Fender Application Design Manual

T R EL L EB O RG M A R I N E A N D I N F R A ST RU C T U R E
Fender Application
Design Manual
DESIGN MANUAL
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1
Fender Application
Design Manual
Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure is a
world leader in the design and manufacture
of advanced marine fender systems.
Contents
We provide bespoke solutions for large
and complex projects all over the world. FENDER APPLICATION
Best practice design and quality materials DESIGN MANUAL
ensure a long, low maintenance service life,
no matter how demanding the working and INTRODUCTION 5
environmental conditions. BERTHING ENVIRONMENT AND
ENERGY CALCULATION 11
All fenders are supplied fully tested and meet
PIANC 2002 guidelines. Our pneumatic fenders FENDER SELECTION &
are also completely ISO17357-1:2014 compliant. FENDER SYSTEMS DESIGN 29
Our high performance solutions combine low FENDER ACCESSORIES 43
reaction force and hull pressure with good
angular performance and rugged construction. FENDER PERFORMANCE TESTING 53
OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 61
Trelleborg’s fender systems can be integrated
with SmartPort. SmartPort by Trelleborg is a
technology platform that connects disparate,
data-driven assets, giving stakeholders a holistic
view of operations to power communication
and decision making.
Take a Smarter Approach to

fender performance
with Trelleborg.
2
A Smarter Approach
at every stage
A smarter approach to...
CONSULTATION CONCEPT DESIGN MANUFACTURE

Consultation from the Conceptual design in Concepts are taken to our Our entire product range
earliest project phase your local office – with Engineering Centers of is manufactured in-house,
to ensure the optimum full knowledge of local Excellence in India where meaning we have full
fender systems and marine standards and regulations, our team generates 3D control over the design and
technology solutions delivered in your language CAD designs, application- quality of everything we
are specified, with full – for optimized port and engineering drawings, produce. Our strategically
technical support from our vessel solutions. a bill of materials, finite located, state-of-the-art
global offices. engineering analyses and facilities ensure our
calculations for both our global, industry leading
fender systems and marine manufacturing capability.
technology solutions.
3
TESTING INSTALLATION SUPPORT THE FUTURE
Across our entire product Dedicated project Local support on a Deploying the latest in
range, stringent testing management, from truly global scale, with smart technologies to
comes as standard at solution design right the customer support teams enable fully automated,
every step in our in-house way through to on-site all over the world. And data-driven decision
manufacturing process. We installation support. this service doesn’t stop making that optimizes port
ensure that lifecycle and We design products after a product is installed. and terminal efficiency. At
performance of our entire and solutions that You have our full support Trelleborg, we’re constantly
product range meets your always consider ease of throughout the entire evolving to provide the
specifications, and more. installation and future lifetime of your project, digital infrastructure our
maintenance requirements. including customized industry increasingly
training programs, needs.
maintenance and onsite
service and support.
When you choose Trelleborg you ensure

your expectations will be met, because
we deliver a truly end-to-end service –
retaining vigilance and full control at
every stage.
4
Introduction
As stated in the British Standard*, fender design

should be entrusted to ‘appropriately qualified and
experienced people’. Fender engineering requires
an understanding of many areas:
❙ Ship technology
Fender systems should ❙ Civil construction methods
be self-protective and ❙ Steel fabrications
reliably protect ships and ❙ Material properties
structures. They should ❙ Installation techniques
be long-lasting, requiring ❙ Health and safety
minimum maintenance, ❙ Environmental factors
to withstand the harsh ❙ Regulations and codes of practice
environment in which
they operate.
* BS6349 : – Code of Practice for Design of Fendering and Mooring Systems.
5
USING THIS GUIDE EXCEPTIONS
This guide addresses many of the frequently These guidelines do not encompass unusual
asked questions which arise during fender design. ships, extreme berthing conditions and other
All methods described are based on the latest extreme cases for which specialist advice should
recommendations of PIANC as well as other be sought.
internationally recognized codes of practice.
Methods are also adapted to working practices

within Trelleborg and to suit Trelleborg products.
Further design tools and utilities including generic

specifications, energy calculation spreadsheets,
fender performance curves and much more can be
requested from Trelleborg Marine and
Infrastructure’s local offices.
DEFINITIONS
Rubber fender Units made from vulcanized rubber (often with encapsulated steel plates) that ab-
sorbs energy by elastically deforming in compression, bending, shear or a combina-
tion of these effects.
Pneumatic Units comprising fabric reinforced rubber bags filled with air under pressure and that
fender absorbs energy from the work done in compressing the air above itsnormal initial
pressure.
Foam fender Units comprising a closed cell foam inner core with reinforced polymer outer skin that
absorbs energy by virtue of the work done in compressing the foam.
Steel panel A structural steel frame designed to distribute the forces generated during rubber
fender compression.
6
Why Fender?
‘There is a simple reason to use fenders: it is just It is rare for the very cheapest fenders to offer
too expensive not to do so’. These are the opening the lowest long term cost. Quite the opposite is
remarks of PIANC and remain the primary reason true. A small initial saving will often demand much
why every modern port invests in protecting their greater investment in repairs and maintenance
structures with fender systems. over the years. A cheap fender system can cost
many times more than a well-engineered, higher
Well-designed fender systems will reduce quality solution over the lifetime of the berth as
construction costs and will contribute to making the graphs below demonstrate.
the berth more efficient by improving turn-around
times. It follows that the longer a fender system
lasts and the less maintenance it needs, the
better the investment.
10 REASONS FOR QUALITY FENDERING

❙ Safety of staff, ships and structures ❙ Berths in more exposed locations
❙ Much lower lifecycle costs ❙ Better ship stability when moored
❙ Rapid, trouble-free installation ❙ Lower structural loads
❙ Quicker turnaround time, greater efficiency ❙ Accommodate more ship types and sizes
❙ Reduced maintenance and repair ❙ More satisfied customers
Purchase price Wear & tear

+ Design approvals + Replacements
+ Delivery delays + Damage repairs
+ Installation time + Removal & scrapping
+ Site support + Fatigue, corrosion
= Capital cost = Maintenance cost
Capital cost + Maintenance cost = FULL LIFE COST
7
Design Flowchart
Functional
type(s) of cargo better stability on berth
safe berthing and mooring reduction of reaction force
Operational
berthing procedures light, laden or partly laden ships
frequency of berthing stand-off from face of structure
limits of mooring and operations (crane reach)
(adverse weather) fender spacing
range of vessel sizes, types type and orientation of
special features of vessels waterfront structure
(flare, beltings, list, etc) special requirements
allowable hull pressures spares availability
Site conditions
wind speed topography temperature
wave height tidal range corrosivity
current speed swell and fetch channel depth
Design criteria
codes and standards safety factors
design vessels for calculations (normal/abnormal)
normal/abnormal velocity maintenance cost/frequency
maximum reaction force installation cost/practicality
friction coefficient chemical pollution
desired service life accident response
Design process
Ship Structures Approach Location
Calculation of berthing energy

CM virtual mass factor CC berth configuration factor
CE eccentricity factor CS softness factor
Calculation of fender energy absorption

selection of abnormal berthing safety factor
Selection of appropriate fenders
Determination of:
energy environmental frictional loads
absorption factors chains etc
reaction force angular compression temperature factor
deflection hull pressure velocity factor
Check impact on structure and vessel

horizontal and vertical loading implications of installing the
chance of hitting the structure fender
(bulbous bows etc) bevels/snagging from hull
face of structure to protrusions
accommodate fender restraint chains
Final selection of fender

determine main characteristics check availability of fender
of fender track record and warranties
manufactured in accordance with future spares availability
PIANC guidelines fatigue/durability tests
verification test methods
8
The Design Process
Many factors contribute to the design of a fender system:
SHIPS
Ship design evolves constantly – changes in
shapes and increasing vessel sizes. Fender
systems must suit current ships and those
expected to arrive in the foreseeable future.
STRUCTURES
Fenders impose loads on the berthing structure.
Many berths are being built in exposed locations,
where fender systems can play a crucial role in the
overall cost of construction. Local practice,
materials and conditions may influence the choice
of fender systems.
APPROACH
Many factors will affect how vessels approach the
berth, the corresponding kinetic energy and the
load applied to the structure. Berthing modes may
affect the choice of ship’s berthing speed and the
safety factor for abnormal conditions.
INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE

Fender systems installation should be considered
early in the design process. Accessibility for
maintenance, wear allowances and the protective
coatings will all affect the full life cost of systems.
Selecting the correct fenders can improve
turnaround times and reduce downtime. The
safety of personnel, structures and vessels must
be considered at every stage – before, during and
after commissioning.
9
DOHA
10
Berthing Environment
& Energy calculation
As well as a full suite of engineering programs, we

have expert designers who are experienced in all
industry relevant CAD programs.
We have a dedicated
team who will provide
a tailored solution for
your project, on time
and on budget.
11
Environment
TYPICAL BERTHING LOCATIONS
Berthing structures are located in a variety of deciding the berthing speeds and approach
places from sheltered basins to unprotected, open angles, in turn affecting the type and size of
waters. Local conditions will play a large part in suitable fenders.
CURRENTS AND WINDS

Current and wind forces can push
vessels onto or off the berth, and
may influence the berthing speed.
Once berthed, and provided the
vessel contacts several fenders,
Non-tidal basins
With minor changes in water Tidal basins the forces are usually less critical.
level, these locations are usually Larger variations in water level
sheltered from strong winds, (depends on location) but still However special cases do exist,
waves and currents. Ship sizes generally sheltered from winds,
may be restricted due to lock waves and currents. May be used
especially on very soft structures.
access. by larger vessels than non-tidal
basins.
As a general guide, the probability
of deep draught vessels (such as
tankers) affected by current are
Coastal berths higher and and likewise for high
Maximum exposure to
winds, waves and currents. River berths freeboard vessels (such as RoRo
Berths generally used by Largest tidal range (depends on site),
single classes of vessel with greater exposure to winds, waves
and container ships) affected by
such as oil, gas or bulk. and currents. Approach mode may be
restricted by dredged channels and
strong winds.
river bends may complicate berthing
manoeuvres.
TIDES
HRT
HAT
Tides vary by area and may have extremes
MHWS of a
MHWN
few centimeters (Mediterranean, Baltic)
MSL
or over 15
meters (parts of UK and Canada). Tides will
MLWN
influence the structure’s design and fender
selection. MLWS
LAT
LRT
HRT Highest Recorded Tide
HAT Highest Astronomical Tide
MHWS Mean High Water Spring
MHWN Mean High Water Neap
MLWN Mean Low Water Neap
MLWS Mean Low Water Spring
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
LRT Lowest Recorded Tide
12
Ship Types
General cargo ship ❙ Prefer small gaps between ship and quay to minimize outreach of cranes
❙ Large change of draft between laden and empty conditions
❙ May occupy berths for long periods
❙ Coastal cargo vessels may berth without tug assistance
Bulk carrier ❙ Need to be close to berth face to minimize shiploader outreach
❙ Possible need to warp ships along berth for shiploader to change holds
❙ Require low hull contact pressures unless belted
Container ship ❙ Flared bows are prone to strike shore structures
❙ Increasing ship beams needs increased crane outreach
❙ Some vessels have single or multiple beltings
❙ Bulbous bows may strike front piles of structures at large berthing angles
Oil tanker ❙ Need to avoid fire hazards from sparks or friction
❙ Require low hull contact pressures
❙ Coastal tankers may berth without tug assistance
RoRo ship ❙ Ships have own loading ramps – usually stern, slewed or side doors
❙ High lateral and/or transverse berthing speeds
❙ Manoeuvrability at low speeds may be poor
❙ End berthing impacts often occur
❙ Many different shapes, sizes and condition of beltings
Passenger (cruise) ship ❙ Small draft change between laden and empty
❙ White or light colored hulls are easily marked
❙ Flared bows are prone to strike shore structures
Ferry ❙ Quick turn around needed
❙ High berthing speeds, often with end berthing
❙ Intensive use of berth
❙ Berthing without tug assistance
❙ Many different shapes, sizes and condition of beltings
Gas carrier ❙ Need to avoid fire hazards from sparks or friction
❙ Shallow draft even at full load
❙ Require low hull contact pressures
❙ Single class of vessels using dedicated facilities
❙ Manifolds not necessarily at midships position
13
Ship Features
Common on container vessels and cruise ships. Big
flare angles may affect fender performance. Larger
Bow fender may be required to maintain clearance from the
flares quay structure, cranes, etc.
Most modern ships have bulbous bows. Care is needed

at large berthing angles or with widely spaced fenders
Bulbous to ensure the bulbous bow is not caught behind the
bows fender or hit structural piles.
Almost every class of ship could be fitted with beltings

or strakes. They are most common on RoRo ships or
Beltings ferries, but may even appear on container ships or
& strakes gas carriers. Tugs and offshore supply boats have very
large beltings.
Cruise and RoRo ships often have flying bridges.
In locks, or when tides are large, care is needed to
Flying avoid the bridge sitting on top of the fender during a
bridge falling tide.
Barges, small tankers and general cargo ships can

have a small freeboard. Fenders should be extended
Low down to prevent being caught underneath during low
freeboard tides when fully laden.
RoRo ships, car carriers and some navy vessels

have large doors for vehicle access. These are often
Stern & recessed and can snag fenders – especially in locks or
side doors when warping along the berth.
Ships with high freeboard include ferries, cruise and

container ships, as well as many lightly loaded vessels.
High Strong winds can cause sudden, large increases in
freeboard berthing speeds.
Many modern ships, but especially tankers and gas

carriers, require very low hull contact pressures, which
Low hull are achieved using large fender panels or floating
pressure fenders.
High speed catamarans and monohulls are often built

from aluminium. They can only accept loads from
Aluminium fenders at special positions: usually reinforced beltings
hulls set very low or many meters above the waterline.
Many ships are modified during their lifetime with

little regard to the effect these changes may have on
Special berthing or fenders. Protrusions can snag fenders but
features risks are reduced by large bevels and chamfers on the
frontal panels.
14
Ship Definitions
Many different definitions are used to describe data (for example Triple E-Class) will be published
ship sizes and classes. Some of the more when available.
common descriptions are given below. New ship
VESSEL TYPE LENGTH × BEAM × DRAFT DWT COMMENTS
1st Generation container
Small feeder 200m × 23m × 9m –
<1,000 teu
2nd Generation container
Feeder 215m × 30m × 10m –
1,000–2,500 teu
3rd Generation container
Panamax1 290m × 32.3m × 12m –
2,500–5,000 teu
4th Generation container
Post-Panamax 305m × >32.3m × 13m –
5,000–8,000 teu
5th Generation container
Super post-Panamax (VLCS)
>8,000 teu
Suezmax 2 500m × 70m × 21.3m – All vessel types in Suez Canal
Seaway-Max3 233.5m × 24.0m × 9.1m – All vessel types in St Lawrence Seaway
Handysize – 10,000–40,000 dwt Bulk carrier
Cape Size – 130,000–200,000 dwt Bulk carrier
Very large bulk carrier (VLBC) – >200,000 dwt Bulk carrier
Very large crude carrier (VLCC) – 200,000–300,000 dwt Oil tanker
Ultra large crude carrier (ULCC) – >300,000 dwt Oil tanker
1. PANAMA CANAL 2. SUEZ CANAL 3. ST LAWRENCE SEAWAY

Lock chambers are 427m long and 55m The canal, connecting the Mediterranean The seaway system allows ships to pass
wide. The deepest canal is 15.2m. The ca- and Red Sea, is about 163km long and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes
nal is about 86km long and passage takes varies from 80–135m wide. It has no lock via six short canals totalling 110km, with
eight hours. chambers but most of the canal has a single 19 locks, each 233m long, 24.4m wide and
traffic lane with passing bays. 9.1m deep.
Note: Dimensions based on the new panama

locks that will be opened in 2016. Current The ship tables show laden draft (DL) of vessels. The draft of a partly
dimensions are 305 m long, 33.5 m wide,
largest depth is 12.5 – 13.7 m. loaded ship (D) can be estimated using the formula below:
USING SHIP TABLES

PIANC’s report from working group 121 “Harbor report WG121 table C-1 and these originate from
approach channels design guidelines” was the Spanish ROM 3.1. Additional information on
released in 2014. This report contains very usefull vessels sizes can be found in PIANC report W121
tables with design information on vessels. These table C-2 and C-3, PIANC 2002 and EAU 2004 and
data can be considered as the latest available the Spanish ROM 2.0-11.
design information, replacing PIANC 2002 at this
Newer generation ships will continue to come in line,
point. The tables in the Trelleborg Marine and
please ask Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure for
Infrastructure design manual are taken from PIANC
supplementary tables or latest and largest types.
15
Ship Tables
MIN. LATERAL MAX. LATERAL APPROX.
DISPLACE- LADEN
DWT L OA L BP B CB WINDAGE: WINDAGE: CAPACITY
TYPE MENT DRAFT
(t) (m) (m) (m) (-) FULLY LOADED IN BALLAST
(t) (m) (m3)
(m2) (m2)
500,000 590,000 415.0 392.0 73.0 24.0 0.84 6,400 11,000 –
Tankers
400,000 475,000 380.0 358.0 68.0 23.0 0.83 5,700 9,700 –
(ULCC)
350,000 420,000 365.0 345.0 65.5 22.0 0.82 5,400 9,200 –
300,000 365,000 350.0 330.0 63.0 21.0 0.82 5,100 8,600 –
275,000 335,000 340.0 321.0 61.0 20.5 0.81 4,900 8,200 –
Tankers
250,000 305,000 330.0 312.0 59.0 19.9 0.81 4,600 7,700 –
(VLCC)
225,000 277,000 320.0 303.0 57.0 19.3 0.81 4,300 7,300 –
200,000 246,000 310.0 294.0 55.0 18.5 0.80 4,000 6,800 –
175,000 217,000 300.0 285.0 52.5 17.7 0.80 3,750 6,200 –
150,000 186,000 285.0 270.0 49.5 16.9 0.80 3,400 5,700 –
125,000 156,000 270.0 255.0 46.5 16.0 0.80 3,100 5,100 –
Tankers 100,000 125,000 250.0 236.0 43.0 15.1 0.80 2,750 4,500 –
80,000 102,000 235.0 223.0 40.0 14.0 0.80 2,450 4,000 –
70,000 90,000 225.0 213.0 38.0 13.5 0.80 2,250 3,700 –
60,000 78,000 217.0 206.0 36.0 13.0 0.79 2,150 3,500 –
50,000 66,000 210.0 200.0 32.2 12.6 0.79 1,900 3,000 –
40,000 54,000 200.0 190.0 30.0 11.8 0.78 1,650 2,600 –
Product 30,000 42,000 188.0 178.0 28.0 10.8 0.76 1,400 2,200 –
and
20,000 29,000 174.0 165.0 24.5 9.8 0.71 1,100 1,800 –
Chemical
Tankers 10,000 15,000 145.0 137.0 19.0 7.8 0.72 760 1,200 –
5,000 8,000 110.0 104.0 15.0 7.0 0.71 500 800 –
3,000 4,900 90.0 85.0 13.0 6.0 0.72 400 600 –
400,000 464,000 375.0 356.0 62.5 24.0 0.85 4,500 8,700 –
350,000 406,000 362.0 344.0 59.0 23.0 0.85 4,400 8,500 –
300,000 350,000 350.0 333.0 56.0 21.8 0.84 4,250 8,200 –
250,000 292,000 335.0 318.0 52.5 20.5 0.83 4,000 7,700 –
200,000 236,000 315.0 300.0 48.5 19.0 0.83 3,600 6,900 –
150,000 179,000 290.0 276.0 44.0 17.5 0.82 3,250 5,900 –
Bulk
Carriers / 125,000 150,000 275.0 262.0 41.5 16.5 0.82 3,000 5,400 –
OBO´s
100,000 121,000 255.0 242.0 39.0 15.3 0.82 2,700 4,800 –
80,000 98,000 240.0 228.0 36.5 14.0 0.82 2,450 4,200 –
60,000 74,000 220.0 210.0 33.5 12.8 0.80 2,050 3,500 –
40,000 50,000 195.0 185.0 29.0 11.5 0.79 1,700 2,800 –
20,000 26,000 160.0 152.0 23.5 9.3 0.76 1,400 2,300 –
10,000 13,000 130.0 124.0 18.0 7.5 0.76 1,200 1,800 –
125,000 175,000 345.0 333.0 55.0 12.0 0.78 8,400 9,300 267,000
97,000 141,000 315.0 303.0 50.0 12.0 0.76 7,000 7,700 218,000
LNG 90,000 120,000 298.0 285.0 46.0 11.8 0.76 6,200 6,800 177,000
Carriers
(Prismatic) 80,000 100,000 280.0 268.8 43.4 11.4 0.73 6,000 6,500 140,000
52,000 58,000 247.3 231.0 34.8 9.5 0.74 4,150 4,600 75,000
27,000 40,000 207.8 196.0 29.3 9.2 0.74 2,900 3,300 40,000
Note: Dimensions given in tables may vary up to ±10% depending on construction and country of origin (this note comes from the origin docu-
ment WG121)
16
Ship Tables
DISPLACE- LADEN
DWT L OA L pp B CB WINDAGE: WINDAGE: CAPACITY
TYPE MENT DRAFT
(t) (m) (m3)
(m2) (m2)
LNG 75,000 117,000 288.0 274.0 49.0 11.5 0.74 8,300 8,800 145,000
Carriers 58,000 99,000 274.0 262.0 42.0 11.3 0.78 7,550 8,000 125,000
(Spheres,
Moss) 51,000 71,000 249.5 237.0 40.0 10.6 0.69 5,650 6,000 90,000
60,000 95,000 265.0 245.0 42.2 13.5 0.66 5,600 6,200 –
50,000 80,000 248.0 238.0 39.0 12.9 0.65 5,250 5,800 –
40,000 65,000 240.0 230.0 35.2 12.3 0.64 4,600 5,100 –
LPG 30,000 49,000 226.0 216.0 32.4 11.2 0.61 4,150 4,600 –
Carriers 20,000 33,000 207.0 197.0 26.8 10.6 0.58 3,500 3,900 –
10,000 17,000 160.0 152.0 21.1 9.3 0.56 2,150 2,500 –
5,000 8,800 134.0 126.0 16.0 8.1 0.53 1,500 1,700 –
3,000 5,500 116.0 110.0 13.3 7.0 0.52 1,050 1,200 –

DISPLACE- LADEN
DWT L OA L pp B CB WINDAGE: WINDAGE: CAPACITY:
TYPE MENT DRAFT
(t) (m) (m) (m) (-) FULLY LOADED IN BALLAST TEU / CEU
(t) (m)
(m2) (m2)
245,000 340,000 470.0 446.0 60.0 18.0 0.69 11,000 12,500 22,000
200,000 260,000 400.0 385.0 59.0 16.5 0.68 10,700 12,000 18,000
195,000 250,000 418.0 395.0 56.4 16.0 0.68 10,100 11,300 14,500
165,000 215,000 398.0 376.0 56.4 15.0 0.66 9,500 10,500 12,200
125,000 174,000 370.0 351.0 45.8 15.0 0.70 8,700 9,500 10,000
Container
120,000 158,000 352.0 335.0 45.6 14.8 0.68 8,000 8,700 9,000
Ships
(Post- 110,000 145,000 340.0 323.0 43.2 14.5 0.70 7,200 7,800 8,000
Panamax) 100,000 140,000 326.0 310.0 42.8 14.5 0.71 6,900 7,500 7,500
90,000 126,000 313.0 298.0 42.8 14.5 0.66 6,500 7,000 7,000
TEU
80,000 112,000 300.0 284.0 40.3 14.5 0.66 6,100 6,500 6,500
70,000 100,000 280.0 266.0 41.8 13.8 0.64 5,800 6,100 6,000
65,000 92,000 274.0 260.0 41.2 13.5 0.62 5,500 5,800 5,600
60,000 84,000 268.0 255.0 39.8 13.2 0.61 5,400 5,700 5,200
55,000 76,500 261.0 248.0 38.3 12.8 0.61 5,200 5,500 4,800
60,000 83,000 290.0 275.0 32.2 13.2 0.69 5,300 5,500 5,000
55,000 75,500 278.0 264.0 32.2 12.8 0.68 4,900 5,100 4,500
50,000 68,000 267.0 253.0 32.2 12.5 0.65 4,500 4,700 4,000
45,000 61,000 255.0 242.0 32.2 12.2 0.63 4,150 4,300 3,500
Container
Ships 40,000 54,000 237.0 225.0 32.2 11.7 0.62 3,750 3,900 3,000
(Panamax) 35,000 47,500 222.0 211.0 32.2 11.1 0.61 3,550 3,700 2,600
30,000 40,500 210.0 200.0 30.0 10.7 0.62 3,350 3,500 2,200
TEU
25,000 33,500 195.0 185.0 28.5 10.1 0.61 2,900 3,000 1,800
20,000 27,000 174.0 165.0 26.2 9.2 0.66 2,400 2,500 1,500
15,000 20,000 152.0 144.0 23.7 8.5 0.67 2,000 2,100 1,100
10,000 13,500 130.0 124.0 21.2 7.3 0.69 1,800 1,900 750
Note: Dimensions given in tables may vary up to ±10% depending on construction and country of origin (this note comes from the origin
document WG121)
17
Ship Tables
DISPLACE- LADEN
TYPE MENT DRAFT
(t) (m)
(m2) (m2)
50,000 87,500 287.0 273.0 32.2 12.4 0.78 7,500 7,800 5,000
45,000 81,500 275.0 261.0 32.2 12.0 0.79 6,850 7,100 4,500
40,000 72,000 260.0 247.0 32.2 11.4 0.77 6,200 6,400 4,000
Freight 35,000 63,000 245.0 233.0 32.2 10.8 0.76 5,600 5,800 3,500
RoRo 30,000 54,000 231.0 219.0 32.0 10.2 0.74 5,100 5,300 3,000
Ships
25,000 45,000 216.0 205.0 31.0 9.6 0.72 4,600 4,800 2,500
CEU 20,000 36,000 197.0 187.0 28.6 9.1 0.72 4,250 4,400 2,000
15,000 27,500 177.0 168.0 26.2 8.4 0.73 3,750 3,900 1,500
10,000 18,400 153.0 145.0 23.4 7.4 0.71 3,100 3,200 1,000
5,000 9,500 121.0 115.0 19.3 6.0 0.70 2,200 2,300 600
40,000 54,500 209.0 199.0 30.0 12.5 0.71 3,250 4,500 –
35,000 48,000 199.0 189.0 28.9 12.0 0.71 3,000 4,100 –
30,000 41,000 188.0 179.0 27.7 11.3 0.71 2,700 3,700 –
25,000 34,500 178.0 169.0 26.4 10.7 0.71 2,360 3,200 –
Cargo
20,000 28,000 166.0 158.0 24.8 10.0 0.70 2,100 2,800 –
Vessels
15,000 21,500 152.0 145.0 22.6 9.2 0.70 1,770 2,400 –
10,000 14,500 133.0 127.0 19.8 8.0 0.70 1,380 1,800 –
5,000 7,500 105.0 100.0 15.8 6.4 0.72 900 1,200 –
2,500 4,000 85.0 80.0 13.0 5.0 0.75 620 800 –
70,000 52,000 228.0 210.0 32.2 11.3 0.66 5,700 6,900 8,000
65,000 48,000 220.0 205.0 32.2 11.0 0.64 5,400 6,500 7,000
57,000 42,000 205.0 189.0 32.2 10.9 0.62 4,850 5,800 6,000
Car 45,000 35,500 198.0 182.0 32.2 10.0 0.59 4,300 5,100 5,000
Carriers
36,000 28,500 190.0 175.0 32.2 9.0 0.55 3,850 4,600 4,000
CEU 27,000 22,000 175.0 167.0 28.0 8.4 0.55 3,400 4,000 3,000
18,000 13,500 150.0 143.0 22.7 7.4 0.55 2,600 3,000 2,000
13,000 8,000 130.0 124.0 18.8 6.2 0.54 2,000 2,200 1,000
8,000 4,300 100.0 95.0 17.0 4.9 0.53 1,300 1,400 700
50,000 82,500 309.0 291.0 41.6 10.3 0.65 6,150 6,500 –
40,000 66,800 281.0 264.0 39.0 9.8 0.65 5,200 5,500 –
30,000 50,300 253.0 237.0 36.4 8.8 0.65 4,300 4,500 –
20,000 33,800 219.0 204.0 32.8 7.8 0.63 3,300 3,500 –
15,000 25,000 197.0 183.0 30.6 7.1 0.61 2,650 2,800 –
12,500 21,000 187.0 174.0 28.7 6.7 0.61 2,450 2,600 –
11,500 19,000 182.0 169.0 27.6 6.5 0.61 2,350 2,500 –
10,200 17,000 175.0 163.0 26.5 6.3 0.61 2,200 2,300 –
Ferries
9,000 15,000 170.0 158.0 25.3 6.1 0.60 2,100 2,200 –
8,000 13,000 164.0 152.0 24.1 5.9 0.59 1,900 2,000 –
7,000 12,000 161.0 149.0 23.5 5.8 0.58 1,800 1,900 –
6,500 10,500 155.0 144.0 22.7 5.6 0.56 1,700 1,800 –
5,000 8,600 133.0 124.0 21.6 5.4 0.58 1,420 1,500 –
3,000 5,300 110.0 102.0 19.0 4.7 0.57 950 1,000 –
2,000 3,500 95.0 87.0 17.1 4.1 0.56 760 800 –
1,000 1,800 74.0 68.0 14.6 3.3 0.54 570 600 –
document WG121)
18
Ship Tables
DISPLACE- LADEN
TYPE MENT DRAFT
(t) (m)
(m2) (m2)
9,000 3,200 127.0 117.0 30.5 4.3 0.43 1,850 2,000 –
6,000 2,100 107.0 93.0 26.5 3.7 0.43 1,550 1,650 –
5,000 1,700 97.0 83.0 24.7 3.4 0.43 1,250 1,250 –
Fast 4,000 1,400 92.0 79.0 24.0 3.2 0.42 1,120 1,200 –
Ferries
(multihull) 2,000 700 85.0 77.0 21.2 3.1 0.39 1,070 1,150 –
1,000 350 65.0 62.0 16.7 2.1 0.37 820 900 –
500 175 46.0 41.0 13.8 1.8 0.35 460 500 –
250 95 42.0 37.0 11.6 1.6 0.35 420 450 –

LADEN
DWT DISPLACEMENT L OA L pp B CB WINDAGE: WINDAGE: CAPACITY:
TYPE DRAFT
(t) (t) (m) (m) (m) (-) FULLY LOADED IN BALLAST PASSENGERS
(m)
(m2) (m2)
220,000 115,000 360.0 333.0 55.0 9.2 0.67 15,700 16,000 5,400 / 7,500
160,000 84,000 339.0 313.6 43.7 9.0 0.66 13,800 14,100 3,700 / 5,000
Cruise 135,000 71,000 333.0 308.0 37.9 8.8 0.67 13,100 13,400 3,200 / 4,500
Liners
115,000 61,000 313.4 290.0 36.0 8.6 0.66 11,950 12,200 3,000 / 4,200
(Post
Panamax) 105,000 56,000 294.0 272.0 35.0 8.5 0.67 10,800 11,000 2,700 / 3,500
95,000 51,000 295.0 273.0 33.0 8.3 0.67 10,400 10,600 2,400 / 3,000
80,000 44,000 272.0 231.0 35.0 8.0 0.66 8,800 9,000 2,000 / 2,800
90,000 48,000 294.0 272.0 32.2 8.0 0.67 10,400 10,600 2,000 / 2,800
80,000 43,000 280.0 248.7 32.2 7.9 0.66 9,100 9,300 1,800 / 2,500
70,000 38,000 265.0 225.0 32.2 7.8 0.66 8,500 8,700 1,700 / 2,400
60,000 34,000 252.0 214.0 32.2 7.6 0.63 7,250 7,400 1,600 / 2,200
60,000 34,000 251.2 232.4 28.8 7.6 0.65 7,850 8,000 1,600 / 2,200
50,000 29,000 234.0 199.0 32.2 7.1 0.62 6,450 6,600 1,400 / 1,800
50,000 29,000 232.0 212.0 28.0 7.4 0.64 6,850 7,000 1,400 / 1,800
Cruise 40,000 24,000 212.0 180.0 32.2 6.5 0.62 5,600 5,700 1,200 / 1,600
Liners 40,000 24,000 210.0 192.8 27.1 7.0 0.64 5,900 6,000 1,200 / 1,600
(Panamax) 35,000 21,000 192.0 164.0 32.0 6.3 0.62 4,800 4,900 1,000 / 1,400
35,000 21,000 205.0 188.0 26.3 6.8 0.61 5,500 5,600 1,000 / 1,400
30,000 18,200 190.0 175.0 25.0 6.7 0.61 4,600 4,700 850 / 1,200
25,000 16,200 180.0 165.0 24.0 6.6 0.60 3,920 4,000 700 / 1,000
20,000 14,000 169.0 155.0 22.5 6.5 0.60 3,430 3,500 600 / 800
15,000 11,500 152.0 140.0 21.0 6.4 0.60 2,940 3,000 350 / 500
10,000 8,000 134.0 123.0 18.5 5.8 0.59 2,350 2,400 280 / 400
5,000 5,000 100.0 90.0 16.5 5.6 0.59 1,570 1,600 200 / 300
7,500 9,100 128.0 120.0 17.1 6.8 0.64 810 840 –
5,000 6,200 106.0 100.0 16.1 6.2 0.61 650 670 –
3,000 4,200 90.0 85.0 14.0 5.9 0.58 550 570 –
2,500 3,500 85.0 81.0 13.0 5.6 0.58 500 520 –
Ocean- 2,000 2,700 80.0 76.0 12.0 5.3 0.54 470 490 –
going 1,500 2,200 76.0 72.0 11.3 5.1 0.52 430 450 –
Fishing 1,200 1,900 72.0 68.0 11.0 5.0 0.50 400 420 –
Vessels 1,000 1,600 70.0 66.0 10.5 4.8 0.47 380 400 –
700 1,250 65.0 62.0 10.0 4.5 0.44 345 360 –
500 800 55.0 53.0 8.6 4.0 0.43 290 300 –
250 400 40.0 38.0 7.0 3.5 0.42 190 200 –
150 300 32.0 28.0 7.5 3.4 0.41 135 140 –
document WG121)
19
Ship Tables
DISPLACE- LADEN
TYPE MENT DRAFT
(t) (m) (m3)
(m2) (m2)
100 200 27.0 23.0 7.0 3.1 0.39 – – –
Coastal 75 165 25.0 22.0 6.6 2.8 0.40 – – –

Fishing 50 115 21.0 17.0 6.2 2.7 0.39 – – –
Vessels 25 65 15.0 12.0 5.5 2.6 0.37 – – –
15 40 11.0 9.2 5.0 2.3 0.37 – – –
- 9,500 160.0 135.0 21.8 5.5 - - - –
- 7,000 140.0 120.0 23.5 5.0 - - - –
- 4,500 120.0 102.0 18.5 4.9 - - - –
- 3,500 100.0 85.0 16.5 4.8 - - - –
- 1,600 70.0 60.0 13.5 3.8 - - - –
Motor
- 1,100 60.0 51.0 12.0 3.6 - - - –
Yachts
- 700 50.0 43.0 9.0 3.5 - - - –
- 500 45.0 39.0 8.5 3.3 - - - –
- 250 40.0 24.0 8.0 3.0 - - - –
- 150 30.0 25.0 7.5 2.9 - - - –
- 50 20.0 17.0 5.5 2.7 - - - –
- 35.0 21.0 - 5.0 3.0 - - - -
- 27.0 18.0 - 4.4 2.7 - - - -
Motor - 16.5 15.0 - 4.0 2.3 - - - -
Boats - 6.5 12.0 - 3.4 1.8 - - - -
- 4.5 9.0 - 2.7 1.5 - - - -
- 1.3 6.0 - 2.1 1.0 - - - -
- 1,500 90.0 67.5 13.5 6.5 - - - –
- 1,000 70.0 51.5 11.5 6.0 - - - –
- 650 60.0 42.0 11.2 5.5 - - - –
Sailing - 550 50.0 37.5 9.5 5.0 - - - –
Yachts - 190 40.0 35.0 9.3 4.5 - - - –
- 125 30.0 28.0 7.2 3.6 - - - –
- 40 20.0 17.5 5.5 3.0 - - - –
- 13 15.0 11.2 4.5 2.5 - - - –
- 10 12.0 11.0 3.8 2.3 - - - -
- 5 10.0 9.5 3.5 2.1 - - - -
Sailing
- 1.5 6.0 5.7 2.4 1.5 - - - -
Boats
- 1.0 5.0 4.3 2.0 1.0 - - - -
- 0.8 2.5 2.3 1.5 0.5 - - - -
document WG121)
20
Structures
The preferred jetty structure can influence the Selecting an appropriate fender at an early stage
fender design and vice versa. The type of structure can have a major effect on the overall project cost.
depends on local practice, the geology at the site, Below are some typical structures and fender
available materials and other factors. design considerations.
FEATURES DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Open pile jetties
❙ Simple and cost-effective ❙ Low reaction reduces pile sizes and
concrete mass
❙ Good for deeper waters
❙ Best to keep fixings above piles and
❙ Load-sensitive
low tide
❙ Limited fixing area for fenders
❙ Suits cantilever panel designs
❙ Vulnerable to bulbous bows
Dolphins
❙ Common for oil and gas terminals ❙ Few but large fenders
❙ Very load-sensitive ❙ Total reliability needed
❙ Flexible structures need careful ❙ Low reactions preferred
design to match fender loads
❙ Large panels for low hull pressures
❙ Structural repairs are costly need chains etc
Monopiles
❙ Inexpensive structures ❙ Fenders should be designed for
fast installation
❙ Loads are critical
❙ Restricted access means low
❙ Not suitable for all geologies
maintenance fenders
❙ Suits remote locations
❙ Low reactions must be matched
❙ Quick to construct to structure
❙ Parallel motion systems
Mass structures
❙ Most common in areas with ❙ Keep anchors above low tide
small tides
❙ Care needed selecting fender
❙ Fender reaction not critical spacing and projection
❙ Avoid fixings spanning pre-cast and ❙ Suits cast-in or retrofit anchors
in situ sections or expansion joints
❙ Many options for fender types
Sheet piles
❙ Quick to construct ❙ Fixing fenders direct to piles difficult
due to build tolerances
❙ Mostly used in low corrosion regions
❙ Keep anchors above low tide
❙ In situ concrete copes are common
❙ Care needed selecting fender
❙ Can suffer from ALWC
spacing and projection
(accelerated low water corrosion)
21
Approach
Side berthing
Typical values
0° ≤ ≤ 15°
100 mm/s ≤ V ≤ 300 mm/s
60° ≤ ≤ 90°
Dolphin berthing
Typical values
0° ≤ ≤ 10°
100 mm/s ≤ V ≤ 200 mm/s
R
30° ≤ ≤ 90°
a
VB
End berthing
Typical values
0° ≤ ≤ 15°
150 mm/s ≤ V ≤ 500 mm/s
0° ≤ ≤ 15°
Lock entrances
Typical values
0° ≤ ≤ 30°
300 mm/s ≤ V ≤ 2000 mm/s
V
R 0° ≤ ≤ 30°
VB = Vsin
Ship-to-ship berthing
Typical values
0° ≤ ≤ 15°
150 mm/s ≤ V ≤ 500 mm/s
60° ≤ ≤ 90°
22
Approach Velocity (VB)
Berthing speeds depend on the ease or difficulty The most widely used guide to approach speeds
of the approach, the exposure of the berth and the is the Brolsma table, adopted by BS, PIANC and
vessel’s size. Conditions are normally divided into other standards.
five categories as shown in the chart’s key table.
For ease of use, speeds for the main vessel sizes
are shown below.
Berthing Speeds indicated in the Table is based on PIANC BS 6349-4:2014
Guidelines for the Design of Fender Systems, 2002
Design berthing velocity as function of navigation
conditions and size of vessel
Berthing condition
Good berthing, sheltered (i.e. not
a
exposed to waves and/or currents)
b Difficult berthing, sheltered
Good berthing, exposed to waves and/

c
or currents
Difficult berthing, exposed to waves
d
and/or currents
Adverse berthing, exposed to waves
e
and/or currents
*PIANC suggests using DWT from 50% or 75% confidence limit ship tables. Key – X Water displacement, in 1000 t
Y Characteristic velocity, in m/s, perpendicular
to the berth
VELOCITY, VB (m/s)
DWT
a b c d e
1,000 0.179 0.343 0.517 0.669 0.865
2,000 0.151 0.296 0.445 0.577 0.726
3,000 0.136 0.269 0.404 0.524 0.649
4,000 0.125 0.250 0.374 0.487 0.597
5,000 0.117 0.236 0.352 0.459 0.558
10,000 0.094 0.192 0.287 0.377 0.448
20,000 0.074 0.153 0.228 0.303 0.355
30,000 0.064 0.133 0.198 0.264 0.308
40,000 0.057 0.119 0.178 0.239 0.279
50,000 0.052 0.110 0.164 0.221 0.258
100,000 0.039 0.083 0.126 0.171 0.201
200,000 0.028 0.062 0.095 0.131 0.158
300,000 0.022 0.052 0.080 0.111 0.137
400,000 0.019 0.045 0.071 0.099 0.124
500,000 0.017 0.041 0.064 0.090 0.115
❙ Approach velocities less than 0.1 m/s should be ❙ Actual berthing velocities can be measured,
used with caution displayed and recorded using a SmartDock
Docking Aid System (DAS) by Trelleborg Marine
❙ Values are for tug-assisted berthing.
and Infrastructure.
❙ Spreadsheets for calculating the approach
velocity and berthing energy are available.
23
Block Coefficient (CB)
The Block Coefficient (CB) is a function of the hull Typical block coefficients (CB)
shape and is expressed as follows:
Container vessels 0.6–0.8
General cargo and bulk carri-
0.72–0.85
ers
Tankers 0.85
Ferries 0.55–0.65
where, RoRo vessels 0.7–0.8
MD = displacement of vessel (t)
LBP = length between perpendiculars (m)
B = beam of vessel (m)
D = draft of vessel (m)
SW = seawater density ≈ 1.025 t/m
3
Given ship dimensions and using typical block

coefficients, the displacement can be estimated:
MD ≈ CB × LBP × B × D × SW
Added Mass Coefficient (CM)

The Added Mass Coefficient (CM) allows for the
body of water carried along with the ship as it
moves sideways through the water. As the ship
is stopped by the fender, the entrained water
continues to push against the ship, effectively
increasing its overall mass. The Vasco Costa
method is adopted by most design codes for
ship-to-shore berthing where water depths are not
substantially greater than vessel drafts.
SHIGERA UEDA VASCO COSTA*

PIANC (2002)
(1981) (1964)
where,
D = draft of vessel (m)
KC = under keel clearance (m)
*valid where VB ≥ 0.08m/s, KC ≥ 0.1D
Special case – longitudinal approach
CM = 1.1
Recommended by PIANC
24
Eccentricity Coefficient (CE)
The Eccentricity Coefficient (CE) allows for the energy important for accurate calculation of the eccentricity
dissipated by rotation of the ship about its point of coefficient. In practice, CE often varies between 0.3
impact with the fenders. The correct point of impact, and 1.0 for different berthing cases. Velocity (V) is
berthing angle and velocity vector angle are all not always perpendicular to the berthing line.
VL = longitudinal velocity component (forward or astern)
(assuming the center of mass is at

mid-length of the ship)
where, COMMON BERTHING CASES

CB = block coefficient
R = center of mass to point of impact (m)
K = radius of gyration (m)
LOCK ENTRANCES AND DOLPHIN BERTHS

GUIDING FENDERS LOA
VB VB
In cases where the ship has a significant forward motion, it Ships will rarely berth exactly centrally against the berthing
is suggested by PIANC that the ship’s speed parallel to the dolphins. The dolphin pairs are usually placed at 0.25 – 0.4
berthing face (Vcosα) is not decreased by berthing impacts times the overall length(LOA) of the design vessel. When
and it is the transverse velocity component VB (Vsinα) which calculating R and , a dimension (a) of 0.1 LOA, but not greater
must be resisted by the fenders. When calculating the than 15 m, from the center of the platform (un)loading system
Eccentricity Coefficient, the velocity vector angle (φ) is taken may be assumed. Larger offsets will increase the Eccentricity
between VB and R. Coefficient. In extreme cases where VB is coaxial with the
fender, CE = 1.
25
Eccentricity Coefficient (CE)
SPECIAL CASES FOR FERRY AND RO-RO BERTHS
Ferry and Ro-Ro vessels commonly use two different berthing modes. BS6349-4:2014 defines these as
mode (a) and mode (b).
Mode (a) Mode (b)
VB
VB
V V
MODE (a) MODE (b)

Fender Characteristic Angle of Approach Fender Characteristic Velocity Angle of Approach of
Velocity of Vessel of Vessel (α) of Vessel Vessel (α)
VB = as per the 0°~ ≤ 15° A Side V = 0.5 m/s to 1.0 m/s * ≥ 10°
A Side
Brolsma table V = 0.3 m/s to 0.5 ≤ 15°
B End
B End V = 0.15 m/s 0° m/s
Ferry and Ro-Ro vessels make a parallel approach Ferry and Ro-Ro vessels make a direct longitudinal
to a row of breasting dolphins or quay and after approach to berth end-on against or close to a
coming to rest then moving slowly longitudinally to shore ramp structure but using side breasting
bert end or against a shore ramp structure. dolphins or a quay as a guide.
CM = 1.1 for Side Fenders

* VB = Vsin
26
Berth Configuration Coefficient (CC)
When ships berth at small angles against solid
structures, the water between hull and quay acts Closed structure
as a cushion and dissipates a small part of the
berthing energy. The extent to which this factor
contributes will depend upon several factors:
❙ Quay
structure design
❙ Under keel clearance
❙ Velocity and angle of approach
❙ Projection of fender
Semi-closed structure
❙ Vessel hull shape
PIANC recommends the following values:
❙ Open structures including berth

corners
CC = 1.0 ❙ Berthing angles > 5º
❙ Very low berthing velocities
❙ Large under keel clearance
❙ Solid quay walls under parallel
approach (berthing angles < 5º)
CC = 0.9
and under keel clearance less
than 15% of the vessel draught Open structure
Note: where the under keel clearance has already been considered
for added mass (CM), the berth configuration coefficient C C =1 is
usually assumed.
Softness Coefficient (CS)

Where fenders are hard relative to the flexibility
of the ship hull, some of the berthing energy is
absorbed by elastic deformation of the hull. In
most cases this contribution is limited and ignored
(CS=1). PIANC recommends the following values:
CS = 1.0 Soft fenders (δf > 150mm)

CS = 0.9 Hard fenders (δf ≤ 150mm)
27
Berthing Energy Calculation
The kinetic energy of a berthing ship needs to be commonly carried out using well recognized deterministic
absorbed by a suitable fender system and this is most methods as outlined in the following sections.
NORMAL BERTHING ENERGY (EN)

Most berthings will have energy less than or equal Allowance should also be made for how often
to the normal berthing energy (EN). The calculation the berth is used, any tidal restrictions,
should take into account worst combinations of experience of the operators, berth type, wind
vessel displacement, velocity, angle as well as the and current exposure.
various coefficients.
The normal energy to be absorbed by the fender
can be calculated as:
2
EN = 0.5 × MD × VB × CM × CE × CC × CS
Where,
EN = Normal berthing energy to be absorbed by the fender (kNm)
MD = Mass of the vessel (displacement in tonne) at chosen confidence level*
VB = Approach velocity component perpendicular to the berthing line (m/s)†
CM = Added mass coefficient
CE = Eccentricity coefficient
CC = Berth configuration coefficient
CS = Softness coefficient
* PIANC suggests 50% or 75% confidence limits (M50 or M75) are appropriate to most cases.
†
Berthing velocity (VB) is usually based on displacement at 50% confidence limit (M50).
ABNORMAL BERTHING ENERGY (EA)

Abnormal impacts arise when the normal energy The abnormal energy to be absorbed by the fender
is exceeded. Causes may include human error, can be calculated as:
malfunctions, exceptional weather conditions or a
combination of these factors.
EA = FS × EN
PIANC Factors of Safety (FS)
Where,
EA = Abnormal berthing energy to be absorbed by the VESSEL TYPE SIZE FS
fender (kNm) Largest 1.25
Tanker, bulk, cargo
Smallest 1.75
FS = S
afety factor for abnormal berthings.
Largest 1.5
Choosing a suitable safety factor (FS) will depend Container
Smallest 2.0
on many factors:
General cargo – 1.75
❙ The consequences a fender failure may have on berth
operations
RoRo, ferries – ≥ 2.0
❙ How frequently the berth is used
❙ Very low design berthing speeds which might easily Tugs, workboats, etc – 2.0
be exceeded
Source: PIANC 2002; Table 4.2.5.
❙ Vulnerability to damage of the supporting structure
PIANC recommends that ‘the factor of abnormal impact when
❙ Range of vessel sizes and types using the berth
derived should not be less than 1.1 nor more than 2.0 unless
❙ Hazardous or valuable cargoes including people exception circumstances prevail’. Source: PIANC 2002;
Section 4.2.8.5.
28
Fender Selection &
Fender Systems Design
POLAND
This will result in a safe, low maintenance and

long lasting fender system, increasing port
efficiency and providing longer life cycle cost.
Designing an efficient
fender system involves
selecting the right
materials.
29
Fender Selection
Every type and size of fender has different
performance characteristics (please refer to Fender
Systems brochure). Whatever type of fenders are
used, they must have sufficient capacity to absorb
the normal and abnormal energies of berthing ships.
When selecting fenders the designer must consider

many factors including:
❙ Single
or multiple fender contacts
❙ The
effects of angular compressions
❙ Approach
speeds
❙ Extremes
of temperature
❙ Berthing
frequency
❙ Fender
efficiency
GUIDELINES TO FENDER SELECTION

There are two fundamental criteria for selection
of fenders.
1. The energy capacity of the fender under the 2. The reaction force created by the fender onto
worst operating conditions must be greater the structure/vessel must be less than the
than the abnormal design Berthing Energy E A. capacity/hull pressure limit of the structure/
vessel. The local condition, for e.g. temperature
range, angle, impact velocity and manufacturing
tolerance, needs to be accounted for to
determine the operating capacity of the fender.
This is summarized by the following formula:
EA ≤ Ecv x TOL x VF x TF x AF R ≥ Rcv x TOL x VF x TF x AF

– Temperature (maximum) – Temperature (minimum)
– Velocity (minimum) – Velocity (maximum)
EA = Abnormal berthing energy R = Reaction force
Ecv = Constant velocity performance Rcv = Constant velocity performance
TOL = Manufacturing tolerance (typ –10%) TOL = Manufacturing tolerance (typ +10%)
TF = Temperature factor* TF = Temperature factor*
VF = Velocity factor* VF = Velocity factor*
AF = Angle factor* AF = Angle factor*
* Refer to TF/VF/AF table on pages 31-41
30
Correction factors
An understanding of rubber compound composition For a given velocity, there are two factors that
is key in designing a robust fender system. have the greatest influence on VF. Strain Rate
(inverse of compression time) and the type of
Through extensive testing, Trelleborg has rubber used in the fender.
established that rubber composition has a great
influence on velocity factor (VF), temperature factor Strain Rate
(TF), efficiency and longevity of rubber fenders. ❙ Reaction force of a fender is directly proportional
to the strain rate.
VELOCITY FACTOR (VF)
❙ For a given velocity, a large fender needs more
Rheology: non-linear engineering time to be compressed than a smaller one. At
❙ The behavior of rubber under stress is unique. It the same berthing velocity, the strain rate on a
is recognized in the theory of “Rheology”, which large fender will be lower than on a small fender
describes the flow of polymers under stress. and hence, magnitude of VF will be lower.
Through rheology, we understand that the stress
Type of Rubber used
or reaction force produced by a rubber fender
during compression not only depends on strain ❙ The second factor that greatly influences VF is
level, but also on strain rate (how quickly the the type of raw rubber used in compound
strain is induced). formulation. Test results showed that given the
same compression time, a fender comprised of
❙ This means that when a rubber fender is
100% natural rubber (NR) will have a lower
compressed, the resultant reaction force and
velocity factor (VF) than a fender comprised of
energy absorption are greater when the
100% synthetic based rubber (SBR).
compression occurs at higher speeds.
❙ Currently, performance data from most ❙ This is due to differing rates of Stress
manufacturers is presented with a berthing Relaxation between NR and SBR and relates
velocity of 2 - 8 cm/min, and rarely is there advice to differences in the microstructure in the
on the effects of high impact velocity. The respective polymer chains.
difference between this and actual real life
conditions (those used for the design of fender
systems and wharf structures) needs to be 150 mm/s velocity
accounted for in the engineering design.

Reflection %
Energy %
Definition
2 - 8 cm/min velocity
❙ Typically, normal berthing velocity of vessels is
from 20 mm/sec to 500 mm/sec. In a perfect
world, fender manufacturers would test at actual
berthing velocities to determine the performance Deflection %
of the fenders. However, in practice this is VF: ratio of reaction force at berthing speed and testing speed
exceptionally difficult given the size of investment
in equipment and range of fenders to be tested.
❙ PIANC’s 2002 “Guidelines for the Design of
Fender Systems” highlighted the importance of VF
in design and selection of fenders, and introduced
guidelines for calculating and reporting VF.
VF is defined as below:
Reaction force at impact speed
VF =
Reaction force at testing speed
31
KEY WEST, UNITED STATES
32
Correction factors
FACTORS IMPACTING THE MAGNITUDE OF VF
❙ Compression speed or strain rate
❙ Chemical composition of rubber compounds
FENDER SCN 300 SCN 300 SCN 2000

Height 300 mm 300 mm 2000 mm
Compression speed 1 mm/s 150 mm/s 150 mm/s
Compression time
(rated deflection / compression speed 291 sec 1.95 sec 12.97 sec
x deceleration factor)
Strain rate 150/216 =
1/216 = 0.005/s 150/1440 = 0.104/s
(compression speed / rated deflection) 0.694/s
VF (NR+SBR) 1.00 1.16 1.06
VF (100% NR) 1.00 1.10 1.02
The higher the strain rate, the higher is the VF.
THE IMPACT OF VF TEMPERATURE FACTOR (TF)

❙ The magnitude of VF in most cases will have an ❙ Any factors that have an effect on the stiffness
impact on fender performance characteristics of the rubber compound needs to be taken into
(Reaction Force and Energy Absorption) at normal consideration during engineering calculation of
design berthing speeds, and by default the design the berthing energy and reaction force. Failing to
of fender system components (frontal frames, do so will have tremendous adverse effect on the
chains and anchors) as well as wharf structure. berthing structure.
❙ Using VF, performance figures should be adjusted ❙ Temperature Factor refers to the effect of
to account for design berthing velocity. In general temperature on fender performance. Rubber
we would expect increased reaction force, and a fenders exhibit different performance
corresponding increase in energy absorption. characteristics depending on the temperature of
the rubber. The magnitude of TF is affected by
❙ The fender system design will need to account the type of base polymer used (SBR, NR or a
for the increased reaction force in relation to blend of the two).
restraint chain and fixing anchor design, as well
as forces applied to the frontal frames. In ❙ Typically, engineering design will review possible
addition, the increased reaction force loads will minimum and maximum temperature conditions
need to be reviewed against the structural design likely to be experienced by a fender. At high
of the wharf (quay wall, or dolphin etc.). temperatures, the fender is effectively softer and
as a result, will have a lower energy absorption
❙ It’s essential that manufacturers incorporate capacity, whilst at low temperatures the fender is
guidance on the effects of VF on their fenders. harder and will by default have higher reaction
When comparing catalogue figures from different forces which must be accounted for in the design
manufacturers, it’s essential to ensure VF is of fender components as well as wharf structure.
applied or performance has been reported at the
same test speed to make sure fenders are
compared on the same ground.
33
Polymer types
IMPACT OF POLYMER BLEND ON VF & TF SELECTION OF RUBBER TYPE*:
❙ The type of polymers used in manufacturing ❙ NR/SBR blend:
fenders has a substantial impact on VF/TF that
• Useful in achieving stable compound properties
must be applied during fender selection.
and fender performance over the years
❙ Historically most Asian based fender • Less damage from ozone/oxygen/heat/UV
manufacturers have used Natural (NR) based • Better aging properties
rubber compounds; whilst those in Europe used
❙ 100% NR compound
Synthetic rubber (SBR) based compounds. There
was a significant difference of opinion between • Preferred if the fenders are used at very
East and West on Velocity Factor, this being low temperatures
attributable to both the underlying philosophy • Fenders are used in load sensitive structures
(strain rate vs. speed) as well as base polymer • The fenders usage temperature varies
being used. Unfortunately limited research has extensively from subzero to +30ºC
been undertaken to explore this further over the ❙ 100% SBR compound
last few years.
• Preferred for berthing at high speed and impact
❙ Recent research from Trelleborg has highlighted of reaction force is not critical
the significant impact that base polymer material • High temperature applications
has on both VF and TF. Indeed much of the
historical argument between fender * Suggested for typical applications. For critical applications, please
contact Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure offices.
manufacturers now appears to be attributable to
the different base polymer compounds.
❙ Trelleborg’s historical VF and TF have related
primarily to NR based compounds (except MV
fenders), and current R&D is focused on updating
our factors to relate to 100% natural rubber,
100% synthetic rubber and blends of NR/SBR
used across our fender range.
❙ New research indicated that polymer blend ratio
can be customized to optimize the application of
VF/TF factors to match operational parameters.
34
Correction Factors
Velocity Factor (VF) Table
BLEND OF NATURAL AND
100% SYNTHETIC RUBBER
COMPRESSION SYNTHETIC RUBBER 100% NATURAL RUBBER
(SBR)
TIME (Seconds) (CATALOGUE COMPOUND)
VF VF VF
1 1.20 1.14 1.31
2 1.16 1.10 1.25
3 1.14 1.09 1.22
4 1.13 1.07 1.20
5 1.11 1.06 1.19
6 1.10 1.06 1.17
7 1.09 1.05 1.16
8 1.09 1.04 1.15
9 1.08 1.04 1.14
10 1.07 1.03 1.14
11 1.07 1.03 1.13
12 1.06 1.02 1.12
13 1.06 1.02 1.12
14 1.05 1.02 1.11
15 1.05 1.01 1.11
16 1.05 1.01 1.10
17 1.04 1.01 1.10
18 1.04 1.01 1.09
19 1.04 1.00 1.09
20 1.03 1.00 1.08
Compression time (inverse of strain rate) needs to be calculated using the following formula: t = d/(ƒ*Vd)
Where:
t = compression time (seconds)
d = rated deflection (mm)
Vd = initial berthing velocity (mm/s)
ƒ = 0.74 deceleration factor (Peak reaction force occurs at between 30% - 40% deflection, where
there has been a deceleration due to energy absorption. ƒ represents the factor associated
with deceleration.)
Temperature Factor (TF) Table
BLEND OF NATURAL AND
100% SYNTHETIC RUBBER
TEMPERATURE SYNTHETIC RUBBER 100% NATURAL RUBBER
(SBR)
(°C) (CATALOGUE COMPOUND)
TF TF TF
+50 0.916 0.914 0.918
+40 0.947 0.946 0.948
+30 0.978 0.978 0.979
+23 1.000 1.000 1.000
+10 1.030 1.025 1.038
+0 1.075 1.053 1.108
-10 1.130 1.080 1.206
-20 1.249 1.142 1.410
-30 1.540 1.315 1.877
35
Angle Factor (AF) Table
ENERGY FACTOR (SUPER ENERGY FACTOR (SCK CELL
ANGLE (°) REACTION FACTOR
CONE FENDER) FENDER)
0 1.000 1.000 1.000
3 1.039 0.977 1.000
5 1.055 0.951 1.000
8 1.029 0.909 1.000
10 1.000 0.883 1.000
15 0.856 0.810 0.950
20 0.739 0.652 0.800
The table can be used to estimate fender performance under angular compression (due to bow flare, berthing angle, etc).
SUPER CONE FENDER

The graph shows fender performance with no chain restraints up to 12 degrees and chain restraints for
angles above 12 degrees. Fender is fitted with a standard frontal frame.
Energy & Reaction Angle Correction Factors
1.1
1.0
0.9
Energy Factor
Factors Value
0.8
Reaction Factor
0.7
0.6
0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Angle (degrees)
36
MV Elements
ANGLE FACTORS (AF)
TRANVERSE LOAD LONGITUDINAL LOAD
Reduction factor Rs for energy absorption E is dependent on Reduction factor Rl for energy absorption E is dependent on
the relation between the spacing A and the dimension H of the relation between the length L and the dimension H of the
the fender element. fender element.
Example Example
2 fender elements MV 1000 x 2000 A 2 fender elements MV 750 x 1500 B
Rated energy absorption E = 2 x 50 = 100 Tonne-m Rated energy absorption E = 2 x 14.7 = 29.4 Tonne-m
Angular berthing 6º Angular berthing 6º
A = 2.0 H L = 2.0 H
Reduction factor Rs = 0.9 Reduction factor Rl = 0.9
Energy absorption E6º = 0.9 x 100 = 90 Tonne-m Energy absorption E4º = 0.9 x 29.4 = 26.5 Tonne-m
❙ The above curves are valid for all MV-element sizes.
❙ The characteristics consider an average rated reaction force

and therefore the reaction force should always be the same
as 0º compression.
❙ For ratios and angles not given, one may interpolate.
❙ In the case of both transverse and longitudinal angular

berthing the factors Rs and Rl are to be multiplied to give
the combined reduction factor for the compound angle.
Example
Bow radius gives tranverse = 6º ; Rs = 0.9
Flare gives longitudinal = 4º ; Rl = 0.9
R total = 0.9 x 0.9 = 0.81
37
Super Arch and Arch Fenders
ANGLE FACTORS (AF)
LONGITUDINAL LOAD
Energy Correction Factors

L/H 0 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 25 30
0.750 1.000 0.924 0.910 0.896 0.882 0.868 0.854 0.825 0.781 0.706 0.632 0.563
1.000 1.000 0.901 0.882 0.863 0.844 0.824 0.805 0.765 0.703 0.602 0.509 0.434
1.100 1.000 0.891 0.870 0.850 0.828 0.807 0.785 0.740 0.672 0.561 0.466 0.394
1.200 1.000 0.882 0.859 0.836 0.812 0.788 0.764 0.715 0.640 0.522 0.428 0.361
1.300 1.000 0.872 0.847 0.822 0.796 0.770 0.743 0.689 0.608 0.486 0.395 0.334
1.400 1.000 0.863 0.836 0.808 0.780 0.751 0.722 0.663 0.578 0.453 0.367 0.310
1.500 1.000 0.853 0.824 0.794 0.764 0.733 0.701 0.638 0.547 0.423 0.342 0.289
1.600 1.000 0.844 0.812 0.780 0.747 0.714 0.680 0.613 0.518 0.396 0.321 0.271
1.700 1.000 0.834 0.800 0.766 0.730 0.695 0.659 0.588 0.491 0.373 0.302 0.255
1.800 1.000 0.824 0.788 0.751 0.713 0.675 0.637 0.564 0.465 0.352 0.285 0.241
1.900 1.000 0.814 0.776 0.736 0.696 0.656 0.616 0.540 0.441 0.334 0.270 0.228
2.000 1.000 0.804 0.763 0.722 0.679 0.637 0.595 0.517 0.419 0.317 0.257 0.217
3.000 1.000 0.700 0.636 0.574 0.515 0.462 0.416 0.348 0.279 0.211 0.171 0.145
4.000 1.000 0.594 0.514 0.445 0.390 0.347 0.312 0.261 0.209 0.159 0.128 0.108
5.000 1.000 0.495 0.415 0.356 0.312 0.277 0.250 0.209 0.168 0.127 0.103 0.087
Reaction Force Correction Factors

L/H 0 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 25 30
0.750 1.000 0.873 0.866 0.862 0.862 0.864 0.867 0.878 0.896 0.921 0.926 0.907
1.000 1.000 0.863 0.862 0.865 0.870 0.878 0.886 0.903 0.922 0.921 0.817 0.777
1.100 1.000 0.862 0.863 0.869 0.876 0.885 0.895 0.912 0.926 0.907 0.824 0.708
1.200 1.000 0.862 0.866 0.873 0.883 0.893 0.903 0.919 0.927 0.882 0.767 0.649
1.300 1.000 0.863 0.869 0.879 0.890 0.900 0.911 0.924 0.923 0.849 0.709 0.600
1.400 1.000 0.865 0.873 0.885 0.897 0.908 0.917 0.927 0.914 0.806 0.658 0.556
1.500 1.000 0.867 0.878 0.891 0.903 0.914 0.922 0.927 0.899 0.759 0.614 0.519
1.600 1.000 0.871 0.883 0.897 0.909 0.919 0.925 0.924 0.879 0.712 0.576 0.487
1.700 1.000 0.874 0.888 0.903 0.915 0.923 0.927 0.917 0.854 0.670 0.542 0.458
1.800 1.000 0.878 0.893 0.908 0.919 0.926 0.927 0.908 0.823 0.632 0.512 0.433
1.900 1.000 0.882 0.899 0.913 0.923 0.927 0.924 0.894 0.789 0.599 0.485 0.410
2.000 1.000 0.887 0.903 0.917 0.925 0.927 0.920 0.878 0.752 0.569 0.461 0.389
3.000 1.000 0.922 0.927 0.912 0.876 0.819 0.747 0.624 0.501 0.379 0.307 0.260
4.000 1.000 0.919 0.876 0.795 0.699 0.622 0.561 0.468 0.376 0.285 0.230 0.195
5.000 1.000 0.858 0.745 0.639 0.560 0.498 0.448 0.375 0.301 0.228 0.184 0.156
❙ Reaction force is the maximum generated with the

compression cycle
❙ Correction factors may be used for any size and

compound of the Super Arch and Arch fender
element range
38
Super Arch and Arch Fenders
ANGLE FACTORS (AF)
TRANVERSE LOAD
Energy Correction Factors
A/H ENERGY CORRECTION
DEFLECTION % AT POINT C REACTION CORRECTION FACTOR
FACTOR
3 57.5 1.000 0.999
5 57.5 0.991 0.987
6 57.5 0.986 0.973
7 57.5 0.980 0.960
8 57.5 0.974 0.947
9 57.5 0.967 0.934
10 57.5 0.959 0.922
12 57.5 0.962 0.896
15 57.5 0.986 0.857
20 57.5 1.001 0.787
25 57.5 0.999 0.716
30 57.5 0.969 0.649
❙ Reaction force is the maximum generated with

the compression cycle
❙ Correction factors may be used for any size and

compound of the Super Arch and Arch fender
element range
Effect of VF and TF on fender performance: (a real life berthing

example)
❙ Let’s take the example of an SCN1000 F2.5 ❙ Design and selection of fender systems will
fender to look at the impact of both TF and VF. review both energy absorption and reaction force.
The Performance Data (CV) is shown in the table The aim is to select a suitable fender that does
below. We will ignore the fender manufacturing not exceed the reaction force limits under normal
tolerance for this example: operating conditions, whilst providing more than
the minimum energy requirement.
FENDER SCN1000 F2.5 ❙ The maximum reaction force occurs under a
different set of operating conditions to the
Reaction at rated deflection 965 kN
minimum energy absorption. For example, the
Energy at rated deflection 540 kNm highest reaction force will occur with the highest
Testing Speed 2 - 8 cm/min velocity and lowest temperature, whilst the
lowest energy will occur with the slowest velocity
Test temperature 23 ± 5ºC
and highest temperate.
Compression angle 0 deg
❙ A typical fender systems design will have the
following condition:
❙ Given a typical range of berthing velocities
and temperatures at the berth, we’ll explore Design berthing velocities: between 20 and
the impact on fender performance of both of 160mm/s,
these factors. Operating temperature range: between 10°C
and 40°C.
39
Example of correction factor calculations
VF CALCULATION: TF CALCULATION:
❙ Assuming steady state deceleration, the At operating temperature range of 10°C to 40°C
compression time (t) is:
TF (10°C) = 1.038 and TF (40°C) = 0.948.
t = d/(ƒ*Vd) = (0.72 x 1000) / (0.74 x 160)
(Please note this relates ONLY to Trelleborg Marine
= 6.1 sec
and Infrastructure’s compound, 100% SBR based)
t = compression time
Vd = initial berthing velocity So, under actual operating conditions, the
performance will be:
ƒ= deceleration factor (peak reaction force
occurs at ~ 30% deflection where there has Maximum Reaction Force Conditions: (@ 160
been a deceleration due to energy absorption. mm/s & 10°C)
ƒ represents the factor associated with the Reaction Force = RCV x VF x TF
deceleration.) = 965 x 1.17 x 1.038
(Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure has = 1172 kN
conducted actual high speed compression Energy absorption: (@ 20 mm/s & 40°C)
testing to validate its VFs. Information on these
effects can be discussed with Trelleborg Marine Energy Absorption = ECV x VF x TF
and Infrastructure’s Engineers). = 540 x 1.00 x 0.948 (VF=1, as the compression
❙ Based on the strain rate for this compression time at 20 mm/s =48 sec)
time, the VF is calculated to be: = 512 kJ
VF = 1.17 (Note: this relates ONLY to Trelleborg Therefore, under the extremes of possible operating
Marine and Infrastructure’s compound, 100% conditions the effects of temperature and velocity
SBR based) are summarized below:
CV PERFORMANCE VELOCITY TEMPERATURE PERFORMANCE

SCN1000 F2.5 % CHANGE
(2-8 cm/min, 23°C) FACTOR (VF) FACTOR (TF) (IN REALITY)
Reaction Force 965 kN + 17% + 3.8% 1172 kN + 21.4%
Energy Absorption 540 kJ 0% - 5.2% 512 kJ - 5.2%
❙ The same fender performs differently depending ❙ It’s imperative that these factors are considered
on the factors applied. The magnitude of the during the design of fender systems. Again, care
factor depends on the rubber compound used should be taken when comparing products from
and size of the fender. Both have a significant different manufacturers, as factors will differ
effect on fender performance under real depending on the type of rubber compound used
operating conditions, and subsequently, on the during manufacturing process.
design and selection of the system and of the
berthing structure.
40
Fender Pitch
Fenders spaced too far apart may cause ships to
hit the structure. A positive clearance (C) should
always be maintained, usually between 5–15% of
the uncompressed fender height (H). A minimum
clearance of 300mm inclusive of bow flare is
commonly specified.
❙ Smaller ships have smaller bow radius but

usually cause smaller fender deflection.
❙ Clearance distances should take account of

bow flare angles.
❙ Bow flares are greater near to the bow and

stern.
❙ Where ship drawings are available, these

should be used to estimate
bow radius.
FENDER PITCH
As a guide to suitable distance between fenders
on a continuous wharf, the formula below
BOW RADIUS indicates the maximum fender pitch. Small,
intermediate and large vessels should be checked.
where,
where,
RB = bow radius (m) P = pitch of fender (m)
B = beam of vessel (m) RB = bow radius (m)
LOA = vessel length overall (m) h = fender projection when compressed, measured at
centerline of fender
The bow radius formula is approximate
= berthing angle
and should be checked against actual ship
dimensions where possible. C = c learance between vessel and dock (C should
be 5–15% of the undeflected fender projection,
including panel) (m)
Caution θ = hull contact angle with fender
Large fender spacings may work in theory but According to BS 6349, it is also recommended that the
in practice a maximum spacing of 12–15 m fender spacing does not exceed 0.15 × LS, where LS is
is more realistic. the length of the smallest ship.
41
Multiple Contact Cases
3-fender contact 2-fender contact
❙ Energy absorbed by three (or more) fenders ❙ Energy divided over 2 (or more) fenders
❙ Larger fender deflection likely ❙ Smaller fender deflections
❙ Bow flare is important ❙ Greater total reaction into structure
❙ 1-fender contact also possible for ships with small ❙ Clearance depends on bow radius and bow flare
bow radius
ANGULAR BERTHING
The berthing angle between the fender and the the berthing structure at the point of contact.
ship’s hull may result in some loss of energy
There are three possible conditions for the effects
absorption. Angular berthing means the horizontal
of angular berthing: flare, bow radius and dolphin.
and/or vertical angle between the ship’s hull and
Flare Bow radius Dolphin
42
Fender
Accessories
Some fender systems need chains to help support

heavy components or to control the deflection and
shear during impact.
Compatible accessories like shackles, brackets

and U-anchors of high standards are available with
Fender panels are just every fender systems.
as important as the
rubber units on high
performance systems.
43
Fender Panel Design
FACTORS AFFECTING FENDER PANEL
DESIGN
Fender panels are used to distribute reaction

forces into the hulls of berthing vessels. The panel
design should consider many factors including:
3 design cases
Full-face contact Low-level impact Double contact
❙ Hull pressures and tidal range ❙ Permissible stresses ❙ Chain connections

❙ Lead-in bevels and chamfers ❙ Weld sizes and types ❙ Lifting points
❙ Bending moment and shear ❙ Effects of fatigue and ❙ Paint systems
cyclic loads
❙ Local buckling ❙ Corrosion allowance
❙ Pressure test method
❙ Limit state load factors ❙ Maintenance and service life
❙ Rubber fender connections
❙ Steel grade
❙ UHMW-PE attachment
44
Fender panels
1 Closed box steel structure
2 Internal structural members
3 Blind boss fender connections
4 Shot blasted steel (SA2.5)
5 C5M modified epoxy paint*
6 Polyurethane topcoat (RAL5005 blue)†
7 Studs for UHMW-PE face pads
8 Chain brackets
9 Lifting points
10 Lead-in bevels and chamfers*
* Other options available †
Alternative colors on request
Steel properties
TEST TEMPERATURE OF
YIELD STRENGTH TENSILE STRENGTH
(V-NOTCHED) CHARPY IMPACT
STANDARD GRADE (min) (min)
TEST
N/mm2 psi N/mm2 psi °C °F
Q235B 235 34000 375 54000 20 68
GB/T 700
Q275B 275 40000 490 71000 20 68
Q345B 345 50000 470 68000 20 68
GB/T 1591
Q345C 345 50000 470 68000 0 32
S235JR (1.0038) 235 34000 360 52000 20 68
S275JR (1.0044) 275 40000 420 61000 20 68
EN 10025
S355J2 (1.0570) 355 51000 510 74000 -20 -4
S355J0 (1.0553) 355 51000 510 74000 0 32
SS400 235 34000 402 58000 0 32
JIS G-3101 SS490 275 40000 402 58000 0 32
SM490 314 46000 490 71000 0 32
A-36 250 36000 400 58000 0 32
ASTM
A-572 345 50000 450 65000 0 32
The national standards of France and Germany have been replaced by EN 10025. In the UK, BS4360 has been replaced by BS EN 10025.
The table above is for guidance only and is not comprehensive. Actual specifications should be consulted in all cases for the full specifications
of steel grades listed and other similar grades.
Steel thickness Typical panel weights

(in accordance with PIANC 2002)
Light duty 200 – 250
Exposed both faces ≥ 12 Medium duty 250 – 300
Exposed one face ≥9 Heavy duty 300 – 400
Internal (not exposed) ≥8 Extreme duty ≥ 400
[Units: mm] [Units: kg/m2]
Corresponding minimum panel thickness will be 140 – 160 mm
(excluding UHMW-PE face pads) and often much greater.
45
Hull Pressures and Beltings
HULL PRESSURES HULL
VESSEL TYPE SIZE/CLASS PRESSURE
Allowable hull pressures depend on hull plate (kN/m2)
thickness and frame spacing. These vary < 1,000 teu (1st/2nd
< 400
generation)
according to the type of ship. Refer to the table on < 3,000 teu (3rd generation) < 300
the right for PIANC’s guidelines on hull pressures. Container ships
< 8,000 teu (4th generation) < 250
> 8,000 teu (5th/6th
< 200
generation)
≤ 20,000 DWT 400–700
General cargo
> 20,000 DWT < 400
P = average hull pressure (kN/m2)
≤ 20,000 DWT < 250
R = total fender reaction (kN)
W = panel width, excluding bevels (m) Oil tankers ≤ 60,000 DWT < 300
H = panel height, excluding bevels (m) > 60,000 DWT 150–200
Gas carriers LNG/LPG < 200
Bulk carriers < 200
RoRo
Usually
Passenger/ fitted with
cruise beltings
(strakes)
SWATH
BELTINGS Source: PIANC 2002; Table 4.4.1
Most ships have beltings (sometimes called belts Belting types

or strakes). These come in many shapes and sizes
– some are well-designed, others can be poorly
maintained or modified.
Care is needed when designing fender panels
to cope with beltings and prevent snagging or
catching which may damage the system.
Belting line loads exert crushing forces on the
fender panel which must be considered in the
structural design.
BELTING LOAD
APPLICATION VESSELS
(kN/m)
Aluminium
Light duty 150 – 300
hulls
Medium duty Container 500 – 1,000
Heavy duty RoRo / Cruise 1,000 – 1,500
1

2 ommon on RoRo/Cruise ships.
C
Belting range is often Projection 200 – 400 mm (typical).
greater than tidal
range due to ship 2 Internal structural members
design, heave, roll,
and changes in draft. 3 ommon on LNG/Oil tankers, barges, offshore
C
supply vessels and some container ships.
Projection 100 – 250 mm (typical).
46
Friction and Chain Design
FRICTION Typical friction design values
Friction has a large influence on the fender MATERIALS FRICTION COEFFICIENT (μ)
systems’ design, particularly for restraint chains. UHMW-PE Steel 0.2
Low friction facing materials (UHMW-PE) are often HD-PE Steel 0.3
used to reduce friction. Other materials, like Polyurethane Steel 0.4
polyurethanes (PU) used for the skin of foam Rubber Steel 0.7
fenders, have lower friction coefficients than Timber Steel 0.4
rubber against steel or concrete. The table can be Steel Steel 0.5
used as a guide to typical design values. Friction
coefficients may vary due to wet or dry conditions,
local temperatures, static and dynamic load
cases, as well as surface roughness.
CHAIN DESIGN
Chains can be used to restrain the movements of Factors to be considered when designing
fenders during compression or to support static fender chains:
loads. Chains may serve four main functions:
❙ Corrosion reduces link diameter and weakens the
❙ Weight chains support the steel panel and chain
prevent excessive drooping of the system. They
❙ Corrosion allowances and periodic replacement
may also resist vertical shear forces caused by
should be factored in
ship movements or changing draft.
❙ A ‘weak link’ in the chain system is desirable to
❙ Shear chains resist horizontal forces
prevent damage to more costly components in
caused during longitudinal approaches or
an accident
warping operations.
❙ Tension chains restrict tension on the fender
rubber. Correct location can optimize the
deflection geometry.
❙ Uplift chains prevent vertical shear forces in
conjunction with weight chains. These are often
specified for exposed offshore berths with large
wave movements.
❙ Detension chains are a temporary set of chains
used in conjunction with a hydraulic pull cylinder
to assist with slackening the operational chains
during maintenance changeout procedures.
❙ Rope guard chains are sometimes specified to
prevent mooring lines from getting caught behind
fender panels particularly on panels with no top
tension chains.
❙ Keep chains are used to moor floating fenders
or to prevent loss of fixed fenders in the event
of accidents.
47
Friction and Chain Design
1 Tension chains
2 Weight chains
3 Shear chains
4 Uplift chains
5 Detension chains
Note: Selection of chains depends on project requirements. Please consult Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure.
where,
1 = a sin or H1 = L C .sin 1 1 = Static angle of chain (degrees)
H1 = Static offset between brackets (m)
H2 = H1 – LC = Bearing length of chain (m)
F
H2 = Dynamic offset between brackets at F (m)
H2 or = a sin H1 – F F = Fender compression (m)
2 = a sin 2
LC = Dynamic angle of chain (degrees)
LC 2
SWL = Safe Working Load of chain (tonne)
μ = 0.2 Friction coefficient of the face pad
(μ.( R)) + W
SWL = material, i.e. UHMW-PE facings
9.81.n. cos 2 R = Combined reaction of all rubber fenders (kN)
n = Number of chains acting together
MBL = Fc.SWL MBL = Minimum Breaking Load of chain (tonne)
Fc = Factor of safety = 2~3 (typically)
48
UHMW-PE
The contact face of a fender panel helps to Features
determine the lifetime maintenance costs of
a fender installation. UHMW-PE is the best ❙ V
ery low friction coefficient
material available for such applications. ❙ E
xcellent abrasion resistance
It uniquely combines low friction, impact
❙ U
V and ozone resistant
strength, non-marking characteristics and
resistance to wear, temperature extremes, ❙ D
oes not rot, split or crack
seawater and marine borers. UHMW-PE is ❙ 1
00% recyclable
molded into plates at extremely high pressure
and is a totally homogeneous material which Applications
is available in many sizes and thicknesses.
These plates can be cut, machined and ❙ F ender panel (frame) face pads
drilled to suit any type of panel or shield. ❙ R
ubbing strips
❙ V
-fender shields
❙ L ock entrance and wall protection
❙ B
ridge buttress protection
❙ B
eltings on workboats
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF UHMW-PE PADS

TYPICAL VALUE
PROPERTY TEST METHOD UNIT
VIRGIN REGENERATED*
Density ISO 1183-1 g/cm3 0.920 – 0.945 0.920 – 0.945
Pm = 1N/mm 2
Dynamic friction (PE-Steel) – 0.15 0.15
V = 10m/min
Mass Melt-flow rate (MFI) ISO 1133/ ASTM D1238 g/10 min 0 - 0.1 0 - 0.1
50 ± 5 50 ± 5
(Avg. of two samples. (Avg. of two samples.
% Crystallinity
ISO 11357-3/ ASTM D3418 % The variation between The variation between
(2nd heating cycle)
the samples should be the samples should be
less than 5%) less than 5%)
135 ± 4 135 ± 4
(Avg. of two samples. (Avg. of two samples.
Peak melting temperature ISO 11357-3/ ASTM D3418 °C The variation between The variation between
the samples should be the samples should be
less than 5%) less than 5%)
Sample preparation: ISO 11542
Testing: ISO 15527
Abrasion resistance
(modified test conditions) ml/g 90 - 140 90 - 140
(sand slurry test)
Reference specimen: VN: 2300
ml/g
Sample preparation: ISO 11542-2 90 - 260 (two molded 90 - 260 (two molded
Double notch Charpy
Testing: ISO 11542-2 KJ/sq.m samples, (<5% samples, (<5%
impact strength
ASTM D4020-11 variation in results) variation in results)
Operating temperature – °C –80 to +80 –80 to +80
Thermal expansion DIN 53752 K-1
≈ 2 × 10 -4
≈ 2 × 10-4
Sample frequency: 1 samples/ molding
Size: cut from the actual product (100mmW x 100mmL x min.10mm thick)
* Yield strength, tensile strength and elongation at break are lower than virgin material.
49
UHMW-PE
WEAR ALLOWANCES
APPLICATION t (mm) W* (mm) BOLT
Light duty 30 3–5 M16
40 7 – 10
Medium duty M16 – M20
50 10 – 15
60 15 – 19
Heavy duty 70 18 – 25 M24 – M30
80 22 – 32
90 25 – 36
Extreme duty M30 – M36
100 28 – 40 [Units: mm]
* Where allowances are typical values, actual wear allowance may vary due to fixing detail.
Small increases in facing thickness can greatly extend service life for minimal extra cost.
Typical dimensions
A 45–80
B 250–350
C 45–80
D 300–450
E 5–10
[Units: mm]
Dimensions will depend on pad thickness and application.
Large pads vs small pads
The standard color is black, but UHMW-PE Larger pads are usually more robust but smaller pads are easier and cheaper to replace.
is available in many other colors if required.
50
Corrosion Prevention
Fenders are usually installed in corrosive Paint coatings and galvanizing have a finite life.
environments, sometimes made worse by high Coating must be reapplied at intervals during the
temperature and humidity. Corrosion of fender life of the fender. Galvanized components like
accessories can be reduced with specialist paint chains or bolts may need periodic re-galvanizing or
coatings, by galvanizing or with selective use of replacement. Stainless steels should be carefully
stainless steels. selected for their performance in seawater.
PAINT COATINGS Low 2 – 5 years
ISO EN 12944-5:2007 is a widely used Medium 5 – 15 years

international standard defining the durability of High > 15 years
corrosion protection systems in various
environments. The C5-M class applies to marine
Durability range is not a guarantee. It is to help operators
coastal, offshore and high salinity locations and is estimate sensible maintenance times.
considered to be the most applicable to fenders.
The life expectancy or ‘durability’ of coatings is

divided into three categories which estimate the
time to first major maintenance:
The table gives some typical C5-M class paint systems based on ISO EN 12944-5:2007 standard which
provides high durability in marine environments. Note that coal tar epoxy paints are not available in some
countries.
PRIMING COAT(s) SUBSESQUENT COAT(s) PAINT SYSTEM EXPECTED
PAINT SURFACE
NDFT DURABILITY (C5-M
SYSTEM PREPARATION
BINDER PRIMER No. COATS NDFT BINDER No. COATS CORROSIVITY)
A5M.02 Sa 2.5 EP, PUR Misc. 1 80 EP, PUR 3–4 320 High (>15y)
A5M.04 Sa 2.5 EP, PUR Misc. 1 250 EP, PUR 2 500 High (>15y)
EP, PUR,
A5M.06 Sa 2.5 ZN ('R) 1 60 EP, PUR 4–5 320 High (>15y)
ESI
A5M.08 Sa 2.5 EPC Misc. 1 100 EPC 3 300 Medium (5-15y)
Sa 2.5 is defined in ISO 8501-1 Misc = miscellaneous types of anticorrosive PUR = 1-pack or 2-pack polyurethane
pigments
NDFT = Nominal dry film thickness ESI = 1-pack or 2-pack ethyl silicate
EP = 2-pack epoxy
Zn (R) = Zinc rich primer EPC = 2-pack epoxy combination
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Other paint systems may also satisfy the C5-M
requirements but in choosing any coating the
designer should carefully consider the following:
❙ Corrosion protection systems are not a substitute ❙ Local legislation on emission of solvents or health
for poor design details such as re-entrant shapes & safety factors
and corrosion traps
❙ Application temperatures, drying and handling times
❙ Minimum dry film thickness >80% of NDFT (typical)
❙ Maximum over-coating times
❙ Maximum film thickness <3 × NDFT (typical)
❙ Local conditions including humidity or contaminants
51
Corrosion prevention
GALVANIZING
Hot-dip galvanizing is the process of coating steel Spin galvanizing is used for threaded components
parts with a zinc layer by passing the component which are immersed in molten zinc then
through a bath of molten zinc. When exposed to immediately centrifuged to remove any excess zinc
sea water the zinc acts as an anodic reservoir and clear the threads. Spin galvanized coatings
which protects the steel underneath. Once the are thinner than hot dip galvanized coatings and
zinc is depleted the steel will begin to corrode and will not last as long in marine environments.
lose strength.
Typical galvanizing thicknesses:
Galvanizing thickness can be increased by:
Hot dip galvanizing 85 μm
❙ Shot blasting the components before dipping
Spin galvanizing 40 μm
❙ Pickling the components in acid
❙ Double dipping the components
(only suitable for some steel grades)
STAINLESS STEELS
Pitting Resistance Galling
Stainless steel performance in seawater varies Galling or ‘cold welding’ affects threaded stainless
according to pitting resistance. Chemical steel components including nuts, bolts and
composition – especially Chromium (Cr), anchors. The protective oxide layer of the
Molybdenum (Mo) and Nitrogen (N) content – is a stainless steel gets scraped off during tightening
major factor in pitting resistance. causing high local friction and welding of the
threads. After galling, seized fasteners cannot be
The pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN) is further tightened or removed and usually need to
a theoretical way to compare stainless steel be cut out and replaced.
grades. The most common formula for PREN is:
To avoid this problem, always apply anti-galling
compounds to threads before assembly. If these
PREN = Cr + 3.3Mo + 16N are unavailable then molybdenum disulfi de or
PTFE based lubricants can be used.
Cr and Mo are major cost factors for stainless
steel. A high PREN material will usually last longer
but cost more.
COMMON
GRADE TYPE Cr (%) Mo (%) N (%) PREN COMMENTS
NAME
1.4501 Zeron 100 Duplex 24.0–26.0 3.0– 4.0 0.2–0.3 37.1–44.0 used where very long
1.4462 SAF 2205 Duplex 21.0–23.0 2.5–3.5 0.1–0.22 30.9–38.1 service life is needed
1.4401 316S31 Austenitic 16.5–18.5 2.0–2.5 0–0.11 23.1–28.5 widely used for fender fixings
1.4301 304 Austenitic 17.0–19.5 – 0–0.11 17.0–21.3 unsuitable for most

1.4003 3CR12 Ferritic 10.5–12.5 – 0–0.03 10.5–13.0 fender applications
Percentages of Cr, Mo and N are typical mid-range values and may differ within permissible limits for each grade.
Source: British Stainless Steel Association
(www.bssa.org.uk).
52
Fender Performance
Testing
PIANC has introduced new methods and

procedures for testing the performance of solid
rubber fenders, allowing for real world operating
conditions, in their document ‘Guidelines for the
Testing is carried out in Design of Fender Systems: 2002: Appendix A’.
two stages: to prove Many of Trelleborg’s most popular fenders are
behavior of the generic manufactured in accordance with PIANC’s
guidelines. This brings the following benefits:
fender type and to confirm
❙ Proven product quality
that performance of
❙ Tests simulate real operating conditions
fenders made for each ❙ Longer service life
project meet the required ❙ Lower maintenance
performances. ❙ Greater reliability
Trelleborg is committed to providing high quality ❙ Reduced lifetime costs
products. Consistency and performance are
routinely checked in accordance with the latest ❙ Manufacturer’s commitment
procedures and test protocols. ❙ Excludes unsafe ‘copy’ and ‘fake’ fenders
❙ Simplifies contract specifications
53
Testing Procedures
Trelleborg’s testing procedures for ‘solid-type’ The Constant Velocity (CV) slow speed test
rubber fenders comply with PIANC ‘Guidelines for method is used for SCN, SCK, UE, AN, ANP, MV,
the Design of Fender Systems: 2002: Appendix A: MI and Cylindrical Fenders.
Section 6: Verification/Quality Assurance Testing’.
TEST APPARATUS AND TEST PROCEDURE – METHOD CV

MEASURING EQUIPMENT The fender stabilization time shall not be less than
The test apparatus shall be under controlled 20 x t1.5 days rounded to the next full day (where
conditions and equipped with calibrated load cells ‘t’= highest rubber thickness, in meters) before
or pressure transducer and linear transducer(s) testing is permitted.
for measuring displacement to provide continuous a) Check that the fender is given a unique serial
real-time monitoring of fender performance. number and record it.
The load cell system or the pressure transducer b) Measure the temperature of the fender
has to be capable of recording and storing data and record it.
at intervals of 0.01 H – 0.05 H where H is the c) Place the fender at the center of the
nominal height of the fender. testing platen.
Validity of calibration certificates within one year: d) Compress the fender until the maximum or
❙ Ensures calibration certificate for pressure 110% of the catalogue nominal reaction force
transducer is valid. is reached three times.
❙ Ensures calibration certificate for linear e) Remove the load from the fender and allow
transducer is valid. it to recover for a minimum of 1 hour and a
maximum of 24 hours.
❙ Ensures certificate, verifying the accuracy of test
press against pressure transducer, is valid. f) Compress the fender once at constant
2 to 8 cm/min deflection.
❙ Ensures calibration certificate for load cells, if
applicable, is valid. g) Record the reaction force at every
2 mm deflection.
h) Stop compressing when 110% of rated
Where testing of cylindrical, arch, element reaction force or maximum specified reaction
and similar fenders over 2.0 m long is force is reached.
required, please contact your local office to i) Remove the fender from the press.
discuss exact requirements.
j) Check the fender for any physical defects.
k) Retrieve the raw data and apply temperature
Notes factor, if required
1 Standard PIANC Verification Testing of 10% of fender order
(rounded up to the nearest unit)
l) Calculate the energy absorption
2 A single break-in deflection is recommended on fenders for load-
sensitive structures with reaction of 100t or more.
m) Plot a graph with the reaction force and energy
3 Additional tests, 2nd / 3rd party witnessing, recommended break- absorption versus deflection data.
in deflection and special procedure will incur extra charges.
4 All measuring equipment shall be calibrated and certified
accurate to within ±1% in accordance with ISO or equivalent JIS
or ASTM requirements. Calibration shall be traceable to national/
international standard and shall be performed annually by an
accredited third party organization.
5 Non-compliant units will be clearly marked and segregated.
54
Testing Procedures
REPORTING
The report shall be printed on Trelleborg letterhead Our fender systems are subjected to rigorous test
with the following information: protocols at all stages of manufacture. Quality
control testing is carried out on rubber compound,
a) Customer name,
steel and UHMW-PE materials.
b) Project name,
We also carry out full scale tests on finished
c) Customer PO reference, products in the factory, including PIANC guidelines
d) Factory sales order reference, on angular compression and durability testing.
e) Description of the fender, type and size It is our commitment to ensure that all products
have undergone extensive testing. All our products
f) Fender E grade, are tested according to industry guidelines,
g) Quantity of the order, internal procedures and to the specification they
are designed for.
h) Serial number of the fender tested,
i) Test date,
j) Fender temperature,
k) Test speed,
l) Test angle
m) Test method – CV
n) RF and EA specified,
o) Maximum RF and minimum EA allowed,
p) Name of test supervisor,
q) Name and signature of Quality Manager,
r) Name and signature of client representative,
if applicable,
s) Name and signature of the 3rd party surveyor,
if applicable,
t) Company stamp of the 3rd party, if applicable,
u) Data of reaction force and energy absorption
at every 5% deflection after applying of TF,
if applicable,
v) Graph of reaction force and energy absorption
versus deflection
w) Result of the test – Passed or Failed
55
ULTRASONIC TESTING HARDNESS TEST
ABRASION RESISTANT TEST ULTRASONIC TESTING
56
Performance Data (CV)
CV testing conditions:
❙ 23 ± 5°C temperature
❙ 0° compression angle
❙ 2 - 8 cm/min constant velocity
CORRECTION FACTORS ON PERFORMANCE TESTS

Impact speed* 0.001m/s to 0.5m/s
Rubber is a visco-elastic material, meaning that
reaction and energy are affected by the speed of
compression. The effect of compression speed
on some rubbers is higher compared to others.
Please refer to VF section (page 31).
Temperature* –30°C to +50°C

At low temperatures rubber becomes stiffer, which
increases reaction forces. At higher temperatures
rubber softens, which reduces energy absorption.
CV reported at 23 +/- 5 deg C.
Compression angle* 0° to 20°

Most fenders lose some energy absorption
capacity when compressed at an angle. CV is
reported at 0°.
Durability 3000 cycles minimum

To prove durability, fenders should be subjected to
a long-term fatigue test of at least 3000 cycles to
rated deflection without failure.
To be meaningful, Type Approval testing should be monitored and witnessed by accredited third-party inspectors such as Germanischer Lloyd.
After successful Type Approval testing, the manufacturer should publish Rated Performance Data (RPD) for their fenders along with correction
factor tables for different velocities, temperatures and compression angles.
* Velocity factor, temperature factor and angle factor must be considered during the design stage of a fender system.
57
Pass Criteria
Verification testing (or quality control testing) is each size and grade) are tested. Results obtained
carried out to prove the performance of fenders are adjusted if necessary for each project using
for each project in accordance with catalogue CV the correction factor tables for initial impact speed
or other customer-specified values. Samples from and temperature.
the project (usually 10% of the total quantity in
PASSING CRITERIA
The fender passes verification testing if it meets the following conditions:
a) There is no visual evidence of bond failure or splits on the surface of the fender.
b) RVT ≤ RCV x 1.1 x TF (or maximum RCV x TF, as specified)

EVT ≥ ECV x 0.9 x TF (or minimum ECV x TF, as specified)
Where,
RVT = Reaction Force from verification testing
RCV = CV Performance Data, Reaction
EVT = Energy Absorption from verification testing
ECV = CV Performance Data, Energy
TF = Temperature Factor when test sample is above or below 23°C ± 5°C
The following formula is applicable for MV/MI fenders.

RVT ≤ RRPD x 1.1 x 0.74 x TF or maximum RRPD x 0.74 x TF, as specified
EVT ≥ ERPD x 0.9 x 0.74 x TF or minimum ERPD x 0.74 x TF, as specified
Velocity factor for DV to CV is 0.74 or CV to DV is 1.35
c) Deflection is not a pass/fail criteria, please refer to PIANC:2002 page 49 point 6.1.2
58
Pass Criteria
REACTION FORCE PASS CRITERIA
RVT ≤ RCV × TF × 1.1

Assuming a +10%
manufacturing tolerance
on reaction.
Energy absorption pass criteria
EVT ≥ ECV × TF × 0.9

Assuming a –10%
manufacturing tolerance
on energy.
where,
RVT = reaction from verifi cation testing
RCV = CV performance data, reaction
EVT = energy from verifi cation testing
ECV = CV performance data, energy
TF = temperature factor for actual test temperature
59
ELONGATION AT BREAK QUALITY CONTROL
DYNAMIC FATIGUE TESTING FULL FENDER TESTING
60
Other Design
Considerations
❙ Rubber compound is a blend of raw rubber, filler

and various chemicals which improve the physical
properties of weak raw rubber and protect rubber
Rubber is a class of products from environmental aging.
polymeric material ❙ Raw rubber, or blend of rubbers, is the
fundamental component in determining the
which has the property properties of the overall rubber compound.
of elasticity. ❙ Raw rubber selection and processing can optimize
both the service performance and cost.
❙ The major cost of rubber compounds primarily
❙ Rubber is made up of long chains of atoms, mainly
comes from raw rubber and reinforcing filler called
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which have a degree
carbon black.
of crosslinking with their neighboring chains.
❙ It is these crosslinking bonds that pull the
elastomer back into shape when the deforming
force is removed. This is known as elasticity
of rubber.
❙ The type and the percentage of rubber used have
a major impact on the fenders performance and
longevity. It is crucial to select them correctly.
61
Material selection for rubber fenders
TYPE OF RUBBER
General purpose rubber: Special purpose rubber:
1. Natural Rubber: 1. EPDM:
❙ Crude natural rubber is found in the extracts of ❙ EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene monomer
the shrubs, vines, and trees of many plants. The [M-class] rubber), a type of synthetic rubber, is
principal of which is the Hevea Brasiliensis tree, an elastomer which is characterized by a wide
native to Brazil. The latex of the natural rubber, range of applications.
after being processed, becomes an elastomer
❙ The E refers to ethylene, P to propylene, D to
with excellent mechanical properties.
diene and M refers to its classification in ASTM
❙ Natural Rubber has a typical service temperature standard D-1418. The M class includes rubbers
range between -67°F (-55°C) and 180°F (80°C). having a saturated chain of the polyethylene type.
2. Synthetic Rubber: SBR ❙ Dienes currently used in the manufacture of

EPDM rubbers are dicyclopentadiene (DCPD),
❙ SBR is a synthetic copolymer of styrene ethylidene norbornene (ENB), and vinyl
and butadiene rubber. norbornene (VNB).
❙ SBR was originally developed to replace natural ❙ The dienes, typically comprising from 2.5% up
rubber in the production of tire. Its usage in to 12% by weight of the composition, serve as
manufacturing tires continues till today. SBR and crosslinks when curing with sulphur and resin.
natural rubber account for 90% of the world’s
rubber consumption. ❙ EPDM rubber has outstanding resistance to
aging, weathering, ozone, oxygen and many
❙ SBR has a typical service temperature range chemicals.
between -50°F (-45°C) and 225°F (100°C).
Rubber blends: Natural and synthetic rubber

blends
❙ The technology of polymer blends has developed
to become an important segment of polymer
science in many decades.
❙ Polymer blends better satisfy end-use
requirements than single polymers and have
become successful commercially and technically.
❙ It is also more economical to blend polymers to
meet application requirements than to design
new materials during end use.
62
Material selection for rubber fenders
TYPE OF RUBBER
SPECIAL PURPOSE
GENERAL PURPOSE RUBBER RUBBER
Natural Rubber Synthetic Rubber EPDM Rubber
Advantages ❙ Has excellent tensile, ❙ Has similar properties to ❙ Offers excellent high and
elongation, tear natural rubber, but also low temperature stability,
resistance and resilience. superior water resistance, and superior steam and
heat resistance, water resistance.
❙ Exhibits excellent abrasion resistance, low-
resistance to water and temperature flexibility, and ❙ Has dynamic and
cold flow. heat aging properties (i.e., mechanical properties
in excess heat it hardens between Natural Rubber
❙ Has low compression set and Synthetic Rubber
and can be bonded to a and becomes brittle
instead of softening like range of materials.
wide range of materials.
natural rubber does).
❙ Has good flexing
qualities at low ❙ Can be successfully
temperatures that are bonded to a wide range
better than most synthetic of materials.
rubber compounds.
❙ Has superb abrasion
resistance when it is
compounded with carbon
black.
Limitations ❙ Deteriorates when ❙ Has poor resistance to ❙ Is not satisfactory for

exposed to oils, fuels, oils, fuels, hydraulic fluids, use in areas where the
solvents, petroleum strong acids, greases, fat, following chemicals are
derivatives, and and most hydrocarbons. stored or used:
hydraulic fluids.
❙ Without special additives, Gasoline, kerosene, oils,
❙ Without special additives, it is vulnerable to ozone, halogenated solvents,
it has poor resistance to oxygen and sunlight. concentrated acids,
sunlight, oxygen, ozone, aliphatic and aromatic
and high temperatures. hydrocarbons. When these
chemicals come into
contact with EPDM rubber,
they can cause it to break
down and in some cases,
even melt.
63
Recycled rubbers
What is it? Usage in tire industry:
❙ Recycled rubber is manufactured by applying ❙ Reclaimed rubber does have a place as a
heat and chemical agents to ground vulcanized viscosity modifier and extrusion process improver
waste, which may have been produced as ‘scrap’ of virgin rubber.
either during the manufacture or recycling of
❙ It may be used in partial substitution for virgin
rubber products.
rubber (NR/SBR) in a number of products,
Classification: including tires.
❙ There are three broad approaches to recycling ❙ The amount of reclaimed rubber is restricted to a
post-consumer scrap. Each offers something little quantity in radial tires because of poor flex
to the rubber industry, but none is an ideal cracking and abrasion resistance.
substitute for virgin polymer. The first is simple
Usage in fender industry:
granulate, the second is reclaim and the third is
post-processed granulate. ❙ A higher percentage of recycled rubber blended
with virgin rubber, has various performance
❙ Given the cost of natural rubber and the lack of
disadvantages especially in the manufacture of
availability in some places, the use of reclaimed
marine fenders. These disadvantages can include
rubber has been increasing as an additive.
higher hysteresis and heat build-up, poorer flex
However this is rarely so in the premium segment
and weather resistance, greater risk of cracking
of the market or in professional mixing rooms.
and poor compression set.
Manufacturing process:
❙ Generally, the use of recycled material in new
❙ Reclaimed rubber is an aggressive, energy- fenders is challenged by the fact that unlike
intensive system in which rubber powder is paper, metals, plastics and glass, it is not
processed with some aggressive chemicals currently possible to obtain materials from
under pressure. scrap vulcanized product that have properties
adequately similar to the original materials used
❙ The waste products are highly polluting, which
in manufacturing fenders.
means it tends to be more common in countries
where environmental regulation is either weak or ❙ Fender rubber materials are highly engineered,
poorly enforced. with specific qualities of hysteresis and
other chemico-physical properties, designed
❙ This process breaks long molecules into shorter
to optimize long life and performance
ones and the result is often a kind of soft rubber
characteristics, at an affordable cost.
like material.
❙ Unfortunately, the products currently available
❙ Depending on the pressure, temperature and
using recycled materials do not provide
chemicals, the resulting material can retain some
performance-enhancing characteristics; rather
of the properties of the original, but in the end
the presence of recycled material tends to
the ability to perform is severely compromised.
degrade performance. Therefore, the amount of
post-consumer recycled material utilized in the
final product should be limited.
64
Three types of filler
Fillers are used in rubber production primarily Inert or extending fillers :
to provide reinforcement and secondarily to ❙ Inert or extending fillers offer no reinforcing effect
reduce cost. The three types of filler are namely and are added for cost cutting.
reinforcing fillers, semi-reinforcing fillers and inert
or extending fillers. ❙ The most common inert or extending fillers is
unprocessed calcium carbonate.
The type, quantity, particle size and dispersion
of the filler within the rubber matrix can affect ❙ Unprocessed calcium carbonate has a particle
the physical properties of the compound and size of greater than1.0um (colloidal dimension
should be selected to suit the specific project 00.1um to 1.0um) and evidently too large to
requirement. achieve the desired surface area interaction and
a good uniform dispersion in the compound.
Reinforcing Fillers: ❙ The content of inert or extending filler should be
❙ Reinforcing fillers are used to enhance the restricted to a maximum of 5% for dock fender
stiffness (modulus) and mechanical properties of application.
the rubber compound. ❙ Having too much of it will produce low quality
❙ The most common reinforcing filler used in fenders that degrades faster and struggle to
rubber compounding is carbon black. meet performance requirements because they
are more prone to environmental aggression.
Semi Reinforcing:
❙ Semi-reinforcing fillers provide limited
enhancement of the stiffness (modulus) and
mechanical properties of the rubber compound
and are typically used when non-marking and/or
non-black elastomeric units are required..
❙ The most common semi-reinforcing fillers is
colloidal mineral fillers such as silica.
65
Types of raw rubber used for manufacturing
Produced from latex

Natural harvested from trees
Rubber
Virgin rubber, pure
rubber, raw rubber
Raw Synthetic
Rubber Rubber Styrene-butadiene rubber
(SBR) derived from oil
Recycled rubber with high

Recycled levels of contamination
Rubber and uncontrolled content
Rubber compound
Fenders cannot be
Natural produced directly
Rubber from raw rubbers
Synthetic
Rubber
(SBR)
Fender
Rubber
Recycled
Compound
Rubber
Natural
Rubber
Recycled Fillers and

Rubber chemicals
Synthetic
Rubber
(SBR)
Rubber
Compound
Natural : good mechanical properties but mechanical properties deteriorate with heat, age, oxygen, ozone
Synthetic : helps counter the deterioration in mechanical properties of natural rubber
Recycled : cost reduction, physical properties are lower than virgin rubber
66
Rubber compound
It is sometimes misconstrued that a rubber Superior compounds for fenders have two basic
compound is a single ingredient that is the indicators of quality:
same for every fender type and grade. A rubber
1. Rubber to filler ratio: (should be>1, for fender
compound can be a combination of 3 to 15
compounds >1.2)
different ingredients, and thousands of different
compositions can be formed by varying the ❙ Rubber to filler ratio indicates the kg of rubber
percentages of different ingredients and rubber. used per kg of filler in the formulation.
A typical rubber formation based on parts per ❙ Rubber to filler ratio of less than one indicates
Polymer (rubber) 100 phr
more filler than rubber in the compound.
Filler 20 – 40 phr Therefore the fender compound is cheaper
Antioxidant 1 – 3 phr because the fillers are three times cheaper than
Antiozonants 1 – 3 phr virgin rubber (Natural rubber/Synthetic rubber).
Oil 5 – 30 phr
2. Density (ideal : close to 1, for fender <1.18)
Sulphur + accelerator 3 – 5 phr
Phr: Parts per hundred parts of rubber ❙ This is a measure of the weight per unit volume.
It gives an indication of whether the correct
In a superior compound, polymer comprises of 40- quantities of ingredients have been added to
60% of its content, filler or reinforcing elements manufacture a rubber product.
20-40%, functional additives such as oil make
up 10 – 20% and the remaining 5 -10% are other ❙ Density of CaCO3 is 2.7 g/cc while that of Carbon
additives such as accelerators or sulphur. black is 1.18 g/cc.
❙ The density of recycled rubber is 1.15 to 1.20 g/
cc while that of virgin rubber is 0.92 g/cc.
RECIPE FOR HIGH QUALITY RUBBER
FENDER ❙ High percentage of recycled rubber and
extending fillers (CaCo3) in the formulation is the
contributing factor of density more than 1.18.
Reinforcing Filler
Compounding Structure
INGREDIENTS %
Raw Rubber (Polymer) 40-45
Reinforcing Filler 20-40
Oil (Functional Additives) 20-10
Others (S + ACC etc) 10-5
Total 100
67
Rubber compound
PROPRIETARY RUBBER FORMULATION:
❙ There are many ingredients that can be used
which will result in different properties for a
rubber compound. Rubber compounds are a
combination of many different ingredients and
therefore, not all compounds are the same.
❙ Rubber compounding is a science which aims to

assure required properties by varying the ratios
of ingredients. This is why most fender
manufacturers consider their rubber formulations
proprietary. It can take hundreds of variations
and hours of testing to perfect mechanical
properties while optimizing processing.
RUBBER COMPOUNDING – A BLACK ART
❙ Designing rubber compounds used to be referred
to as a black art, unpredictable due to the nature
of rubber. It was difficult to predict the behavior
of the products in service.
❙ With many modern tools and advanced

equipment at one’s disposal, engineering rubber
compounds for its intended purpose has become
a more predictable science. Determining the
chemical composition of a rubber compound is
just a matter of a few chemical and analytical
tests.
68
Chemical composition test
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION SPECIFICATION
TABLE
❙ Anecdotal evidence suggests that low quality All tests give a good indication of the quality of
fenders degrades faster because they are more rubber used. These parameters can be determined
prone to environmental aggression and struggle by using analytical techniques (FTIR/TGA)
to meet performance requirements. described in the following page. The specification
for the indicators is given in the table below.
❙ These rubber fenders in general utilize lower cost
recycled rubber that has low polymer (rubber) TEST STANDARD SPECIFICATION*
percentage and inert or extending filler
Density ISO 2781 Max 1.18 g/cc
percentage in the formulation.
Polymer % ASTM D6370 Min 45%
❙ Fender compounds having a density higher than
1.18 indicate a high percentage of recycled Carbon Black % ASTM D6370 Min 20%
rubber and/or extending filler in its Inert or extending ASTM D297 Max 5%
formulation. TGA and ash analysis test is a good filler %
way to find out the percentage of the inert/ Rubber to filler ratio – > 1.2
extending filler.
* Not applicable to Trelleborg’s standard cylindrical fender and the
❙ Historical testing requirements centered around extruded fender but can be supplied on special request.
physical properties, seen in most specifications
are not enough to reflect the use of extending
fillers or recycled rubber. TEST AVAILABLE FOR CUSTOMERS
❙ A lack of understanding on the rubber
❙ The chemical composition test is useful for
composition has an impact not only on the
determining the key compositions of the rubber
quality and performance of the fenders, but also
compound used in fenders which include:
has a downstream effect on the other wharf
% Polymer: To determine the general infrastructures.
level of polymer present. ❙ Until recently, buyers were unaware of the tests
% Carbon Black: To determine the amount of available to identify the composition of the
reinforcing filler. rubber fenders in order to substantiate suppliers’
documentation and the reported performance
Specific gravity: To indicate the level of characteristics.
recycled rubber/ non
reinforcing filler:
% Inert or To determine the level of

extending filler: extending filler used.
Rubber to filler ratio: Amount of rubber compared

to amount of filler
69
Analytical tools
❙ The analytical test to determine the polymer ANALYTICAL TOOLS TO DETERMINE
composition can be carried out on lab samples CHEMICAL COMPOSITION:
before production and by obtaining 30-50
Two most common analytical instruments to
grams of rubber from the finished products after
determine the chemical composition of the rubber
production.
compound are::
❙ Conducting tests on the fenders is an excellent
way to determine the quality of goods produced/ Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
received. ❙ Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) involves passing
❙ Removing just 30-50 grams of rubber from a infrared radiation onto or through a sample. The
fender body will not destroy it and will have no pattern of peaks and troughs in the spectra
impact on the performance. produced enables the components in the rubber
compound to be identified.
Before production:
❙ The supplier needs to supply 2 pieces of cured Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA)
tensile slabs (approximate dimension of 150 mm ❙ Thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) is another
L x 150 mm W x 2 mm T). thermal analysis technique. It provides
❙ Tensile slab will be sent to a third party information complementary to FTIR.
laboratory to carry out the chemical analysis for
❙ TGA testing involves heating the test samples at
TGA and FTIR.
different temperatures and weighing it with high
❙ The test should meet the specification given in precision throughout the process. Different
the chemical composition specification table. components burnt off at different temperatures.
After production: The loss in weight provides a precise indication
of the components present in the formulation.
❙ The client or third party will inspect the fenders
and randomly select one or two for sample ❙ An example of a TGA measurement of a rubber
collection. compound is shown in the following plot.
❙ 30-50 grams of sample will be cut from the body
of the selected fender(s) and sent to a third party
laboratory to test for the parameters given in the
table on chemical composition specification in
the previous page.
❙ Test result should satisfy the specification. If not,
more testing is needed to confirm the results and
the quality of the fender(s).
70
Ensuring longevity of fender performance
IMPORTANCE OF RUBBER COMPOUND MIXING QUALITY AND ITS IMPACT ON FENDER
PERFORMANCE
❙ In the rubber manufacturing industry, mixing and ❙ This extra mixing time, along with high
compounding is done in batch processes using temperature, dissociates the carbon to carbon
an internal mixer. This step is important because chains in the rubber molecule. This is important
at this stage, reinforcing fillers (carbon black) are because the elasticity of the rubber molecule, its
mixed with rubber. recovery after compression, tensile strength and
modulus depend on the chain length (expressed
❙ Filler dispersion (which is measured by a carbon by molecular weight or viscosity of the
black dispersion rating) in the final compound compound). Therefore, mixing compounds in a
has a large impact on the quality of fender kneader carries the risk of degrading the physical
performance. A high dispersion rating is desirable properties of the rubber compound, and
for a superior rubber compound. subsequently, the performance of the fenders.
❙ A high degree of dispersion is achieved by using ❙ Compounds with different modulus (slope
an internal mixer in which rotor speed/ rotor of stress vs. strain curve) values are used to
design, coolant temperature, ram pressure and manufacture fenders with different energy
fill factors are controlled. These parameters are absorption grades. Soft grade fenders need
critical in achieving a high dispersion rating, in compounds with lower modulus values,
minimum mixing time, at a low temperature. whereas hard grade fenders need high
❙ A “kneader” is used by some manufacturers, modulus compounds.
instead of internal mixers, to reduce the cost of ❙ The varying modulus values of the final
mixing and, ultimately, the final product. However, compounds are achieved through the carbon
critical mixing parameters are difficult to control black and oil ratios in the formula, as well as
in a low cost kneader mixer. Therefore, the mixing the carbon black dispersion in the rubber
time taken to achieve a similar dispersion rating matrix, for a particular curing system (sulphur,
to that of an internal mixer is 10-15 times higher. accelerated ratio).
(Typically, it will take two to five minutes for
internal mixer, compared to 15-20 minutes for a ❙ Poor dispersion can give rise to certain
kneader to achieve similar dispersion level). detrimental effects such as:
❙ This extended mixing time generates more heat • Reduction of fatigue life
within the kneader throughout the process. • Poor performance in service
Additionally, internal mixers also benefit from
an efficient cooling system which controls the • Poor product appearance
mixing temperature. • Poor product uniformity
❙ Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure ensures a
high quality of carbon black dispersion by
properly selecting the type of carbon black, the
mixing sequence and the type of mixer for rubber
compound processing. This ensures the right
modulus of compounds and, subsequently, a long
service life fender.
71
Effectiveness of Cone and Cell
Fenders in submerged
water conditions
In recent years, there has been a focus on the
impact on reaction of compression of fenders
under complete submergence.
Water can enter the fender slowly when it is located
in a tidal zone. If a vessel is berthing during high
tidal conditions and the fender is fully or partially
submerged, the fender is compressed and the
water inside the fender is pressurized and requires
an escape route or extra space to allow the fender
to compress correctly. Should the water not be
able to exit the fender, or its exit flow is restricted,
the fender will not be able to operate at its rated
reaction since water is generally non-compressible
and this could add to the fender reaction force
acting on the vessel and the supporting structure.
Calculations conducted utilizing Bennoulli principles
show that:
❙ There is the potential for a substantial increase in
reaction to be generated should a fully submerged
fender be subject to high velocity berthing (within
normal design velocities).
❙ This reaction force has the potential to
generate a catastrophic failure in other supplied
fender components as well as potentially cause
a catastrophic failure of the dolphin and
wharf structures.
❙ Additionally, the loads onto the vessels
themselves could affect structural integrity of
vessels utilizing the berth.
The exit route for water on an SCN and SCK
fenders is through a number of small recesses
(foot slot) molded into the flanges at the end of
the fender. Foot slot sizes of SCN and SCK fenders
are specially determined so that there is minimal
increase in force due to the fully submerged
fender compression.
Some fender system designers and consultants
make allowances for this volume of water by adding
holes of slots to the faces of mounting panels
or frontal frames directly in line with the fender’s
internal diameter.
72
Rubber material properties
TRELLEBORG RUBBER COMPOUND:
All Trelleborg rubber fenders are made using high The tables below give the physical properties of
quality 100% NR or 100% SBR or a blend of NR/ rubber compounds as described above which are
SBR based compound which exceeds the used for making fenders. These properties are
performance requirements of international fender confirmed during quality assurance testing prior to
recommendations, such as PIANC/ EAU. Trelleborg fender manufacturing.
can also manufacture fenders from materials such
All test results are derived from test pieces made
as Neoprene and EPDM.
and cured in-house. Results of samples taken
from actual fenders may differ due to the sample
preparation process – please ask for details.
MOLDED FENDERS:
PROPERTY TESTING STANDARD CONDITION REQUIREMENT
ISO 37; ASTM D412 Die C; BS ISO 37; Original 16.0 MPa (min)
Tensile Strength
DIN 53504; AS 1683.11; JIS K 6251 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC 12.8 MPa (min)
Elongation ISO 37; ASTM D412 Die C; BS ISO 37; Original 350%
at Break DIN 53504; AS 1683.11; JIS K 6251 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC 280%
ISO 48-4; ASTM D2240; DIN ISO 7619-1; Original 78° Shore A (max)
Hardness
AS 1683.15.2; JIS K 6253-3 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC Original +8° Shore A (max)
ISO 815-1; ASTM D395 Method B;
Compression Set 22 hours at 70°C 30% (max)
BS ISO 815-1; JIS K 6262
ISO 34-1; ASTM D624 Die B; AS 1683.12;
Tear Strength Original 70kN/m (min)
JIS K 6252-1
ISO 1431-1; ASTM D1149; BS ISO 1431-1; 50pphm at 20% strain,
Ozone Resistance No cracks
DIN ISO 1431-1; AS 1683-24; JIS K 6259-1 40°C, 100 hours
Abrasion
BS 903 A9 Method B 3000 revolution 1.5cc (max)
Resistance
Bond Strength ISO 813; ASTM D429 Method B; BS ISO 813 Rubber to steel 7N/mm (min)
Hardness: ±10° Shore A
Seawater
ISO 1817; ASTM D471 28 days at 95°C (max) Volume: +10/-5%
Resistance
(max)
Dynamic Fatigue ASTM D430 Method B 15,000 cycles Grade 0–2‡
‡ Grade 0 = No cracking has occurred

Grade 1 = Cracks at this stage appear as pin pricks to the naked eye. Grade as 1 if the pin pricks are less than 10 in number and less than
0.5 mm in length
Grade 2 = Assess as Grade 2 if either of the following applies: (1) The pin pricks are in excess of 10 in number, or (2) The number of cracks
is less than 10 but one or more cracks have developed beyond the pin prick stage, that is, they have perceptible length without
much depth, but their length is still less than 0.5 mm.
73
EXTRUDED AND WRAPPED FENDERS:
ISO 37; ASTM D412 Die C; BS ISO 37; DIN 53504; Original 13.0 MPa (min)
Tensile Strength
AS 1683.11; JIS K 6251 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC 10.4 MPa (min)
ISO 37; ASTM D412 Die C; BS ISO 37; DIN 53504; Original 280% (min)
Elongation at Break
AS 1683.11; JIS K 6251 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC 224% (min)
Original 78° Shore A (max)
ISO 48-4; ASTM D2240; DIN ISO 7619-1;
Hardness Original +8° Shore A
AS 1683.15.2; JIS K 6253-3 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC
(max)
ISO 815-1; ASTM D395 Method B; BS ISO 815-1;
Compression Set 22 hours at 70°C 30% (max)
JIS K 6262
ISO 34-1; ASTM D624 Die B; AS 1683.12;
Tear Strength Original 60kN/m (min)
JIS K 6252-1
ISO 1431-1; ASTM D1149; BS ISO 1431-1; 50pphm at 20% strain,
DIN ISO 1431-1; AS 1683-24; JIS K 6259-1 40°C, 100 hours
Abrasion
BS 903 A9 Method B 3000 revolution 1.5cc (max)
Resistance
Hardness: ±10° Shore
Seawater
ISO 1817; ASTM D471 28 days at 95°C A (max) Volume: +10/-
Resistance
5% (max)
74
HIGH PERFORMANCE SUPER ABRASION RESISTANT FENDERS:
ISO 37; ASTM D412 Die C; BS ISO 37; DIN 53504; Original 16.0 Mpa (min)
Tensile Strength
AS 1683.11; JIS K 6251 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC 14.4 Mpa (min)
ISO 37; ASTM D412 Die C; BS ISO 37; DIN 53504; Original 350% (min)
Elongation at Break
AS 1683.11; JIS K 6251 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC 280% (min)
Original 75º Shore A (max)
ISO 48-4; ASTM D2240; DIN ISO 7619-1;
Hardness Original +8º Shore A
AS 1683.15.2; JIS K 6253-3 Aged for 96 hours at 70ºC
(max)
ISO 815-1; ASTM D395 Method B; BS ISO 815-1;
Compression Set 22 hours at 70ºC 30% (max)
JIS K 6262
ISO 34-1, ASTM D624 Die B; AS 1683.12;
Tear Strength Original 70 kN/m (min)
JIS K 6252-1
ISO 1431-1; ASTM D1149; BS ISO 1431-1; 50 pphm at 20% strain,
DIN ISO 1431-1; AS 1683-24; JIS K 6259-1 40ºC, 100 hours
Abrasion
BS 903 A9 Method B 3000 revolution 0.5 cc (max)
Resistance
Hardness: ±10º Shore
Seawater A (max)
ISO 1817; ASTM D471 28 days at 95ºC
Resistance Volume: +10/-5%
(max)
75
Tolerances
Trelleborg fenders are subjected to standard For specific applications, smaller tolerances may
manufacturing and performance tolerances. be agreed on a case-by-case basis.
FENDER TYPE DIMENSION TOLERANCE

All dimensions ±3% or ±2 mm*
Molded fenders
Bolt hole spacing ±4 mm (non-cumulative)
Cross-section ±3% or ±2 mm*
Length ±2% or ±25 mm*
Composite fenders
Drilled hole centers ±4 mm (non-cumulative)
Counterbore depth ±2 mm (under-head depth)
Keyhole fenders / Cross-section ±2% or ±2 mm*

Length ±2% or ±10 mm*
M fenders /
Fixing hole centers ±3 mm
W fenders Fixing hole diameter ±3 mm
Outside diameter ±4%
Cylindrical fenders Inside diameter ±4%
Length ±30 mm
Cross-section ±4% or ISO 3302-E3*
Length ±30 mm
Extruded fenders
Length and width ±5 mm (cut pads)
Length and width ±20 mm (uncut sheets)
Thickness (planed) : ≤ 30 mm ±0.2 mm
31 – 100 mm ±0.3 mm
HD-PE sliding fenders† / ≥ 101 mm ±0.5 mm
UHMW-PE face pads† Thickness (unplaned) : ≤ 30 mm ±2.5 mm

31 – 100 mm ±4.0 mm
≥ 101 mm ±6.0 mm
* Whichever is the greater dimension

†
HD-PE and UHMW-PE dimensions are measured at 18°C and are subject to thermal expansion coefficients (see material properties)
Performance tolerances^
FENDER TYPE PARAMETER TOLERANCE
SCN, SCK, UE, AN, ANP, SAN, SANP, MV and MI fenders Reaction, energy ±10%
Cylindricals (wrapped) Reaction, energy ±10%
Extruded fenders Reaction, energy ±20%
Foam fenders Reaction, energy ±10%
Pneumatic fenders Reaction, energy ±10%
Keyhole, composite, M, W, tug and workboat fenders Reaction, energy ±20%
^ Performance tolerances apply to Constant Velocity (CV) and Rated Performance. They do not apply to energy and/or reaction at intermediate
deflections. The nominal rated deflection may vary when CV performance is achieved and is provided for guidance only. Please consult
Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure for performance tolerance on fender types not listed above.
76
Frequently asked questions
VELOCITY FACTOR (VF) / TEMPERATURE FACTOR (TF)
Q: Is it important to consider VF & TF during the design Q: How do we reconcile the difference in performances
of fender systems? between 2 - 8 cm/min test velocity and real life
berthing velocities?
A: Yes, it is. Without considering the effects of VF
& TF, designers may either over-design or under- A: PIANC suggests applying VF to account for the
design the fender system performance difference between testing velocity
& real life berthing velocity. 2 - 8 cm/min test
Q: Does ‘PIANC’ suggest applying VF & TF for
performance needs to be multiplied by VF to
designing the fender systems?
calculate the performance of the fender at real life
A: Yes, PIANC’s “Guidelines for the Design of Fenders berthing velocity.
Systems: 2002” highlighted the importance of
Q: Who provides the VF values?
VF & TF in the design & selection of fenders. It
also provides technical guidelines for reporting & A: Only fender manufacturers can supply VF. VF values
calculating of VF & TF. are generated through a series of experiments using
smaller commercial size fenders tested at high
Q: At what velocity are fenders usually tested in the
velocities.
manufacturer’s testing facilities?
Q: What factors influence VF?
A: Testing is usually conducted at 2 - 8 cm/min
compression speed, and the performance data is A: For a given velocity there are two factors that have
usually reported at 2 - 8 cm/min speed. the greatest influence on VF: strain rate & rubber
compound formulation.
Q: Do you expect the fender performance to differ from
the test performance at normal berthing velocities Q: What is strain rate?
of vessels?
A: In simple term, strain rate means how quickly the
A: According to the theory of polymer Rheology, the fender is being compressed. Compression time is
stress or reaction force produced by a rubber fender an indirect measure of strain for a given velocity. A
during compression depends on the strain level larger fender needs more time to be compressed
and strain rate. When a fender is compressed, the than a smaller one. Subsequently at the same
resultant reaction force and energy absorption are berthing velocity, the strain rate of a larger fender
greater at high compression velocities. and the magnitude of the VF will be lower than a
smaller fender.
Hence, at normal berthing velocities (20 mm/s-500
mm/s), the performance is expected to be
different from the performance tested at
2 - 8 cm/min velocity.
Q: It seems fender performance depends on the
velocity of testing. At what test velocity should
fenders be tested?
A: Fenders should ideally be tested at the
maximum design berthing speed to determine
its actual performance.
Q: Why are fenders not tested at high velocities or real
life berthing speed?
A: Due to the lack of high velocity test equipment/
facilities, full size fenders are usually tested at 2 - 8
cm/min compression speed.
77
Q: How does the composition of rubber influence VF? Q: What do I need to calculate VF?
A: The magnitude of VF is greatly influenced by the A: We need to know two parameters to calculate
type of rubber used in compound formulation. A VF. We must know the rated deflection for the
fender comprising of 100% natural rubber (NR) will selected fender and initial berthing velocity.
have a lower velocity factor than a fender comprised The compression time
of a blend of natural and synthetic rubber or 100% Rated Deflection
synthetic rubber, due to the differences in the t=
Initial berthing velocity x Decelerating factor
microstructure of the rubber and the rate of stress
(refer to page 35)
relaxation for different rubber and its blend.
can be calculated using these two parameters.
Q: What is the effect of VF on the design of a
Design speed needs to be corrected by a factor to
fender system?
account for the real life deceleration effect during
A: Using VF, fender performance figures should be berthing before calculating compression time using
adjusted to account for design berthing velocity. the above formula. Fender manufacturer must then
Design of the fender system will need to account for provide the VF value against the compression time.
the increase reaction force in relation to restraint
Q: What is the usual temperature at which fenders
chain and fixing anchor design as well as forces
are tested?
applied to the frontal frames. In addition, the
increased reaction force will need to be reviewed A: PIANC’s “Guidelines for the Design of Funders
against the structural design of the wharf (quay wall Systems: 2002” recommends testing at a
or dolphin, etc). temperature of 23 ± 5°C.
Q: Is VF dependent on the geometry of the fender? Q: In real life fenders are used at different
temperatures in different parts of the world. Does
A: No, VF depends on the height of the fender. Taller
the difference in test temperature have an effect on
fenders will have a smaller VF in comparison to
the performance of the fender?
shorter fenders.
A: The stiffness of the rubber compound usually
Q: Will softer and harder fenders have different VF?
goes up at low temperature and goes down at high
A: Yes, but the difference is not significant. The temperature. Hence, the performance of fenders
compound composition has a greater effect on VF is expected to vary if the usage temperature is
than fender geometry or rubber hardness. different from the testing temperature.
Q: Can I use the same VF for fenders purchased from Q: What is stiffness & why is it important for
different suppliers? rubber fenders?
A: As the chemical composition of the rubber A: Elasticity of rubber is measured by stress & strain
compound is different for different manufacturers, behavior and expressed in terms of modulus or
the same VF cannot be applied on different stiffness of the rubber compound. Elasticity is a
fender suppliers. measure of rubber rigidity. Reaction force and thus
energy absorption are directly proportional to rubber
rigidity. Rigidity changes drastically with temperature
which in turn has a tremendous effect on the
fender performance.
78
Q: How do we reconcile the differences in performance Q: What is the expected life expectancy of a
of fenders at actual operating temperature and rubber fender?
testing temperature?
A: The life expectancy of a fender system is highly
A: It is essential to apply TF during the fender dependent on the critical rubber component and
design and selection process based on the other accessories. The durability and subsequent
recommendations by PIANC’s “Guidelines for the life cycle of rubber fenders depend on many
Design of Fenders Systems: to accommodate the factors, like the type of rubber used, compound
variations in temperature that the fenders will be formulation, environmental conditions in situ, ozone
exposed to under actual operating conditions. & operational use and mechanical damage. Well
formulated (virgin rubber rich) fender is expected to
Q: What are the factors that impact the magnitude
last for more than 10 to 15 years or even more.
of TF?
Q: Does temperature have an effect on the longevity
A: Similar to VF, TF is highly sensitive to the type of
of rubber fenders?
rubber used in the compound formulation, i.e. use
of natural rubber or synthetic rubber or a blend of A: Oxidative aging, a chemical process described as
natural and synthetic rubber. the change in rubber properties over time, is one
of the main issues impairing the functionality of
Q: Does TF depend on strain rate?
rubber fenders over their lifecycle. The reaction rate
A: No, strain rate does not affect TF. of chemical process increases with temperature.
Q: Does TF depend on the geometry of fenders? Hence, temperature is one of the important
parameters that determine the life of a fender.
A: No, TF is mainly dependent on the chemical
composition of rubber compound. Q: Does rubber composition affect the life of a fender?
Q: Does TF vary with rubber hardness and A: It has been experimentally proven that fender
across manufacturers? compound samples made of higher percentage of
recycled rubber (often used to reduce the cost of
A: Different manufacturers use different rubber the fender) have a significantly shorter service life.
formulations to produce fenders. Hence, TF will Oxidative aging process is much faster for recycled
vary depending on the type & percentage of rubber rubber. The selection of compound ingredient is
ingredients used in the composition. the most critical aspect in ensuring longevity of the
Q: How do designers calculate TF? fender, especially in environments with adverse
operating conditions.
A: Designers calculate TF based on the knowledge of
fender application temperature and the TF provided Q: It seems that rubber compound composition is
by the manufacturer. a valuable knowledge for a fender designer or
purchaser. Is there any way to find out the rubber
Q: Should designers apply VF & TF simultaneously composition from the finished product?
or separately?
A: Yes, analytical techniques are available to identify
A: VF & TF must be applied together to calculate the the rubber composition of fender, making it possible
final performance data. to accurately determine the presence of ingredients
that are critical to the life of the fender. Moreover,
only a little sample is required to carry out the test
at a 3rd party standard rubber laboratory, without
destroying the full fender. (refer to page 72)
79
AUSTRALIA
80
Glossary
COMMONLY USED SYMBOLS
SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS

B Beam of vessel (excluding beltings and strakes) m
C Positive clearance between hull of vessel and face of structure m
CB Block coefficient of vessel’s hull –
CC Berth configuration coefficient –
CE Eccentricity coefficient –
CM Added mass coefficient (virtual mass coefficient) –
CS Softness coefficient –
D Draft of vessel m
EN Normal berthing energy to be absorbed by the fender kNm
EA Abnormal berthing energy to be absorbed by the fender kNm
Fc Factor of safety for chains 2~3
FL Freeboard at laden draft m
FS Abnormal impact safety factor –
h Fender projection when compressed, measured at centerline of the fender –
H Height of compressible part of the fender m
H1 Static offset between brackets m
H2 Dynamic offset between brackets at F m
Hb Belting height mm
K Radius of gyration of vessel m
KC Under keel clearance m
LC Bearing length of chain m
LOA Overall length of vessel’s hull m
LBP Length of vessel’s hull between perpendiculars m
LS Overall length of the smallest vessel using the berth m
LL Overall length of the largest vessel using the berth m
MD Displacement of vessel tonne
n Number of chains acting together –
P Fender pitch or spacing m
81
Glossary
COMMONLY USED SYMBOLS
SYMBOL DEFINITION UNITS

R Distance from point of contact to the center of mass of the vessel m
RB Vessel bow radius m
RF Reaction force of the fender kN
V Velocity of the vessel (true vector) m/s
VB Approach velocity of the vessel perpendicular to the berthing line m/s
VL Longitudinal velocity component (forward or astern) m/s
Berthing angle degree
β Bow flare angle degree
δF Deflection of the fender unit % or m
Hull contact angle with fender degree
SW Seawater density t/m3
Coefficient of friction –
Velocity vector angle (between VB and R) degree
1 Static angle of chain degree
2 Dynamic angle of chain degree
R Combined reaction of all rubber fenders kN
LWT Light Weight Tonnage tonne
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage tonne
SWL Safe Working Load of chain tonne
MBL Minimum Breaking Load of chain tonne
Twenty-foot Equivalent Units, different shipping companies may use
TEU tonne
different definitions for estimations of overall TEU capacity
CEU Car Equivalent Units tonne
82
Codes and guidelines
Codes Description
ROM 2.0-11 Actions in the Design of Maritime and Harbor Works
ROM 3.1 Actions in the Design of Maritime and Harbor Works : this is the latest version
of the Spanish ROM available in English
BS6349-4:2014 Code of Practice for Design of Fendering and Mooring Systems
EAU 2004 Recommendations of the Committee for Waterfront Structures
PIANC 2002 Guidelines for the Design of Fender Systems: 2002 Marcom Report of WG33
ISO EN 12944 Standard for Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective
paint systems
ASTM An international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary
consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products,
systems, and services
EN 10025 A set of European standards which specify the technical delivery conditions for
hot rolled products of structural steels
JIS G-3101 A Japanese material standard for hot rolled steel plates, sheets, strips for
general structural usage
PIANC report WG121 Harbor approach changes design guidelines from 2014 including the latest
design information on vessels
83
DISCLAIMER
Trelleborg AB has made every effort to ensure that the technical specifications and
product descriptions in this manual are correct.
The responsibility or liability for errors and omissions cannot be accepted for any
reason whatsoever. Customers are advised to request a detailed specification and
certified drawing prior to construction and manufacture. In the interests of improving
the quality and performance of our products and systems, we reserve the right to make
specification changes without prior notice. All dimensions, material properties and
performance values quoted are subject to normal production and testing tolerances.
This manual supersedes the information provided in all previous editions. If in doubt,
please check with Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure.
© Trelleborg AB, PO Box 153, 231 22 Trelleborg, Sweden.

This manual is the copyright of Trelleborg AB and may not be reproduced, copied or
distributed to third parties without the prior consent of Trelleborg AB in each case.
MN-FEN-V3.4-EN,2022
84
Trelleborg is a world leader in engineered polymer solutions
that seal, damp and protect critical applications in
demanding environments. Its innovative solutions accelerate
performance for customers in a sustainable way.
W W W.T R EL L E B O RG .C O M/M A R I N E A N D I N F R A S T RU C T U R E
facebook: TrelleborgMarineandInfrastructure
twitter: @TrelleborgMI
youtube.com/c/TrelleborgMarineInfrastructure
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Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure

Email: marine_infra@trelleborg.com

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T R EL L EB O RG M A R I N E A N D I N F R A ST RU C T U R E

The smarter approach Transferring know-how Materials best practice

The smarter approach The smarter approach The smarter approach

The demanding nature of commercial ports

Connect with a partner that combines smart solutions,

Take a Smarter Approach to

CONSULTATION CONCEPT DESIGN MANUFACTURE

When you choose Trelleborg you ensure

As stated in the British Standard*, fender design

to withstand the harsh ❙ Regulations and codes of practice

* BS6349 : – Code of Practice for Design of Fendering and Mooring Systems.

Methods are also adapted to working practices

Further design tools and utilities including generic

10 REASONS FOR QUALITY FENDERING

Purchase price Wear & tear

= Capital cost = Maintenance cost

Capital cost + Maintenance cost = FULL LIFE COST

Ship Structures Approach Location

Calculation of berthing energy

Calculation of fender energy absorption

Selection of appropriate fenders

Check impact on structure and vessel

Final selection of fender

INSTALLATION AND MAINTENANCE

As well as a full suite of engineering programs, we

CURRENTS AND WINDS

Most modern ships have bulbous bows. Care is needed

Almost every class of ship could be fitted with beltings

Barges, small tankers and general cargo ships can

RoRo ships, car carriers and some navy vessels

Ships with high freeboard include ferries, cruise and

Many modern ships, but especially tankers and gas

High speed catamarans and monohulls are often built

Many ships are modified during their lifetime with

1. PANAMA CANAL 2. SUEZ CANAL 3. ST LAWRENCE SEAWAY

Note: Dimensions based on the new panama

USING SHIP TABLES

MIN. LATERAL MAX. LATERAL APPROX.

MIN. LATERAL MAX. LATERAL APPROX.

Coastal 75 165 25.0 22.0 6.6 2.8 0.40 – – –

FEATURES DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

b Difficult berthing, sheltered

Good berthing, exposed to waves and/

Given ship dimensions and using typical block

Added Mass Coefficient (CM)

SHIGERA UEDA VASCO COSTA*

*valid where VB ≥ 0.08m/s, KC ≥ 0.1D

Special case – longitudinal approach

VL = longitudinal velocity component (forward or astern)

(assuming the center of mass is at

where, COMMON BERTHING CASES

LOCK ENTRANCES AND DOLPHIN BERTHS

Mode (a) Mode (b)

MODE (a) MODE (b)

CM = 1.1 for Side Fenders

PIANC recommends the following values:

❙ Open structures including berth

Softness Coefficient (CS)

CS = 1.0 Soft fenders (δf > 150mm)

NORMAL BERTHING ENERGY (EN)

❙ The above curves are valid for all MV-element sizes.

❙ Hull pressures and tidal range ❙ Permissible stresses ❙ Chain connections