PART

Critical
Thinking Skills
T HE HUMAN E XPERIENCE

Sociology FACT A ND OPINION 134

MONE Y AND COMMERCE

Economics IMPL IC AT ION A ND INFER ENCE 158

T HE SCIENCE OF NAT URE

Biology EV IDENCE A ND A RGU MEN TAT ION 180

AR T S AND LE T T ER S

Humanities SY N T HESIS OF INFOR M AT ION 208

STRUC T UR AL SCIENCE

Environmental DEFINIT IONS A ND CL A SSIFIC AT IONS 236

Engineering

Part 2 moves from skill building to application of the skills that require critical thinking.
Practice activities tied to specific learning outcomes in each unit require a deeper level of
understanding of the academic content.
 Struggle influences
social change.

SOCIOLOGY

Fact and Opinion

UNIT PROFILE OUTCOMES
You will consider the subject of sociology—specifically the • Distinguish fact from opinion
issues of civil rights and race relations. Some of the topics you • Recognize and interpret statements of
will study include the contributions of civil rights advocates, opinion
the history of civil rights movements, and the strategy of civil
• Recognize and interpret statements of fact
disobedience.
• Understand and produce critiques
Preview the first paragraph of the reading “Henry David
Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience” on page 154. Can you identify • Understand signpost expressions that limit
two statements of fact in the paragraph? Can you identify two or define
statements of opinion?

GETTING STARTED
Go to to listen to Professor Greenberg and to complete a self-assessment.
Discuss these questions with a partner or group.
1. Think about race relations in your home country or another country. How would you describe them
in the present? In the past?
2. The image above shows African Americans being served at a soda counter in Oklahoma in 1958, after
sit-ins prompted racial policy changes—though the shop removed the stools so patrons had to stand.
Think of a human right you strongly believe in and feel that some members of society do not have.
Would you consider participating in a nonviolent action of protest for that right? Why or why not?
3. Consider your own personal identity: student, friend, waitress, churchgoer, and so forth. How have
your experiences and relationships shaped this identity? If you were to work with others to achieve a
goal you believe in, what impact do you think your identity could have on this work?
For more about SOCIOLOGY, see 1 3 . See also and SOCIOLOGY 1 2 3 .

134 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
CRITICAL THINKING SKILL
DISTINGUISHING FACT FROM OPINION
WHY IT’S USEFUL Distinguishing fact from opinion is necessary in recognizing the main and supporting
ideas of a reading. You may discover that something presented as fact is actually opinion.

Distinguishing fact from opinion in a reading allows you to get the full meaning of the reading.
This unit breaks the skill down into two supporting skills:
• recognizing and interpreting statements of opinion
• recognizing and interpreting statements of fact

NOTICING ACTIVITY
A. Read the passage.

Perceptions of the Civil Rights Movement

1The US civil rights movement is dreamily memorialized as a virtually sacred period of moral
advancement. 2 A national holiday commemorates its preeminent leader, Martin Luther King Jr.,
and school curricula teach children to celebrate the revolutionary ideals of the time. 3 However,
during the period from 1954 to 1968—the heyday of the civil rights movement—public views of
it were not nearly so sanguine. 4 Many white people throughout the United States, not just in the
South, argued that antidiscrimination measures were detrimental to American society. 5 In some
cases, they joined terrorist white supremacy groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. 6 Political leaders
such as Alabama governor George Wallace, who ran on an openly racist platform, were reelected
despite—or perhaps because of—their segregationist messages.
7 However, the civil rights movement drew in many supporters as well. 8 National leaders,

pressured in part by the global embarrassment of America’s racial inequalities, increasingly

supported black civil rights both legislatively and oratorically. 9 The civil rights period attracted
more protesters and more white support of black people than any other time since the 1850s and
the Abolitionist Movement. 10 In addition, mass media were often sympathetic, casting leaders of the
civil rights movements as heroes, which helped nurture white sympathy for black struggles.

B. Look again at the passage. Notice that some sentences are mostly fact, others are mostly opinion,
and others are a balance of the two.
C. Read why Sentences 1–3 are categorized as they are. Discuss why Sentences 4–11 are categorized as
they are. Have they been sorted correctly?
Mostly Opinion: 1, 10: Sentence 1 includes a fact—that the civil rights period is memorialized—but
the main point is that this memorialization is “virtually sacred,” an opinion.
Mostly Fact: 2, 4, 5, 7, 9: Sentence 2 states that a holiday commemorates Martin Luther King Jr.
and that schoolchildren learn about him. There is an element of opinion in that the author calls King
“preeminent,” but this is not the main idea of the sentence.
Almost Equally Fact and Opinion: 3, 6, 8: Sentence 3 factually states that 1954–1968 was the peak
(“heyday”) of the movement and that there is a difference in public opinion then and now, which
common sense indicates is probably a fact. It also includes a statement of opinion in that it labels
modern views as “sanguine” (excessively positive).

Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

Fact and Opinion 135

 SUPPORTING SKILL 1
RECOGNIZING AND INTERPRETING STATEMENTS OF OPINION
WHY IT’S USEFUL Some statements that appear to be factual may contain elements of opinion as well.
By identifying the kinds of language that often accompany statements of opinion, you will be able to
recognize when an author is presenting a personal idea or position.

An opinion is defined simply as a person’s “ideas or beliefs about a particular subject.”

Fact: As of 2014, the rate of union membership had fallen 9 percent over
the past 30 years.
Fact + opinion: It’s a shame that as of 2014, the rate of union membership had
fallen 9 percent over the past 30 years.
The former is a pure fact because the statement is wholly neutral, containing no language that suggests
an opinion provided by the author. The latter is demonstrative of a fact framed by an opinion, signaled
by the phrase It’s a shame that …, which carries a connotation—one of the several types of language
attributes to look for when attempting to recognize opinions within a text.

FEATURES OF STATEMENTS OF OPINION

• Connotation is a feeling or an idea that a word evokes beyond its literal meaning. Words may
carry positive or negative connotations. Examples of words with positive connotations—words
that indicate a favorable attitude—are easygoing, youthful, and confident. Examples of words with
negative connotations include uptight, immature, and arrogant.
• Tone is the general feeling or attitude expressed in a piece of writing conveyed through elements
such as word choice, selective use of examples and evidence, syntax, and punctuation. Categories
of tone include humorous, approving, disapproving, persuasive, objective, informative, and
formal. Study these two examples of tone:
Approving: It was vitally important for the many who supported equality
during the US civil rights movement to openly express their views
in order to avoid disaster.
Informative: The many who supported equality during the US civil rights
movement openly expressed their views.
The first sentence approves of the movement through its use of strong language: vitally important,
avoid disaster. The second sentence simply informs, without employing any emphatic language. By
accurately identifying tone, you are better equipped to determine a writer’s goal.
• Bias refers to a writer’s partiality toward a particular perspective. The writer may either be biased
toward a viewpoint (showing support or positive feelings toward it) or biased against a viewpoint
(demonstrating opposition or negative feelings toward it). An example of bias is the attitude of a
proud parent toward his or her child. The parent may be so biased that he or she considers the
child highly gifted even when, in fact, the child’s abilities are not extraordinary. Sometimes bias in
a text may be very clear upon first read; however, bias is often concealed and only uncovered after
a deeper reading.

136 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 In the following example, the writer demonstrates a very negative attitude toward the Ku Klux

PART 2
Klan. Notice the negative bias conveyed in the underlined words and phrases. For the words
values and ideal, the negativity is communicated by the quotation marks, turning otherwise
positive words into sarcastic remarks.
The Ku Klux Klan—a despicable organization that upholds “values” of white
supremacy and anti-immigration— should be condemned by all individuals who
believe in equality. While this group claims to promote American and Christian
values, it actually has used terroristic methods to instill fear in and commit
violence against those it deemed “impure.” It has gone about this in inhumane
and often brutal ways, including burning crosses, beating and maiming people
who don’t fit in with its “ideal” society, and even going so far as to murder them.
Despite what its members argue, there is nothing positive or redeeming about this
wretched organization.
• Signal phrases are another feature of some statements of opinion. A signal phrase may indicate
the author’s own opinion, or it may indicate the opinion of someone else.
Author’s opinion: In my opinion, the current administration
seems to be putting civil rights on the back
burner.
Opinion reported by an author: The current administration is thought to be
putting civil rights on the back burner.
The mere addition of the phrase is thought to be in the second example tells a reader that the writer
is not expressing his or her own opinion; rather, the writer is conveying an opinion held by others.

Examples of Phrases Used to Signal an Opinion

According to X According to Mahatma Gandhi, there is no better tactic for achieving goals
than civil disobedience; however, many disagree.
Apparently There was apparently a lot of media support of civil rights leaders, but not
enough support across the population as a whole.
From my perspective From my perspective, racial integration is something that still has not been
achieved in US society.
In my experience In my experience, protesters genuinely strive to make their desires known
without resorting to violence.
In my opinion In my opinion, civil disobedience is a tactic that more groups calling for
change should use.
In my view In my view, people do not truly support equal rights if they only state it; it
must be evident through their actions.
It is the opinion of X It is the opinion of many that the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was only one
that step toward ridding American society of racism.
It is thought that It is thought that the politician George Wallace was incredibly racist;
however, those who supported him contest this and maintain that he fought
for what he thought was right.
It may be that It may be that certain high-level politicians during the civil rights movement
never supported equal rights for all.
X is considered Henry David Thoreau is considered to be one of the first activists in the
United States to publicly advocate civil disobedience.
X suggest(s) / state(s) Many suggest that it is irresponsible to intentionally violate laws in acts of
civil disobedience, but others strongly endorse such actions.

Fact and Opinion 137

 • Source and author purpose are two other features to consider when deciding if a statement is
an opinion. The information within a textbook, or in a newspaper or magazine news report, for
example, is meant to inform, typically in an unbiased manner. On the other hand, the objective of
blog posts, editorials, and feature articles tends to be to persuade, meaning that the information
found in them is much more likely to include opinions.

EXERCISE 1
A. Circle the word in each pair that has the more negative connotation.
1. oppressive / tyrannical 4. mutinously / defiantly
2. violate / disobey 5. introduce / impose
3. discard / dump 6. barbaric / inhumane
B. Read the passage. What is the tone? How does the author set that tone? Point to specific elements
of the passage (e.g., word choice, selective use of examples and evidence, syntax, and punctuation)
that help you determine this.

Gandhi’s Salt Strategy

Gandhi participating in the Salt March, 1930

1 Mahatma Gandhi’s most successful acts of to mobilize for a collective movement, and they
civil disobedience against Britain’s oppressive rule provided people with constructive work that would
aimed to involve people from all socioeconomic eventually lead a nation to independence.
groups and bring sweeping changes to the entire
Khadi Campaign
society. These acts specifically employed methods
2 Gandhi began his work as a civil rights leader
of protest that were easily accessible to all.
not in India, but rather on the distant shores of
Regarded today as an exemplar of protest activism,
South Africa, where he campaigned for equal
Gandhi’s so-called “khadi campaign” encouraged
rights for much of his two decades of residence
Indians to spin cotton into yarn, weave that yarn into
there. Returning to his homeland of India in 1914
cloth, and boycott British manufactured textiles.
as a recognized rabble-rouser, he soon discarded
In a similar vein, Gandhi encouraged Indians to
Western clothing and donned the homespun cloth
disobey British salt laws by producing their own
of India known as khadi as a way of symbolically
salt. Spinning and weaving and salt-making are
casting off British rule. Britain controlled the textile
among the most humble of tasks, but according
market in India, and Gandhi began encouraging
to Gandhi, they boosted self-respect among those
Indians to wear homespun cloth as a way of both
viewed as the hoi polloi, they trained citizens

138 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
defying
defy
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and increasing self-reliance. Traditional Indian idea, though initially met with skepticism, turned
clothing became not only a commodity, as it could out to be ingenious because it created ripples
be worn, but also a visual uniform of nationalism. that reached the farthest edges of the nation and
The movement gained traction, and soon Gandhi’s spread word of the Indian independence movement
followers defiantly burned their British clothing and throughout the world.
wore the traditional cloth. 4 As with the khadi campaign, hundreds of
thousands joined in Gandhi’s Salt March. British-
Salt Campaign
backed forces jailed more than 60,000 marchers
3 The British imposed strict laws on the
and brutally beat many of them, but most marchers
production and distribution of salt, which forced
continued to adhere to nonviolent resistance even
Indians to buy expensive, heavily taxed British salt.
amidst the crackdown. The British eventually made
With meticulous care, Gandhi chose his method
concessions, and Gandhi’s campaign gained a
of protest against the British when he decided
following abroad where his work was lauded, with
in 1930 to lead a 240-mile march to the sea to
Time magazine declaring him Man of the Year in
collect salt. His plan was met with disbelief when
1930. Other civil rights leaders began to take
presented to the Indian authorities, but Gandhi
notes for their own campaigns to come. India’s
defended his reasons, stating that salt was one of
victory came 17 years later in 1947, when the
the most important necessities of life. He further
British succumbed to pressure and recognized
called the tax inhumane and unjust, declaring
India as an independent nation.
that it was unconscionable to tax a commodity

C. Read these excerpts from the passage, each of which contains biased language. Explain what
language makes each excerpt biased.
1. Regarded today as an exemplar of protest activism, Gandhi’s TIP
so-called “khadi campaign” encouraged Indians to spin cotton Biased or unbiased? While it is true
into yarn, weave that yarn into cloth, and boycott British that news reports are intended to
be informative (and thus unbiased),
manufactured textiles. one part of them is oen very biased:
the quotes embedded in them. News
2. Spinning and weaving and salt-making are among the most reporters write their stories objectively,
humble of tasks, but according to Gandhi, they boosted self- but the individuals who provide the
quotes oen give their opinions about
respect among those viewed as the hoi polloi, they trained the topic at hand.
citizens to mobilize for a collective movement, and they provided
people with constructive work that would eventually lead a
nation to independence.
3. Returning to his homeland of India in 1914 as a recognized rabble-rouser, he soon discarded Western
clothing and donned the homespun cloth of India known as khadi as a way of symbolically casting off
British rule.
4. He further called the tax inhumane and unjust, declaring that it was unconscionable to tax a commodity
that millions of poor people required.
5. Gandhi’s idea, though initially met with skepticism, turned out to be ingenious because it created ripples
that reached the farthest edges of the nation and spread word of the Indian independence movement
throughout the world.
6. British-backed forces jailed more than 60,000 marchers and brutally beat many of them, but most
marchers continued to adhere to nonviolent resistance even amidst the crackdown.
D. Discuss your answers with another student. Use information and examples from the passage to
explain and support your answers.

Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.
Fact and Opinion 139
 SUPPORTING SKILL 2
RECOGNIZING AND INTERPRETING STATEMENTS OF FACT
WHY IT’S USEFUL By considering types of language that typically characterize facts, you will be able
to evaluate whether a reading excerpt is indeed a fact (versus an opinion). This will further develop your
critical thinking skills and your ability to analyze and interpret what you are reading.

A fact is a piece of information that is known to be true. The ability to identify a statement of fact, and to
distinguish that statement of fact from other types of statements—statements of opinions and statements
of facts + opinions—is essential to your understanding of a reading.
Features of Factual Statements
TIP
• Phrases suggesting a citation, including: Be careful. In academic writing, watch
According to out for phrases like researchers suggest,
As reported by scholars lament, and historians have
established. At times, these phrases can
As stated in be followed or preceded by pure facts,
It is a fact that but they oen contain a fact combined
with the author’s opinion about it. Facts
The author discusses / explains / writes, etc. are also frequently combined with
The facts show that opinions when an author reports on
others’ biases. Such an example of fact
The results demonstrate / indicate plus opinion is shown in this excerpt from
• Direct and indirect quotes (which often include quotation the online reading “Distorting Effect”:
However, in the years since his
marks and in-line citations) assassination in 1968, King’s slow
• Neutrality of vocabulary: This refers to an absence of ascension to a hero’s pedestal has,
scholars lament , frozen his character
connotative language and bias as well as an objective tone. in time, thereby watering down the
• Hedging: This is a type of cautious language that is often way in which his message speaks to
continuing racial inequality today.
used in academic writing when a writer is presenting facts
and wants to be as precise as possible. Examples of hedging:
it appears
it could be the case that
may, might, can, could (modal verbs)
probable / possible
some
tend(s) (not) to
X indicate(s)
X suggest(s)
• Informative or enumerative tone: As mentioned earlier, an informative tone is one in which an
author provides information about a topic without inserting any personal evaluation about the
topic. When an author employs an enumerative tone, he or she is supplying a list of the objects,
concepts, ideas, and so on that fall under a given construct, again, without adding opinions
about the concept.
Informative: A large number of legislators, state representatives, and high-level
government officials now believe in providing all individuals with
equal opportunities.
Enumerative: Exactly 650 legislators, 401 state representatives, and 12 high-level
government officials now believe in providing all individuals with
equal opportunities.
However, the presence of an informative or enumerative tone does not mean that the information
is necessarily purely factual. The inclusion of words that have strong connotations is often indicative of a

140 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

statement of fact plus opinion. As mentioned earlier, authors sometimes interweave opinion

PART 2
with fact.
Gandhi’s Salt March was enormously influential, leading future civil rights leaders to
adopt a tactic unparalleled by any other: civil disobedience.
While it is true that Gandhi’s Salt March was influential, author bias is evident in the example above
with the word “enormously.” It is also a fact that future civil rights leaders adopted the tactic of civil
disobedience, but it is clear that the author is inserting an opinion through the addition of the phrase
“a tactic unparalleled by any other.”

EXERCISE 2
A. Read this excerpt from “Gandhi’s Influence” and identify the factual information. Circle the ten
words and phrases in bold that are neutral. Then paraphrase five facts from the reading and write
your paraphrases below.

American civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. drew heavily upon the
strategies of Mahatma Gandhi’s campaign to combat social injustice, but he was not the first
civil rights leader to draw parallels between the oppression of the Indian people and the injustice
inflicted upon black people in America. In fact, King was one of many in a long line of leaders
inspired by Gandhi’s style of civil disobedience. Decades before King emulated Gandhi’s salt
march with his historic march from Selma to Montgomery, civil rights leaders were working
hard to bring Gandhi’s message to the United States. As early as the 1920s, political leader
Marcus M. Garvey depended on Gandhi for intellectual legitimacy, and in 1929, author and
activist W.E.B. Du Bois published a letter from Gandhi in an influential NAACP magazine that
was widely distributed throughout the black community.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

B. Now read the full passage.

Gandhi’s Influence
1 American civil rights movement leader Martin Gandhi’s style of civil disobedience. Decades
Luther King Jr. drew heavily upon the strategies before King emulated Gandhi’s Salt March with
of Mahatma Gandhi’s campaign to combat social his historic march from Selma to Montgomery,
injustice, but he was not the first civil rights civil rights leaders were working hard to bring
leader to draw parallels between the oppression Gandhi’s message to the United States. As early
of the Indian people and the injustice inflicted as the 1920s, political leader Marcus M. Garvey
upon black people in America. In fact, King was depended on Gandhi for intellectual legitimacy,
one of many in a long line of leaders inspired by and in 1929, author and activist W.E.B. Du Bois

Continued
Fact and Opinion 141
 published
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NAACP magazine that was widely distributed community lauded Gandhi’s work and prepared
throughout the black community. the way for an eventual charismatic leader of their
2 Gandhi’s campaign targeted multiple social own. Civil rights leader James Farmer studied
ills including the repressive rule of the British, Thurman’s writings about Gandhi, and in 1942
the divisive “caste” system, and the pitting of he proposed a five-year plan of mobilization
Muslims against Hindus. It was Gandhi’s focus that called for acts of noncooperation, and
on the integration of a group of people from the economic boycott, both of which constituted
lowest caste, the “untouchables,” that was of civil disobedience. Farmer went on to become
particular interest to many black Americans. director of the Congress of Racial Equality, an
Millions of Indians born into this caste system organization that led a series of acts of civil
were marginalized and ostracized in Indian society disobedience in protest against segregation on
to a degree that was almost unfathomable, and buses. Another leader in the black community,
the integration Gandhi envisioned and labored Howard University president Mordecai Wyatt
for struck a chord with black Americans. In 1932, Johnson, visited India in 1949 and returned
America’s preeminent black newspaper, the inspired. When Martin Luther King Jr. attended
Atlanta Daily World, printed a front-page article seminary, he heard a sermon by Johnson about
citing comments from Republican lawmaker Gandhi and soon after bought six books about
William E. King about Gandhi’s efforts to achieve the Indian leader.
integration for India’s lowest class. The lawmaker 4 Johnson, Thurman, and others preached of
compared the plight of the untouchables of India Gandhi’s greatness as a leader who followed
to Southern black people. revolutionary principles while adhering to
3 The message spread. In 1936, a group nonviolent methods. Gandhi, who referred to
of leading black educators, including Howard the untouchable caste as “children of God,” was
Thurman, dean of historic Howard University, echoed by King, who spoke of a moral obligation
visited Gandhi in India. Gandhi asked the leaders to uphold the values of all humans, especially
why they had not yet adopted the approach of civil the oppressed. King himself visited India in 1959
disobedience, stressing nonviolence as the only and later used many of Gandhi’s strategies in the
means for effective change. During and following US civil rights movement.

C. Answer the questions.

1. Look back at Paragraph 2. Which information do you identify as facts? Why?

2. Reread this sentence from Paragraph 3. Identify the neutral verb(s) and the verb(s) with
connotation: Gandhi asked the leaders why they had not yet adopted the approach of civil
disobedience, stressing nonviolence as the only means for effective change.

3. Look back at Paragraph 4. Which sentence contains the most neutral language?

D. Discuss the questions in Part C with another student. Use information and examples from the
passage to support your answers.

Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

142 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
READING-WRITING CONNECTION
UNDERSTANDING AND PRODUCING CRITIQUES
WHY IT’S USEFUL In American universities and professional situations, you will very often need to
understand passages that evaluate or critique something. You may also be asked to critique work you
read. This involves making reasonable evaluative judgments that capture the strong and weak aspects of
someone else’s writing. While active reading inherently involves this critical function, in a critique, you
express those value judgments and support them.

A critique is a piece of writing that examines the good and bad aspects of a work of art, a political
campaign, a college course, or some other effort. Usually a critique attempts to apply reasonable
criteria in its analysis, not simply offer unsupported approval or disapproval. Examples of kinds
of critiques include book reports, analyses of historical events, assessments of scientific research,
commentaries about political positions, and comparisons of possible solutions to problems.
Characteristics of Critiques
• Critiques make evaluative remarks about CULTURE NOTE
work, ideas, and so on. Therefore, critiques use the College Culture: The Proper Persona in a Critique
language of opinion along with the language of fact. College students are sometimes uncomfortable
discussing a critique or writing their own. Young
• Critiques offer evidence or at least explain a basis undergraduates, especially, may feel awkward
for evaluative remarks. making value judgments about material written by
scholars more knowledgeable than they are. They feel
• The best critiques apply certain criteria as they like the persona they create in critiquing the work of
judge or assess things. This lends structure to the others is false—only pretending to know what they’re
talking about. Some thoughts to keep in mind:
critique and makes it seem more reasonable. • TRAIN. Assignments that require you to analyze and
• Part of being reasonable is applying criteria that evaluate a piece of writing train you to be part of the
academic discourse community. You have to start
can reasonably be met. For example, you would not somewhere. Academics and professionals routinely go
hold a high school filmmaker to the same standards through the process of reading, considering, gathering
more data, evaluating, reacting, and proposing
as a professional. alternate ideas. You may not have much to say yet,
• The best critiques attempt to be fair. Therefore, but you’re preparing for the day when you do.
• SEARCH. Thanks to search engines, it's easier than
critiques often balance positive and negative ever to fact-check the statements in a piece of writing
remarks. and gather information for your own critiques.
• Critiques may include the language of hedging (“X • LEAD. Even outside of academic writing, readers
appreciate a writer who is confident. Confidence
may be exaggerated,” “ it appears that Y happened”) comes from knowing what you want to say and
and the language of certainty (“X is clearly saying it in reasonable terms. In a typical reading
or discussion situation, the author or the initial
incompetent”). speaker is a leader. When delivering a critique in
• Critiques often speculate about what might have writing or speech, take responsibility; lead strongly
and effectively.
happened in different circumstances. For that • SHOW HUMILITY. Still, no academic reader or
reason, they often include unreal conditionals discussion partner likes an arrogant know-it-all
or sarcastic critic. You don’t know it all, so be
(“If X had singled out more incidents of Klan humble enough to admit when you are unsure
violence, his claims would have carried more of something—or avoid areas about which you
are unsure. Most importantly, don’t make cutting,
weight”). sarcastic, or disparaging remarks about what you
critique. Even if you think of something very clever
to say, restrain yourself. Tell it as a joke to your
READING AND WRITING CRITIQUES friends later on, but don’t use it in a critique or a
In a reading class, you could be asked to read and discussion of a critique.
understand a critique that someone else has written. You
may also be asked to write your own critique—to analyze and evaluate something you have read. The list
of critique characteristics above can serve two purposes: 1) to help you look for certain characteristics in
what you read, and 2) to guide you in writing your own critiques.

Fact and Opinion 143

 EXERCISE 3
The following passages are from a critique that examines a particular political-protest tactic
(organizing large marches in Washington, DC). Read each passage. Then read the questions and choose
the best answers.

“Coxey’s Army” is the eponymous moniker applied to a group of

unemployed industrial workers who marched on Washington, DC, first
in 1894 and again in 1914. Both years were times of severe economic
recession. By the criterion of stamina, the 1894 march was significant,
starting as it did 360 miles away in the town of Massillon, Ohio, (home of
organizer Jacob S. Coxey) and involving arduous foot travel with minimal
provisions. Indeed, it was the only one of several attempts that year to
make it all the way to Washington.

1. What criterion is the author using to judge the significance of the marches of Coxey’s Army?
a. the time of year it occurred
b. who led it
c. its eventual goal
d. its ability to tolerate hardship
2. Is the author’s opinion of the 1894 march positive or negative in terms of that criterion?
a. positive
b. negative
c. part positive and part negative
3. What is one piece of evidence the author gives to support his evaluation of Coxey’s Army in terms
of that criterion?
a. the distance the marchers traveled
b. the country’s economic situation
c. the message the marchers expressed
d. the identity of the “army’s” leader

The size of the crowd at Martin Luther King Jr.’s march on Washington
in August 1963, officially known as the March on Washington for Jobs
and Freedom, was enormous, weighing in at about a quarter of a million
people. It was far better attended than any of the approximately ten
similar major marches that had preceded it in US history. For comparison,
note that Coxey’s Army was probably no larger than 400. However,
considerations of size have to grant the top prize to 1995’s Million
Man March. This was an effort to highlight a range of troubles in black
communities—from unemployment to gang violence to police abuse—
co-promoted by a motley alliance of leaders ranging from former DC
mayor Marion Barry (who had served six months in prison on drug
charges) to Louis Farrakhan of the Nation of Islam (infamous for his
disparaging
p g g remarks about JJews). It produced
p no inspirational
p oratoryy

144 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
or lasting
las
asti
ting
ng pressure
pre
ress
ssur
uree on llawmakers
awma
aw mak
kers tto
kers o re
red
redress
dresss wr
dres wron
wrongs.
ongs
gs Bu
But
But,
t ddespite
espi
es pite
te all
all its
its
flaws, the Million Man March officially drew at least 400,000 black men
to the capital (as estimated by the US Park Service) and probably more like
875,000 (an après le fait estimate by Boston University researchers). No
other march comes even close in that regard.

4. What criterion does the author use to judge the marches on Washington, DC?
a. the troubles they meant to protest
b. the leaders who organized them
c. the number of people in the march
d. the degree of violence among marchers
5. Is the author’s opinion of the 1995 march positive or negative in terms of that criterion?
a. positive
b. negative
c. part positive and part negative
6. The author implies that the 1995 march is not admirable on some counts. What are the faults he
implies? Choose TWO.
a The problems it protested were not very serious.
b. Some of its leaders had reputations for bad behavior.
c. It produced no consequential outcome.
d. It came at the wrong time in US history.

EXERCISE 4
A. Read the article.

Competing Approaches to the Civil Rights Struggle

1 Despite the 13th Amendment to the memory of Malcolm X, the Black Panther Party,
Constitution abolishing slavery, deep inequality and other rivals of King’s. One can reasonably ask
among racial groups in the United States whether this unbalanced retrospective is fair.
persisted throughout the Reconstruction Era and 2 We can judge partly by the intellectual
well into the mid-20 th century. Martin Luther King foundations of the various rights groups. King
Jr.’s Southern Christian Leadership Conference followed Mahatma Gandhi’s advocacy of
led one branch of the black power movement, one nonviolent resistance. It was a solid heritage.
that preached nonviolent resistance. Leaders of King built upon the work of the NAACP and other
more militant, revolutionary black power groups older groups, whose intellectual foundations
also fought against racial injustice, but they could be traced back to W.E.B. Du Bois and the
and King’s branch diverged sharply in their modi country’s founders. In all cases, the emphasis
operandi. Nonviolent resistance leaders are was on peace. It was not so with the militant and
modern saints to mainstream America, while a separatist branches of the black power movement,
pall of danger and subversiveness hangs over the most notably the Nation of Islam. It was headed

Continued

Fact and Opinion 145

 by Malcolm
Mal
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colm
lm X,
X who
who invoked
invo
in voke
kedd separatist
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rs 4 In In terms
ter ms of
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the related
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d cr
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iter
erio n of rreligion,
ion elig
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ionn
like Marcus Garvey (leader of a back-to-Africa King and his movement also triumphed. The
movement) along with the principles of Islam, a religion of political reformers might seem an odd
faith most Americans of that era found baffling and consideration, but America is deeply religious,
foreign. The later black power movement sparked at least in terms of superficial identification with
to life in the mid-1960s, when many black people one religion or another. To America as a whole,
were increasingly angry about a lack of progress King (an ordained minister of the Southern Baptist
even after antidiscrimination rules were signed church) was carrying on a tradition in which the
into law. The more militant branches, notably the black Christian church was a force for order and
Black Panther Party for Self-Defense (founded in calm in the black community. Malcolm X was a
Oakland, CA), drew on black nationalist rhetoric. Muslim, an identity that, as we noted, is now
The Black Panthers—often pictured toting guns more mainstream but at the time seemed alien to
and quoted issuing threats to the police—urged most Americans. The Black Panther Party seemed
black Americans to reclaim their racial identity and even more alien in ignoring religion. Indeed, they
self-respect through political autonomy and force identified with an anti-imperialist and anticapitalist
of arms. The most extreme among them argued message that implied international Socialism if
for a new nation, the “Republic of New Africa,” not Communism. The average American heard
to be carved out of the southern United States. “Communism” and thought “godless.”
The Black Panthers based much of their thinking 5 Some scholars speculate that if Malcolm X
on Communist ideas about class warfare and or the Panther founders had delivered oratorical
revolution. Even in the 1960s and into the 1970s, wonders like King’s, they might have enjoyed
when leftist ideology enjoyed some currency in the greater political influence. That’s debatable; a
United States, that was a nonstarter. King clearly more incisive question is this: What would have
drew on intellectual traditions more palatable to happened if the Nation of Islam or the Panthers
most American thinkers. had been served by wiser leaders? Though
3 By another important criterion—one’s ability saddled with allegedly homicidal and larcenous
to speak to Americans without alienating them— frontmen, such groups had lasting cultural
King and his allies had a mammoth advantage. influence. Non-King branches of the black power
The peacefulness of their methods—including the movement bolstered black student unions,
gathering of some 250,000 people in Washington, ushered in black studies programs, and raised
DC, in 1963—lent acceptability to their message. the cultural profile of blacks. They also galvanized
King won a Nobel Peace Prize (1964) before his young black people to embrace their racial identity
death; he would later have a national holiday and set into motion a black arts renaissance,
named after him. King could effectively lobby white from which black theaters, art, writings, and
legislators, whose white constituents related better cultural centers developed.
to King than to his rivals. Malcolm X (assassinated 6 By one other criterion, King’s branch of the
in 1965) concentrated on separating blacks from movement may have been, ultimately, deficient.
hostile whites and had no desire to influence the That is the ability to anticipate future conflicts. In
white-dominated government. His acceptance the early battles for racial equality, the South was
by mainstream white America was almost nil, the battlefield, and its institutionalized racism the
although he certainly did have white sympathizers. dragon that had to be slain. King’s followers—
Even support from the revered Rosa Parks could raised in the South, taking aim at Southern
not counterbalance the Black Panther Party’s mayors, sheriffs, and militias—seemed to be
openly belligerent stance, both rhetorically and best poised. As it turned out, however, the Black
pictorially—carrying automatic weapons, raising Panther Party was probably better positioned to
single fists in the air, calling the police “pigs,” and fight many long-term ills of the black community.
threatening revolution. On any “alienation index” Their roots were in the cities of the western and
they would score high. northern regions of the country. Their cri de coeur

146 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
was
wa s se
self
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lf-def
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ense
en se Their
Thei
Th eirr leaders
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er s painted
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scenario of continuing conflict, often armed, affects blacks, who make up fully 50 percent of
between black America and the law. Bobby Seale US murder victims. If things were tense in the
and Huey Newton of the Panthers may have had 1970s between the Black Panthers and the police,
a more realistic long-term vision for America than current relations between blacks and urban police
did the far more positive King. The NAACP reports forces hardly seem improved. This doesn’t so
that in the early 2000s, more than 40 percent of much vault the Panthers over King as champions
the US prison population was black, even though of justice—for King’s agenda did play out in law—
African Americans comprise only about 13 percent but it does credit them with greater prescience, for
of the US general population. An African American their worldview has played out on the street.
male has a one-in-six chance of being locked up at

B. Answer the questions.

1. The author states in Paragraph 1 her reason for critiquing the various approaches. What is that
reason?
a. No one has ever critiqued the approaches before.
b. King’s movement was not really successful.
c. We should judge whether their reputations are deserved.
d. The approaches are still competing for attention.
2. What criterion does the author use in Paragraph 2 to critique the approaches?

3. What is the most accurate restatement of the author’s view of Malcolm X as expressed in
Paragraph 2?
a. His movement did not have a strong intellectual basis.
b. The roots of his thinking seemed strange to most Americans.
c. His effectiveness was lessened because he had been jailed for murder.
d. He was less thoughtful than Marcus Garvey.
4. What criterion does the author use in Paragraph 3 to critique the approaches?

5. What is the most accurate restatement of the author’s view of the Black Panther Party as expressed
in Paragraph 3?
a. Their militant image made them seem ominous to white people.
b. Their willingness to use guns gave them more influence.
c. Their use of guns and talk of revolution was only a show.
d. Their association with Rosa Parks changed their approach.
6. What criterion does the author use in Paragraph 4 to critique the approaches?

7. What speculation about the future does the author most strongly imply in Paragraph 5?
a. The ability to give good speeches would have made non-King activists more effective.
b. If King had lived longer, he would have led the Panthers and Nation of Islam, too.
c. Non-King activists would have been more successful if their leadership had been better.
d. The Nation of Islam and the Panthers would have eventually killed each other off.

Fact and Opinion 147

 8. What is the most accurate restatement of the author’s views of the Black Panther Party as expressed
in Paragraph 6?
a. The Panthers caused conditions to worsen for blacks in cities in the western and northern
regions of the United States even as King improved them in the South.
b. The Panthers were smart to cause conflicts between African Americans and the police.
c. The Panthers were cruel to ignore the terrible conditions of African Americans in the South.
d. The Panthers better anticipated that the longer-term racial struggles would be in the cities and
would involve the police.
C. Use information from the fact sheet to write a short critique (about 150 words) about some aspect
of the Black Panther Party. You may also choose to do some light research on the Internet to add
material. Many different critiques are possible, including focusing on the Black Panthers’ image,
their accomplishments, their history, their leadership, or some other aspect of the group. In
deciding how to structure your critique, be sure to choose one or two clear criteria for analysis.

FACT SHEET: THE BLACK PANTHER PARTY

• Founded in Oakland, California, 1966
• Image: Armed, dedicated to revolution, in opposition to police forces
• In 1968, Panther cofounder, Huey Newton is convicted of manslaughter in the death of a police
officer, John Frey. Newton’s conviction is eventually overturned.
• Ideas influence many African Americans beyond actual party members. A protest at the 1968
Olympic Games in Mexico City—the famous “Black Power” raised-fist salute by runners Tommie
Smith and John Carlos—is associated in the public imagination with the party, although both
men denied any Black Panther connections.
• In 1969 and 1970, Panther leader Eldridge Cleaver, along with other Panthers, visits North Korea
and North Vietnam—both countries with which the United States was at war. They participate in
anti-US demonstrations and meetings.
• In 1969, the Panthers and a rival California black activist organization engage in turf wars that
eventually lead to a gun battle on the campus of the University of California-Los Angeles (UCLA).
Two Panthers are killed in the incident in a UCLA dorm.
• Black Panther leaders Bobby Seale and Elaine Brown run for mayor and city council, respectively,
in 1973 in Oakland, California. Their decisive losses led many Panthers to leave the party.
• Rumors of embezzlement and actual charges of murder follow the Panther leadership in the
1970s.
• Panther found Newton visits Communist countries China (1971) and Cuba (1974) despite US
government travel bans.
• By the mid-1970s, Panther membership is down to about 25 people.
• Decades later, some former Panthers hold elective offices in various legislatures and on city
councils.

Go to to complete a vocabulary exercise and skill practice, and to join in collaborative activities.

For more about CRITIQUES, see ECONOMICS 2 .

148 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
LANGUAGE SKILL
UNDERSTANDING SIGNPOST EXPRESSIONS THAT LIMIT OR DEFINE
WHY IT’S USEFUL Critiques and many other forms of academic writing may be careful to limit the extent
of what they say. Their authors try to be very precise. Understanding certain signpost expressions will
help you appreciate the true extent of what an author says. By integrating such expressions into your own
vocabulary, you can express yourself more accurately.

Some vocabulary items are mostly functional. The “depth” of their lexical (word-like) meaning is not very
great, but they are very useful for a certain purpose. We are interested here in those whose purpose is to
signpost (indicate) the limits of or restrictions on an author’s comments.
Most of these signposts introduce a topic area. For instance, study this sentence:
When we consider wages, African Americans fall behind most other groups.
The signpost when we consider is used to introduce the topic of wages, but it can do more than that. It
not only introduces but also limits, as if to say “I’m not talking about all areas, but in the area of wages,
African Americans fall behind.” This is an important function, especially when talking about a sensitive
topic like race. The author wants to make sure the reader does not think he or she is claiming that
African Americans fall behind in other areas.
Signposts often indicate one limitation within a series of limitations. For example, consider the signposts
in bold in this paragraph:

Political Conditions for

African Americans
The second decade of the 21st century has brought a mixed bag
of political circumstances for African Americans. By one criterion,
things have never been better. A man whose father was a black African
became president of the United States. When it comes to future political
influence, however, blacks have taken a hit, as the Supreme Court
weakened some provisions of the 1965 Voting Rights Act. When we
consider future elections, this court action will make voting harder for
hundreds of thousands of blacks. If we define political progress to be
greater participation in legislative bodies, blacks have had something
to celebrate. In 2015, there were 46 black members of the House of
Representatives, representing a steady rise since the 1980s. However, in
terms of their power, they saw a reduction when the Republican Party
took over the House of Representatives. The Republican leadership failed
to name even one black person to a committee chair, one of the most
powerful positions in the legislative branch.

The limitation signposts are especially valuable in a text like this, where the commentary swings from
one issue to another, and from remarks about positive points to remarks about negative points. Notice
that some limitation signposts introduce definitions.

Fact and Opinion 149

 Signposts That Indicate Limits or Defined Areas
all that matters
as far as X (goes)
by X (criterion or standard)
by way of
considering
defining X as
given X
if we define
in terms of
in the area / field / realm of
in the sense that / of
limiting ourselves / our consideration to
speaking of
the extent to which
using X
when it comes to
when we consider
within the limits of
X is defined by
SIGNPOSTS ADD PRECISION
Signposts of limitation or definition may seem unnecessary. However, their power to limit allows an
author the flexibility to make several disparate, even marginally confl icting, points in a short piece of
writing without causing confusion. Consider the following pairs of statements:

With a Limiter / Definer Without a Limiter / Definer Comment

The second decade of the 21st century The second decade of the 21st The passage without
has brought a mixed bag of political century has brought a mixed bag the limiting expression
circumstances for African Americans. of political circumstances for is confusing and totally
By one criterion, things have never African Americans. Things have inaccurate. It would have to be
been better. A man whose father was a never been better. A man whose substantially rewritten to make
black African became president of the father was a black African became up for the loss of the limiter.
United States. president of the United States.
When it comes to future political However, blacks have taken a hit, The passage without the
influence, however, blacks have taken as the Supreme Court weakened limiters makes sense and is
a hit, as the Supreme Court weakened some provisions of the 1965 accurate as it stands, but the
some provisions of the 1965 Voting Voting Rights Act. This court concepts of political influence
Rights Act. When we consider future action will make voting harder for and future elections have been
elections, this court action will make hundreds of thousands of blacks. lost—a serious departure from
voting harder for hundreds of thousands what the author wanted to say.
of blacks.

EXERCISE 5
A. Reread “Political Conditions for African Americans” on the previous page. Then complete the chart.
Signpost Expression Topic or Area Introduced
1 By one criterion whether an African American is president
2
3
4
5

150 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
B. The following passage draws on the “Fact Sheet: The Black Panther Party” on page 148. Complete
the passage with limiting or defining expressions from the list on the previous page. Use
information from the fact sheet as necessary.

The Short Heyday of the Black Panthers

After a strong run in the late 1960s
and early 1970s, the Black Panther
Party for Self-Defense (eventually
known simply as the Black Panthers)
faded into irrelevance. Of all the major
branches of the black power struggle,
(1) 
lasting political influence, the
Black Panthers come up short.
(2) 
appeal to mainstream American society,
the Black Panthers could not compete
with peaceful resistance groups like
the Southern Christian Leadership
Conference. Although some branches of
the Panthers had successes delivering
social services such as food assistance
and health care to the poor of large cities,
American sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos during
(3)  the award ceremony of the 200 m race at the 1968 Olympic
Games in Mexico City. In an expression of defiance, both
the party’s public profile, such removed their shoes, bowed their heads, and raised a
black-gloved fist as the national anthem played.
activities had little effect. The group
cultivated an image of armed resistance, and (4)  the
minds of most Americans, that’s who they were. Perhaps the least violent image of supposed
Panther politics was still very controversial, the incident during the 1968 Olympics when two
sprinters hung their heads and raised black-gloved fi sts as the US national anthem played. But
(5)  that neither athlete was a member of the party, this is
not really an effective softener of the Panther ethos. (6) 
its political associations, the Panther leadership was deliberately provocative, visiting North

Continued

Fact and Opinion 151

 Korea, North Vietnam, China, and Cuba, all of which were Communist nations with which
the United States had hostile relations to varying degrees. Finally, the Panther leadership made
mammoth mistakes (7)  disrespect for the law. There was
a manslaughter conviction (eventually overturned) against founder Huey Newton in 1968. Later
charges linked Newton to other deaths. (8)  their efforts to
seem tough, the Panthers in fact seemed little better than a street gang, shooting it out with rivals
in a UCLA dorm. Even (9)  the management of the Panthers’
own internal affairs, Newton and other leaders seemed like small-time criminals, allegedly
stealing money from their own organization. Even though some lower-level Panthers had political
careers after separating themselves from the party, overall the organization had little influence
(10)  America’s political direction.

Go to to complete a skill practice.

152 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
APPLY YOUR SKILLS
WHY IT’S USEFUL By applying the skills you have learned in this unit, you can successfully read this
challenging text and learn about Henry David Thoreau and his approach to standing up for what he
believed in.

BEFORE YOU READ

A. Discuss these questions with one or more students.
1. Do you know of anyone who has protested against a law or policy by refusing to do something
required by a governing body? If so, did the person achieve his or her objective? If not, why do you
think the person was unsuccessful?
2. Think about the kinds of taxes citizens in your home country pay. Has there ever been any
controversy surrounding any of them? Consider whether you have heard about any protests or
strikes related to taxes.
3. Would you ever refuse to pay a tax knowing that you would go to jail as a result? What do you
think would happen if many people followed your lead?
B. Imagine that you will be participating in a small group discussion about the passage “Henry David
Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience,” which begins on the next page. Your group will be discussing the
following questions. Keep these questions in mind as you read the passage.
1. What was the name of the movement Thoreau was part of?
2. What were the two taxes that Thoreau did not pay, evidencing his belief in civil disobedience?
What were his reasons for deciding not to pay them?
3. Why was Thoreau upset that someone paid his taxes on his behalf?
4. Why did Thoreau lose respect for the state during his time in jail?
5. How did Thoreau’s relationship with friends and neighbors change after his time in jail?
C. Review the Unit Skills Summary. As you read the passage, apply the skills you learned in this unit.

UNIT SKILLS SUMMARY

Distinguish fact from opinion.
• Recognize when information is factual and when it is personal opinion.
Recognize and interpret statements of opinion.
• Consider the types of language found alongside statements of opinion and interpret them accurately.
Recognize and interpret statements of fact.
• Think about the kinds of language that fall under the category of facts and analyze them effectively.
Understand and produce critiques.
• Make reasonable evaluative judgments that capture the strong and weak aspects of a piece of writing
and then be prepared to support those judgments.
Understand signpost expressions that limit or define.
• As you encounter signpost expressions, be aware of how they are limiting or defining the material they
introduce.

Fact and Opinion 153

 READ
A. Read the passage. Annotate and take notes as necessary.

Henry David 3
TAX REFUSAL
9 It was not one, but two taxes Thoreau
Thoreau’s Civil refused to pay in the 1840s. 10 The fi rst was
a church tax, a tax that funded a clergyman
Disobedience in a church Thoreau did not attend, and the
second was a poll tax, a state tax that went to
1 1 When it comes fund multiple ventures. 11 Between the two,
to social activism, the church tax nonpayment was a smaller
Henry David indiscretion, and Thoreau questions in his
Thoreau, a classic essay whether the church should have the right
American writer
to levy the tax. 12 He explains that he avoids it
and a radical of
summarily by having the town clerk remove his
his time, is one of
name from the church’s register. 13 As for his
history’s greatest
refusal to pay the poll tax, however, Thoreau
catalysts, inspiring
appears to be more indignant, outlining his
with his 1849 essay
opposition with stronger, moral reasons, stating
“Civil Disobedience”
that he wished “to refuse allegiance to the
several of the
most renowned State” that sanctioned slavery and the invasion
activists of the past century, including Mahatma of a foreign nation. 14 Thoreau refused to pay
Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. 2 In the essay, the poll tax for six years and lobbied others to
Thoreau appeals to others to break laws he join him, arguing that “if a thousand men were
deems unjust, defining these as any law that not to pay their tax-bills this year, that would
“requires you to be the agent of injustice to not be a violent and bloody measure, as it would
another.” He also outlines the principles on
3 be to pay them, and enable the State to commit
which he opposed the state’s taxation system, violence and shed innocent blood.” 15 He goes
the consequences he faced for disobeying the on to name such mass civil disobedience a
tax law, and the profound effect his act of civil potential “peaceable revolution,” a declaration
disobedience had on his perspective of his town that was revolutionary in itself in the sense
and neighbors. that pacificism was considered a “radical”
2 4 Thoreau came of age during the 19th century approach.
and penned “Civil Disobedience” after completing 4 16 In terms of taxes in general, Thoreau did
his more widely known work, Walden. 5 Thoreau,
not disagree with all of them, as he happily
like his contemporary Ralph Waldo Emerson,
admits in his essay when he states that he never
was part of the Transcendentalist movement,
refused to pay a highway tax because he desires
which placed great emphasis on the merits of
to be a good neighbor, and likewise when he
nature, thought, and spiritualism. 6 Though best
affirms paying taxes that fund schools because
known for living in the woods, an experience
he supports educating others. 17 In the instance
he writes about extensively in Walden, Thoreau
of his unpaid poll tax, an anonymous person
also details his journey to a very different
space—jail. Thoreau found himself in jail by
7 paid the bill on Thoreau’s behalf, which was why
way of deliberately disobeying the tax laws of the he spent only one night in jail instead of many.
time, arguing that his dollars tied his allegiance
18 Thoreau admonishes whoever paid his tax—
to a government that enacted measures and though he does not reveal the person’s name—
participated in acts he reviled, including the for allowing personal feelings to interfere with
Mexican-American War and slavery. 8 For his the good he believed would come from his act of
crime, he spent one night in jail. civil disobedience.

154 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 CONFINEMENT where others had broken out, listening to

PART 2
5 19The time Thoreau served for his crime, jailhouse gossip, and reading poems composed
though abbreviated, left an indelible time in jail by inmates. 28 His recollections are romantic
on him. When recounting his time in jail, he
20 and describe the jail as giving him a new
insists that his intellectual and moral senses perspective entirely on his town, as though he
remained free despite being locked inside a had “never heard the town-clock strike before,
cell, and that the physical barriers of jail were nor the evening sounds of the village ... It was
inconsequential compared to the impervious to see my native village in the light of the
boundaries of personhood. 21 Thoreau declares Middle Ages.”
7 29 After his release the following morning,
that he lost all respect for the state, which he
writes has only physical strength, not wit or Thoreau writes that he emerged a new man,
honesty. 22 “As they could not reach me,” he writes, shocked and dismayed by the reactions of his
“they had resolved to punish my body; just as neighbors and friends, and he describes a barrier
boys, if they cannot come at some person against between himself and them. 30 He feels ostracized,
whom they have a spite, will abuse his dog.” and laments that some friendships were for the
6 23 According to Thoreau’s reflections on his “summer weather only.” 31 It is significant to note
time in jail, he views himself as a person visiting that while first recounting his sojourn in jail,
a new land, which we experience by way of his Thoreau describes it as a new land, but when he
descriptions of the physical dimensions of the is later released, he seems to have undergone a
whitewashed stone walls, iron grating, and low transformation, and it is his former friends and
lighting. 24 He also details his night in jail, which neighbors who have become the foreigners.
8 32 Thoreau ends his jail recollections on a
passes uneventfully, beginning with getting
to know his fellow jail-mate, a man whom he high note, writing that after being released, he
assumes to be innocent. 25 Thoreau writes that completed his errand of retrieving his shoe from a
when asked, the man stated, “They accuse me cobbler, and following this errand, he ventured out
of burning a barn; but I never did it.” 26 Thoreau with friends. 33 In the context of his entire essay,
shrugs off the man’s alleged crime, speculating which is a larger examination of the individual’s
that he simply fell asleep while drunk and relationship to the state, the details of his jail stay
smoking a pipe, and then benefited from what are important because they reveal, along with his
the jail had to offer: a clean room, free boarding, lofty philosophy of resistance and his unwavering
and decent treatment. 27 Thoreau spends the rest stance on the government’s involvement in war, a
of the evening talking to his jail-mate, examining level of personal emotional reaction.

B. Reread the questions in Before You Read, Part B. Is there anything you cannot answer? What
reading skills can you use to help you find the answers?

Go to to read the passage again and answer critical thinking questions.

THINKING CRITICALLY
You just read about the consequences of refusing to pay taxes in the 1840s. If an individual
intentionally refused to pay a tax in the present day—citing a reason such as a strong belief against
what that tax supports—do you think the consequences would differ from those Thoreau experienced
for his actions? Why or why not? Consider what you know about significant events—social, religious,
political—in Thoreau’s time, and compare those with events happening today.

Fact and Opinion 155

 THINKING VISUALLY
The timeline shows some of the main events in the life of Henry David Thoreau, from his birth until
he refused to pay his taxes. Carefully consider his life events. How do you think each event—and the
combination of all of them—led to his later refusal to pay his taxes? Based on his life through 1846,
what would you expect him to do in the next several years?

1817–1837
Grandfather led
the first known
student protest in
the United States
Despite having taken
four years of classes
at Harvard, supposedly
refused to pay a
$5 fee to receive
his diploma
Born in Concord,
Massachusetts

Refused to Followed the philosophy

administer corporal of Transcendentalism
punishment at the along with Emerson, and
school where he began believing insight
was teaching and is achieved through
was fired intuition rather
than religion

Befriended philosopher and

essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson
and began spending time with
New England thinkers and writers

1837–1844

As an abolitionist—someone
opposed to slavery—and a
pacifist, refused to pay six
years of past-due poll taxes,
citing his opposition to the
Mexican-American War and
slavery. Was jailed for
Moved to Emerson's cabin one night
1845–1846 in the forest, near Walden
Pond, and lived by himself
as a two-year effort to live
life as simply as possible

Timeline of significant events in the first 30 years of Henry David Thoreau‘s life (born 1817, died 1862)

156 SOCIOLOGY PART 2

 PART 2
THINKING ABOUT LANGUAGE
A. Read these excerpts from “Henry David Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience.” Underline the signpost
expressions that limit or define.
1. When it comes to social activism, Henry David Thoreau, a classic American writer and a radical of his time,
is one of history’s greatest catalysts, inspiring with his 1849 essay “Civil Disobedience” several of the most
renowned activists of the past century, including Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.
2. In the essay, Thoreau appeals to others to break laws he deems unjust, defining these as any law that
“requires you to be the agent of injustice to another.”
3. Thoreau found himself in jail by way of deliberately disobeying the tax laws of the time, arguing that his
dollars tied his allegiance to a government that enacted measures and participated in acts he reviled,
including the Mexican-American War and slavery.
4. He goes on to name such mass civil disobedience a potential “peaceable revolution,” a declaration that
was revolutionary in itself in the sense that pacificism was considered a “radical” approach.
5. In terms of taxes in general, Thoreau did not disagree with all of them, as he happily admits in his essay
when he states that he never refused to pay a highway tax because he desires to be a good neighbor, and
likewise when he affirms paying taxes that fund schools because he supports educating others.
6. According to Thoreau’s reflections on his time in jail, he views himself as a person visiting a new land,
which we experience by way of his descriptions of the physical dimensions of the whitewashed stone
walls, iron grating, and low lighting.
B. What is the limitation or definition created by the signpost in each item? Discuss with another
student.

Go to to listen to Professor Greenberg and to complete a self-assessment.

Fact and Opinion 157