primary importance should be
identified and sought in the results. The general trend of the results should be always compared with knowledge-based engineering expectation. If
anomalies observed, the engineer should find out the numerical or physical reason behind it. If necessary, some or all of the above-mentioned
steps should be then repeated to achieve enhanced model with realistic results.

6. Conclusion
The present document provides a general quick guide to numerical modeling in geomechanics regardless of the method and approach. Of
course, it needs to be adjusted and further developed for each case according to specific needs of the corresponding geo-engineering problems.
The above presented information can be summarized in the flowchart of Figure 1.

guide to numerical modeling ingeomechanicsFigure 1 . Recommended general procedure for numerical modeling in geomechanics

Additional Info

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