Schutte 1998
Schutte 1998
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Received14April 1997
Abstract
This series of studies describes the development of a measure of emotional intelligence based on the mode1
of emotional intelligence developed by Salovey and Mayer [Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional
intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185-211.1. A pool of 62 items represented the different
dimensions of the model. A factor analysis of the responses of 346 participants suggested the creation of a
33-item scale. Additional studies showed the 33-item measure to have good internal consistency and test-
retest reliability. Validation studies showed that scores on the 33-item measure (a) correlated with eight of
nine theoretically related constructs, including alexithymia, attention to feelings, clarity of feelings, mood
repair, optimism and impulse control; (b) predicted first-year college grades; (c) were significantly higher for
therapists than for therapy clients or for prisoners; (d) were significantly higher for females than males,
consistent with prior findings in studies of emotional skills; (e) were not related to cognitive ability and (f)
were associated with the openness to experience trait of the big five personality dimensions. 0 1998 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
For many years the study of intelligence focused mainly on the adaptive use of cognition (e.g.
Wechsler, 1939; Piaget, 1972). In recentyears theorists such as Gardner (1983) and Sternberg (1988)
have suggested more encompassing approaches to understanding intelligence. The publication of
the book by Goleman (1995), “Emotional Intelligence”, made popular the notion of viewing the
experience and expression of emotions as a domain of intelligence.
Currently several comprehensive models of emotional intelligence provide alternative theoretical
frameworks for conceptualizing the construct. These models do not contradict one another, but
they do take somewhat different perspectives on the nature of emotional intelligence. Even though
Gardner (1983) did not use the term emotional intelligence, his concepts of intrapersonal and
interpersonal intelligences provided a foundation for later models of emotional intelligence. The
core of intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to know one’s own emotions, while the core of
interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand other individuals’ emotions and intentions.
Salovey and Mayer (1990) who first used the term “emotional intelligence”, postulated that
emotional intelligence consists of the following three categories of adaptive abilities: appraisal and
expression of emotion, regulation of emotion and utilization of emotions in solving problems. The
first category consists of the components of appraisal and expression of emotion in the self and
appraisal of emotion in others. The component of appraisal and expression of emotion in the self
is further divided into the subcomponents of verbal and non-verbal and as applied to others is
broken into the subcomponents of non-verbal perception and empathy. The second category of
emotional intelligence, regulation, has the components of regulation of emotions in the self and
regulation of emotions in others. The third category, utilization of emotion, includes the com-
ponents of flexible planning, creative thinking, redirected attention and motivation. Even though
emotions are at the core of this model, it also encompasses social and cognitive functions related
to the expression, regulation and utilization of emotions.
This influential book of Goleman (1995), “Emotional Intelligence”, presented many important
correlates of emotional intelligence and somewhat expanded the construct to include a number of
specific social and communication skills influenced by the understanding and expression of
emotions. The popular book of Cooper and Sawaf (1997) “Executive EQ”, outlined a model of
emotional intelligence that relates specific skills and tendencies to the following four cornerstones:
emotional literacy, which includes knowledge of one’s own emotions and how they function;
emotional fitness, which includes emotional hardiness and flexibility; emotional depth, which
involves emotional intensity and potential for growth and “emotional alchemy”, which includes
the ability to use emotion to spark creativity.
Mayer and Salovey (1997) formulated a revised model of emotional intelligence which gives
more emphasis to the cognitive components of emotional intelligence and conceptualizes emotional
intelligence in terms of potential for intellectual and emotional growth. The revised model consists
of the following four branches of emotional intelligence: perception, appraisal and expression of
emotion; emotional facilitation of thinking; understanding, analyzing and employing emotional
knowledge and reflective regulation of emotions to further emotional and intellectual growth. The
perception, appraisal and expression of emotion are viewed as the most basic processes, while the
reflective regulation of emotions requires the most complex processing. Further, each branch has
associated with it stages or levels of abilities, which individuals master in sequential order.
The assessment of the construct of emotional intelligence has not kept pace with interest in the
construct. There exist two scales described in conference papers, the Bar-On Emotional Quotient
Inventory (Bar-On, 1996a,b) and the Style in the Perception of Affect Scale (Bernet, 1996), which
attempt to measure the construct of emotional intelligence and have some validity evidence.
The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory is a 133-item self-report measure which consists of
15 distinct scales that were developed based on Bar-On’s professional experience and his review of
the literature. The scales include ones measuring: emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, self-
regard, self-actualization, independence, empathy, interpersonal relationships, social responsi-
N. S. Schutte et al./Personalit_v and Indicidual Dqjtirences 25 (1998) 167-177 169
bility, problem solving, reality testing, flexibility, stress tolerance, impulse control, happiness and
optimism. Bar-On (1996a) reported that the scales showed evidence of validity in that they correlate
with several measures which are theoretically related and differentiated between groups such as
individuals who rated themselves as high on personal success and those who rated themselves low
and prisoners and non-prisoners.
Bernet (1996) developed the 93-item Style in the Perception of Affect scale based on the premise
that being able to attend rapidly, appropriately and effortlessly to feelings is the cornerstone of
emotional intelligence. The measure assesses respondents’ preferences for the following three styles:
body-based, evaluation-based and logic-based perception of affect. Bernet found that body based
perception of affect was associated with better mental health, awareness of small bodily changes,
social skill, contentment and creativity.
The book “Executive EQ” (Cooper and Sawaf, 1997) presented the EQ MAP test which consists
of over 250 items which divide into 21 subscales which are based on Cooper and Sawaf s model of
emotional intelligence. However, the book presented no information regarding the measure’s
reliability or validity. Finally, Mayer and Salovey (1997) are currently working on a performance-
oriented, CD-based measure of emotional intelligence.
Additionally, there are validated instruments that assess what may be components of emotional
intelligence. For example, the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (Taylor et al., 1985) measures difficulties
in identifying and describing feelings and the Trait Meta Mood Scale (Salovey et al., 1995) measures
attention to feelings, clarity of feelings and mood repair.
There is still a need for brief, validated measures of emotional intelligence that are based on a
cohesive and comprehensive model of emotional intelligence. The purpose of the present series of
studies was to develop such a measure.
We set out to base our measure of emotional intelligence on a theoretically cohesive and
comprehensive model. We believe that the original model of Salovey and Mayer (1990) and the
Mayer and Salovey (1997) revised model are the most cohesive and comprehensive models of
emotional intelligence. This revised model seems to be an excellent process-oriented model that
emphasizes stages of development in emotional intelligence, potential for growth and the con-
tributions emotions make to intellectual growth. However, the original model of Salovey and
Mayer (1990) lends itself better to conceptualizing the various dimensions of an individual’s current
state of emotional development. Additionally, most dimensions of other models can be integrated
into this model. Thus, we used the original model of emotional intelligence of Salovey and Mayer
(1990) as a basis for the development of a self-report measure of emotional intelligence in hopes
that this encompassing model of emotional intelligence would provide a solid foundation for a
measure of individuals’ current level of emotional intelligence.
model were represented by multiple items. Each of the first four authors independently evaluated
each item for (a) fidelity to the relevant construct, (b) clarity and (c) readability. We deleted some
items, added some items, revised a number of items and then pilot tested the items by asking
several individuals to complete the scale and note any unclear elements. This process resulted in a
pilot-tested pool of 62 items.
3.1. Overview
We asked a large number of individuals to respond to the initial items so that we could analyze
the factor structure of the items and select the final items for the scale. Subsets of respondents also
completed theoretically related measures so we could determine the association between these
measures and scores on our final scale. These theoretically related constructs included alexithymia,
non-verbal communication of affect, optimism, pessimism, attention to feelings, clarity of feelings,
mood repair, depressed mood and impulsivity. Finally, we hypothesized that on a valid measure
of emotional intelligence there would be certain between-group differences. We expected that
psychotherapists would score higher than prisoners and higher than psychotherapy clients. We
also expected that women would score higher than men based on prior findings (e.g. Goleman,
1995; Gross and John, 1995; Bjorklund and Kipp, 1996; Skuse et al., 1997) that suggest that
women are more adept at emotional expression and relating to others, which are skills theorized
to be components of emotional intelligence (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).
3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Participants
A total of 346 participants were recruited from a variety of settings in a metropolitan area in
the southeastern United States. Participants included university students and individuals from
diverse community settings. Of those who reported their gender, 218 were women and 111 were
men. The average age of participants was 29.27, S.D. = 10.23.
3.2.2. Procedure
The 346 participants rated themselves on each of the 62 items using the five-point response scale.
In addition a number of participants also filled out one of several established scales assessing
constructs theoretically related to emotional intelligence.
Twenty-five of the 346 participants completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (Taylor et al., 1985)
which assesses difficulties in identifying and describing feelings. The Affective Communications Test
(Freedman et al., 1980), which assesses individuals’ non-verbal expressiveness, was completed by
36 participants. The Life Orientation Test (Scheier and Carver, 1985; Marshall et al., 1992), which
assesses optimism and pessimism, was completed by 27 participants. The Trait Meta Mood Scale
(Salovey et al., 1995), which assesses attention to feelings, clarity of feelings and mood repair, was
completed by 49 participants. The Zung Self-Rating Scale (Zung, 1965), which measures depressed
N. S. Schutte et al.lPersonality and Individual Difk-ences 25 (1998) 167-l 77 171
mood, was completed by 38 participants and the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (Patton et al., 1995)
was completed by 56 participants.
4. Results
Table 1
The 33-item emotional intelligence scale
Note: The authors permit free use of the scale for research and clinical purposes.
*These items are reverse scored.
greater optimism as measured by the optimism scale of the Life Orientation Test [r(26) =0.52,
p<O.O06], less pessimism as measured by the pessimism scale of the Life Orientation Test
[r(26) = -0.43, p ~0.0251, less depression as measured by the Zung Depression Scale
[r(37)= -0.37, p<O.O21] and less impulsivity as measured by the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale
[r(S) = - 0.39, p < 0.0031. Nonverbal expressiveness of emotion as assessed by the Affective Com-
munication Test was not significantly related to scores on the emotional intelligence scale,
r(34) = 0.17.
N. S. Schutte et al.lPersonality and Indicidual Differences 25 (1998) 167-l 77 173
In order to confirm the prior findings of internal consistency, we asked 27 female and five male
college students from the southeastern United States, with an average age of 30.11, S.D. = 8.45, to
respond to the 33-item measure. The cross-check of internal consistency showed a Cronbach’s
alpha of 0.87 for the 32 participants.
In order to evaluate the test-retest reliability of the measure, we asked 22 female and six male
college students from the southeastern United States, with an average age of 32.00, S.D. = 10.13,
to complete the scale. They completed the measure twice, with a two-week interval between
measurements. Two-week test-retest reliability was 0.78.
7.1. Overview
According to Goleman (1995), cognitive intelligence may provide individuals with entry to a
setting, but emotional intelligence plays an important role in determining how successful they are
after they enter the setting. To examine whether our scale could predict success in a setting, we
conducted a longitudinal study to test whether scores on the emotional intelligence measure would
predict college students’ success in their first year.
Thirty-three female and 31 male first-year college students, with an average age of 18.89,
S.D. = 2.10, participated. The students completed the 33-item emotional intelligence measure
during their first month at a university in the southeastern United States. At the end of the
academic year we obtained the students’ official cumulative grade point averages.
174 N. S. Schutte et aLlPersonality and Individual Differences 2.5 (1998) 167-l 77
Scores on the 33-item self-report measure of emotional intelligence, completed at the start of
the academic year, significantly predicted grade point average at the end of the year, r(63) =0.32,
p<O.Ol.
8.1. Overview
Salovey and Mayer (1990) took the view that emotional intelligence may or may not be related
to other types of intelligences, such as cognitive ability and recently made the more specific
prediction that emotional intelligence is related to, but at the same time distinct from, other types
of intelligences (Mayer and Salovey, 1997).
Thus, we predicted that the 33-item measure of emotional intelligence would not be so highly
related to cognitive ability as to be redundant. We tested this prediction by relating scores on the
measure of emotional intelligence to scores on the SAT combined math and verbal sections,
(College Entrance Examination Board and Educational Testing Service, 1995), which are widely
used measures of cognitive ability related to college aptitude.
For 42 of the first-year college students described in study 4, pre-admission SAT or ACT scores
were available. Thirty-nine of these students had SAT scores earned after the 1995 renorming of
the SAT, while three students had ACT scores. To create a uniform score for cognitive ability, the
scores of the students who had ACT scores were converted to equivalent SAT scores by using the
percentile score method recommended by the College Entrance Examination Board and Edu-
cational Testing Service (1995).
The mean SAT score was 978, S.D. = 145. Scores on the 33-item measure of emotional intelligence
were not related to SAT scores, r(41) = -0.06.
9.1. Overview
within the big-five framework and to provide information about the measure’s discriminant
validity, scores on the 33-item measure were related to the big five personality dimensions.
Twenty-three college students from the southeastern United States participated. Their average
age was 28.65, SD. = 6.91 and of the 17 who reported their gender 16 were women. Participants
completed both the 33-item measure of emotional intelligence and the revised NE0 Personality
Inventory (Costa and McCrae, 1992a; Costa and McCrae, 1992b; Costa and McCrae, 1992c).
Higher scores on the measure of emotional intelligence were significantly associated with greater
openness to experience, r(22) =0.54, p <0.009 and not significantly related to any of the other
big five dimensions. The magnitude of these nonsignificant correlations between the emotional
intelligence measure and the other four dimensions was as follows: neuroticism, -0.28; extra-
version, 0.28; agreeableness, 0.26 and conscientiousness, 0.21.
10. Conclusion
The research described in this paper addressed the development and validation of a self-report
measure of emotional intelligence. The model of emotional intelligence of Salovey and Mayer
(1990) provided the conceptual foundation for the items used in the scale. A factor analysis of a
larger pool of items suggested a one-factor solution of 33 items. This one-factor solution resulted
in scale items that represented each of the following categories: appraisal and expression of emotion
in the self and others, regulation of emotion in the self and others and utilization of emotions in
solving problems.
Because the original pool of items used in this study represented all categories and components
of the theoretical model of emotional intelligence of Salovey and Mayer (1990) and because the
first factor derived from a factor analysis included a roughly equal number of items from the
different categories and components of the model, one can view the results of the factor analysis
as suggesting a homogeneous construct of emotional intelligence. However, for two reasons caution
should be used in drawing this conclusion. First, there are alternative operationalizations of
emotional intelligence to the ones provided by the Salovey and Mayer (1990) model. Second, the
model was represented by a limited set of self-report items. Alternative items or an assessment
technique other than self-report might show more specific factors.
The 33-item scale developed through factor analysis showed good internal reliability with two
different samples. Two-week test-retest reliability indicated that the scores were fairly stable over
time.
The scale showed evidence of validity. Scores on the scale were related to eight of nine measures
predicted to be related to the emotional intelligence. These other measures assessed theoretically
related constructs, including awareness of emotion, outlook on life, depressed mood, ability to
regulate emotions and impulsivity. Scores on the emotional intelligence scale differed between
groups one would expect to differ on level of emotional intelligence. Psychotherapists scored higher
than prisoners and substance abuse clients. Also, women scored higher than men. The measure
176 N. S. Schutte et al./Personality and Individual Differences 25 (1998) 167-I 77
showed evidence of predictive validity in that incoming college students’ emotional intelligence
scores predicted their end-of-year grade point average.
The scale also showed evidence of discriminant validity. It proved to be different from cognitive
ability, as measured by the SAT. The measure also was not significantly related to four of the big
five personality dimensions. It was significantly correlated with openness to experience, but not so
highly as to be redundant. One might expect an association between these two constructs on the
basis of the description of a typical high scorer on the openness subscale as someone for whom
“emotional reactions are varied and important” (Costa and McCrae, 1992c, p. 28).
In sum, the findings indicate that the 33-item scale holds promise as a reliable, valid measure of
emotional intelligence as conceptualized by Salovey and Mayer (1990). Potential uses of the
scale in theoretical research involve exploring the nature of emotional intelligence, including the
determinants of emotional intelligence, the effects of emotional intelligence and whether emotional
intelligence can be enhanced.
The emotional intelligence scale, like most self-report measures, seems susceptible to faking
good. Thus, the emotional intelligence scale should probably not be used as a method for selecting
individuals for jobs or other highly desired opportunities.
However, the scale may have value in assessing individuals who want a valid appraisal of
their emotional intelligence. These individuals may want an assessment because they (a) wish to
understand one of their own important characteristics so that they can better set goals and work
toward these goals; (b) experience problems in areas related to emotional intelligence, such as
difficulties in impulse control or (c) are considering entering settings or careers in which emotional
intelligence is important.
For example, the scale might be used to help individuals who are at risk for performing poorly
at tasks that require emotional intelligence, as in establishing themselves in a new setting such as
a college. The finding that emotional intelligence scale scores predicted first-year college grades
suggests the ability of the scale to help identify these individuals. Once identified, these at-risk
individuals might benefit from special guidance, training or support.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dan Lee and Marta Cohen for their help in collecting data.
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