MISCELLANEOUS PAPER CERC-89-6

WAVE FORCES ON VERTICAL WALLS

6 AN OVERVIEW OF RECENT WORK
WITH ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
by
Theodore Green
If" Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin 53706

R:;M DTIC
_ LECT17
~AUG 0 31989

-D EWAII-

----- June 1989

CAISSON, Final Report
Approved For Public Release; Distribution Unlimited

A; !A$E MOUND

Prepared for DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

US Army Corps of Engineers
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1 CH C" Under Civil Works Research Work Unit 32522

89 U X, 049
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The contents of this report are not to be used for

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11 TITLE (Include Security Classification)

Wave Forces on Vertical Walls; An Overview of Recent Work with Annotated Bibliography
12 PERSONAL AUTHOR(S)
Green, Theodore
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FIELD GROUP SUB-GROUP Breakwaters. (LC) Seawalls. (LC)
Coastal structures, <LC) Wave forces (L-6) -

19 ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse if necessary and identify by block number)

The recent literature dealing with wave forces on a vertina] wall has been reviewed.
An annotated bibliography for literature since 1958 is presented. The method of Goda
for calculating such forces (with or without a rubble-mound base) is outlined with
somo minor changes. The associated flow charts are also given, along with some
recommendations for future work. -

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 PREFACE

The investigations presented in this report were authorized by the Office,

Chief of Engineers (OCE), US Army Corps of Engineers, and performed as part of
Civil Works Research Work Unit 32533, "Coastal Engineering Technical Notes,"
formerly, Work Unit 31234, "Developing Functional and Structural Design
Criteria." Funds were provided through the Coastal Structures Evaluation and
Design Research and Development Program admii-istered by the Coastal Design
Branch of the Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) at the US Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station (WES).
This report was prepared based on work performed during 1 May 1985 to
30 September 1986 when the author was employed by the Coastal Design Branch,
CERC, under Assignment Agreement, Title IV of the Intergovernmental Personnel
Act of 1970. Dr. Yen-hsi Chu, Coastal Design Branch, was the Technical
Monitor, and Mrs. Karen R. Wood, Coastal Design Branch, was the typist.
Comments by Dr. Y. Goda, Deputy Director General of the Port and Harbor
Research Institute of the Ministry of Transport, Japan, are gratefully
acknowledged.
The work was conducted under direct supervision of Dr. Frederick E.
Camfield, Chief, Coastal Design Branch, and Mr. C. E. Chatham, Jr., Chief,
Wave Dynamics Division; and under general supervision of Mr. Charles C.
Calhoun, Jr., Assitant Chief, CERC, and Dr. James R. Houston, Chief, CERC.
Acting Commander and Director of WES during publication of this report
was LTC Jack R. Stephens, EN. Dr. Robert W. Whalin was Technical Director.

":Ce'i, For

r- CR odes

...................
.......-.
..... -----

4" ,; .
Aif
& AN

1"fib
 CONTENTS

Page
PREF AC E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
PART I: INTRODUCTION ............. ......................... 3
The Aim of this Report ............ ...................... 3
Early Work ............... ............................ 3
The Physical Situation ........ ....................... 4
PART II: OVERVIEWS OF RECENT WORK .......... .................. 6
Experiments Using Monochromatic Waves ........ ............... 7
Experiments Using Random Waves .......... .................. 7
Field Measurements ............. ........................ 8
Standing Wave Theory ............ ....................... 8
Breaking Wave Theory ........ ....................... .. 1ii
Breakwater Response ......... ........................ ... 12
PART III: GODA'S MODEL FOR PREDICTING WAVE FORCES ........... . 14

Introduction ........................................
Comments ........... ............................. . 19
PART IV: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .... ............... ... 21

REFERENCES ............ .............................. . 23

APPENDIX A: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE RECENT LITERATURE. . . . Al
APPENDIX B: FINDING H i WHEN THE WATER DEPTH IS GREATER THAN Lo /5. . . BI

APPENDIX C: FINDING H i WHEN THE WATER DEPTH IS LESS THAN Lo/5 . . . . CI

2
 WAVE FORCES ON VERTICAL WALLS:

An Overview of Recent Work with Annotated Bibliography

PART I: INTRODUCTION

The Aim of this Reoort

1. The goal of this work is to provide an annotated review of the recent

literature on wave forces on a plane, vertical wall. This goal was changed
slightly early in the work. Many of the pertinent studies have considered a
vertical wall (usually a concrece caisson) which rests on a rubble-mound
base. This base alters the wave characteristics near the wall, and hence the
induced pressures and total force on the wall. Since so many investigators
have included such a bise and many actual structures also have a base, it was
included in the overview. -

2. Some important quantities are not reviewed herein. The uplift pressures
on the base of the wall or caisson are not discussed. Also, studies of the
slamming of ships, the hydrojynamics of which is related to shock pressures
due to breaking waves, are not reviewed.

Early Work

3. Some point in time must be picked in order to divide the work on wave
forces into "early" and "recent". In this report, the paper by Rundgren
(1958) was chosen to be the last paper describing "early" work. This paper
has a very thorough and clearly written review of the literature which
appeared before that time, and a corresponding complete bibliography. More-
over, the design formulas proposed in this paper appear to be the last ones
considered for incorporation into the Shore Protection Manual (SPM) (1984).
Also, this paper describes one of the first extensive series of laboratory
experiments that were oriented towards obtaining working design formulas.
This mode of attack on the wave-force problem has been continued by many
others, as will become clear below.
4. Some general comments on the early work are in order, to set the stage
for the recent work discussed below. Good reviews of this work are found in

3
the papers of Rundgren (1958) and Hudson (1953), and the books by Minikin
(1963) and Wiegel (19A1). With few exceptions, the following statements char-
acterize the work. First, the "theory" is often rather incomplete, and is
based on a Lagrangian treatment of the hydrodynamics. The water motions are
rotational throughout the fluid, and thus the results are generally at odds
with recent hydrodynamic treatments of wave motions. Second, the waves are
taken to be periodic, and the intrinsic randomness associated with the sea
state is neglected. Third, little experimental work was done. Most of the
experiments that were carried out were done to study the nature of the "shock
pressures" as _ciated with waves breaking directly on the wall as shown by
Figure 1. This is an exceedingly complex situation, and has not yet yielded,
based on rational analysis, an agreed upon design formula. (The experiments
were, of course, also hampered by the lack of sophisticated pressure sensors,
and recoroing equipment). The design formulas that were usea were based on a
small number of field measurements, some hydrodynamic intuition, and observa-
tions of failures of actual breakwaters. That is, these formulas are based
more on the creativity of the individual (and the dire need for some methou of
"rational" design) than on data, or on logical, hydrodynamic reasoning. The

more recent work described below has sought to rectify this situation, while
keeping in mind the ultimate need for a relatively simple, working design
formula.

The I'hyical Situat wi

5. The situation to which the remainder of this papers refers, together

with some of the notation used, is shown in Figure 2. Note that a base mound
has been added to the simple vertical wall, as commented earlier. The stabi-
lity of such a base mound is discussed by Tanimoto et al, 1982. The notation
shown is chosen to be in accord with that in the SPM (below) when possible.
6. The forces or pressures discussed below will be the additional forces or
pressures, due to the presence of the waves. Whether or not the no-wave
hydrostatic pressure must also be taken into account in the design depends on
the situation on the harbor side. The presence or absence of a base mound
will be noted in each review given below. Note that d. is water depth to the
top of the base-mound armor layer. Also D, Hi, and L are the water depth,

'4
wave height, and wave length just in front of the structure. Finally, the

small offshore slope m shown in Figure 1 is often zero in laboratory work.

V1

SECONDARY pRESSURE

TIME

Figure 1. A typical example of the pressure exerted by a breaking

wave on a vertical wall

D r CAISSON

ARMOR LAYER
SBASE MOUJND

SLOPE =

Figure 2. The situation considered, and the notation used in this report

5
 PART II: OVERVIEWS OF RECENT WORK

7. The rerioa around the late 1950's roughly marks the time when investi-
gators began serious efforts to cope with the complexity of the problem. At
the same t:ne, the urgency for a solution increased, as more breakwaters were
built :inr.&tner ceep water. Research began on smaller pieces of the problem,
and most s:zn:fJcant progress usually was achieved by a rather prolonged effort
of a group of people. Also, more emphasis was placed on finding a rational
basis for design formulas. On the other hand, the need for a solution dictated
that design formulas be made available relatively quickly, whether completely
rational or not.
8. Compared to earlier work, and at the risk of over generalizing, recent
researcn has been characterized by:

!. A shift from Lagrangian to Eulerian theories for standing waves,

and to higher-order Eulerian theories.

b. Some efforts to do strictly numerical work (although these efforts

have not been pursued very far yet).

.^ ift F-om f'eld measirements to controlled laboratory work, and

consequent concern with the appropriate scaling laws.

d. Detailed experimental studies of shock pressures.

e. Exploratory studies of the response of the breakwater to wave

forces.

f. Exploratory work on the forces exerted by random waves.

g. The formulation of "complete" models which, though useful, do not

rest on a rational argument.

h. The inclusion of more adjustable "constants" in design equations,

to be found using models.

9. The result of the recent work is a number of more complex formulas, which
apparently have yet to be fully compared. Although the effects of wave random-
ness have been included in some design techniques, there is still room for
improvement. Also, most work has concentrated on the force on a wall when the

6
crest is present at the wall. It is not clear now to calculate the force wh en
trough is at the wall, especially when the waves are breaking.
10. Some groups stand out when discussing recent work. The Japanese work on
vertica -w al breakwaters is distinguished by the intensity and persistence of
the effort, and the volume of publication in English. The groups led by Coda
and Nagai stand out in this respect. Unfortunately, the English publications
are (understandably) compressed, so that it is sometimes difficult to assess
the experimental techniques, or the reasoning leading to various formulas.

Moreover, there is little cross reference, so that it is hard to compare the

work of various groups. The Scandinavian work along these lines is Also dis-
tinguished, most notably that at the Hydraulics Laboratory at the Swedish Royal
Institute of Technology, and the Danish Hydraulic Institute.
11. Au overview of recent work is given below, consisting of tables and brief
comments. A more detailied, annotated bibliography of all of this work is found
in Appenai: A.

Experiments Using Monochromatic Waves

12. This work is shown in Table I. Most of the recent work has been of this
type. It seems that by now, essentially all of the straight forward work of
first-order importance has been carried out, and that further refinements may
be mainly of scientific interest. However, few of the results have beer care-
fully compared with those of other, similar investigations. The same could be
said about resulting design formulas. Such comparisons would be a worthwhile
project.
13. Further improvements will most likely deal with the statistical distribu-
tions of' maximum shock pressures, forces, and perhaps moments, and random
waves. The random aspect seems to be the major ingredient lacking in this

work.

Experiments Using Random Waves

14. The list of laboratory work done using random waves is quite short.
However, this seems to be the most promising method of attack, especially it it

can be shown that two-dimensional random waves represent a worst case (as

7
comiipared .4itn short-crested waves, or two-dimensional waves striking a wall at
an angIc-. There are undoubtedly more random-wave results by now; one can only
hope that tney ",i I apear in the open literature. It seems that only when one
can estimate the "n-year shock pressure" (and the associated breakwater res-
ponse) can a rational design procedure be formulated. Much more laboratory
work on simple, generic situations (as opposed to specific cases) on a wide
variety of scales would be very useful in making progress towards this goal.
The reported work is on two-dimensional waves. The papers are:
Iwagaki et al (1980) (nonbreaking waves)

5. Gravesen and Lundgren (1977) (breaking waves) See also Goda

(1985)

Field Measurements

15. 'Iris i,ork is shown in Table 2. ("Casual" or exploratory measurements are

rot 1 iste.d. ) The number of efforts to measure wave pressures on vertical walls
seems to have diminished in the last few decades, save for very recently. This
is probauly due to a fuller appreciation for the complexity of the problem, and
the consequent shift to laboratory work. As usual, such field work is distin-
guished by its scarcity, and also by the weakness of the conclusions that can
be drawn from the results. The Russians seem to have done some work in this
area (see the papers by Lappo and Zagryadskaya (1977), and by Huang and Zhao
(1984); see also the article by Plakida in the 1965 PIANC report), which would
be worth translating.
16. It would seem that large scale laboratory work under controlled, random-
wave conditions would be more productive for t-ie price than field work.
However, this may be impossible for many directional wave spectra.

Standing Wave Theory

17. This work is shown in Table 3. As would be expected, theoretical work on

ronbreak irig waves ras [rigressed rnhch fUrthi th
ll ,1( .. ,,' h ', I wave oluke

research. heq pr,:ssi tr ; dule to ti ,.4 .1 nt way, 1-dmivns

iVe2rid betn Ci I CO-

lated to Fourth order, a id those dlu to wave: r g th,

ti, ,lil it if
other than 90 degrees to third order (with ,.,,, 1,111er' juri'pr isLrg CLeAJt.;). i1

8
view of' the better agreement at fourth order found by Goda, it may be worth-
while to extend this latter work to fourth order. Any more accurate calcula-
tions may need to consider the various viscous effects.

Table 1
Recent Experiments Using Monochromatic Waves

Parameter Ranges
Wave Flume
Standing/ Measured Height Wave Length
Authors Breaking? Force/Pressure? Mound (cm) Period(s) (m)
Garcia (1968) B P No 2.5-9 1.5-2 20
Goda (1972) S-B P No 7-42 1-2 30
Hayashi & Hattori B P No 10-25 2 14
(1958)
Homma & Horikawa B F Both 10-13 0.8-2.5 17,36
(1965)
Kirkgoz (1982) B B No 4-8 0.8-1.6 13
Leedertse (1961) B F No 6-18 1.9-3.3 33
Massel, B F Yes 11 10
Oleszkiewicz,
& Trapp (1978)
Mitsuyasu (1962) B F No 10 1-2.5 22
Mitsuyasu (1966) B P No 10 1.9 25
Nagai (1960) B P Yes 6-22 1-2 25
Nagai & Otsubo B P Yes 5-38 1.2-3.0 50
(1968)
Nagai (1969) S P No 3.5-38 1-3.5 25,60
Richert (1968) B P Yes 1-20 1.4-1.6 15
Rundgren (1958) S-B P No <4 1-2.5 24
Takezawa (1979) S-B F No 2-23 1-2 8-30 25
Weigel & Maxwell B P No ? ? 33
Maxwell (1970)

9
 Table 2
Recent Field Measurements

Approx.
Wall Water Pressure Breakwater Waves
Author Type Depth (m) or Force? Response? Measured?
Blackmore & Hewson Curved 1-4 P No Yes
(1984) Reentrant
Face
Huang & Zhao (1984) Vertical 2-6 P No Yes
Kuribayashi, Muraki Vertical 2-6 P Yes Yes
& Udai (1959)
Marchi, Raiteri, Vertical 17 P No Yes
Scarsi & Stura (1975)

Table 3
Recent Theoretical Work on Standing Waves

Waves
Normal
Eulerian/ Order of to Numerical/
Name Langrangian Accuracy in Slope Wall? Analytic
Fenton (1985 E 3 No A
Goda (1967) E 4 Yes A
Goda (1960) E 2 Yes A
Hsu, Tsuchiya & E 3 A
Silvester (1979)
Lappa & Zagryadskaya L 3 Yes A
(1977)
Nasser & McCorquodale E (long, Yes N
(1976) nonlinear
waves)
Nichols & Hirt (1976) L Yes N
(marker
and cell
method)
TadJKA'h 1 & Keller E 3 Yes A

10
 18. It appears that there is a significant amount of Russian work in this
area (see the paper by Lappo and Zagryadskaya). Again it would be worthwhile
to translate this work.
19. it is a bit surprising that the presence of the base mound has yet to be
taken into accourt. This may be because numerical treatments of the problem
(almost certainly needed here) seem rather tentative to date. This would seem
to be the next step.
20. Finally, little work has been directed to determining the response of a
vertical wall to standing-wave pressures. This is almost certainly due to the
fact that design pressures are usually associated with breaking waves.
However, the problem is far more tractable with standing waves, and probably
worth considering.
Breaking Wave Theory

21. This work is shown in Table 4. Unfortunately, the theoretical

calculations of shock pressures are still somewhat sterile, despite much
work. The models are closer to reality and usefulness than the pioneering
work of Bagnold, but are not yet to the point of being used in design. It may
well be that the most that can reasonably be expected is a pressure scaling
law to use in conjunction with laboratory experiments. The work of Richert
(1974) seem closest to being useful in design.

Table 4
Recent Work on Breaking Wave Pressures

Author Model Description

Kamel Algebraic tracking of impact-produced pressure shock waves
(1968) through water (air cushion neglected)

Mitsuyasu Numerical solution of Bagnold model for finite compression of

(1966) air cushion, and air cushion with leakage

Richert Numerical tracking of impact-produced pressure shock waves

(1974) through water

Weigel & Numerical Model assuming that air and water are uniformly mixed
Maxwell
(1970)

11
 Breakwater Response

22. This work is shown in Table 5. The response of a breakwater to wave

forces does not seem to have been studied before 1958. This response is, of
course, a crucial step for the designer. The main point is usually whether
the breakwater will slide on its rubble foundation, and perhaps how far.
Finding the answer entails considering the interaction of sliding and rocking
motions of the breakwater.

Table 5
Recent Work on the Response of Vertical-Walled Breakwaters to Wave Forces

Breaking/ Response Laboratory/

Name Rubble Mound? Standing Wave? Type Theoretical/Field

Goda (1974) Yes Both Sliding F

Hayashi & No B Rocking T
Hattori
(1961)
Hayashi (1963) Yes B Sliding T
Hayashi & Yes B Rocking, T
Hattori and Sliding
(1964 No
Ito (1971) Yes Both (Random) Sliding T,L
Kirkgoz & Yes B Plate T
Mengi (1985) Deformation
Lundgren (1969) Yes B Rocking T
Muraki (1966) Yes Both Rocking F
Nagai (1963) Yes B Sliding L
Nagai & Kurata Yes Both Sliding F,L
(1974)

12
 23. This problem has been considered analytically but not experimentally, at
least in any controlled sense. However, although there are a number of weak-
nesses in the assumptions behind the theories, the theories are a reasonable
first attempt at putting the design on a rational basis. As an example, it is
not clear that sliding on an underwater rubble base is well understood, espe-
cially when the base pressure is uneven because of an associated rocking. It
would be interesting to apply a known force to a laboratory breakwater, and
compare the response with theoretical predictions. A good discussion of some
other difficulties is found in Lundgren (1969), and the comments following
that presentation.

13
 PART III: GODA'S MODEL FOR PREDICTING WAVE FORCES

Introduction

24. There is a clear need to be able to predict forces on vertical walls,

either with or without a rubble base, with reasonable accuracy. Any generally
useful method must satisfy several criteria. It must be relatively simple to
use, have some rational basis (without having to be entirely derived from
first principles), and must cover many common situations. It would be nice to
have a method which has been used fairly often (with apparent success), which
has survived critical comment in the engineering literature, and which also
has some "official approval." Finally, the model should cope with the fact
that a natural sea state is random in nature, and should, at least in the surf
zone, include breaking waves.
25. Goda's model is for random waves. No distinctions are made among
nonbreaking, breaking, or broken waves. The formulas apply to vertical walls
with or without rubble base mounds, but only when the wave crest is at the
wall. The formulas give the additional force due to the waves, so that the
still-water hydrostatic force must be added to give the total force on the
wall. The effects of diffraction and refraction are not discussed below, but
are in Goda (1985).
The Geometry
26. The geometry is shown in Figure 3. All depths are referred to still-
water level. The symbols are not those of Goda, and are chosen to correspond
to the SPM when possible. At the wall, the water height above still-water
level when a crest is present is R. Note that with no base mound or toe
protection, D = ds . When there is toe protection but no base mound,
D = D + r. The (small) bottom slope is m. Just before encountering the
wall, the design waves have incident height Hi and move at an angle a . with
respect to a horizontal normal to the wall.

14
Pressure Distribution
27. For now, assume that the design wave height H i and wave direction a are

known. The pressure distribution on the wall is described by straight lines

ccnnecting the points A, B., and C in Figures 3 and 4. The pressure vanishes
at A, the point of maximum runup. It is a maximum PH at the level of B (i.e.,
at still water level). It then decreases to PL at the level of C, the top of

the base mound (not at the top of the armor stone protecting the mound).

The maximum runup is

3H.
R = 4 (1 + cos a) (1)

The pressure PH and PL shown in Figure 4 are

PH = 1/2 w Hi(l + cos a)(Y 1 + Y2 cos 2 a) (2)

PL = Y3 PH (3)

Here,

Y1 = 6/10 + 1/2 4sinh(14D/L)2 (4)

below:
Y2 is the smaller of expression (a) and (b)
(a) (b)
2
Db - d H 2d (5)
3Db ds Hi

and

(r+d) 1
Y 1 - D [1 - cosh(2wD/L)] (6)

In these definitions, L is the design wavelength at depth D, and is calculated

from linear theory (e.g., SPM Appendix C-I). Finally, the new water depth Db
is the depth 5 H 1 /3 seaward of the wall, where H 1 /3 is the significant wave
height at depth D. That is Db = D +5 m H 1 /3 . When the breakwater is in the

surf zone, the choice of height to be used for H i will be based in part on
Hmax at the depth db. We now turn to estimating H i and H,/ 3 .

15
 1A

D
I-

Figure 3. Geometry and notation for use with the Goda Method for
estimating wave forces on a vertical wall. See also Figures I and 4.

SWL B

CPL

Figure 4. The pressure distribution assumed in the Method of Goda.

See also Figures 1 and 3.

16
Design Wave Height
28. The design wave height is the maximum wave height at the wall. There
are many ways to estimate nearshore wave heights. In order to be consistent
with the pressure model of Goda given above, wave heights will be estimated
using the Goda model for random, breaking waves in the surf zone, which has

been found (again by Goda) to give satisfactory results both in the laboratory

and in nature.
29. Goda's shoaling model gives estimates for the significant wave height
H 1 /3 and the "maximum" wave height Hmax = H 1 /2 5 0 . The user must supply the
significant offshore wave height corrected for refraction (Ho'), the corres-
ponding wave steepness (s = Ho'/L 0 ), and the bottom slope (m). Following
2
Goda, the offshore wavelength is found from 2 7 Lo = gTi/ 3 , where T 1/3 is the
average period of the highest third of the offshore waves, and g is gravity.
The quantities Ho ' and T 1 /3 are usually determined from a wave climatology,

and refraction theory (see Goda (1985) and the SPM).

30. The Goda shoaling model specifies a Rayleigh distribution of offshore
wave heights and a linear probability of wave breaking at the waves approach
shore. It adds a fraction of the broken-wave energy to the smaller, unbroken
waves. The effects of radiation stress and surf beat on still water level are
taken into account. A better (but still incompletr) discussion of the
complete model is found in Goda (1985), along with graphical results.
31. Outside of the surf zone, wave breaking is not important. Here, the
wave height can be found by using a shoaling coefficient K, defined by HI/ 3 =
KHo', and found with the method given in Appendix B. Following the Goda
model, this is always true for water depths greater than Lo/5. The design
wave height H i is then taken to be H i = Hma x = 1.8 H 1 /3 at depth D.
32. When the wall depth D < L0 /5, the wall may be in the surf zone, and the

equations for H 1 /3 and Hmax are those given in Appendix C. Now we must
usually determine H 1/3 at d =D, and then find the depth

Db = D + 5 m H 1/3 (7)

We then find the largest value of Hmax, for water depths betw~ - n and D b .

This largest value is taken to be the design wave height H i . (This method
differs from that of Goda, in which Hmax at d = Db is always used as H i . The

17
new procedure seems slightly more conservative, especially when the wall is
near the outer edge of the surf zone. However, it is somewhat tedious when
the calculations are done manually).
33. In either case, we must find the quantity Db, in order to find the
pressure-distribution parameter Y2 "
Finding a
34. The estimated value of a is decreased by 15 degrees to account for our
inability to measure wave directions accurately. (However, it is not
decreased below zero).
Total Horizontal Force - No Overtopping
35. The increase in force per unit distance along the wall due to the
presence of the waves is found from the pressure distribution shown in
Figure 4:

Fw = 1/2 (PH + PL)(r + ds) + 1 /2PH R (8)

To this must be added the still-water hydrostatic force F. = w(r + ds) 22.
Then the total force per unit distance along the wall is

F = F s + Fw (9)

Total Horizontal Force - Overtopping

36. If R is large enough that water runs over the top of the wall, the
pressure distribution is simply truncated at this point. That is, PH remains
the same, but the pressure at the wall top is

(R - h + r + d(1
PT = PH R (10)

and the additional force due to the wave is

Fw = 1/2 (PH + PL)(r + ds) + 1/2(PH + PT)[h - ds - rI (11)

18
 37. A schematic version of one way to proceed is shown in Figure 5. As
above, neglect any effects of refraction or diffraction, arid assume that you
Know Ho , '1 3, and m. (Of course, you also know ds, r, h, and D). You want
to estimate FW . Assume no overtopping. The changes to account for over-
topping are straight forward (see above).
38. A safety factor of at least 1.2 has been used by Japanese engineers with
the Goda approach. The coefficient of friction between concrete and a rubble
base mound is usually taken to be 0.6.

Comments

39. Because of the arguments given in the introduction to this Section, it

is hard not to regard the combined Goda shoaling and wave-force model as the
best available (at least, for random waves). However, the Draconian methods
used to obtain it leave room for improvement in the future. For example, the
definition Hmax = H1/250 and the formula used to estimate surf beat seem
amenable to improvement, at least in terms of statistical reliability. Also,
the problem of whether or not (or when) shock pressures are important to
design is not yet well answered.
40. It is also frustrating that one does not nave e .sy access to the large
amount of data that went into formulas such as those of Goda and Nagai.
Moreover, the available literature does not contain comparisons of data tz
formulas. One has difficulty following, and judging, the reasoning process in
going from data to the resulting design formulas, especially when the
reasoning is somewhat intuitive. Thus, while it seems fairly certain that the
Goda model given here ij appropriate for design use, it also seems that
perhaps more use could be made of the same data, and that the model could be
improved with more data, at least on the grounds of its statistical certainty,
and its treatment of the very high shock pressures associated with a small
fraction of the breaking waves.

19
 A\

\', \

4/3(D H (D
J+
L (D)
Laoricst I
\JSIVN Ajo B6tC1 1P

Figure 5. A flowchart for using the method of Goda for

estimating wave forces on a vertical wall

20
 PART IV: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

41. A review of the recent literature on wave forces on a vertical wall

suggests that the available theory for nonbreaking standing waves is probably
quite adequate for choosing a design wave (and wave forces), while that for
waves breeking on walls is still far from yielding reliable design formulas.
Experiments with monochromatic waves have been pushed to the limit of their
usefulness. However, experimental work using random waves is only just
beginning, but shows great promise. It is still unclear what characteristics
of the wave spectrum need to be modelled in order to give a reasonable
simulation. The extent to which directional aspects of the spectrum are
important is also unclear. It would seem that much more experimental work
using random waves is needed, especially with rather simple, often-encountered
breakwater configurations, and probably at a fairly large scale. A first step
may well be a careful comparison of the existing data. (Such a comparison was
beyond the scope of the present review).
42. It seems that we are at or near the end of productive activity in
certain areas. Work with monochromatic waves in the laboratory has probably
been pressed as far as possible, with respect to reflecting the natural
situation. Standing-wave theory also is essentially complete, same for the
inclusion of a partially absorbing rubble mound, and perhaps the inclusion of
the ciasson response. (However, nonbreaking waves rarely give the design
criteria used for breakwater design). ineoretical work on breaking waves and
shock pressures will, it seems, remain somewhat sterile until a better, under-
standing of turbulence in a two-phase flow is achieved, and incorporated into
models of breaking waves.
43. Large-scale field tests are still extremely difficult, Unless a major,
prolonged effort is undertaken, perhaps by several groups, it is unlikely that
solid results will be obtained.
44. This brings us to laboratory tests using random waves. This work has
been underway for a decade, but much remains to be done (although many results
are proprietary, and thus not available for perusal). Most tests use two-
dimensional random waves; the extension to three dimensions would seem to be
the final step to achieving a realistic physical model. However, there are
very few basins where such work could be accomplished.

21
 45. It may be that small-scale field testing (in a small lake) would be a
viable alternative. Directional spectra would be present, but the scale would
be small enough that the large number of measurements needed for statistical
reliability would not be prohibitively expensive.
46. The problem of wave forces on walls is both common and important. Many
groups around the work make such measurements. It seems that a first step
would be to collect all available data on unidirectional random tests,
,specially in fairly generic (i.e., not very site specific) situations. Such
a "catalog" of results could then be updated on a regular basis, and form a
reference for design engineers.
47. Despite eighty years of thought and work on this common diJd important
problem, it seems that there is still far to go to produce a statistically
reliable model. The first step in further major progress should be a thorough
comparison of previously obtained data. The next step may well be so large
that it will either entail cooperation among a number of laboratories, or,
never be carried out because of the effort entailed.
48. A slightly modified version of Goda method is presented, along with
ancillary procedures for determining nearshore wave heights. (The difference
lies in the manner in which the design wave height is chosen. The method
given here seems slightly more conservative in the case where the wall is near
the outer edge of the surf zuIie). The Goda method skirts the problem of
estimating shock pressures (or forces) (Goda, 1985) by designing so that such
pressures will not occur.

22
 REFERENCES

Bureau or Ports and Harbors, Ministry of Transport (Japan). 1980. "Technical

Standards for Port and Harbor Facilities in Japan". (Available from the
Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan, 3-2-4 Kasumigaseki,
Chivoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan).

Committee on Coastal Engineering of the Japan Society of Civil Engineers.

1978 (Feb). "A Look at Coastal Engineering Studies in Japan," Journal of the
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division, ASCE, vol 104, No. WW1, pp. 19-38.

loda, Y. 1985. "Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures," University

or Tokyo Press, Tokyo, Japan.

Hudson, R. Y. 1953. "Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures,"

Transactions of* the American Society of Civil Engineers, vol 118, pp. 653-685.

_ournai o: the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division. 1982 (Feb). ASCE,
voi 104, No. WW1, pp. 19-38.

Kim, Y. C. 1982 (Feb). "Coastal Engineering and Construction in Japan,"

Journal of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division, ASCE, vol 108, No
WW1, pp. 121-123.

Lamb, H. 1932. "Hydrodynamics," Dover, New York.

Minikin, R. R. 1963. "Winds, Waves and Maritime Structures,", Charles

Griffin and Co., London.

Paulson, B. C. 1981 (Feb). "Coastal Engineering and Construction in Japan,"

Journal of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division, ASCE, vol 107,
No. WW1, pp. '1-26.

Rundgren, L. 1958. "Water Wave Forces," Bulletin No. 54 of the Institution

of Hydraulics, Transactions of the Royal institute of Technology, Stockholm,
Sweden, No. 122.

Shore Protection Manual. 1984. 4th ed., 2 vols, US Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Coastal Engineering Research Center, US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC.

Shuto, N. 1974. "Nonlinear Long Waves in a Channel of Variable Section,"

Coastal Engineering in Japan, vol 17, pp. 1-12.

Tanimoto, K., Yagyu, T., and Goda, Y. 1982. "Irregular Tests for Composite
Breakwater Foundations," Proceedings of the 18th Conference on Coastal
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Ch. 128.

Weigel, R. L. 1964. "Oceanograpahical Engineering," Prentice-Hall, New

Jersey.

23
APPENDIX A: AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE RECENT LITERATURE

A-i
 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RECENT WORK ON WAVE FORCES ON VERTICAL WALLS

Introduction

A list of the articles in English on the topic of wave forces on vertical

walls is given below, together with a short review of their content. Only
articles which have appeared since 1958 are listed. The referred literature
given below is probably almost complete. However, some technical reports may
have been overlooked. In addition, some articles have been cited in the
articles reviewed, but could not be obtained and reviewed. These are listed
at the end, together with the paper in which they were cited.

0001 AARTSEN, M. A. 1957. "Model Study on the Impact of Waves," Proceedings

of the 6th Coastal Engineering Conference, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Ch. 45.

This is a brief interim report on an investigation of wave forces on

vertical and slanting sluice gates. It is included primarily as an example of
early experimental work of this type, and as an example of Dutch work in the
field (much of which does not appear in the refereed English literature).

0002 AARTSEN, M. A. and BENIS, W. A. 1959. "Model Investigations on Wave

Attack on Structures," 8th Congress of the International Association fcr
Hydraulic Research, Vol. 1, pp 22-a-I to 22-A-13.

Although this report is concerned with wave forces on curved walls, it

is mentioned as an example of early, systematic work on pressures due to
breaking waves. It also describes work conducted at the Delft Hydraulics
Laboratory, much of which does *ot seem to have made its way into the easily
accessible English literature.
Waves are generated, by both wind and a wavemaker, in a large flume.
Various wave spectra are considered, and typical pressure data shown. The
complete results are given in a separate report.

0003 ACKERMANN, N. L. and CHEN, P. 1974. "Impact Pressures Produced by

Breaking Waves," Proceedings of the 14th Coastal Engineering Conference,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Ch. 104.

A flat plate was dropped onto a still water surface in a vacuum tank, to
test the effect on an air cushion on the resulting impact pressure. The
impact pressure was found to diminish with decreasing air pressure. This
finding seems to have important implications for the models currently used to
establish shock pressures.

A-2
0004 BATTJES, J. A. 1982. "Effects of Short-Crestedness on Wave Loads on
Long Structures," Applied Ocean Research, Vol. 4(3), pp. )65-172.

The author calculates the reduction of the wave force on a vertical wall
due to the fact that the waves are short-crested, using linear spectral-
transfer theory. Specific results are obtained for a directional spectrum in
which energy is distributed according to the cosine (squared) of direction
from the wind, and for various structure lengths. The use of linear transfer
theory is a detriment to the use of the theory for the case of breaking waves.
However, the work seems seminal, and will eventually have to be refined to the
point of being useful to design.

0005 BLACKMORE, P. A. and HEWSON, P. J. 1984. "Experiments on Full-Scale

Wave Impact Pressures," Coastal Engineering Vol. 8, pp. 331-346.

Field measurements of the shock pressures due to waves breaking on a

slightly curved, vertical breakwater are reported. The Minikin formula is
found to over estimate such pressures by an order of magnitude. A model is
formulated, starting from the impulse-momentum equation applied to the water
near the wave crest, which relates the maximum shock pressure to the rise time
of the pressure-time curve. However, the result contains an unknown
coefficient. A bound on this coefficient is found from the pressure data. A
model for the pressure distribution over the entire wall is then proposed.
This model seems at present to be based on a rather small amount of data.

0006 CHAN E. S., and MELVILLE, W. K. 1984. "Deepwater Breaking Wave Forces
on Surface Piercing Structures," Oceans '84, Marine Technology Society,
pp. 565-570.

Some preliminary measurements of shock pressures associated with deep-

water waves breaking on both vertical and inclined plates are reported.
Although the maximum pressure varies greatly from one experiment to another,
the pressure impulse is repeatable. There is no discussion of the relation of
these data to design criteria.

0007 FENTON, J. D. 1985. "Water Forces on Vertical Walls," Journal of the

ASCE Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering Division, Vol. 111,
pp. 693-718.

The force and moment on a wall due to waves approaching the wall from
any angle are calculated, using an expansion to the third order in wave
height. Breaking is not considered: the waves are completely reflected. The
resulting formulas are compared to the experimental values of Goda and Nagai.
The formulas seem reasonably accurate, although cumbersome. The maximum force
per length of wall is shown to be associated with waves striking the wall at
an angle, rather than with normally incident waves. Also, the greatest
onshore force sometimes does not occur precisely under a wave crest, and the
largest force can be associated with a wave trough, and be directed
offshore. It would seem important to test these predications in the
laboratory.

A-3
0008 FUHRBOTER, A. 1969. "Laboratory Investigation of Impact Forces,"
Symposium on Research on Wave Action, Vol. 2, Delft, pp. 1-26.

The water impact generated by a jet suddenly diverted to impinge on an

instrumented striking area was measured, in an attempt to simulate the shock
pressures associated with breaking waves with a model more amenable to theore-
tical treatment, and with higher pressures. Histograms of maximum pressu'es
from many similar experiments are presented. The damping effect of a thin
sheet of water on the striking area is also illustrated. The experimental
results are compared with theory presented by the same author in a previous
paper. Shock pressures do not seem to scale according to the Froude law.
This paper is typical of the research that seems to be needed in order
to understand wave-induced shock pressures. It also suggest that much has yet
to be done to achieve such an understanding, and to be able to use this
'rational" approach for design (or even to deduce the appropriate scaling
laws).

0009 GARCIA, W. J. Sept. 1968. "An Experimental Study of Breaking-Wave

Pressures," RR H-68-1, US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS.

This is a nicely written account of some experiments done at the Water-

ways Experiment Station to measure breaking-wave pressures on a vertical wall.
The experimental procedure is described carefully, and the raw data presented.
The author proposes a simple relation between shock pressure and offshore wave
energy, and a vertical distribution of maximum pressures similar to that of
Minikin. He also shows that the secondary pressures (and thus, force) can be
described quite well with the Sainflou method. It would be interesting and
useful to test these conclusions using the data of other shock-pressure
investigators (and vice versa). The bibliography is very complete.

0010 CODA, Y. 1967. "The Fourth Order Approximation to the Pressure of

Standing Waves," Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 10, pp. 1-11. (See
also a later "Errata" sheet for Vol. 10).

The theory of standing, monochromatic, irrational waves is developed to

the fourth order in wave slope, and then compared to experiments performed in
a long wave tank. (There is little information given regarding the experi-
ments). Special attention is paid to the two peaks (per wave) in the
pressure-time history, and the relation of this phenomenon to wave steepness.
Design diagrams for maximum offshore and onshore wave forces are pre-
sented. The effect of randomness of the wave train is also considered in a
preliminary fashion. The monochromatic theory is shown to give results
accurate to within 25 percent in this case.

0011 GODA, Y. 1972. "Experiments on the Transition from Nonbreaking to

Postbreaking Wave Pressures," Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 15,
pp. 81-90.

A-4
 Wave pressures on vertical walls both with and without a rubble base
mound were measured in the laboratory, for several (gradually increasing)
incident wave heights. The monochromatic waves were first (i.e., for small
heights) standing waves, then broke at the wall, and finally (for sufficiently
large heights) broke before reaching the wall. The pressures exerted on the
wall were found to increase gradually and continously during this process.
Also, for the gentle bottom slope of 1/100 used here, no dramatic shock pres-
sures were observed. The presence of the base mound was found to increase the
breaking-wave pressures on the wall. This paper seem to be one of the princi-
pal foundations for Goda's (1974) method of estimating wave pressures on a
wall (in which method no distinction is made between breaking and non-breaking
waves)

0012 GODA, Y. 1974. "New Wave Pressure Formulae for Composit Breakwaters,"
Proceedings of the 14th Coastal Engineering Conference, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Ch. 100.

This is an English rendition of the paper in which the pressure formulas

now in use in Japan for breakwater design were first introduced. In these
formulas, no distinction is made between breaking and nonbreaking (random)
waves. Also, the very high shock pressures encountered in nature are ignored.
This is done on the belief that one can design so that such forces will not
occur (and that even if they do, much of the impulse will be absorbed by the
elasticity of the foundation). However, Goda does present methods for
deciding whether or not these shock pressures will occur, in his 1985 book.
The pressure formulas contain factors which have been evaluated
experimentally. The resulting predictions are compared with a few experi-
ments. However, much of the confidence in the formulas stems from their
success in predicting the sliding failure (or the lack thereof) of full-scale
breakwaters along the Japanese coast. The degree of success is significantly
greater than that found using the Minikin, Sainflou, or Hirio methods.

0013 GODA, Y. 1985. "Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures,"

University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 323.

This is a well-written distillation of all of the author's work on wave

forces on vertical walls (some of which is only available in Japanese). It
presents formulas now used in Japan to design breakwaters with vertical
walls. These formulas are also given in the design manual "Technical
Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan, 1980" (available through
the Overseas Coastal Area Development Institute of Japan), and are described
in Section III of this report. The 1985 Goda book is a translation and
revision of the first edition, which appeared (in Japanese) in 1977.
It is a bit surprising that so little of the other extensive Japanese
work and proposed design formulas for wave forces is discussed in this book
(e.g., the work of Nagai). However, the Goda approach is intimately related
to his calculations of the heights of random waves in and near the surf
zone. This may make such comparisons difficult.
The serious coastal engineer would do well to read Chapters 3 and 4 of
this book (referring to Chapter 2 when necessary), before reading the original
papers which are reviewed in this report.

A-5
0014 GOUDA, M. A., "Hydrodynamic Wave Pressure on Breakwaters," Journal of
the ASCE Waterways and Harbors Division, Vol. 86, 1960, pp. 13-25.

Second-order potential theory is used to calculate the pressure on a

vertical wall due to standing waves. The results are compared with the
pressure distributions of Luiggi and Cagli (see the book of Minikin for a
description of these distributions). This paper has been superseded by
several others. For example, see the reviews herein of Goda (1967) and Fenton
(1985).

0015 GRAVESEN, H., AND LUNDGREN, H., "Forces on Vertical and Sloping Face
Breakwaters", 17th Congress of the International Association for
Hydraulic Research, 1977, pp. 326-333.

This brief paper analyzes the forces exerted by random, breaking waves
on a laboratory breakwater, using extreme-value statistics. The technique
seems well-su-ied to the wave-breaking situation, and potentially quite
useful. Several examples are shown, and the effects of various parameters
such as mean water depth illustrated. However, the sensitivity of the design
values (which are the ultimate products of the analysis) to the assumed
extreme-value distribution is not discussed.
This method seems quite promising, but also seems to entail quite a bit
of laboratory testing for each design problem. Perhaps a "catalog" of such
results could eventually be built up. Also, systematic work with "typical"
cases would be very useful, if only to determine the most important
parameters. (It would appear that some measure of spectral width would be
important, in addition to the significant wave height considered in the
paper.) Finally, it seems that many of the sophisticated tools so useful in
statistical hydrology could also be used in this approach. Moreover,
hypothesis testing would be simpler, in that "long" time series are relatively
easy to obtain.

0016 Hashimoto, H., "An Experimental Study of Irregular Wave Forces on a

Coastal Dike", Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 17, 1974, pp. 71-79.

Forces and pressures due to irregular waves striking a vertical wall

with no base mound were measured in the laboratory. Both breaking and
standing waves were used. The spectrum and the wave-height distribution were
found to narrow markedly as the waves approached the wall, so that in the
breaker zone there was only a small difference between regular and irregular
waves. A formula similar to that of Hironi is found to predict the force
quite well, when used with the significant wave height, and the corresponding
significant wave force.

0017 Hayashi, T., and Hattori, M., "Pressure of the Breaker Against a
Vertical Wall", Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 1, 1958, pp. 25-37.

The shock pressures associated with waves breaking against a vertical

wall with no rubble mound are measured, and correlated with U /2g, where U is
the water velocity at impact. Solitary waves were used in the experiments.

A-6
The results showed a rather poor correlation between the two quantities, even
though most formulas available at that time could be recast in such a form
that one would expect a good correlation.

0018 Hayashi, T., and Hattori, M., "Stability of the Breakwater Against
Sliding due to Pressure of Breaking Waves", Coastal Engineering in
Japan, Vol. 4, 1961, pp. 23-33.

The focus in this this is on the breakwater response to the force due to
a breaking wave, rather than the force itself. However, such considerations
must eventually be taken into consideration in design (although this does not
yet seem to have been done in any systematic manner). The paper is a purely
theoretical analysis of the rocking motion of a solid breakwater on rubble
foundation, which is assumed to be elastic. The shearing resistance of the
breakwater to sliding is shown to depend on the duration of the impact force,
and on the natural period with which the breakwater rocks on the foundation.
How to use the results in an actual situation is not made clear. It appears
that this work has been followed up by Goda. (See Reference 4.15 in his
book).

0019 Hayashi, T., and Hattori, M., "Thrusts Exerted Upon Composite-Type
Breakwaters by the Action of Breaking Waves", Coastal Engineering in
Japan, Vol. 7, 1964, pp. 65-84.

This is an extension of the authors' 1961 paper (see above review). In

this paper, the analysis is extended to consider both the shock and the
secondary pressures associated with waves breaking on a vertical wall. Also,
the analysis is applied to several actual breakwaters in Japan. Breakwaters
constructed of horizontal blocks laid atop each other are also considered.
The time history and maximum value of the shearing resistance (to sliding) are
calculated. It is not clear why the minimum value of shearing resistance is
not also of interest.

0020 Hayashi, T., "Virtual Mass and the Damping Factor of the Breakwater
During Rocking", Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 8, 1965, pp. 105-
117.

The effect of the virtual mass of a rigid wall on the rocking caused by
waves breaking on the wall is studied, assuming a triangular shock-pressure
distributicon. Expressions are derived for the virtual mass and the virtual
moment of inertia of the wall, by considering the wall rocking in still
water. However, the calculated decay rate of rocking is much smaller than
that actually observed.

0021 Hom-ma, M., and Horikawa, K., "Wave Forces Against Sea Wall",
Proceedings of the 9th Coastal Engineering Conference, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Ch. 31, 1964.

A-7
 The pressure distribution due to broken waves striking a vertical wall
are studied in the laboratory. Formulas governing this distribution are
proposed, and then compared with field data. See also the 1965 paper by the
same authors.

0022 Hom-ma, M., and Horikawa, K., "Experimental Study on Total Wave Force
Against Sea Wall", Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 8, 1965, pp. 119-
129.

A simple design formula proposed in a previous paper (1964; same

authors) is tested against laboratory measurements of the total force due to
waves breaking on a vertical wall. Bottom slopes of 1/15 and 1/30 were used;
there was no base mound. The average total horizontal force (over a fairly
wide scatter from wave to wave) is predicted well for the large slope, but
only fairly for the small slope. The statistical distribution of the total
force is also discussed briefly, as is the absorption of wave energy in the
case where a protective rubble mound in front of the wall rises above still
water level.

0023 Huang, P., and Zhao, B., "The Probability Characteristics of Waves and
Wave Pressures at a Vertical Breakwater:, Proceedings of the 19th
Coastal Engineering Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Ch. 50, 1984.

The probability distributions of wave heights, periods, and pressures

(at various depths) are determined from field data taken near and along a
vertical-wall breakwater. In shallow water, the wave-height distribution is
no longer the Rayleigh distribution. The attenuation with depth of the
spectral components of the pressure is also calculated (and found to behave
according to linear theory). A new expression governing the equilibrium range
of the wave pressure spectrum is proposed.

0024 Ito, Y., "Stability of Mixed-type Breakwater", Coastal Engineering in

Japan, Vol. 14, 1971, pp. 53-61.

The idea of a "probable sliding distance" is advanced as a means of

evaluating the sliding stability of a composite breakwater under wave
attack. The method seems potentially very fruitful. However, the
calculations given in this paper make rather far-reaching assumptions about
the sliding and static friction of concrete on rubble, and contain an
adjustable constant (in the relation between wave-pressure duration and wave
height). Despite this drawback, the paper is seminal, and the method seems to
be capable of refinement (with more and better wave force and resistance data)
to the point of being quite useful.

0025 Iwagaki, Y., Sakai, T., Asano, T., Mase, H., and Koseki, M.,
"Experimental Study on Pressures Due to Irregular Standing Waves",
Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 23, 1980, 121-129.

A-8
 The pressures on a vertical wall due to random, nonbreaking waves were
measured at two water depths, and compared to those predicted by a third-order
irrotational theory. Good agreement was found when individual waves were
treated as one of an infinitely long train of periodic waves, especially in
the absence of double peaks in the pressure trace. A linear filter was also
used to estimate the pressure variation (over time at a fixed point) from
water-level variations, and found to work when finite-amplitude effects are
not too strong. No comparisons are made with design formulas.

0026 Jensen, 0. J., "Breakwater Structures", Coastal Structures '83, American

Society of Civil Engineers, 1983, pp. 272-285.

This is a rather qualitative overview of the experiences of the Danish

Hydraulic Institute with the hydraulic performance of the superstructures
built atop breakwaters. While most of the material presented is not entirely
pertinent to wave forces, such forces on vertical faces and their exceedance
probabilities are discussed briefly. The paper is interesting in the present
context primarily for its bibliography, which contains work not referenced
elsewhere (and also not readily available).

0027 Kamel, A. M., "Water Wave Pressures on Seawalls and Breakwaters", RR 2-

10, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.,
Feb. 1968.

Pressures due to both standing and breaking waves are considered, along
with design wave heights in shallow water. However, the main part of the
paper is concerned with advancing and testing a new and quite different
formula for estimating the shock pressure associated with a wave breaking on a
vertical wall. The formula is based on analytical considerations similar to
those describing the water-hammer effect. The measured shock pressures are
never more than half the theoretical values, and usually far less than that.
A frequency diagram is introduced, in order to take this discrepancy into
account in design techniques. However, the author finally considers it
unnecessary to design against such shock pressures (or the associated forces),
because of their short duration. Minikin's method for estimating the total
shock force is evaluated, and is considered inadequate for use in design.
See also the 1970 paper by the same author, and his other 1968 report
(RR EH-68-2).

0028 Kamel, A. M., "Shock Pressures Caused by Waves Breaking Against Coastal
Structures", RR H-68-2, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment
Station, Vicksburg, Miss., Sept. 1968.

Shock pressures are measured by dropping a hinged plate onto a water

surface. The results are compared with the "water-hammer" theory derived both
here in in his Waterways Experiment Station Report 2-10 (1968), which is also
reviewed herein. The ratios between the measured and theoretical shock
pressures are found to fit a Poisson distribution. Here, too, the reader is
cautioned against considering such pressures in estimating the overall
stability of a massive structure such as a breakwater.

A-9
0029 Kamel, A. M., "Shock Pressure on Coastal Structures", Journal of the
ASCE Waterways, Harbors and Coastal Engineering Division, Vol. 96, 1970,
pp. 689-699.

This paper is a condensed version of the two 1968 Waterways Experiment

Station Research Reports by Kamel (RR 2-10, and H-68-2). See the reviews of
those reports.

0030 Kirkgoz, M. S., "Shock Pressure of Breaking Waves on Vertical Walls",

Journal of the ASCE Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Division,
Vol. 108, 1982, pp. 81-95.

Monochromatic waves breaking on a vertical wall with no base mound are

studied experimentally. The wall position is adjusted so that the waves exert
the maximum pressure. Minikin's formula is found to underestimate the maximum
pressure by up to a factor of two. The vertical pressure distribution is
linear above the point where the pressure is a maximum, and parabolic below.
The bottom slope and the breaking-wave height are found to govern the pressure
distribution. To this reviewer, the conclusions of this quite recent study
suggest that our understanding of the shock pressures associated with breaking
waves remains at a very rudimentary level. See also Kirkgoz, 1983.

0031 Kirkgoz, M. S., "Secondary Pressures of Waves Breaking on Seawall",

Journal of ASCE Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering Division,
Vol. 109, 1983, 487-490.

The secondary pressures associated with waves breaking on a vertical

wall with no base mound are measured experimentally, and found to be on the
order of the hydrostatic pressure (computed from the crest position). See
also Kirkgoz, 1982.

0032 Kirkgoz, M. S., and Mengi, Y., "Dynamic Response of Caisson Plate to
Wave Impact", Journal of the ASCE Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean
Engineering Division, Vol. 112, 1986, pp. 284-295.

The breaking-wave shock pressures measured and reported in earlier

papers by Kirkgoz are used, together with elastic plate theory and the
standard method of finite elements, to calculate the deformation of a caisson
wall due to a wave breaking on the wall. The resulting deflections behave
more or less as expected. A design procedure based on such calculations is
proposed.

0033 KJeldsen, S. P., and Myrhaug, D., "Breaking Waves in Deep Water and
Resulting Wave Forces", Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Offshore
Technology, 1979, pp. 2515-2522.

Shock pressures due to waves breaking on a vertical wall in deep water

are measured in the laboratory, in an exploratory program. The situation is
not two-dimensional: the wall does not extend across the entire width of the

A-10
wave tank. The measured shock pressure is found to vary with the type of
breaking wave. The relation of such pressures to those occurring in shallow
water is not discussed. The authors caution against scaling up laboratory
data for use in nature.

0034 Kjeldsen, S. P., "Shock Pressures From Deep Water Breaking Waves",
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Hydrodynamics in Ocean
Engineering (Trondheim), 1981, pp. 567-584.

Careful measurements of impact pressures, impact durations, and result-

ant shock forces due to deep-water waves breaking on a narrow, vertical plate
in a wave flume are reported. Spilling breakers and steep, nonbreaking waves
were used. The frequency of occurrence of shock forces was found to be very
high. The model laws for "ventilated-shock" impact pressures due to breaking
waves are discussed, and found wanting; such pressures may well be signifi-
cantly different in salt water than in fresh water.

0035 Kuribayashi, T., Muraki, Y., and Udai, G., "Field Investigation of Wave
Forces on Breakwater", Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 2, 1959,
pp. 17-27.

Nearshore waves and the resulting pressures on a breakwater are measured

at Harbour Harbor, Japan. The response of the breakwater is also measured,
using an accelerometer. Some typical data are shown, categorized, and 5is-
cussed briefly. The maximum shock pressures are about 14-15 tons/meter , and
are associated with wave periods in the range 7-9 seconds. The period of
breakwater rocking is usually about 0.2 second. This paper seems to be more
of an interim report than a final, summary document.

0036 Lappo, D. D., and Zagryadskaya, N. N., "Studies of Pressure and Energy
of Standing Waves", Journal of the ASCE Waterway, Port, Coastal and
Ocean Engineering Division, Vol. 103, 1977, pp. 335-347.

A rather involved Lagrangian calculation gives the pressures exerted by

a standing wave on a vertical wall. It is found that the third-order results
are closer to experimental values than are those of the fourth order. How-
ever, no details are given regarding the experiments. The paper gives us a
somewhat narrow window on design theory and practice in the USSR. One gets
the impression that theoretical work is relied on much more heavily in the
USSR than in most other countries.

0037 Leendertse, J. J., "Forces Induced by Breaking Waves on a Vertical

Wall", Technical Report 092, U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory,
1961.

The total forces due to waves breaking on a vertical wall are measured,
and discussed from the standpoint of impulse-momentum theory. This theory is
then used to construct a design procedure which takes the net response of the
structure into account. No suggestions are made on how to scale the experi-

A-11
mental results up for use in actual situations. Although the parameter ranges
considered are rather narrow (for example, the bottom slope was always one on
ten), the results are certainly stimulating, and deserve extending and
checking against the more recent work of others (e.g., Nagai).

0038 Li, Y., Yu, Y., and Xoy, M., "Investigatiun of Wave Pressure on Vertical
Wall", International Conference on Coastal and Port Engineering in
Developing Countries (Colombo, Sri Lanka, March 20-26, 1983), pp. 755-
776.

This paper is a summary of twenty years of research in the Peoples

Republic of China on wave forces on vertical walls. The design formulas used
for standing, breaking, and broken waves are presented and discussed. Some
comparisons with the formulas of Goda are given. The bibliography is a useful
introduction to work in the PRC and the USSR on wave forces on walls (most of
which, of course, are not in English).

0039 Lundgren, H., "Wave Shock Forces: An Analysis of Deformations and

Forces in the Wave and in the Foundation", Symposium on Research on Wave
Action, Vol. I, Delft, 1969, .). 1-20.

This paper is composed of a series of short, incisive articles on var-

ious aspects of wave breaking. It discusses the physics of ventilated, com-
pression, and hammer shocks, and the forces important to each process. The
relevant scaling laws are then discussed, but not always decided upon. The
physics of breakwater rocking (in response to the forces due to breaking
waves) is also discussed at some length. The emphasis of the entire paper is
on using laboratory results for design. No design formulas are proposed. See
also the discussion following the paper.

0040 Lundgren, H., and Gravesen, M., "Vertical Face Breakwaters", Proceedings
of the Sixth International Harbour Conference (Antwerp, 19 74 ,
paper 2.11.

This is a nice, although very abbreviated, description of the Danish

technique for designing vertical-face breakwaters. This technique allows
design in terms of the "N-year" wave pressure. (Of course, the N-year
breakwater response is probably more interesting: this may be the next
logical step in any improvements made.) As is said elsewhere in the present
report, the statistical approach used in the Danish method seems both logical
and promising. However, it does necessitate laboratory modelling, at least
until the results for a wide variety of design (and wave conditions) are
available.

0041 Marchi, E., Ralteri, E., Scarsi, G., and sturo, S., "Storm Wave
Pressures on the Breakwater of Genoa Harbor Measurement Station",
Proceedings of the 16th Congress of the International Association for
Hydraulic Research A31, 1975, pp. 246-253.

A-12
 A station for measuring wave pressures against the vertical seawall at
Genoa Harbor is described, and some preliminary data are shown and compared to
the Sainflou formula.

0042 Marchi, E., "Problems of Vertical Wall Breakwater Design", Proceedings

of the 17th Congress of the International Association of Hydraulic
Research, 1977, pp. 337-349.

This brief overview deals mainly with forces on vertical walls due to
breaking waves. Maximum shock pressures and various proposed scaling laws are
discussed, along with uplift forces and risk criteria.

0043 Massel, S. R., Oleszkiewicz, M., and Trapp, W., "Impact Wave Forces on
Vertical and Horizontal Plates", Proceedings of the 16th Coastal
Engineering Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1978,
pp. 2340-2359.

The shock forces due to waves breaking on a vertical wall atop a mound
are measured in the laboratory. The forces are determined from the response
of the wall, and are found to follow a Weibull distribution. Scale effects
are investigated; it seems that Froude scaling should not be used to estimate
design impact forces. The studies reported on seem to be of a preliminary
nature; the final results and reports should be of some interest.

0044 Mitsuyasu, H., "Experimental Study on Wave Force Against a Wall",

Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 5, 1962, pp. 23-47.

The net force due to monochromatic waves breaking against a vertical

wall in the laboratory is measured, in the situation where there is no base
mound.
The standard deviation of this force was also determined. The results are
presented in terms of nondimensional force coefficients, which vary with water
depth at the wall, deep-water wave steepness, a nd bottom slope. Graphs of
these coefficients are given for slopes of 1/15, 1/30, and 1/50. There is a
critical depth at which the force is a maximum, for fixed slope and offshore
wave steepness. The measured forces were found to vary markedly, under
similar conditions.
This work does not seem to have been continued by other investigators.
Most subsequent work is couched in formulas, rather than in nondimensional
coefficients like those proposed here.

0045 Mitsuyasu, H., "Shock Pressure of Breaking Wave", Proceedings of the

10th Coastal Engineering Conference, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Ch. 18, 1966.

The shock pressures measured in laboratory experiments are discussed in

some detail. An extended version of the Bagnold air-cushion model is con-
sidered. Numerical solutions for the pressure time history are obtained. The
leaking of air from the air pocket is considered analytically. While these

A-13
theoretical attempts to model breaking-wave pressures are quite interesting in
their own right, they do not lead to any design-oriented formulas. (Nor have
they in the twenty years following this paper.)

0046 Mitsuyasu, H., "Shock Pressure of Breaking Waves", Coastal Engineering

in Japan, Vol. 9, 1966, pp. 83-96.

This is a very careful experimental study of the detailed characteris-

tics of shock pressures associated with waves breaking against a vertical
wall. No theoretical analysis is offered, and no formulas or expressions of
immediate practical value are presented.

0047 Mogridge, G. R., and Jamieson, W. W., "Wave Impact Pressures on Com-
oosite Breakwaters", Proceedings of the 17th Coastal Engineering
Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1980.

Many experiments were conducted with very high frequency response data
recording equipment to measure wave pressures due to waves breaking on the
vertical faces of various designs of composite breakwaters. The shock pres-
sures recorded are among the highest reported in the literature. No design
formulas are proposed.

0048 Mouzouris, C., "Influence of Ambient Air Pressure on Impact Pressure

Caused by Breaking Waves", Internal Report No. 10-79, Delft University
of Technology, Department of Civil Engineering.

This is a detailed experimental and theoretical study of wave breaking

on a sloping beach. (The slope is neither large nor small - one on six).
Special attention is paid to the role of entrapped air. The method could,
perhaps, be applied to a vertical wall, although it is unclear whether some of
the approximate models used would then apply.

0049 Muraki, Y., "Field Investigation on the Oscillation of Breakwater Caused

by Wave Action", Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 9, 1966, pp. 97-106.

Displacement vibrographs are used to study the rocking of the breakwater

at Harboro Harbor. The coefficient of bearing resistance is then calculated
from the observed rocking period, following the approach of Hayashi and
Hattori.

0050 Nagai, S., "The Shock Pressures Exerted by Breaking Waves on

Breakwaters", Coastal Engineering in Japan, Vol. 2, 1959, pp. 100-101.

This is a very short overview of the early work of Nagai on shock

pressures. No experimental results are given; no formulas are proposed.

A-14
0051 Nagai, S., "Shock Pressures Exerted by Breaking Waves on Breakwaters",
Journal of the ASCE Waterways and Harbors Division, Vol. 86, 1960,
pp. 1-38.

This is Nagai's basic paper: most of his later papers represent, to

some extent, refinements of this work. Many experiments with solitary and
monochromatic (but not with random) waves lead to empirical formulas for the
maximum pressure, the vertical pressure distribution, and the maximum force
due to waves breaking on a vertical wall, with and without a base mound.
Three different pressure distributions are found. Which distribution is
to be used depends on the wave steepness and mound slope. Two maximum shock-
pressure formulas are given, according to whether the breaking wave is
"ordinary" or "extraordinary" (in which case the pressure is twice as high).
According to Nagai's experiments, both formulas are superior to those of
Minikin and Hiroi. The (Froude) scaling law is discussed, and used to find
formulas applicable to prototype breakwaters. These compare favorably with
French field measurements made in the 1930's. The "extraordinary" breaking
waves seems mcst likely to occur with a small base-mound slope, although no
general rule is given. The top width of the mound also seems important.

0052 Nagai, S., "Shock Pressures Exerted by Breaking Waves on Breakwaters",

Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 126, 1961,
pp. 772-809.

This is the same paper as Nagai (1960). See that review.

0053 Nagai, S., "Sliding of Composite-Type Breakwaters by Breaking Waves",

Journal of the ASCE Waterways and Harbors Division, Vol. 89, 1963,
pp. 1-20.

The equations proposed by Nagai (1960) are tested by determining the

conditions under which a vertical-walled breakwater slides on its rubble-mound
base, in the laboratory. Good agreement is found with these equations. Also,
the use of Froude scaling is tested by comparing experimental results obtained
with 1/10 scale and 1/20 scale models, and found to give good results. See
also the discussion by Hayashi (November, 1963, pp. 91-97).

0054 Nagai, S., "Pressures of Partial Standing Waves", Journal of the ASCE
Waterways and Harbors Division, Vol. 94, 1968, pp. 273-286.

The effects of bottom slope, strong wind, a rubble-mound base, and wave
overtopping on the pressures on vertical walls due to waves are studied.
There is very little wind effect, and almost no effect of the bottom slope, at
least for small slopes. The overtopping effect is estimated by simply
ignoring the pressures above the top of the wall. Low rubble mounds have
little effect on the pressure, if the wall is in deep water. In general,
scale effects on wave-induced pressures can be neglected when scaling up to a
prototype, when the model scale is greater than 1/25.

A-15
0055 Nagai, S., "Pressures of Standing Waves on Vertical Wall", Journal of
the ASCE Waterways and Harbors Division, Vol. 95, 1969, pp. 53-76.

The measured pressures on a (laboratory) vertical wall due to standing

waves are compared to several existing theories. (The channel was level;
there was no base mound.) Various formulas are found to describe the
observations best, depending on the values of H/L and D/L (see Figure 1). The
pressure is assumed to vary linearly between mean sea level and the wave
crest, when using Eulerian theories.
See also the discussion of this paper by Goda (same journal, 1970,
pp. 155-158).

0056 Nagai, S., and Otsubo, T., "Pressures by Breaking Waves on Composite-
Type Breakwaters", Proceedings of the 11th Coastal Engineering
Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers, Ch. 59, 1968.

Many experiments are performed in which monochromatic breaking-wave

pressures on composite breakwaters are measured. Standing waves are found for
ds/D > 0.75 (see Figure 1) and are governed by the vertical pressure distri-
bution (B) given in Nagai (1960). Most experiments are in the range where the
ratio ds/D has values from 0.4 to 0.75. In this range, a rather complicated
dependence of the maximum pressure on D/H, B/D, and ds/D is determined, and
presented graphically. (Here, B is the horizontal distance along the top of
the rubble mound, from the front of the caisson to where the mound becomes
inclined.) A new type of vertical pressure distribution is also found.
Ranges of the parameters d /D, B/D, D/H, and D/L in which breaking and
standing waves occur (in t~e same ds/D range as above) are also found, and
shown in graphs.

0057 Nagai, S., "Wave Forces on Structures", Advances in Hydroscience,

Vol. 9, 1973, pp. 253-324.

This is an overview of wave forces on both circular cylinders and long,

usually vertical walls with or without a base mound. It serves as a good
introduction to the author's research on wave forces on vertical breakwaters,
but does not seem to cover other work in the same area quite as thoroughly.
There seems to be no new work reported. However, someone interested in using
Nagai's results would do well to read this paper (and the appendix in Bruun's
book: see Nagai 1976) before reading the original papers.

0058 Nagai, S., and Kurata, K., "Investigations of Wave-Pressure Formulas due
to Damages of Breakwaters", Proceedings of the 14th Coastal Engineering
Conference, Ch. 101, 1974.

The observed slidings of actual breakwaters in Japan in the period 1959-

1974 are investigated, using the formulas previously proposed by Nagai (see
above reviews). Four specific cases are discussed in detail. The proposed
formulas are found to be satisfactory in explaining the observations.

A-16
0059 Nagai, S., "Wave Forces on Vertical-Wall Breakwaters in Deep Water", in
P. Bruun, Port Engineering, Second Edition, Gulf Publishing Company,
1976 (pp. 554-561).

There is no new work reported here. Rather, it is a distillation and an

apparent final summary of all of Nagai's research on wave forces on composite
breakwaters. It is the counterpart of the breakwater section of the book of
Goda (1985), and is probably the first reading to do in understanding the more
practical contributions of Nagai.

0060 Nasser, M. S., and McCorquodale, J. A., "Action of Nonlinear Waves at a

Solid Wall", Proceedings of the 15th Coastal Engineering Conference,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Ch. 47, 1976.

A one-dimensional finite-difference model is developed to simulate the

action of nonlinear, shallow-water waves striking a vertical wall. The
numerical predictions of wave reflection and run-up compare reasonably well
with experimental results. However, no forces are calculated.

0061 Nichols, B. D., and Hirt, C. W., "Numerical Calculation of Wave Forces
on Structures", Proceedings of the 15th Coastal Engineering Conference,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Ch. 132, 1976.

0062 Plakida, M. E., "Pressure of Waves Against Vertical Walls", Proceedings

of the 12th Coastal Engineering Conference, American Society of Civil
Engineers, Ch. 89, 1970.

Laboratory tests coupled with formulas coming from standard wave

theories lead to design formulas for pressure and forces due to both breaking
and broken waves acting on a vertical wall. The paper is highly condensed,
but seems to portray standard (at the time) USSR design procedures. The
references are only to work done in the USSR. There are no comparisons with
other design formulas.

0063 Ramkema, C., "A Model Law for Wave Impacts on Coastal Structures",
Proceedings of the 17th Coastal Engineering Conferences, Ch. 139, 1978.

This is a nice review of previous work on shock pressures, although it

does not deal directly with waves breaking on vertical walls. Also, Bagnold's
piston model is generalized to include both adiabatic and isothermal
compression of the air cushion, and to allow for compression of the water. A
scaling law to be used with laboratory experiments is also suggested. This is
an important paper for people interested in the theory of shock forces, and
has a very complete bibliography.

0064 Richert, G., "Experimental Investigation of Shock Pressures Against

Breakwaters", Proceedings of the 11th Coastal Engineering Conference,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Ch. 62, 1968.

A-17
 The shock pressures of waves breaking on a vertical wall (and preceded
by smaller, nonbreaking waves) were measured. Many experiments were conducted
for each configuration (which usually included a base mound). The main
results are shock-occurrence diagrams (shock pressures plotted against both
wave height and wave period) and instantaneous pressure-distribution
diagrams. Large scatter is encountered in the shock-occurrence diagrams.
Some sloped walls were also studied. No design formulas are suggested.

0065 Richert, G., "Shock Pressures of Breaking Waves", Bulletin No. 84,
Hydraulics Laboratory, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, 1974.

This paper describes an experimental and theoretical study of

compression-shock pressures due to waves breaking on a vertical wall. The
experimental part is a more elaborate version of the 1968 paper by the same
author. However, the theoretical part is new. To begin with, it contains a
nicely presented account of previous theories - a good first introduction to
the topic.

A theory is then developed to relate breaking-wave characteristics to

the resulting wave pressure and impulse on a wall. The wall is assumed to be
perfectly rigid. The theory is designed to circumvent the need for assuming
an equivalent hydrodynamic mass of water which is brought to rest. However,
the assumed geometry of the pressure waves is complex, and necessitates a
numerical integration over time to find the pressure maxima. The principal
result is a scaling law to relate experiments to design values. The pressure
scalings predicted differ considerably from those proposed by others, and from
Froude scaling. Consideration is given to how to use this method in design.
Although the method seems promising, the results are not yet especially simple
to use.

0066 Sellers, F. H., "Water Impact Loads", Marine Technology, Vol. 13, Jan.
1976, pp. 46-58.

This is a rather elementary introduction to shock pressures associated

with the slamming of ships. It is only mentioned here because some authors
(e.g., Kamel) have used similar approaches in studying pressures due to
breaking waves.

0067 Takezawa, M., "Experimental Study of Wave Forces on a Vertical Wall",

Coastal Structures '79, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 1,
1979, pp. 48-66.

Wave forces on a vertical wall with no mound base are measured in the
laboratory. The wave type ranges from a standing wave to one which breaks
before hitting the wall. The measured forces are compared to those predicted
by the formulas of Sainflou, Hiroi, Minikin, and Hom-ma and Horikawa. The
formula of Hom-ma and Horikawa gives fair agreement, but only for broken
waves. The other formulas agree less well. A hydrostatic-type formula based
on wave run-up is proposed, presumably to give an upper bound on the forces
encountered.

A-18
0068 Vinje, T., and Brevig, P., "Numerical Calculations of Forces from
Breaking Waves," Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Hydrodynamics in Ocean Engineering (Trondheim), 1981, pp. 547-565.

Forces on a vertical wall due to (plunging) breaking waves are estimated

using potential theory, Cauchy's theorem, and a numerical solution of the
resulting integral equation. The time variation of the calculated impulse
gives the force. Only a few results are given for vertical walls, for times
shortly after the breaker hits the wall. The emphasis of this paper is on the
numerical procedure, rather than on calculated results or design formulas.

0069 Weggel, J. R., and Maxwell, W. H. C., "Experimental Study of Breaking

Wave Pressures", Proceedings of the Second Offshore Technology
Conference (Houston, 1970), OTC 1244, Vol. 2, pp. 175-188.

Breaking waves and their associated shock pressures are studied experi-
mentally. The breaking-wave geometry and wave-crest velocity are determined
photographically. The shock pressures on a wall about one quarter the width
of the experimental flumes are measured using piezoelectric transducers, and
interpreted using a simplified momentum analysis. The relation of such
pressures to those on a wall extending across the entire flume is not
discussed, nor are any design formulas proposed. See also the paper by the
same authors in the Journal of the Waterways and Harbors Division (ASCE).

0070 Weggel, J.R., and Maxwell, W. H. C., "Numerical Model for Wave Pressure
Distributions", Journal of the ASCE Waterways, Harbors and Coastal
Engineering Division, Vol. 96, 1970, pp. 623-642.

A numerical model of the wave equation for the pressure of an air-water

mixture is used to find the shock pressure due to a wave breaking on a wall.
The air and water are assumed to be uniformly mixed. Comparisons with a
limited amount of data seem favorable. The use of Froude scaling to relate
model to natural shock pressures is questioned. No simple predictive equa-
tions for pressure or force are put forward. This work is somewhat related to
that of Kamel (1968a,b; 1970), which is also reviewed herein. Some subsequent
discussion between these authors is also given in the same journal (e.g., Feb.
1972, pp. 85-86).

0071 Weggel, J. R., "Wave Loading on Vertical Sheet-Pile Groins and Jetties",
U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center Report CETA 81-1, Jan.,
1981.

An approximate method is given for finding the force and moment on a

vertical wall, in the case where waves strike the wall at an angle so that the
crest moves along the wall. Experiments on the Mach-stem effect (see, e.g.,
Wiegel, 1964) are used to find the height of the wave at the wall.

A-19
0072 Whillock A. F., "Forces on Sea Walls Under Oblique Wave Attack", Report
no. It 225, Hydraulics Research Station, Wallingford, England, July
1982.

Shock pressures and total forces associated with monochromatic waves

striking a wall at angles up to 25 deg from normal are measured. The
pressures and forces decrease considerably with increasing angle of
incidence. No comparisons with design formulas are made.

0073 "Breakwaters: Design and Construction", Proceedings of the Conference

on this topic, organized by the Institution of Civil Engineers, and held
in London, Ma, 1983 (Thomas Telford Ltd, publisher).

This collection of thirteen papers on breakwaters is mentioned here only

to note that the papers contain virtually no mention of vertical-wall break-
waters. They deal almost entirely with rubble-mound structures. Of some
general interest are the overview articles by I.W. Strickland (pp. 1-8), J. E.
Clifford (pp. 53-64), and H. F. Burcharth (pp. 177-187).

0074 The Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses

(Brussels, Belgium).

The reports given at these Congresses offer a glimpse at the actual de-
sign procedures used in several of the major maritime nations. Although these
reports are of uneven quality, often not in English, and are often lacking
important references, they do emphasize practical issues rather the fine
points sometimes stressed in research papers. Probably because of this, the
papers tend to be rather conservative, and contain almost no original
material. Of special interest are the reports from countries not well
represented in the English literature (e.g., Russia and Italy). This reviewer
found little in these articles to help in a search for an up-to-date method
for predicting wave forces on walls.

The following articles are of some interest:

(a) Proceedings of the 21st International Navigation Congress, Stock

holm, 1965 (Sjubject 1: Breakwaters with vertical and sloping
faces. Measurement of waves. Study of wave forces. Methods of
Calculation).

(i) General Report (A. Brandtzaeg), pp. 1-20.

(ii) Nagai, S., "Wave Pressures on Various Types of Vertical-Wall

Breakwaters", pp. 111-132.

(iii) Saville, T., Garcia, W. J., and Lee, C. E., "Development of

Breakwater Design", pp. 229-253.

(iv) Djounkowski, N. N., Kouznetsor, M. A. I., and Smirnov,

M. G. N., "Recherche et Calcul des Ouvrages de Protection
Verticaux et a Profil en Talus en URSS", pp. 225-267.

A-20
 (b) Proceedings of the 24th International Navigation Congress,
Leningrad, 1977 (Subject 1: Improvement in the design and building
of major port structures).

(i) Paper by V. Panunzio and F. Grimaldi, pp. 99-130 (There is

no title. The paper compares wave forces predicted by the
methods of Sainflou, Miche, and Kouznetsov. It also dis-
casscs, :ith fe. det-i-I, model test, used to estimate
shock-pressure distributions.)

(iii) RECENT LITERATURE WHICH WAS NOT REVIEWED

A few articles proved difficult to obtain. It is very unlikely that

these will have much bearing on the design procedures advocated in this
report. Thus, in the interests of time, these articles are simply listed
below, along with the citation source.

Maravas, T., 1977, "Shock Forces on Vertical-Face Breakwaters",

M.S. Thesis, Institute of Hydrodynamics and Hydraulic Engineering,
Techn. univ. Denmark. (cited in Gravesen and Lundgren, 1977)

Mejlhede, N., 1975, "Standing Waves of First and Second Order and Wave
Pressure", Techn. Univ. Denmark, Institute of Hydrodynamics and
Hydraulic Engineering, Progress Report No. 35. (Fluidex BHRA Index)

Van de Kreeke, J., and Paape, A., 1964, "On Optimum Breakwater Design",
Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, Publication No. 31. (cited in Richert,
1974)

A-21
APPENDIX B: FINDING H i WHEN THE WATER DEPTH IS GREATER THAN Lo/5

B-i
 When the general water depth d > Lo/5, one is outside of the surf zone,
there is little wave breaking, and the wave height is found using a shclling
coefficient, K. The method described by Goda (1985) following the work of
Shuto (1974) is given here. The equations of Goda are nonlinear and somewhat
wkwaru, and aie modified Lalow. Also, It helps to introduce

(i) the nondimensional depth E = d/L0

(d will be between D and Db for us)
(ii) the deep-water wave steepness S = Ho'/L o

(disregarding refraction)

Note that we know both E and S.

The shoaling coefficient K is defined by H1 /3 = K Ho'. There are
three methods used to find K. These are equations (B3) and (B4) below,
together with SPM Appendix C-I. Each only holds for a certain range of {.
Then do decide which formula to use, we must first find the boundaries of
these ranges. Call these boundaries 30 and &50, following Goda, and
consider the schematic below:

-50 C30

shallow 0 - deep water

water use (34) use (B3) use SPM C-1 ({ large)

(' small) here here here

For the large water depths far from shore, the standard small-amplitude wave
theory can be used to find K. The results are given in SPM Appendix C-I,
where K is called H/HO , and is listed as a function of E. The smallest
& for which we can do this is &30' which is given by

2 21S K (Bi)
~30 30 30

Here, K3 0 is found using Appendix C-i. That is, we guess 30' then find the
associated K30 from Appendix C-i, and finally see if eqn (BI) is satisfied.
When it is, we know 30 and K30. The change of K with a general value of

B-2
using both (BI) and SPM (C-i) is shown below, in order to facilitate the
iterations.

0I

sic

Then if > E3 0 , we calculate K using d = D and Appendix C-i. However,

suppose that & < 30" Now the water is so shallow that nonlinear effects are
important in fixing K. We first find the second boundary, 50" This is
given by

50 = 0.7997 &30 (B2)*

This boundary is now compared to &. If &5 0 - < &30' K is given by

K = K30 ( 00 2/7
(B3)

Here, we know g30 and K30 from our work with eqn (BI) above.
However, if & < &50' K is given by

K (V17- B) = C (B)

* Note that equation (B2) is different from the equa ,ions given in Goda
(1985). It comes from combining equations 3.17, 3.18, and 3.19 of that
reference.

B-3
where the constants B and C are given by

B = 2 2'

C 5,F 3/2 (V*- 6-

t - - (K50 _ 6 50)

and K5 0 is calculated from eqn (B3), using & 250"

Eqn (B4) is solved by iteration, noting that K > B 2 , and that the left
side increases with K.
Knowing K, the maximum wave height is calculated from

Hmax = 1.8H 1 /3 1.8 KHo ' (B5)

B-4
APPENDIX C: FINDING H i WHEN THE WATER DEPTH IS LESS THAN Lo/5

C-I
 The wall is now in shallow water, and wave breaking may be important. The
model of Goda leads to the following procedure.

(i) Find Hmax/Ho'

The ratio Hmax/Ho' is given by the smallest of the following three

quantities

(a) (b) (c)

8o + 8 1 d; m 1.8 K (Cl)
H'
0

Here,

-0.38 3/2)
80 0.252S exp (20m

87 0.63 exp(3.8 m)

am is the larger of the two quantities

(a) (b)

1.65 ; 0.53 S0 "2 9 exp (2.4 m)

In these expressions S is the deep-water steepness Ho'/Lo, and m the

bottom slope. The shoaling coefficient K is botained using the method given
in Appendix B.
If 1.8K is the smallest of the three quantities in (Cl), wave breaking is
not important, the wall is outside the surf zone, and the design wave height
is
Hi = 1.8K *H' Hmax (C2)

C-2
If 1.8K is not the smallest, the wall is within the surf zone, and the
quantity H 1 ,3 must first be obtained as shown below.

(ii) Find HI!3/H o l

The ratio H 1/3/Ho ' is given by the smallest of the following three
quantities

(a) (b) (c)

B° +8 1d/Ho ' m K (C3)

Here,

3 /2 )
= 0.028 S .38 exp(20 m
-0
B

01 z 0.52 exp(4.2 m)

Bm is the larger of the two quantities

(a) (b)

0.92 ; 0.32 S-0 .2 9 exp(2.4 m)

The shoaling coefficient K again is obtained from Appendix B, and S,m are
defined above.

(iii) To find the Design Wave Height H i

If 1.8K is the smallest of the three quantities in (Cl), set the design
wave height Hi = Hma x . Otherwise, first find H1 /3 at d = D, using eqn (02).
Then use H 1/3 to calculate a new water depth Db from

Db = D + 5 m H 1/3 (C4)

C-3
 Now calculate Hmax at d = Db, using eqn (Cl). It seems that Db is used
because waves breaking at a point are expected to exert their maximum force
for some distance shoreward of that point. Then it is prudent to estimate
Hmax at several intermediate depths, and use the largest value obtained for
H i , That is

Hi = max (Hma x, for Db > d > D) (C5)

It should be noted that some of these intermediate depths may be outside

the surf zone.
T1hus, either (C2) or (C5) will be used to find the design wave height,
according to whether the wall is outside or within the surf zone. (However,
the depth Db must be calculated in either case, to find Y2 1 which is needed
for the pressure distribution on the wall.)

C-4