Weight and Balance

AM294
TERMINOLOGY
Weight and Balance Terminology
The following terminology is used in the application of
Weight and Balance.
Before we begin with the weighing procedures, these terms
must be fully understood.
Datum
The Datum is an imaginary vertical plane from which all
horizontal measurements are taken for balance purposes
with the aircraft in level flight attitude.
It is a plane at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft.
The Datum location can be found on the Aircraft
Specification Sheet or the Type Certificate Data Sheet.
There is no fixed rule for the location of the datum. Any
convenient location can be selected. The manufacturer can
select any fixed place on the aircraft structure or locate it a
certain distance forward of the nose section.
Note: on some older aircraft where the datum is not
indicated, any convenient Datum may be selected and must
be identified so that anyone that reads the W&B report will
have no doubt as to its exact location.
Once the Datum is set all Measurements, Equipment
locations and Weight and Balance Computations and made
from this reference point.
All measurements to the RIGHT of the datum are “Positive”
and all measurements to the LEFT are “Negative”
Arm
(AKA, Moment arm, lever arm, station)
The Arm is the horizontal distance in INCHES from the datum to
center of gravity of an item.
or
It is the distance that any item of equipment is located from the
datum.
(+) indicates all measurements aft of the datum. (-) indicates
forward of the datum.
Moment
Moment is used in Weight & Balance computations.
It is expressed in Pound/inches
Moment is the product of weight multiplied by its arm.
Moment=Weight x Arm or Distance x Force.
Center of Gravity
The point along an aircrafts longitudinal axis at which an
aircrafts weight is considered to be concentrated.
It is a point where the nose heavy and tail heavy moments are
exactly equal. It will not pitch forward or aft if suspended on a
string. The weight is concentrated at this point.
AKA the Balance point.
Typically expressed in terms of inches from a predetermined
point (datum)
C of G Range
Manufacturer computes the C of G and also compute the
forward and aft C of G. The distance between these limits
is the C of G Range.
These numbers can be found on the TCDS, Operations
manual or Specs sheet.
Operation of an aircraft outside this range is prohibited.
As AME’s it is our responsibility to ensure these limits are
not exceeded due to repairs or alterations of the aircraft.
Ballast
Is any weight added to the aircraft used to bring the C of G
within a desired range.
It can be Permanent Ballast or Temporary Ballast.
Permanent ballast must not be removed and must be
marked as “Permanent Ballast”. Can be painted Red and
marked “Do Not Remove” also.
Temporary ballast is used for specific flight conditions.
Weighing Points
The weighing points are specific points on aircraft where
scales must be placed for weighing.
Prior to weighing, you must determine where the weigh
points are located. TCDS.
Light to medium aircraft, the wheels are usually placed
under the scales. Other structural areas of the aircraft
capable of supporting the aircraft are used. These can use
permanently installed jack pads or have temporary pads
installed.
When weighing aircraft with the wheels on the scales, a
vertical line passing through the center of the wheel axle
will locate the point on the scale at which the weight is
concentrated.
Using a plumb bob is a good tool to determine this.
This is required for the W&B calculations.
Load Cells and Platform Scales

Platform Scales-
Normally used with smaller aircraft. The aircraft is lifted off
the floor and lowered onto the scale. Some aircraft can be
rolled onto the scales.
Once on the scales chocks are used to prevents the A/C
from moving (Parking brakes should remain off)
Scales can be mechanical or electronic. Must be calibrated!
Electronic Load cells-
Load cells are placed between the jack pad and jack.
The load cells are Strain gauge capsules whose resistance
changes proportionately to the amount of load imposed on
them. An electronic bridge circuit converts this change in
resistance to the weight readout.
Tare
Also known as Tare weight.
The weight of all extra items on a weighing scale platform
that are not part of the item being weighed.
These are items such as jacks, chocks or blocks.
These items must be subtracted from the total weight on
the scale. It is part of the W&B computations. This is
referred to as the Net Weight
Moment Index
Is the Moment reduced by 10,000, 1000 or 100 for ease in
balance calculations.
E.g.. A moment of 12,500 LB/IN has a reduction factor of
1000 applied to its results in a moment index of 12.5 LB/IN
Basic Empty Weight
Includes the weight of the aircraft, any optional or special
equipment, fixed ballast, unusable fuel and full operating
fluids including oil, hydraulic fluid and any other fluids
required for normal operation of aircraft systems,
EXCEPT- potable water, Lavatory pre-charge fluid and water
injection for engines.
Ref . General 6-2.
Licensed Empty Weight.
Is similar to Basic Empty weight except it doesn’t include full
engine oil.
It includes only the weight of unusable or undrainable oil.
Aircraft certified prior to March 1 1978 will use Licensed
Empty weight.
Post March 1 1978, full oil is used.
Always refer to the TCDS or W&B report.
Standard Empty Weight
This is the weight of the aircraft without optional
equipment.
This weight is given by the manufacturer.
Do not confuse the Standard empty weight (or basic weight)
with the Basic Empty Weight.
Fleet Weight
An average weight accepted by regulatory body (TC) for
aircraft of identical make, model and has the same
equipment installed. When a Fleet weight program is in
effect, the fleet weight can be used rather than each
individual AC to be weighed.
Payload
Payload-refers to the weight of the flight crew, passengers
(PAX) baggage and any cargo.
Useful Load
Is determined by subtracting the Basic Empty Weight and
the Maximum Allowable Takeoff Weight.
Useful load includes- Payload, useable fuel and full
operating fluids.
The useful load should never be exceeded.
Even though the useful load isn’t exceeded, it is still critical
for the weight and balance where this load is placed on the
aircraft.
Usable Fuel and Unusable Fuel
Usable Fuel- Is the portion of the total fuel load that is
available for consumption by the aircraft in flight.

Unusable Fuel-is fuel left in the fuel system which cannot be

consumed the engine.
The amount of unusable fuel is given in the Aircraft Specs
sheet or TCDS.
Zero Fuel Weight
Is the maximum allowable weight of an aircraft minus the
fuel load.
Weight of the A/C plus Useful load without fuel. Limits the
ratio of load between the fuselage and the wings.
All weights added above the maximum Zero Fuel Weight will
only include usable fuel.
Undrainable oil and Full oil.
Undrainable oil- Is the oil that remains trapped in the oil
system when the oil is drained.

Full oil- is the quantity of oil shown as oil capacity as per the
TCDS or A/C Specs sheet.
Maximum Weight
Is the maximum authorized weight of an aircraft and its
contents and is indicated in the Specs sheets.
Operating an aircraft above its maximum weight could
result in structural deformation or failure.
Weight Limitations
Some aircraft will use other maximum weights which include:
Max Landing weight- is the maximum weight that an aircraft can
land. It is usually less than the MTOW.
Max Ramp weight- usually greater than the Maximum Takeoff
weight. It’s the weight of the fuel to be burned during taxi to
the runway.
Max Takeoff weight(MTOW)- maximum weight an aircraft can
start it’s takeoff on the runway.
Aircraft Loading Aspects.
Overloaded- An overloaded aircraft must:
◦ Accelerate to a higher than normal rate of speed to generate
lift. More runway needed for takeoff.
◦ Once airborne, there is a reduced climb performance. It’s
service ceiling is decreased.
◦ Aircraft can become less stable and difficult to fly.
C of G too far forward- if the A/C is loaded so the CG is
forward of the forward CG limit:
◦ A/C will be too nose heavy
◦ A/C seems stable but longer T/O distance is required and has a
higher stall speed.
◦ Pitch control can become ineffective so difficult to flare on
landing or get the nose up when required.
C of G too far aft- if the A/C is loaded with the CG too far
aft:
◦ More dangerous effects than a CG too far FWD.
◦ A/C becomes too tail heavy and very unstable in pitch.
◦ Stabilator effectiveness decreases. The farther aft the CG
moves the more ineffective the stabilator becomes causing
stall or spin recovery difficult.
Empty Weight Center of Gravity(EWCG)
The EWCG is the CG of an aircraft in its empty weight
condition.
It’s an essential part of the W&B record. It serves as a basis
for other computations and not as an indication of what the
loaded CG will be.
The Empty Weight CG is computed at the time of weighing
using formulas established for tailwheel or nose wheel type
A/C.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord.
(LEMAC/TEMAC)
The MAC is the average chord of the wing (an imaginary straight
line through the L/E and T/E of the wing section)
The CG location for large category aircraft is given in terms of a
percent of the MAC of the wing (not in inches from the datum)
LEMAC- Leading edge mean aerodynamic chord.
TEMAC- Trailing edge MAC.
E.g.. CG is 15% aft of a MAC of 100 inches, CG would be 15
inches aft of the LEMAC
Minimum Fuel
The term Minimum Fuel should not be interpreted to mean
the minimum amount of fuel to fly an aircraft. It applies to
W&B.
It is the amount of fuel that must be shown on a W&B
report when the aircraft is loaded for an extreme condition
check.
The Min fuel load for small aircraft with reciprocating
engines is based on engine horsepower. It’s calculated in
terms of METO HP(Maximum except Takeoff)
The METO figure is used when the fuel load is reduced to obtain
the most critical loading of a CG limit being investigated.
We will cover Adverse Loaded CG in another lesson.
There are 2 ways to calculate Minimum Fuel. Divide METO by
12 and multiply by 6 to convert gallons into pounds of fuel.
The second method is to convert directly to pounds by dividing
METO by 2.
For Turbine aircraft, the minimum fuel required for adverse CG
checks is specified by the A/C manufacturer.
Minimum Fuel= METO x 6
12

Minimum Fuel= METO

2
Additional Information
Lateral Imbalance
◦ Causes wing heaviness which
can be corrected by
deflecting the ailerons. The
additional lift causes
additional drag and the AC
flies inefficiently.
◦ Lateral imbalance affects
helicopters more than
Aircraft
Fuel in the tanks of a swept wing AC affects
both lateral and longitudinal balance. As fuel
is burned from the outboard tanks, the CG
moves forward.
As fuel is burned from the inboard tanks, the
CG moves aft.
For this reason, fuel scheduling is critical for
swept back wing type aircraft.
Standard Weights
The standard weights used in weight and balance
computations are as follows:
Aviation Gas- 6.0 pounds per gallon
Turbine fuel- 6.7 pounds per gallon
Oil- 7.5 pounds per gallon
Water- 8.35 pounds per gallon
Crew and Pax- 170.0 pounds.
TCDS shows 2 fuel tanks @ 27 gal. 2 tanks x 27= 54 gal.
◦ 54 gallons x 6lbs/gal = 324 lbs.

Oil shows 12 quarts @ full. 12 divided by 4qts/gal= 3 gallons.

3 gal oil x 7.5= 22.5lbs.
The current Transport Canada's passenger weight standards are:
males - summer 182 lbs, winter 188 lbs;
females - summer 135 lbs, winter 141 lbs;
children (2-11 years) - summer 75 lbs, winter 75 lbs;
infants (0-less than 2 years) - summer 30 lbs, winter 30 lbs; and
 TC AIM Average Passenger Weights
*

Summer Winter

200 lbs or 90.7 kg MALES 12 yrs up 206 lbs or 93.4 kg

165 lbs or 74.8 kg FEMALES 12 yrs up 171 lbs or 77.5 kg

75 lbs or 34 kg CHILDREN 2-11 yrs 75 lbs or 34 kg

30 lbs or 13.6 kg *INFANTS 0 to less than 2 yrs 30 lbs or 13.6 kg