Data Mining

刘莹，博士，教授

中国科学院大学计算机科学与技术学院
中国科学院大学数据挖掘与高性能计算实验室
 Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process
▪ Data mining—core of Pattern Evaluation
knowledge discovery
process
Data Mining
Selection and
Transformation

Data Warehouse
Data Cleaning
and Integration

Databases Flat files

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Data Warehouse
◼ What is a data warehouse?
◼ A multi-dimensional data model
◼ Data warehouse architecture
◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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What is Data Warehouse?
◼ “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated,
time-variant, and nonvolatile collection of data in support
of management’s decision-making process.” — W. H.
Inmon
◼ Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously
▪ A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database
▪ Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis

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Data Warehouse
◼ 数据仓库将分布在企业网络中不同信息岛上的业务数据
集成到一起，存储在一个单一的集成关系型数据库中，
利用这样的集成信息，可方便用户对信息访问，可使决
策人员对一段时间内的历史数据进行分析，研究事务的
发展走势—Informix 公司
◼ 数据仓库是一种管理技术，旨在通过通畅、合理、全面
的信息管理，达到有效的决策支持—SAS软件研究所
◼ 数据仓库是集成信息的存储中心，这些信息可用于查询
或分析—Stanford University
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Example
◼ Customer relationship management

◼ Banking decision support system

◼ Insurance decision support system
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Example
◼ Weather forecasting
▪ Air pressure, temperature, longitude/latitude,
humidity, time, etc.
▪ Slice, drill down, roll up, etc.
▪ Query
▪ Multi-dimensional visualization

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Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented
◼ Organized around major subjects, such as customer,
product, sales
◼ Focus on the modeling and analysis of data for
decision makers, not on daily operations or
transaction processing
◼ Provide a simple and concise view around particular
subject issues by excluding data that are not useful
in the decision support process

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Data Warehouse—Integrated
◼ Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous
data sources
▪ relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction records
◼ Data cleaning and data integration techniques are
applied
▪ Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding
structures, attribute measures, etc. among different data
sources
▪ When data is moved to the warehouse, it is converted

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Data Warehouse—Time Variant
◼ The time horizon for the data warehouse is
significantly longer than that of operational systems
▪ Operational database: current value data
▪ Data warehouse data: provide information from a historical
perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
◼ Every key structure in the data warehouse
▪ Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
▪ But the key of operational data may or may not contain
“time element”

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Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile
◼ A physically separate store of data transformed
from the operational environment
◼ Operational update of data does not occur in the
data warehouse environment
▪ Does not require transaction processing, recovery,
and concurrency control mechanisms
▪ Requires only two operations in data accessing:
• initial loading of data and access of data

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Data Warehouse vs. Operational DBMS
◼ OLTP (on-line transaction processing)
▪ Major task of traditional relational DBMS
▪ Day-to-day operations: e.g. purchasing, inventory, banking,
manufacturing, payroll, registration, accounting, etc.
◼ OLAP (on-line analytical processing)
▪ Major task of data warehouse system
▪ Data analysis and decision making
◼ Distinct features (OLTP vs. OLAP):
▪ User and system orientation: customer vs. market
▪ Data contents: current, detailed vs. historical, consolidated
▪ View: current, local vs. evolutionary, integrated
▪ Access patterns: update vs. read-only but complex queries
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OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response

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Data Warehouse

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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From Tables and Spreadsheets to Data Cubes

◼ A data warehouse is based on a

multidimensional data model which views data
in the form of a data cube
◼ A data cube allows data to be modeled and
viewed in multiple dimensions
▪ Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand,
type), or time (day, week, month, quarter, year)
▪ Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold)
and keys to each of the related dimension tables
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From Tables and Spreadsheets to Data Cubes

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Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses

◼ Modeling data warehouses: dimensions &

measures
▪ Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a
set of dimension tables
▪ Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape
similar to snowflake
▪ Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation
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 Example of Star Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name
month brand
quarter time_key type
year supplier_type
item_key
branch_key
branch location
location_key
branch_key location_key
branch_name units_sold street
branch_type city
dollars_sold state_or_province
country
avg_sales
Measures
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 Example of Snowflake Schema
time
time_key item
day item_key supplier
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name supplier_key
month brand supplier_type
quarter time_key type
year item_key supplier_key

branch_key
branch location
location_key
location_key
branch_key
units_sold street
branch_name
city_key
branch_type
dollars_sold city
city_key
avg_sales city
state_or_province
Measures country
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 Example of Fact Constellation
time
time_key item Shipping Fact Table
day item_key
day_of_the_week Sales Fact Table item_name time_key
month brand
quarter time_key type item_key
year supplier_type shipper_key
item_key
branch_key from_location

branch location_key location to_location

branch_key location_key dollars_cost
branch_name
units_sold
street
branch_type dollars_sold city units_shipped
province_or_state
avg_sales country shipper
Measures shipper_key
shipper_name
location_key
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shipper_type
Cube Definition Syntax in DMQL

◼ Cube Definition (Fact Table)

define cube <cube_name> [<dimension_list>]:
<measure_list>
◼ Dimension Definition (Dimension Table)
define dimension <dimension_name> as
(<attribute_or_subdimension_list>)
◼ Special Case (Shared Dimension Tables)
▪ First time as “cube definition”
▪ define dimension <dimension_name> as
<dimension_name_first_time> in cube
<cube_name_first_time>
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Defining Star Schema in DMQL
define cube sales_star [time, item, branch, location]:
dollars_sold, avg_sales, units_sold
define dimension time as (time_key, day, day_of_week,
month, quarter, year)
define dimension item as (item_key, item_name, brand,
type, supplier_type)
define dimension branch as (branch_key,
branch_name, branch_type)
define dimension location as (location_key, street, city,
province_or_state, country)

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Defining Snowflake Schema in DMQL

define cube sales_snowflake [time, item, branch,

location]:
dollars_sold, avg_sales, units_sold
define dimension time as (time_key, day, day_of_week,
month, quarter, year)
define dimension item as (item_key, item_name, brand,
type, supplier(supplier_key, supplier_type))
define dimension branch as (branch_key,
branch_name, branch_type)
define dimension location as (location_key, street,
city(city_key, province_or_state, country))
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Defining Fact Constellation in DMQL
define cube sales [time, item, branch, location]:
dollars_sold, avg_sales, units_sold
define dimension time as (time_key, day, day_of_week, month, quarter,
year)
define dimension item as (item_key, item_name, brand, type,
supplier_type)
define dimension branch as (branch_key, branch_name, branch_type)
define dimension location as (location_key, street, city, province_or_state,
country)
define cube shipping [time, item, shipper, from_location, to_location]:
dollar_cost, unit_shipped
define dimension time as time in cube sales
define dimension item as item in cube sales
define dimension shipper as (shipper_key, shipper_name, location as
location in cube sales, shipper_type)
define dimension from_location as location in cube sales
define dimension to_location as location in cube sales
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Exercise
1. Suppose that a data warehouse consists of three
dimensions time, doctor, and patient, and two
measures count and charge, where charge is the
fee that a doctor charges a patient for a visit.

(1) Draw a schema diagram for the data warehouse.

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 How to Generate a Specified Data Cube?
◼ DMQL specification is translated into SQL query
define cube sales_star [time, item, branch, location]:
dollars_sold, units_sold, units_sold

translator
select s.time_key, s.item_key, s.branch_key, s.location_key,
sum(s.number_of_units_sold*s.price), sum(s.number_of_units_sold)
from time t, item i, branch b, location l, sales s,
where s.time_key = t.time_key and s.item_key = i.item_key
and s.branch_key = b.branch_key and s.location_key = l.location_key
group by s.time_key, s.item_key, s.branch_key, s.location_key

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A Concept Hierarchy: Dimension (location)
all all

region Europe ... North_America

country Germany ... Spain Canada ... Mexico

city Frankfurt ... Vancouver ... Toronto

office L. Chan ... M. Wind

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A Concept Hierarchy: Dimension (time)
year

quarter

month
week

day

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 A Concept Hierarchy for Numeric Values
$0…$1000

$0…$200 $200…$400 $400…$600 $600…$800 $800…$1000

$0…$100 $200…$300 $400…$500 $600…$700 $800…$900

$100…$200 $300…$400 $500…$600 $700…$800 $900…$1000

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Multidimensional Data
◼ Sales volume as a function of product, month,
and region
Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths

Industry Region Year

Category Country Quarter

Product

Product City Month Week

Office Day

time
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Typical OLAP Operations
◼ Roll up (drill-up): summarize data
▪ by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension
reduction
◼ Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
▪ from higher level summary to lower level
summary or detailed data, or introducing new
dimensions
◼ Slice and dice: project and select
◼ Pivot (rotate):
▪ reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series
of 2D planes
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 A Sample Data Cube
Time Total annual sales
2Qtr of TV in U.S.A.
1Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum
TV
PC U.S.A
VCR

Country
sum
Canada

Mexico
Total annual
sales of TV
sum

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OLAP Operations

◼ Other operations
▪ drill across: involving (across) more than one fact
table
▪ drill through: through the bottom level of the cube
to its back-end relational tables (using SQL)
▪ rank top N or bottom N items in lists
▪ Compute average, variance, deviation

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Exercise
1. Suppose that a data warehouse consists of three
dimensions time, doctor, and patient, and two
measures count and charge, there charge is the fee
that a doctor charges a patient for a visit.

(2) Starting with the base cuboid [day, doctor, patient],

what OLAP operations should be performed in order
to list the total fee collected by each doctor in 1999?

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Data Warehouse

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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Data Warehouse: A Three-Layer Architecture

Monitor
& OLAP Server
Other Metadata
sources Integrator

Analysis
Operational Extract Query
DBs Transform Data Serve Reports
Load
Refresh
Warehouse Data mining

Data Marts

Data Sources Bottom layer: Middle layer: Top layer:

2022-03-02 Data Storage OLAP Engine Front-End40 Tools
Data Warehouse Back-End Tools and Utilities
◼ Data extraction
▪ get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external sources
◼ Data cleaning
▪ detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible
◼ Data transformation
▪ convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse format
◼ Load
▪ sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check integrity
◼ Refresh
▪ propagate the updates from the data sources to the
warehouse
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Three Data Warehouse Models
◼ Enterprise warehouse
▪ collect all of the information about subjects spanning the
entire organization
◼ Data mart
▪ a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a specific
group of users. Its scope is confined to specific, selected
groups, such as marketing data mart
• Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data
mart
◼ Virtual warehouse
▪ A set of views over operational databases
▪ Only some of the possible summary views may be
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Data Mart
▪ Credit scoring
C_id sex age income edu # credit Payment ratio # loans Payment ratio …
cards per month per month

12 0 34 50K BS. 1 100% 1 100% …

14 1 29 60K BS. 2 20% 1 50% …
135 1 46 100K MS. 4 100% 2 100% …
… … … … … … … … … …

▪ Utility mining
C_id T_id A Profit(A) B Profit(B) C Profit(C) D Profit(D) …

12 01 0 0 4 5.2 1 0.9 3 5.7 …

14 123 3 6.0 0 0 1 0.9 2 3.8 …
135 12 1 2.0 1 1.3 2 1.8 1 1.9 …
… … … … … … … … … … …
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Metadata Repository
◼ Meta data is data about data. It contains:
▪ Description of the structure of the data warehouse
• schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data
definition, data mart locations and contents
▪ Operational meta-data
• data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation
path), currency of data (active, archived, or purged),
monitoring information (warehouse usage statistics, error
reports, audit trails)

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Metadata Repository
▪ The algorithms used for summarization
▪ The mapping from operational environment to the
data warehouse
▪ Data related to system performance
• warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions
▪ Business data
• business terms and definitions, ownership of data,
charging policies

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 OLAP Server Architectures

◼ Relational OLAP (ROLAP)

▪ Use relational or extended-relational DBMS to
store and manage warehouse data and OLAP
middle ware
▪ Include optimization of DBMS backend,
implementation of aggregation navigation logic,
and additional tools and services
▪ Use parallel computing, bitmap indexing, etc.

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OLAP Server Architectures

◼ Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)

▪ Sparse array-based multidimensional storage
engine
▪ Fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data
▪ Sparse matrix compression technique
◼ Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) (e.g., Microsoft
SQLServer)
▪ Flexibility, e.g., low level: relational, high-level:
array

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Data Warehouse

◼ What is a data warehouse?

◼ A multi-dimensional data model

◼ Data warehouse architecture

◼ From data warehousing to data mining

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Data Warehouse Usage
◼ Three kinds of data warehouse applications
▪ Information processing
• supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and reporting
using crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
▪ Analytical processing
• supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling, pivoting
▪ Data mining
• knowledge discovery from hidden patterns
• supports associations, constructing analytical models,
performing classification and prediction, and presenting the
mining results using visualization tools

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From On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP)
to On Line Analytical Mining (OLAM)
◼ Why online analytical mining?
▪ High quality of data in data warehouses
• DW contains integrated, consistent, cleaned data
▪ Available information processing structure surrounding data
warehouses
• ODBC, OLEDB, Web accessing, service facilities,
reporting and OLAP tools
▪ OLAP-based exploratory data analysis
• Mining with drilling, dicing, pivoting, etc.
▪ On-line selection of data mining functions
• Integration and swapping of multiple mining functions,
algorithms, and tasks
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An OLAM System Architecture
Mining query Mining result Layer4
User Interface
User GUI API
Layer3
OLAM OLAP
Engine Engine OLAP/OLAM

Data Cube API

Layer2
MDDB
MDDB
Meta Data

Filtering&Integration Database API Filtering

Layer1
Data cleaning Data
Databases Data
Data integration Warehouse Repository
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 Summary

◼ Why data warehousing?

◼ A multi-dimensional model of a data warehouse
▪ Star schema, snowflake schema, fact constellations
▪ A data cube consists of dimensions & measures
◼ OLAP operations: drilling, rolling, slicing, dicing and
pivoting
◼ Data warehouse architecture
◼ OLAP servers: ROLAP, MOLAP, HOLAP
◼ From OLAP to OLAM (on-line analytical mining)

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