Articulo de Ingles
Articulo de Ingles
Articulo de Ingles
Experimental Combustion Analysis of a Small Size Diesel Engine Fueled With Tire
Derived Fuel/Diesel Fuel Blends
Oğuzhan Doğan1*, Mustafa Aydın2
0000-0001-6543-1803, 0000-0002-6187-6722
1, 2 Automotive Engineering Department, Faculty of Technology, Pamukkale University, Denizli, 20020, Türkiye
Research Article
https://doi.org/10.30939/ijastech..1166994
This study aims to analyse the detailed combustion characteristics of tire derived fuel blends
(TDF) in small-size DI diesel engines. From this point of view, the refined TDF and reference
diesel fuel (No.2 Diesel) were blended in various percentages and tested in a single cylinder
naturally aspirated DI diesel engine to clarify its detailed combustion characteristics. The ex-
perimental test results point out that ignition delay period is observed to be 4.32 CAD (No.2
Diesel fuel), 5.57 CAD (TDF20), 6.56 CAD (TDF40), 8.48 CAD (TDF60), 11.09 CAD
Received 25.08.2022
(TDF80), and 14.26 CAD (TDF100) for the low engine speeds (1400 rpm). With the increas- Revised 06.09.2022
ing TDF in fuel blends and engine speed, the ignition delay period prolongs more, and the Accepted 07.09.2022
total combustion duration shortens. However, due to the excessively long ignition delay period
of TDF100, it is not possible to run the test engine at more than 3000 rpm. TDF blends usually
demonstrate a longer premixed combustion period than that of No.2 Diesel, while it exhibits
a shorter diffusive combustion period. TDF blends also display a higher maximum value of
heat release rate (HRRmax), a higher peak value of in-cylinder pressure (Pmax) and a higher * Corresponding author
rate of pressure rise (dP/dCAD). In addition, combustion events occur late, and the center of oguzhandogan@pamukkale.edu.tr
combustion moves away from the top dead center into expansion stroke in the case of TDF Address: Automotive Engineering Depart-
ment, Faculty of Technology, Pamukkale
blends. University, Denizli, Turkiye
Keywords: Pyrolytic fuel, Diesel fuel, Combustion analysis. Tel:+902582964167
1. Introduction Producing Tire Derived Fuel (TDF) from scrap tyres not only
Scrap tires are one of the very common and important solid eliminates the problem of waste disposal but also provides a
wastes all over the world. Scrap tire production shows an incre- meaningful potential to minimize the usage of natural sources to
asing trend due to the increasing number of vehicles in develo- obtain useful energy. Tire-derived fuel (TDF) has received inc-
ped and underdeveloped countries [1]. However, scrap tires are reasing attention recently as an alternative fuel for diesel engines
very resistant to biological degradation. Hence, the scrap tires due to growing energy demand and finite petroleum fuel sour-
should be kept under control or disposed of by using suitable ces. Some studies show that TDF can be used as an alternative
methods without damaging the environment. One of the envi- fuel in CI engines successively [10-18].
ronmentally friendly disposing methods is pyrolysis, which is Kennedy and Rathinaraj [10] studied the utilization of TDF
the thermal degradation of solid wastes at high temperatures blends with diesel fuel in a DI diesel engine, and they showed
(300-900 oC) in the absence of air (oxygen) to produce char, py- that TDF could be used successively in diesel engines. In the
rolytic fuel or syngas. The pyrolytic fuel (raw tire-derived fuel- same study, it was reported that the TDF was associated with
TDF), which is a mixture of various paraffin, olefins and aroma- lower emissions of HC, CO compared to levels associated with
tic compounds, is a dark brown liquid. The raw TDF usually has diesel fuel. In addition, smoke and noise level was not notably
a specific gravity of about 0.90-0.98 kg/l, a sulphur content of different from neat diesel fuel. Doğan et al. [16, 18] also re-
about 1-1.5 %, and kinematic viscosity of about 2.5-5.5 centis- ported similar results.
tokes (cSt) which makes it a non-viscous liquid and the calorific Murugan et al. [11-13] investigated the effect of lower and
value of raw TDF is 41-44 MJ/kg, which is similar to that of higher concentrations of the TDF/diesel fuel blends on the per-
diesel and gasoline [2-9]. formance, emission and combustion characteristics of a single
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cylinder, 4-stroke, and air-cooled DI diesel engine. They re- Reference diesel fuel (No.2 Diesel, Ultra Low-Sulphur),
ported that HC, NOX, CO and smoke emissions usually in- which was purchased from a commercial supplier, and the final
creased with the increasing TDF content in the test fuels. They pyrolytic oil (TDF) properties used in this study were presented
also found that the maximum combustion pressure, rate of pres- in Table 1.
sure rise, and ignition delay showed an increasing trend in the The comparison of fuel properties shows that the TDF has rel-
case of TDF blends. Murugan et al. [14] studied the influence of atively closer fuel properties to that of No.2 Diesel. Hence, no
the distillation process on raw pyrolytic fuel properties, engine fuel system modifications are required for the utilization of TDF
performance and emissions in a DI diesel engine. They reported in the existing engine. It was observed that TDF blended easily
that the engine performance and emissions can be improved by with reference diesel fuel, and no homogeneity problems were
using distilled TDF in a diesel engine. Recently, İlkılıç and Ay- seen with the fuel blends.
dın [17] performed a study to evaluate the influence of TDF on
the performance and emission characteristics of a single-cylin- Table 1. Test fuel properties.
der DI diesel engine. They concluded that HC, CO, SO2 and No.2 Raw
smoke emissions usually increased, and NOx emissions de- EN-590 TDF
Diesel TDF
creased with the increasing TDF content in the fuel blends. In 820–
Density (kg/m3, 15 oC) 829 944.4 904
addition, engine output power, torque and brake-specific fuel 845
consumption deteriorated with the increasing TDF content in the Flash point (oC) 55> 67 42.5 60.5
test fuels. Kinematic viscosity
2–4.5 2.96 5.06 2.164
(cst, 40 oC)
Despite the studies on the performance and emissions of
LHV (MJ/kg) – 42.9 39.98 40.94
TDF/diesel fuels in DI diesel engines in the open literature, there Cetane number 51 >50 - <40
is a lack of information on detailed combustion characteristics Carbon residue (%, m/m) 0.3 0.3 21.51 1
of TDF/diesel fuel blends in DI diesel engines. The primary ob- Water content (mg/kg) <200 200 2645 140
jective of this study is to provide a complete understanding and Ash (%, m/m) 0.01 0.01 0.006 0.0005
comprehensive combustion analysis of TDF blends in a diesel Sulphur (mg/kg) 0–10 ≈0 11385 4327
engine. The secondary objective of this study is to compare the PAHs (%, m/m) 0–11 8 >12 9.5
Distillation Hydrocar-
bon types
greater heat absorption from the combustion chamber, and re- engine under full load conditions and at various engine speeds
sults in a delay in the combustion process [23]. The hydrocarbon (1400 rpm, 2000 rpm, 2600 rpm, 3200 rpm). The detailed tech-
composition of fuels such as aromatic and olefin content affects nical specification of the test engine is presented in Table 2.
the cetane number. The general trend is that the olefins and aro- The test engine remained unmodified when operating on TDF
matics have low cetane numbers [19, 24-27]. blends. Engine tests were carried out initially by using reference
TDF has a higher density but less energy content than that of diesel fuel (No.2 Diesel, Ultra Low-Sulphur). Later on, TDF
No.2 Diesel. A shorter fuel injection delay and advanced fuel blends (TDF20 (e.g. TDF20 contains 20% TDF and 80% No.2
injection timing are expected due to the higher density of TDF Diesel on volume basis), TDF40, TDF60, TDF80, and TDF100)
when compared with those of the No.2 Diesel operation. The were prepared and tested under same conditions for comparison.
energy content of TDF is 95.2% of that of No.2 Diesel, so the Engine speed, in-cylinder pressure, fuel line pressure and
engine does not need to be modified when running with TDF shaft encoder data were recorded by using TFX software during
blends. The cetane number of TDF is much lower than that of the engine tests. The detailed combustion characteristics and
No.2 Diesel, and therefore a longer ignition delay period and a heat release parameters were analysed by using Matlab software
higher rate of pressure rise are expected. The hydrocarbon com- afterengine tests. To clarify the effect of the TDF blend on com-
position of test fuels shows that TDF is more olefinic and aro- bustion characteristics, the combustion characteristics of each
matic than that of No.2 Diesel. The distillation range and viscos- fuel blend were compared with those of No.2 Diesel combus-
ity of TDF are lower than that of No.2 Diesel, therefore the evap- tion.
oration process and the fuel-air mixing process are expected to
occur faster in the case of TDF blends. Table 2. Test engine details.
Model Katana KM 178 F
2.3 Experimental apparatus for combustion analysis
General Single cylinder, DI,
The experimental test setup includes a diesel engine coupled naturally aspirated,
to the DC dynamometer and an engine pressure measurement and four-stroke.
system, which consists of an Optrand AutoPSI-S model fibre- Diameter (mm) x Stroke (mm) 78x62
optic based direct sensor (in-cylinder pressure), an Oprand Au- Cylinder volume (cm3) 296
toPSI-S2000 sensor (fuel line pressure), and an optical shaft en- Compression ratio 18/1
coder. Optrand pressure sensors are integrated with the signal Engine power (kW) @ rpm 4 @ 3600
conditioner in production. Pressure sensors and the shaft en- Fuel pump delivery angle 31
coder were coupled to the diesel engine for monitoring the in- (CAD BTDC)
cylinder pressure, fuel line pressure and crank angle data. The Injector opening pressure (bar) 205 ±5
signals of pressure sensors and the shaft encoder were recorded Number of injector nozzle holes 4
by using TFX combustion measurement system, which consists Injector nozzle hole diameter (mm) 0.1
of a sensor interface box, data-acquisition apparatus, PC and
TFX software (Fig. 1). 2.4 Calculation method
Initially, the recorded cylinder pressure data were averaged
by using 100 cycles to reduce the effect of cycle-by-cycle vari-
ations, and the final cylinder pressure trace was estimated. Later
on, the final cylinder pressure data was filtered by using a for-
ward and backward 4th order butter worth low-pass filter. In the
present study, heat release rate (HRR) analysis was performed
to evaluate the combustion characteristics by using the filtered
cylinder pressure and the cylinder volume data. The HRR anal-
ysis is carried out in two parts with the first being the calculation
of net HRR (Eq.(1)). The second part is cumulative of the net
heat release rate (CHRR) (Eq.(2)) to estimate the end of com-
bustion and center of combustion (CAD50).
The net HRR (dQn/dCAD) can be calculated by applying the
first thermodynamic law as follows [28]:
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where k is the ratio of specific heats, cP/cV, for diesel heat release density of TDF blend also reduces the time for pressure wave prop-
analysis k is 1.35 [28], P is the cylinder pressure, V is the instan- agation in the engine fuel line and results in advance in fuel injec-
taneous cylinder volume, CAD is the crank angle, and Qn is the tion timing. The advancing of fuel injection timing makes the fuel
net HRR. CHRR (Eq.(2)) is the integration of the net HRR, and to be injected into a lower temperature environment in the com-
it indicates the amount of energy spent for a given output [29]. bustion chamber and increases the ignition delay [20-22].
𝑘 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑃
𝐶𝐻𝑅𝑅 = ∫ ( 𝑃 + 𝑉 ) (2)
𝑘 − 1 𝑑𝐶𝐴𝐷 𝑘 − 1 𝑑𝐶𝐴𝐷
Ignition delay is the time delay between the start of dynamic fuel
injection (SOI) and the start of combustion (SOC) in a diesel en-
gine. Ignition delay period is estimated by analyzing the net HRR
diagram and the fuel line pressure trace together. The fuel line
pressure history is used to determine the SOI in terms of CAD by
considering the point at which the designed nozzle opening pres-
sure is attained.
The SOC is predicted by using the net HRR curve, and it is de-
fined as the CAD at which the net HRR curve crosses the x-axis
(from negative to positive value) around the top dead center.
The time between the start of combustion and the end of com-
bustion is specified as the total combustion duration. The end of Figure 2. Comparison of ignition delay period
combustion is estimated from the 90% value of the CHRR. In this
study, the premixed and diffusion combustion periods are distin- Moreover, the olefin content increase and the cetane number de-
guished by using the beginning of net HRR and the second derivate creases as the proportion of TDF in the fuel blend increases. In-
of the net HRR. The center of combustion (CAD50) is defined as creased olefin content reduces the physical ignition delay and in-
the degree of the crankshaft, and it is estimated from the 50% value creases the chemical ignition delay due to olefin chemistry ex-
of the CHRR. plained in detail in Ref [23]. The reduced cetane number of TDF
blends also prolongs the chemical ignition delay and the total effect
3. Results and Discussion of the above-mentioned factors leads to the TDF blend having a
3.1 Ignition delay period longer ignition delay.
The ignition delay period versus TDF proportion of test fuels at 3.2 Heat release rate (HRR) analysis
various engine speeds is shown in Fig. 2. Increasing TDF propor-
The HRR is the indicator of the heat amount added into the
tion in test fuel blends increased the ignition delay period at all en-
combustion chamber to produce the observed pressure traces in
gine speeds. Ignition delay period was found to be 4.32 CAD (No.2
the engine cylinder and HRR analysis is a method used to obtain
Diesel fuel), 5.57 CAD (TDF20), 6.56 CAD (TDF40), 8.48 CAD
important combustion information from the cylinder pressure
(TDF60), 11.09 CAD (TDF80), and 14.26 CAD (TDF100) for the
data. It strongly affects the fuel economy, power output and the
low engine speeds (1400 rpm). For the high engine speed (3200
emissions of the engine [29].
rpm) tests, ignition delay period was observed as 12.83 CAD (No.2
The comparison of heat release rate for TDF blends and for
Diesel fuel), 13.92 CAD (TDF20), 14.72 CAD (TDF40), 16.77
No.2 Diesel at various engine speeds is shown in Fig. 3.
CAD (TDF60), and 20.00 CAD (TDF80). However, due to the ex-
It can be seen that a more negative dip of net HRR is observed
cessively long ignition delay period of TDF100, it wasnot possible
at the beginning of HRR during the ignition delay period in the
to run the test engine at more than 3000 rpm.
case of TDF blends and this is more obvious at lower engine
It is noticed that the ignition delay of TDF and its blends are
speeds (Fig. 3). This is because of the heat absorption during the
considerably longer compared to that of No.2 Diesel fuel. As the
ignition delay period arising from the lower distillation range
proportion of TDF in the fuel blend increases, test fuel becomes
and higher volatility of TDF blends [32]. The negative dip of net
more volatile and less viscous, which contributes to better fuel at-
HRR becomes positive after combustion is initiated. However,
omization and mixture formation, resulting in a short ignition de-
a delay is observed in the heat release starting position in the
lay. However, the TDF fuel blend causes a higher temperature drop
case of TDF blends and the end of heat release remains almost
and greater heat absorption in the combustion chamber due to its
the same. The delay in heat release starting position is due to
lower distillation range, better volatility and higher density. This
higher olefin content, lower distillation range and better volatil-
phenomenon overcomes the above-mentioned effect and may lead
ity of the TDF blend. A higher olefin content of fuel reduces the
to a larger physical ignition delay [20, 22, 23, 30]. Increased igni-
temperature of the distillation range and leads to great heat ab-
tion delay owing to a higher density of TDF blends can be ac-
sorption in the combustion chamber and slows down the chem-
counted for by the drop in temperature during the delay period due
ical reaction rate [23]. A higher density of TDF blends provides
to increasing evaporation as more fuel is injected [31]. Increased
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more fuel into the combustion chamber and it also leads to more Through Fig.4, it can be seen that the maximum value of net
heat energy absorption in the combustion chamber as more fuel HRR shows an increasing trend in the case of TDF blends for all
is injected [20, 31]. The total effect of the above-mentioned fac- engine speeds. For the low engine speeds (1400 rpm), maximum
tors leads to the delayed net HRR in the case of TDF blends. value of net HRR showed an increase from 9.79 Joule/CAD
The maximum net heat release rate (HRRMAX) and the loca- (No.2 Diesel fuel) to 12.3 Joule/CAD (TDF20), 12.37
tion of net HRRMAX versus TDF content of test fuels at various Joule/CAD (TDF40), 14.01 Joule/CAD (TDF60), 17.93
engine speeds are shown in Fig. 4. Joule/CAD (TDF80), and 19.83 Joule/CAD (TDF100). For the
high engine speed (3200 rpm) tests, net HRRMAX was noticed as
15.95 Joule/CAD (No.2 Diesel fuel), 17.16 Joule/CAD (TDF20),
17.84 Joule/CAD (TDF40), 19.83 Joule/CAD (TDF60), and
23.05 Joule/CAD (TDF80).
The greater density of TDF blends provides more fuel into the
combustion chamber, hence greater amount of heat is released.
The longer ignition delay, better volatility, and lower viscosity
of TDF blends lead to a larger amount of fuel accumulation in
the combustion chamber at the time of the premixed burning pe-
riod, leading to a higher net HRRMAX [20, 32, 33]. However, the
net HRRMAX of TDF blends occurs at later CAD. The higher
temperature drop effect and higher olefin content of TDF fuel
blends make the chemical reaction rate slow down at the early
stage of net HRR and this can shift the location of net HRR MAX
into expansion stroke.
combustion duration, where the combustion rate is controlled by higher olefin content and faster evaporation of TDF lead to the
the fuel/air mixing rate. The premixed combustion duration, the larger amount of fuel accumulation in the combustion chamber
diffusion combustion duration, the total combustion duration, during premixed part of combustion [20, 34], therefore pre-
and the center of combustion (CAD50) are introduced in Fig. 5. mixed combustion duration usually increases in case of TDF
blends.
The diffusive combustion duration shows a remarkable reduc-
tion in the case of TDF blends (Fig. 5) due to a better mixing
rate arising from the lower viscosity and better volatility of TDF
blends [22, 35-37]. It is well known that a shorter diffusive com-
bustion duration is favorable to the reduction of smoke emission.
It is noticed that the total combustion duration is shorter in the
case of TDF blends (Fig. 5). The addition of TDF in the fuel
promotes the combustion process, improves diffusive combus-
tion, and reduces the total combustion duration. The center of
combustion (CAD50) moves away from the top dead center for
TDF blends. This fact can be attributed to a late start of combus-
tion and a short diffusion combustion duration observed in the
case of the TDF blend.
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